title: Racism in South Korea

text: Korean children also show a tendency to discriminate against Africans and people of African descent. In a 2015 research by Education Research International, Korean children show negative responses to darker-skin characters in picture book illustrations. This attitude of children is seen as a reflection of their parent's anti-blackness prejudice towards black people and white-dominant surroundings.


title: Racism in South Korea

text: In 2009, Paul Jambor (Assistant professor at Korea University) claimed that Korean college students exhibit discrimination towards foreign professors by calling them by their first names and not showing the same amount of respect towards them as students traditionally show towards their Korean professors.


title: Urban Hymns

text: Urban Hymns is the third studio album by English alternative rock band the Verve, released on 29 September 1997 on Hut Records. It earned nearly unanimous critical praise upon its release, and went on to become the band's best-selling release and one of the biggest selling albums of the year. , "Urban Hymns" is ranked the 19th best-selling album in UK chart history and has sold over ten million copies worldwide. This is the only Verve album to feature guitarist and keyboardist Simon Tong, who initially joined the band to replace their original guitarist Nick McCabe. McCabe rejoined the band soon after, however, and Tong was considered the fifth member of the band; this makes the album the only one that the band recorded as a five-piece.


title: Urban Hymns

text: The album features the hit singles "Bitter Sweet Symphony", "Lucky Man" and UK number one "The Drugs Don't Work". The critical and commercial success of the album saw the band win two Brit Awards in 1998, including Best British Album, and appear on the cover of "Rolling Stone" in April 1998. "Bitter Sweet Symphony" was nominated for the Grammy Award for Best Rock Song. It was also among ten albums nominated for the best British album of the previous 30 years by the Brit Awards in 2010, ultimately losing to "(What's the Story) Morning Glory?" by Oasis. In 2013, "NME" ranked it at number 128 in its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time.


title: Urban Hymns

text: The Verve had previously released two albums, "A Storm in Heaven" in 1993 and "A Northern Soul" in 1995. The band had only achieved moderate commercial success up to that point, and the band split shortly after their second album due to internal conflicts. Vocalist Richard Ashcroft quickly reformed the group, with Simon Tong, an old friend of the band on guitar; however, Ashcroft realised Nick McCabe's unique guitar style was required to complete the true Verve unit and later asked him to return. Tong also remained, adding more guitar and keyboard and organ textures.


title: Urban Hymns

text: The Verve initially worked with the producer John Leckie, but discarded the work. They recorded several tracks with Youth as producer, but once McCabe returned they re-recorded several tracks and changed producers to Chris Potter. McCabe said that in the next seven months "the key tracks were recorded from scratch, but some of them were already there". According to Youth, "Towards the end, Richard wanted to chuck all the album away and start again. What was my reaction? Horror. Sheer horror. All I could say was, I really think you should reconsider."


title: Urban Hymns

text: "Bitter Sweet Symphony" is based on a sample of a 1965 orchestral version of the Rolling Stones song "The Last Time" by the Andrew Oldham Orchestra. The Verve looped four bars, then added dozens of further tracks, including guitar, percussion, additional strings, and several layered vocals from Ashcroft. Allen Klein, who owned the copyrights to the Rolling Stones' early work, refused clearance for the sample; following a lawsuit, the Verve ceded the songwriting credits and royalties. In 2019, Klein's son and the Rolling Stones returned the credits and royalties to Ashcroft.


title: Urban Hymns

text: The guitarist Nick McCabe said that most of the songs originated with Ashcroft singing and playing chords on an acoustic guitar, to which the rest of the band added other parts. He said: "It wasn't that much different from the processes that went into the earlier records. We all developed ideas on the spot and things happened additively ... They weren't products of Richard's mind. We dressed the acoustic guitar and the voice." He said he was unhappy that Ashcroft received sole songwriting credit on many tracks, because "I know what my part was in making that record. A lot of those tracks bare his name because we had a manager who encouraged that line of thinking at the time."


title: Urban Hymns

text: "Urban Hymns" received critical acclaim. "Melody Maker" hailed it as "an album of unparalleled beauty so intent on grabbing at the strands of music's multi-hued history". Ted Kessler of "NME" praised it as the Verve's best album to date, adding that its first five songs alone "pound all other guitar albums this year – bar Radiohead's "OK Computer" – into the ground with their emotional ferocity and deftness of melodic touch." Similarly, the "Rolling Stone" critic David Fricke deemed it "a defiantly psychedelic record – soaked in slipstream guitars and breezy strings, cruising at narcotic-shuffle velocity – about coping and crashing". The "Los Angeles Times" Sara Scribner noted its "lush, intricate, ethereal sound" and felt that the Verve had "delivered an achingly beautiful record that's just desperate enough to never get boring."


title: Urban Hymns

text: In a more mixed assessment, Greg Kot of the "Chicago Tribune" felt that "Urban Hymns" lacked more songs as memorable as "Bitter Sweet Symphony" and "The Drugs Don't Work" to justify the album's long length. Robert Christgau of "The Village Voice" cited "The Drugs Don't Work" track as a "choice cut", calling it "a good song on an album that isn't worth your time or money".


title: Urban Hymns

text: "Urban Hymns" spent 12 weeks at the top of the UK Albums Chart, with a total of 124 weeks on the chart. It also became the Verve's first charting album in the United States, where it debuted at number 63 on the "Billboard" 200, giving the band their first commercial success in the country. "Urban Hymns" ultimately peaked at number 23 on the chart and was certified Platinum by the RIAA on 4 April 1998; it remains the group's best-selling album in the United States, with more than 1.3 million copies sold .


title: Urban Hymns

text: "Melody Maker" named "Urban Hymns" as the number one album of 1997 in its year-end list, and the album ranked at number three on "NME"s year-end critics' poll. "Q" also included it in their own list of the best albums of 1997, and it ranked at number 18 on "The Village Voice"s year-end Pazz & Jop critics' poll. At the 1998 Brit Awards, "Urban Hymns" won the award for Best British Album and the Verve were awarded Best British Group. The same year, Richard Aschroft won an Ivor Novello Award for Songwriter of the Year. The album was also shortlisted for the Mercury Prize, which was ultimately awarded to Gomez' "Bring It On". By April 1999, however, renewed tensions within the band, particularly between Ashcroft and McCabe, would lead the Verve to split up for a second time, at the height of their success.


title: Urban Hymns

text: In the years following its release, "Urban Hymns" has received much acclaim. In 2000 it was voted number 213 in Colin Larkin's "All Time Top 1000 Albums". "Q" included it in their 1999 list of the 90 best albums of the 1990s, while the magazine's readers voted it the eighteenth best album of all-time in 1998, later moved up to sixteenth place in a similar list compiled in 2006. The Verve were awarded with the first ever "Q" Classic Album award for "Urban Hymns" at the 2007 "Q" Awards, and the following year, "Urban Hymns" was ranked as the tenth best British album of all time in a poll jointly conducted by "Q" and HMV. It was also nominated for Best British Album of the Last 30 Years at the 2010 Brit Awards, but lost to Oasis' "(What's the Story) Morning Glory?". In 2013, "NME" ranked it at number 128 in its list of the 500 Greatest Albums of All Time. The album was also included in the book "1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die".


title: Urban Hymns

text: In a retrospective review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine of AllMusic called "Urban Hymns" "a rich album that revitalizes rock traditions without ever seeming less than contemporary", further crediting it as the album that The Verve had "been striving to make since their formation." BBC Music critic Wendy Roby wrote in 2010 that "Urban Hymns" "still sounds thrilling" and "soars with autumnal melancholy", crediting the album's mix of "massive, sweeping" arrangements and Ashcroft's "heartbreaking" lyrics as its key characteristics. "Uncut" wrote that "the most striking qualities of "Urban Hymns" now are its musical coherence and the powerfully sustained mood of melancholic stoicism." Emily Tartanella of "Magnet" felt that "Urban Hymns" was undeserving of its accolades, calling it "one of the most bloated, boring and overpraised albums of the '90s."


title: Urban Hymns

text: Note: The original album's digital version and Japanese version has "Deep Freeze" as a separate track following "Come On", without the silence in between (on the Japanese version due to the limited duration of the CD). In the 2017 digital and physical remastered versions, both tracks are joined with the silence.


title: Urban Hymns

text: A total of 10 other songs were released as B-sides for the album's singles, in various configurations.


title: Gef

text: Gef ( ), also referred to as the Talking Mongoose or the Dalby Spook, was the name given to an allegedly talking mongoose which was claimed to inhabit a farmhouse owned by the Irving family. The Irvings' farm was located at Cashen's Gap near the hamlet of Dalby on the Isle of Man. The story was given extensive coverage by the tabloid press in Britain in the early 1930s. The Irvings' claims gained the attention of parapsychologists and ghost hunters, such as Harry Price, Hereward Carrington, and Nandor Fodor. Some investigators of the era as well as contemporary critics have concluded that Voirrey Irving used ventriloquism and family collusion to perpetuate the hoax.


title: Gef

text: In September 1931, the Irving family, consisting of James, Margaret, and a 13-year-old daughter named Voirrey, claimed they heard persistent scratching, rustling, and vocal noises behind their farmhouse's wooden wall panels that variously resembled a ferret, a dog, or a baby. According to the Irvings, a creature named Gef introduced itself and told them it was a mongoose born in New Delhi, India, in 1852. According to Voirrey, Gef was the size of a small rat with yellowish fur and a large bushy tail.


title: Gef

text: The Irvings say that Gef communicated to them that he was "an extra extra clever mongoose", an "Earthbound spirit" and "a ghost in the form of a mongoose" and once said, "I am a freak. I have hands and I have feet, and if you saw me you'd faint, you'd be petrified, mummified, turned into stone or a pillar of salt!" The Irvings made various claims about Gef: he supposedly guarded their house and informed them of the approach of guests or any unfamiliar dog. They said that if someone had forgotten to put out the fire at night, Gef would go down and stop the stove. The Irvings claimed Gef would also wake people up when they overslept, and whenever mice got into the house, Gef supposedly assumed the role of the cat, although he preferred to scare them rather than kill them. The Irvings say they gave Gef biscuits, chocolates, and bananas, and food was left for him in a saucer suspended from the ceiling which he took when he thought no one was watching. The Irvings claimed the mongoose regularly accompanied them on trips to the market, but always stayed on the other side of the hedges, chatting incessantly.


title: Gef

text: The story of Gef became popular in the tabloid press, and many journalists flocked to the Isle to try to catch a glimpse of the creature. Several other people, both locals and visitors, claimed to have heard Gef's voice, and two claimed to have seen it; however, physical evidence was lacking. Footprints, stains on the wall, and hair samples claimed to be evidence of Gef were identified as belonging to the Irvings' sheepdog, as were several photos which were claimed by the Irvings to depict Gef.


title: Gef

text: Margaret and Voirrey Irving left the home in 1945 after the death of James Irving. They reportedly had to sell the farm at a loss because it had the reputation of being haunted. In 1946, Leslie Graham, who had bought their farm, claimed in the press that he had shot and killed Gef. The body displayed by Graham was, however, black and white and much larger than the famous mongoose and Voirrey Irving was certain that it was not Gef. She died in 2005. In an interview published late in life, she maintained that Gef was not her creation.


title: Gef

text: In July 1935 the editor of "The Listener", Richard S. Lambert (known as "Rex"), and his friend, paranormal investigator Harry Price, went to the Isle of Man to investigate the case and produced the book "The Haunting of Cashen's Gap" (1936). They avoided saying that they believed the story but were careful to report it objectively. The book reports how a hair from the alleged mongoose was sent to Julian Huxley, who then sent it to naturalist F. Martin Duncan, who identified it as a dog hair. Price suspected the hair belonged to the Irvings' sheepdog, Mona.


title: Gef

text: Price asked Reginald Pocock of the Natural History Museum to evaluate pawprints allegedly made by Gef in plasticene together with an impression of his supposed tooth marks. Pocock could not match them to any known animal, though he conceded that one of them might have been "conceivably made by a dog". He did state that none of the markings had been made by a mongoose. The diaries of James Irving, along with reports about the case, are in Harry Price's archives in the Senate House Library, University of London.


title: Gef

text: Price visited the Irvings and observed double walls of wooden panelling covering the interior rooms of the old stone farmhouse which featured considerable interior air space between stone and wood walls that "makes the whole house one great speaking-tube, with walls like sound boards. By speaking into one of the many apertures in the panels, it should be possible to convey the voice to various parts of the house." According to Richard Wiseman "Price and Lambert were less than enthusiastic about the case, concluding that only the most credulous of individuals would be impressed with the evidence for Gef."


title: Gef

text: Nandor Fodor, Research Officer for the International Institute for Psychical Research, stayed at the Irvings' house for a week without seeing or hearing Gef. Fodor did not believe deliberate deception had occurred and moulded a complex psychological theory to explain Gef based on "a split-off part" of Jim Irving's personality.


title: Gef

text: Although some psychic investigators thought that Gef was a poltergeist or a ghost, sceptics, including residents of the Isle of Man, believed the Irving family had colluded to perpetuate a hoax that was originated by daughter Voirrey. An "Isle of Man Examiner" reporter wrote that when he caught the girl making noises, her father tried to convince him the sound came from somewhere else. According to Joe Nickell researchers have suspected Voirrey used ventriloquism and other tricks "the effects of which were hyped by family members, reporters in search of a story, and credulous paranormalists."


title: Gef

text: Contemporary media scholar Jeffrey Sconce writes that the most likely explanation is that "this extra extra clever mongoose was an imaginary companion created by the Irvings' extra extra clever daughter."


title: Gef

text: In 1937 Lambert brought an action for slander against Sir Cecil Levita, after Levita suggested to a friend that Lambert was unfit to be on the board of the British Film Institute. Levita said that Lambert was "off his head" because he had believed in the talking mongoose and the evil eye.


title: Gef

text: Lambert was pressured to abandon his action by Sir Stephen Tallents but persisted with it and won, receiving £7,600 in damages, then an exceptional figure for a slander case, awarded because Lambert's counsel managed to introduce a BBC memo which showed Lambert's career had been threatened if he persisted with the action, which became known as "the Mongoose Case".


title: First Party System

text: The First Party System is a model of American politics used in history and political science to periodize the political party system that existed in the United States between roughly 1792 and 1824. It featured two national parties competing for control of the presidency, Congress, and the states: the Federalist Party, created largely by Alexander Hamilton, and the rival Jeffersonian Democratic-Republican Party, formed by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, usually called at the time the Republican Party (which is distinct from the modern Republican Party). The Federalists were dominant until 1800, while the Republicans were dominant after 1800. Both parties originated in national politics, but soon expanded their efforts to gain supporters and voters in every state. The Federalists appealed to the business community and the Republicans to the planters and farmers. By 1796, politics in every state was nearly monopolized by the two parties, with party newspapers and caucuses becoming effective tools to mobilize voters.


title: First Party System

text: The Federalists promoted the financial system of Treasury Secretary Hamilton, which emphasized federal assumption of state debts, a tariff to pay off those debts, a national bank to facilitate financing, and encouragement of banking and manufacturing. The Republicans, based in the plantation South, opposed strong executive power, were hostile to a standing army and navy, demanded a strict reading of the Constitutional powers of the federal government, and strongly opposed the Hamilton financial program. Perhaps even more important was foreign policy, where the Federalists favored Britain because of its political stability and its close ties to American trade, while the Republicans admired France and the French Revolution. Jefferson was especially fearful that British aristocratic influences would undermine republicanism. Britain and France were at war from 1793–1815, with only one brief interruption. Official American policy was neutrality, with the Federalists hostile to France, and the Republicans hostile to Britain. The Jay Treaty of 1794 marked the decisive mobilization of the two parties and their supporters in every state. President George Washington, while officially nonpartisan, generally supported the Federalists and that party made Washington their iconic hero.


title: First Party System

text: The First Party System ended during the Era of Good Feelings (1816–1824), as the Federalists shrank to a few isolated strongholds and the Democratic-Republicans lost unity. In 1824–28, as the Second Party System emerged, the Democratic-Republican Party split into the Jacksonian faction, which became the modern Democratic Party in the 1830s, and the Henry Clay faction, which was absorbed by Clay's Whig Party.


title: First Party System

text: Leading nationalists, George Washington, Alexander Hamilton and Benjamin Franklin (see "Annapolis Convention"), called the Constitutional Convention in 1787. It drew up a new constitution that was submitted to state ratification conventions for approval, with the old Congress of the Confederation also approving the process. James Madison was the most prominent figure in the Constitutional Convention; he is often referred to as "the father of the Constitution".


title: First Party System

text: An intense debate on ratification pitted the "Federalists" (who supported the Constitution, and were led by Madison and Hamilton) against the "Anti-Federalists," (who opposed the new Constitution). The Federalists won and the Constitution was ratified. The Anti-Federalists were deeply concerned about the theoretical danger of a strong central government (like that of Britain) that someday could usurp the rights of the states. The framers of the Constitution did not want or expect political parties to emerge because they considered them divisive.


title: First Party System

text: The term "Federalist Party" originated around 1792–1793 and refers to a somewhat different coalition of supporters of the Constitution in 1787–1788 as well as entirely new elements, and even a few former opponents of the Constitution (such as Patrick Henry). Madison largely wrote the Constitution and was thus a Federalist in 1787–1788, but he opposed the program of the Hamiltonians and their new "Federalist Party".


title: First Party System

text: At first, there were no parties in the nation. Factions soon formed around dominant personalities such as Alexander Hamilton, the Secretary of the Treasury, and Thomas Jefferson, the Secretary of State, who opposed Hamilton's broad vision of a powerful federal government. Jefferson especially objected to Hamilton's flexible view of the Constitution, which stretched to include a national bank. Jefferson was joined by Madison in opposing the Washington administration, leading the "Anti-Administration party". Washington was re-elected without opposition in 1792.


title: First Party System

text: Hamilton built a national network of supporters that emerged about 1792–93 as the Federalist Party. In response, Jefferson and James Madison built a network of supporters of the republic in Congress and in the states that emerged in 1792–93 as the Democratic-Republican Party. The elections of 1792 were the first contested on anything resembling a partisan basis. In most states, the congressional elections were recognized in some sense, as Jefferson strategist John Beckley put it, as a "struggle between the Treasury department and the republican interest". In New York, the race for governor was organized along these lines. The candidates were John Jay, who was a Hamiltonian, and incumbent George Clinton, who was allied with Jefferson and the Republicans.


title: First Party System

text: In 1793, the first Democratic-Republican Societies were formed. They supported the French Revolution, which had just seen the execution of King Louis XVI, and generally supported the Jeffersonian cause. The word "democrat" was proposed by Citizen Genêt for the societies, and the Federalists ridiculed Jefferson's friends as "democrats". After Washington denounced the societies as unrepublican, they mostly faded away.


title: First Party System

text: In 1793, war broke out between England, France, and their European allies. The Jeffersonians favored France and pointed to the 1778 treaty that was still in effect. Washington and his unanimous cabinet (including Jefferson) decided the treaty did not bind the U.S. to enter the war; instead Washington proclaimed neutrality.


title: First Party System

text: When war threatened with Britain in 1794, Washington sent John Jay to negotiate the Jay Treaty with Britain; it was signed in late 1794, and ratified in 1795. It averted a possible war and settled many (but not all) of the outstanding issues between the U.S. and Britain. The Jeffersonians vehemently denounced the treaty, saying it threatened to undermine republicanism by giving the aristocratic British and their Federalist allies too much influence. The fierce debates over the Jay Treaty in 1794–96, according to William Nisbet Chambers, nationalized politics and turned a faction in Congress into a nationwide party. To fight the treaty the Jeffersonians "established coordination in activity between leaders at the capital, and leaders, actives and popular followings in the states, counties and towns".


title: First Party System

text: In 1796 Jefferson challenged John Adams for the presidency and lost. The Electoral College made the decision, and it was largely chosen by the state legislatures, many of which were not chosen on a national party basis.


title: First Party System

text: By 1796, both parties had a national network of newspapers, which attacked each other vehemently. The Federalist and Republican newspapers of the 1790s traded vicious barbs against their enemies. An example is this acrostic from a Republican paper, where the first letter of each line spells the name of Federalist leader Alexander Hamilton:


title: First Party System

text: The most heated rhetoric came in debates over the French Revolution, especially during the Reign of Terror of 1793–94, which saw huge numbers of executions of the revolutionary government's political opponents. Nationalism was a high priority, and the editors fostered an intellectual nationalism typified by the Federalist effort to stimulate a national literary culture through their clubs and publications in New York and Philadelphia, and through Federalist Noah Webster's efforts to simplify and Americanize the language.


title: First Party System

text: Historians have used statistical techniques to estimate the party breakdown in Congress. Many Congressmen were hard to classify in the first few years, but after 1796 there was less uncertainty. The first parties were anti-federalist and federalist.


title: First Party System

text: Given the power of the Federalists, the Democratic Republicans had to work harder to win. In Connecticut in 1806 the state leadership sent town leaders instructions for the forthcoming elections; every town manager was told by state leaders "to appoint a district manager in each district or section of his town, obtaining from each an assurance that he will faithfully do his duty". Then the town manager was instructed to compile lists and total up the number of taxpayers, the number of eligible voters, how many were "decided democratic republicans," "decided federalists," or "doubtful," and finally to count the number of supporters who were not currently eligible to vote but who might qualify (by age or taxes) at the next election. The returns eventually went to the state manager, who issued directions to laggard towns to get all the eligibles to town meetings, help the young men qualify to vote, to nominate a full ticket for local elections, and to print and distribute the party ticket. (The secret ballot did not appear for a century.) This highly coordinated "get-out-the-vote" drive would be familiar to modern political campaigners, but was the first of its kind in world history.


title: First Party System

text: The Jeffersonians invented many campaign techniques that the Federalists later adopted and that became standard American practice. They were especially effective at building a network of newspapers in major cities to broadcast their statements and editorialize in their favor. But the Federalists, with a strong base among merchants, controlled more newspapers: in 1796 the Federalist papers outnumbered the Democratic Republicans by 4 to 1. Every year more papers began publishing; in 1800 the Federalists still had a 2 to 1 numerical advantage. Most papers, on each side, were weeklies with a circulation of 300 to 1000. Jefferson systematically subsidized the editors. Fisher Ames, a leading Federalist, who used the term "Jacobin" to link Jefferson's followers to the terrorists of the French Revolution, blamed the newspapers for electing Jefferson, seeing them as "an overmatch for any Government ... The Jacobins owe their triumph to the unceasing use of this engine; not so much to skill in use of it as by repetition." Historians echo Ames' assessment. As one explains,


title: First Party System

text: It was the good fortune of the Republicans to have within their ranks a number of highly gifted political manipulators and propagandists. Some of them had the ability ... to not only see and analyze the problem at hand but to present it in a succinct fashion; in short, to fabricate the apt phrase, to coin the compelling slogan and appeal to the electorate on any given issue in language it could understand.


title: First Party System

text: Outstanding phrasemakers included editor William Duane, party leaders Albert Gallatin and Thomas Cooper, and Jefferson himself. Meanwhile, John J. Beckley of Pennsylvania, an ardent partisan, invented new campaign techniques (such as mass distribution of pamphlets and of handwritten ballots) that generated the grass-roots support and unprecedented levels of voter turnout for the Jeffersonians.


title: First Party System

text: With the world thrown into global warfare after 1793, the small nation on the fringe of the European system could barely remain neutral. The Jeffersonians called for strong measures against Britain, and even for another war. The Federalists tried to avert war by the Jay Treaty (1795) with England. The treaty became highly controversial when the Jeffersonians denounced it as a sell-out to Britain, even as the Federalists said it avoided war, reduced the Indian threat, created good trade relations with the world's foremost economic power, and ended lingering disputes from the Revolutionary War. When Jefferson came to power in 1801 he honored the treaty, but new disputes with Britain led to the War of 1812.


title: First Party System

text: In 1798 disputes with France led to the Quasi-War (1798–1800), an undeclared naval war involving the navies and merchant ships of both countries. Democratic-Republicans said France really wanted peace, but the XYZ Affair undercut their position. Warning that full-scale war with France was imminent, Hamilton and his "High Federalist" allies forced the issue by getting Congressional approval to raise a large new army (which Hamilton controlled), replete with officers' commissions (which he bestowed on his partisans). The Alien and Sedition Acts (1798) clamped down on dissenters, including pro-Jefferson editors, and Vermont Congressman Matthew Lyon, who won re-election while in jail in 1798. In the Kentucky and Virginia Resolutions (1798), secretly drafted by Madison and Jefferson, the legislatures of the two states challenged the power of the federal government.


title: First Party System

text: Jefferson and Albert Gallatin focused on the danger that the public debt, unless it was paid off, would be a threat to republican values. They were appalled that Hamilton was increasing the national debt and using it to solidify his Federalist base. Gallatin was the Republican Party's chief expert on fiscal issues and as Treasury Secretary under Jefferson and Madison worked hard to lower taxes and lower the debt, while at the same time paying cash for the Louisiana Purchase and funding the War of 1812. Burrows says of Gallatin:


title: First Party System

text: Andrew Jackson saw the national debt as a "national curse" and he took special pride in paying off the entire national debt in 1835.


title: First Party System

text: Madison worked diligently to form party lines inside the Congress and build coalitions with sympathetic political factions in each state. In 1800, a critical election galvanized the electorate, sweeping the Federalists out of power, and electing Jefferson and his Democratic-Republican Party. Adams made a few last minute, "midnight appointments", notably Federalist John Marshall as Chief Justice. Marshall held the post for three decades and used it to federalize the Constitution, much to Jefferson's dismay.


title: First Party System

text: As president, Jefferson worked to cleanse the government of Adams's "midnight appointments", withholding the commissions of 25 of 42 appointed judges and removing army officers. The sense that the nation needed two rival parties to balance each other had not been fully accepted by either party; Hamilton had viewed Jefferson's election as the failure of the Federalist experiment. The rhetoric of the day was cataclysmic — election of the opposition meant the enemy would ruin the nation. Jefferson's foreign policy was not exactly pro-Napoleon, but it applied pressure on Britain to stop impressment of American sailors and other hostile acts. By engineering an embargo of trade against Britain, Jefferson and Madison plunged the nation into economic depression, ruined much of the business of Federalist New England, and finally precipitated the War of 1812 with a much larger and more powerful foe.


title: First Party System

text: The Federalists vigorously criticized the government, and gained strength in the industrial Northeast. However, they committed a major blunder in 1814. That year the semi-secret "Hartford Convention" passed resolutions that verged on secession; their publication ruined the Federalist party. It had been limping along for years, with strength in New England and scattered eastern states but practically no strength in the West. While Federalists helped invent or develop numerous campaign techniques (such as the first national nominating conventions in 1808), their elitist bias alienated the middle class, thus allowing the Jeffersonians to claim they represented the true spirit of "republicanism".


title: First Party System

text: Because of the importance of foreign policy (decided by the national government), of the sale of national lands, and the patronage controlled by the President, the factions in each state realigned themselves in parallel with the Federalists and Republicans. Some newspaper editors became powerful politicians, such as Thomas Ritchie, whose "Richmond Junto" controlled Virginia state politics from 1808 into the 1840s.


title: First Party System

text: New England was always the stronghold of the Federalist party. One historian explains how well organized it was in Connecticut:


title: First Party System

text: Religious tensions polarized Connecticut, as the established Congregational Church, in alliance with the Federalists, tried to maintain its grip on power. Dissenting groups moved toward the Jeffersonians. The failure of the Hartford Convention in 1814 wounded the Federalists, who were finally upended by the Democratic-Republicans in 1817.


title: First Party System

text: The First Party System was primarily built around foreign policy issues that vanished with the defeat of Napoleon and the compromise settlement of the War of 1812. Furthermore, the fears that Federalists were plotting to reintroduce aristocracy dissipated. Thus an "Era of Good Feelings" under James Monroe replaced the high-tension politics of the First Party System about 1816. Personal politics and factional disputes were occasionally still hotly debated, but Americans no longer thought of themselves in terms of political parties.


title: First Party System

text: Historians have debated the exact ending of the system. Most concluded it petered out by 1820. The little state of Delaware, largely isolated from the larger political forces controlling the nation, saw the First Party System continue well into the 1820s, with the Federalists occasionally winning some offices.


title: First Party System

text: Alexander Hamilton felt that only by mobilizing its supporters on a daily basis in every state on many issues could support for the government be sustained through thick and thin. Newspapers were needed to communicate inside the party; patronage helped the party's leaders and made new friends.


title: First Party System

text: Hamilton, and especially Washington, distrusted the idea of an opposition party, as shown in George Washington's Farewell Address of 1796. They thought opposition parties would only weaken the nation. By contrast Jefferson was the main force behind the creation and continuity of an opposition party. He deeply felt the Federalists represented aristocratic forces hostile to true republicanism and the true will of the people, as he explained in a letter to Henry Lee in 1824:


title: First Party System

text: Hofstadter (1970) shows it took many years for the idea to take hold that having two parties is better than having one, or none. That transition was made possible by the successful passing of power in 1801 from one party to the other. Although Jefferson systematically identified Federalist army officers and officeholders, he was blocked from removing all of them by protests from Republicans. The Quids complained he did not go far enough.


title: First Party System

text: Well into the 20th century Jefferson was the hero for scholars, and Hamilton the villain. Jefferson's reputation has declined sharply, primarily because of his role as a major slaveowner. Hamilton has risen; Princeton historian Sean Wilentz in 2010 identified a scholarly trend very much in Hamilton's favor—although Wilentz himself dissented and still admires Jefferson more:


title: First Party System

text: In recent years, Hamilton and his reputation have decidedly gained the initiative among scholars who portray him as the visionary architect of the modern liberal capitalist economy and of a dynamic federal government headed by an energetic executive. Jefferson and his allies, by contrast, have come across as naïve, dreamy idealists. At best according to many historians, the Jeffersonians were reactionary utopians who resisted the onrush of capitalist modernity in hopes of turning America into a yeoman farmers' arcadia. At worst, they were proslavery racists who wish to rid the West of Indians, expand the empire of slavery, and keep political power in local hands – all the better to expand the institution of slavery and protect slaveholders' rights to own human property."


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: Maniyarayile Ashokan is a 2020 Indian Malayalam-language romantic comedy film directed by Shamzu Zayba. The film stars Jacob Gregory and Anupama Parameswaran. The cast also includes Krishna Sankar and Shine Tom Chacko. The film was produced by Gregory and Dulquer Salmaan, in his newly established production company Wayfarer Films, who made a cameo appearance along with Nazriya Nazim and Anu Sithara as other characters.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the film was directly released through Netflix on 31 August 2020. The film received mixed reviews from critics.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: Set in a village, the film starts from the wedding night of Ashokan, when the newly-wed wife asks him whether this is his second marriage. Ashokan then recalls his earlier dreams of getting married.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: As Ashokan is a single man past "the marital age", he is always questioned by the villagers and his relatives, including his cousin Ajayan who never misses a chance to tease him. Apart from his loving parents, Ashokan is supported by his friends Ratheesh and Shaiju who stand by him through thick and thin.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: Ashokan's father and Narayanan bring the marital proposal for Ashokan to Narayanan's daughter - Anju. Anju rejects the proposal saying that Ashokan isn't fair-skinned or tall enough.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: Later Ashokan learns of Shyama's love for him. Despite convincing Shyama's family into marriage, the wedding is called off as Ashokan's horoscope predicts the death of his first wife. Ashokan is heartbroken. Meanwhile, Ratheesh falls in love with Rani Teacher and they get married.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: Ashokan consults an astrologer and seeks solutions for the problems in his horoscope. The astrologer asks him to marry a plantain so that no human will get hurt. Ashokan finds a plantain of his choice and marries it. He considers the plantain as a human wife and talks to it regularly. Later the plantain falls off and Ashokan's heart breaks. But it is then revealed that two corms from the plantain are planted again and Ashokan considers these two plantains as his kids.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: A new marriage proposal comes but Ashokan is reluctant to agree because he is already married. His friends make him understand the reality in vain. Later Ratheesh brings him into a mental health facility and after talking to his cousin, Arjun, he grasps the reality. He then agrees to the marriage proposal and marries Indu. On the wedding night, he replies to his wife that this is his first marriage.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: It was reported that Dulquer Salmaan will make his debut in film production, for his upcoming project directed by Shamzu Zayba. Anupama Parameswaran announced her return to Malayalam cinema after a hiatus of five years since "Premam" (2015), and she further revealed that, she would work as an assistant director for this film apart from doing one of the lead roles. After registering his maiden production company titled Wayfarer Films, Dulquer announced the project as their maiden production, which was titled Maniyariyile Ashokan. Comedian-turned-director Ramesh Pisharody was the one who suggested the title for the film. Although "Maniyarayile Ashokan" was announced as the first production, Wayfarer released "Varane Avashyamund" to theatres first.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: The soundtrack album was composed by Sreehari K. Nair, with lyrics by B. K. Harinarayanan, Muzammil Kunnumal, Shamzu Zayba, Ajeesh Dasan, Amir Pallikal and Shihas Ahmedkoya. The song "Unnimaya" was sung by Dulquer Salmaan and Jacob Gregory. The soundtrack album was released on 31 July 2020.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: "Maniyarayile Ashokan" was scheduled for a release on 10 April 2020, which was postponed due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The film was made available on the streaming platform Netflix on 31 August 2020, coinciding with the Onam festival.


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: "The Times of India" gave the film 3.5 out of 5 stars and stated ""Maniyarayile Ashokan" is a slice-of-life story with a genuine dose of humour." Behindwoods gave a rating of 2.75 out of 5 and stated "Maniyarayile Ashokan is a simple story with a big heart, in spite of the slow narration. Watch out for Dulquer and Nazriya’s surprise cameos!" Writing for the "Hindustan Times", Haricharan Pudipeddi stated "The film, which revolves around Ashokan (Jacob Gregory) and his attempts to get married, is lighthearted and fun to watch despite its slightly predictable ending." "The News Minute" gave 3 out of 5 and stated "The typicality of Ashokan’s life, however, fades in the latter part of the film. It starts with some strange advice from a priest but goes on to affect the man all too much. Gregory easily adapts to this new character that emerges from the village guy with the government job. As with the rest of the movie, director Shamzu doesn’t let this unusual part stick too much and the movie ends as sweetly as the description of the village it began with."


title: Maniyarayile Ashokan

text: Sify gave 2 out of 5 and stated "Maniyarayile Ashokan is a below average comedy-drama which fails to impress." "The Indian Express" gave 1 out of 5 stars and stated "Shamzu Zayba did not clearly think through the idea. The half baked plot resules in the wannabe slice-of-life movie." Anna M. M. Verticad of "Firstpost" gave the same and stated "The confirmation of Dulquer’s hotness in a cameo that he spends mostly attired in a Navy outfit is the only worthwhile takeaway from Shamzu Zayba’s "Maniyarayile Ashokan."" Baradwaj Rangan of Film Companion wrote "In trying to make the proceedings “entertaining”, the film cheats its protagonist, who remains a flat line from start to finish." A review from "The Hindu" stated "The Malayalam film manages to make us empathise with the protagonist’s plight, but one cannot miss the fact that it does become absurd and unbelievable beyond a point."


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: Yiddish words used in the English language include both words that have been assimilated into Englishused by both Yiddish and English speakersand many that have not. An English sentence that uses either may be described by some as Yinglish (or Hebronics), though a secondary sense of the term "Yinglish" describes the distinctive way certain Jews in English-speaking countries add many Yiddish words into their conversation, beyond general Yiddish words and phrases used by English speakers.


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: In this meaning, Yinglish is not the same as Yeshivish, which is spoken by many Orthodox Jews, though the two share many parallels.


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: Many of these words have not been assimilated into English and are unlikely to be understood by English speakers who do not have substantial Yiddish knowledge. Leo Rosten's book "The Joys of Yiddish" explains these words (and many more) in detail. With the exceptions of "blintz", "kosher" (used in English slang), and "shmo", none of the other words in this list are labeled as "Yinglish" in Rosten's book.


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: Primarily Ashkenazi Orthodox Jews will use Yiddish, Hebrew, or Aramaic words while speaking a version of English. Many of these do not translate directly into English or have a different connotation: for example, a secular (English) "Book" but a holy (Hebrew) "Sefer"; or regular "lights" but a "Shabbos Leichter" (or "Lachter" depending on sub-group type). This will vary from 10% in "normal" speech to 90% in a lecture or Talmudic discussion. Sephardic Jews might do the same but do not normally understand Yiddish and would only use Hebrew or Aramaic terms.


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: As with Yiddish, Yinglish has no set transliteration standard; as the primary speakers of Yinglish are, by definition, Anglophones (whether first-language or not), Yinglish used in running speech tends to be transliterated using an English-based orthography. This, however, varies, sometimes in the same sentence. For instance, the word פֿאַרקאַקטע may be spelled "farkakte", "ferkockte", "verkackte", among others. In its roots, though, Yiddish (whether used as English slang or not) is fundamentally mediaeval High German; although mediaeval German suffered from the same vagaries in spelling, it later became standardised in Modern High German. This list shall use the same conventions as Modern High German, with the exception of certain words, the spellings of which have been standardised. Furthermore, common nouns shall be left lowercase, as in English.


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: "Yinglish" words (also referred to colloquially as "Hebronics") are neologisms created by speakers of Yiddish in English-speaking countries, sometimes to describe things that were uncommon in the old country. Leo Rosten's book "The Joys of Yiddish" uses the words "Yinglish" and "Ameridish" to describe new words, or new meanings of existing Yiddish words, created by English-speaking persons with some knowledge of Yiddish. Rosten defines "Yinglish" as "Yiddish words that are used in colloquial English" (such as "kibitzer)" and Ameridish as words coined by Jews in the United States; his use, however, is sometimes inconsistent. According to his definition on page x, "alrightnik" is an Ameridish word; however, on page 12 it is identified as Yinglish.


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: While "Yinglish" is generally restricted in definition to the adaptation of Yiddish lemmas to English grammar by Jews, its usage is not explicitly restricted to Jews. This is especially true in areas where Jews are highly concentrated, but in constant interaction with their Gentile fellows, esp. in the larger urban areas of North America. In such circumstances, it would not be unusual to hear, for example, a Gentile griping about having "shlepped" a package across town.


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: The portmanteau word "Yinglish" is first recorded in 1942. Similar colloquial portmanteau words for Yiddish influenced English include: "Yidlish" (recorded from 1967), "Yiddiglish" (1980), and "Yenglish" (2000). A number of other terms have been promulgated, such as "Engdish" and "Engliddish", but these have not enjoyed widespread adoption.


title: Yiddish words used in English

text: Yinglish was formerly assigned the ISO 639-3 code codice_1, but it was retired on July 18, 2007, on the grounds that it is entirely intelligible with English.


The FIVB Volleyball Women's World Championship is an international volleyball competition contested by the senior women's national teams of the members of "" (FIVB), the sport's global governing body. The initial gap between championships was variable, but since 1970 they have been awarded every four years. The current champions are the Serbia, which won their second title at the 2022 tournament in Netherlands and Poland.


title: FIVB Volleyball Women's World Championship

text: The current format of the competition involves a qualification phase, which currently takes place over the preceding three years, to determine which teams qualify for the tournament phase, which is often called the "World Championship Finals". 24 teams, including the automatically qualifying host nation(s), compete in the tournament phase for the title at venues within the host nation(s) over a period of about a month.


text: The 19 World Championship tournaments have been won by eight different national teams. Soviet Union have won five times. The other World Championship winners are Japan and Cuba, with three titles each; China, Russia and Serbia, with two titles each; and Italy and the United States, with one title each.


text: On 15 October 2022, FIVB announced the expansion of the World Championships and the changes to their common competition formula. A total of 32 teams are to compete for future editions of the tournament.


text: The history of the World Championship goes back to the beginnings of volleyball as a professional, high level sport. One of the first concrete measures taken by the FIVB after its foundation in 1947 was the establishment of an international competition involving teams from more than one continent. In 1949, the first edition of the Men's World Championship was played in Prague, Czechoslovakia. At that point, the tournament was still restricted to Europe.


text: Three years later, a women's version was introduced; the events were synchronized and expanded to include nations from Asia, and began to be held in 4-year cycles. By the following edition, there were also teams from South, Central and North America.


text: Since volleyball was to be added to the Olympic Program in 1964, the 4-cycles were advanced in 2 years after the fourth edition (1960), so that the World Championship may alternate with the Summer Olympics. As of 1970, teams from Africa also took part in the competition, and the original goal of having members from all five continental confederations in the games was achieved.


text: The number of teams involved in the games has changed significantly over the years. Following volleyball's increase in popularity, they raised steadily to over 20 in the 1970s and part of the 1980s, were then cut short to 16 in the 1990s, and finally set up in 24 after 2002. Today, the World Championship is the most comprehensive of all events organized by the FIVB, and arguably the second most important, surpassed in prestige only by the Olympic Games.


text: Until 1974, the host nation of the tournament organized both the men's and the women's events, with the single exception of the 1966/1967 games, which took place in different years. Since 1978, this practice has been only occasionally observed, for instance, in 1998 and in the 2006 edition, which was held, as the former was, in Japan.


text: If the titles of the Women's World Championship are evenly distributed between European and non-Europeans national teams, the situation is quite different when nations are taken into account. Historically, four national teams dominated at the World Championships — Russia (formerly participated as Soviet Union), Japan, China and Cuba (except for Italy's single — and for many, unexpected — victory in 2002). However, at last tournaments, two national teams became triumphants for the first time — United States in 2014 and Serbia in 2018.


text: The Soviets made a most impressive start by winning the first three editions of the tournament: 1952, 1956, 1960. They were halfway to making it four, since the following edition was to be played in Moscow. Former runners-up Japan, nevertheless, was the champions in 1962 and interrupted the winning streak, repeating the performance in 1967, when the Soviet Union national team did not participate.


text: The teams faced each other again in 1970, and this time the Soviet Union beat their opponents to collect the gold. In the following edition, Japan took revenge and defeated the Soviet Union in straight sets. Then something extraordinary happened: the world watched astonished as a young Cuban squad left behind the two longtime rivals and secured the first important volleyball title for a continent other than Europe or Asia.


text: The early 1980s saw the rise of a new Asian force: led by superstar Lang Ping, China stamped their mark on the World Championship's history by winning two editions in a row (1982 and 1986). They also made it to the finals in 1990, but were overpowered by the Soviet Union in their last participation at the competition.


text: Cuba's 1978 title finally fructified in an aggressive style of play that virtually dominated the 1990s. Led by powerplayers Regla Torres, Mireya Luis and Regla Bell, the Caribbeans won the 1994 and 1998 editions of the World Championship, beating newbies as well as tradition rivals such as Russia and China.


text: In spite of being appointed as favourites in 2002, China lost at the semifinals to a rising Italy, which would eventually win the final against United States


text: In 2006, favourites Brazil couldn't stop Russia and lost the gold medal match in a shocking final tie-breaker. In 2010, Russia once again defeated Brazil in a 5th-set tie-breaker.


text: In 2014, the United States made it to the finals after an astonishing straight-set win against the 2012 Olympic champion and 2006 and 2010 runner-up Brazil. China, on the other hand, reached the championship after winning over hosts Italy in a four-set fashion. The finals saw two former World champions – Lang Ping and Karch Kiraly – at the helm of the champion squads. United States' momentum carried them to a 3–1 victory over the young Chinese squad, earning the first ever World title for the USA women's team after finishing as bridesmaids in several editions of the World Championship, World Cup and the Olympic Games.


text: In 2018, Serbia achieved historical victory after defeating Italy in a 5th-set tie-breaker. It became greatest international success for the short history of this national team. In 2022, Serbia retained their title after winning all 12 matches at the tournament including a 3–0 victory over Brazil in the final match.


text: As of 2022, 19 editions of the women's Volleyball World Championship have been played: 10 went to European teams, five to Asian teams (three times to Japan and two times to China), and four to American teams (three times to Cuba and once to United States).


text: The competition formula of the FIVB World Championship has been constantly changed to fit the different number of teams that participate in each edition. The following rules usually apply:


text: A totally new competition formula was announced by FIVB in October 2022. A total of 32 teams will compete in the World Championship. The teams will be divided into 8 groups of 4 teams for the round-robin phase with 2 best teams per group moving into the direct knockout phase: round of 16, quarterfinals, semi-finals and final.


text: Boldface denotes active volleyball players and highest medal count among all players (including these who not included in these tables) per type.


text: <nowiki>*</nowiki> Till now, Lyudmila Buldakova (Meshcheryakova) remains the only female volleyball player to have won four World Championship medals


title: El Centro, California

text: El Centro (Spanish for "The Center") is a city and county seat of Imperial County, California, United States. El Centro is the largest city in the Imperial Valley, the east anchor of the Southern California Border Region, and the core urban area and principal city of the El Centro metropolitan area which encompasses all of Imperial County. El Centro is also the largest U.S. city to lie entirely below sea level (). The city, located in southeastern California, is from San Diego and less than from the Mexican city of Mexicali.


title: El Centro, California

text: The city was founded in 1906 by W. F. Holt and C.A. Barker, who purchased the land on which El Centro was eventually built for about and invested $100,000 ($ in dollars) in improvements. The modern city is home to retail, transportation, wholesale, and agricultural industries. There are also two international border crossings nearby for commercial and noncommercial vehicles. El Centro's census population as of 2020 was 44,322, up from 42,598 at the 2010 Census.


title: El Centro, California

text: Spanish explorer Melchor Díaz was one of the first Europeans to visit the area around El Centro and Imperial Valley in 1540. The explorer Juan Bautista de Anza also explored the area in 1776 (an elementary school in El Centro now bears his name). Years later, after the Mexican–American War, the northern half of the valley was annexed by the U.S., while the southern half remained under Mexican rule. Small scale settlement in natural aquifer areas occurred in the early 19th century (the present-day site of Mexicali), but most permanent settlement (Anglo Americans on the U.S. side, Mexicans on the other side) was after 1900.


title: El Centro, California

text: Originally part of San Diego County, the Imperial Valley was settled by farmers once water from the Colorado River was diverted via canals to irrigate the desert valley floor.


title: El Centro, California

text: In 1907 Imperial County was split off from San Diego County; by then much of the valley was successfully irrigated.


title: El Centro, California

text: Before the town began, the railroad had established a station and named the place Cabarker. The name honored C.A. Barker, a friend of the landowner. The first post office in El Centro opened in 1905.


title: El Centro, California

text: Early growth was rapid with the city's population reaching 1,610 by 1910 and more than tripling by 1920 to 5,646 people. One reason for this rapid early growth was El Centro's successful battle with the City of Imperial to become the county seat. In these early days, relationships among the cities of the Imperial Valley were often intensely competitive, reflecting the particular frontier character of the area and the fact that six cities within a twenty-mile radius were all established within one generation. These cities were in a horse race to win the prize of being the Valley's leading city and the intense competition is measured by the fact that it took twenty years to get a county fair started because of strong local loyalties on the County Board of Supervisors


title: El Centro, California

text: The City of El Centro was incorporated on April 16, 1908. One reason for this rapid growth was El Centro's becoming the county seat of Imperial County.


title: El Centro, California

text: Population growth was slow, but accelerated in the 1930s, and again in the 1940s, despite the city being hard hit by a 7.1 earthquake in May 1940.


title: El Centro, California

text: By the mid-1940s, El Centro had become the second largest city in the Imperial Valley, with a population of about 11,000 people. El Centro had also become the location of the Imperial Irrigation District (IID) administrative offices.


title: El Centro, California

text: Agriculture has been an important industry within El Centro since the 1940s, because of its strategic location near rail lines and U.S. Highways 80 and 99 – more than 35 growers and shippers still operate in El Centro. However, by the early 1980s the two largest employment sectors in El Centro were government and wholesale/retail trade, reflecting El Centro's emerging role as a regional administrative and commercial center.


title: El Centro, California

text: The nearby Algodones Dunes, the largest dune field in the US, draws thousands of visitors each year, mainly for off-road driving. The Salton Sea lies north of El Centro, but water sport enthusiasts head to the Colorado River, to the east near Yuma, Arizona. The El Centro Naval Air Facility to the west is home to the annual Blue Angels flight maneuvering event. Stark Field is home of a minor league baseball team El Centro Imperials of the Arizona Summer League. Mexico (the border city of Mexicali, Baja California) is away, which offers big city amenities like museums, a zoo and a sports/convention center.


title: El Centro, California

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which over 99% is land.


title: El Centro, California

text: El Centro is located in the Imperial Valley (considered locally as synonymous with Imperial County). The city is below sea level and the largest city in the United States below sea level. The Imperial Valley is in the Colorado Desert, an extension of the larger Sonoran Desert.


title: El Centro, California

text: The agriculture industry's demand for water is supplied by canals diverting water from the nearby Colorado River. The Salton Sea was created after a 1905 flood from the Colorado River.


title: El Centro, California

text: Geologically, the El Centro earthquake of 1940 on the Mercalli intensity scale. It was the first major earthquake to be recorded by a strong-motion seismograph located next to a fault rupture. It was intensely studied by structural engineers and assumed to be typical until the Northridge earthquake of 1994. In this region, the geology is dominated by the transition of the tectonic plate boundary from rift to transverse fault. The southernmost strands of the San Andreas Fault connect the northernmost extensions of the East Pacific Rise. Consequently, the region is subject to earthquakes, and the crust is being stretched, resulting in a sinking of the terrain over time.


title: El Centro, California

text: El Centro has a desert climate and is the southernmost desert city below sea level in the continental United States. It features long, extremely hot summers, and mild winters. El Centro has over 350 days of sunshine and under of rain annually. Winter temperatures are in the mid to high 60s with over-night lows in the low 40s. During summer days of June; typically the driest month of the year with no precipitation, the dry, desert heat can push temperatures well into the 100s, while the nights stay in the high 70s. The North American Monsoon typically increases moisture. At times, the climate can resemble that of tropical areas in the Caribbean. This leads to daily thunderstorms that can bring hail, downpours, lightning, and dust storms, more commonly known as Haboob. During the Eastern Pacific hurricane season, remnants of hurricanes or tropical storms may track through the desert and can result in heavy thunderstorms. This can lead to significantly higher than normal precipitation, at times bringing heavy rain.


title: El Centro, California

text: The precipitation in the winter months is predominantly rain showers from the occasional winter storms. At times these storms bring cold temperatures to El Centro and surrounding cities, and mountain snowfall to the nearby Mountains. El Niño and La Niña play a large role in how much rain falls in the winter, La Nina typically brings drier and cooler conditions to El Centro and surrounding areas. El Niño tends to being wetter and average temperatures.


title: El Centro, California

text: Snow is almost totally unknown in the area. However, on December 12, 1934 a very powerful winter storm brought record cold and snowfall to El Centro and surrounding areas of the Imperial Valley. Snow began falling at 8:45 p.m. December 11th and by 5 a.m. the next day (December 12th)1-4 inches of snow had blanketed the desert floor.


title: El Centro, California

text: Another instance of freezing precipitation was observed in December 1967 as a mix of sleet hail. On average there are about 15 days that dip into the mid to lower 30s.


title: El Centro, California

text: Being below sea level, El Centro has warm days and cool nights in winter. The coldest daily maximum on record is in 1967 and the mean for the coldest day is at for the reference period between 1991 and 2020. The warmest low temperature on record is from a freak event in 1976, some warmer than the second hottest night. The mean for the hottest night annually is at .


title: El Centro, California

text: As of 2009 the employment of El Centro residents is dominated by the local government, California state government, and federal government. Two nearby prisons (Centinela and Calipatria) and a U.S. Border Patrol station provide employment; "The Economist" states that the prisons and border patrol were "relatively untouched" by the late-2000s recession. The El Centro area has many farming plots, where carrots, lettuce, and other crops are produced, and therefore the El Centro economy is subject to seasonal variations like other farming areas. Between November and March in winter periods, El Centro-area farmers harvest lettuce for $8–10 per hour. During March the harvest moves to the north and is no longer in El Centro; in previous eras farmers migrated, while in the first decade of the 21st century many collect unemployment benefits during the summer.


title: El Centro, California

text: El Centro is surrounded by thousands of acres of farmland that has transformed the desert into one of the most productive farming regions in California with an annual crop production of over $1 billion. Agriculture is the largest industry in Imperial County and accounts for 48% of all employment.


title: El Centro, California

text: Being the commercial center of Imperial County, fifty percent of the jobs in the El Centro come from the service and retail sector.


title: El Centro, California

text: A recent growth in the interest of Imperial County as a filming location, has spurred growth in servicing this industry. Due to its desert environment and proximity to Los Angeles, California, movies are sometimes filmed in the sand dunes outside the agricultural portions of the Imperial County. These have included "Return of the Jedi", "Stargate", "The Scorpion King", "Jarhead", "Into the Wild", and "American Sniper".


title: El Centro, California

text: According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics, as of April 30, 2009 the El Centro area had a 25.0% unemployment rate, the highest for a Metropolitan Area in the country. By August of that year, El Centro's unemployment rate was 27.5%, three times the overall United States unemployment rate of 9.7%. "The Economist" stated that the city is not the "centre of the Great Recession" like the figure would appear to indicate. While El Centro has a seasonal farming economy, there is still a fixed "baseline" unemployment at 12%. Timothy Kelly, the head of the Imperial Valley Economic Development Corporation, estimated that between 40,000 and 60,000 residents of Mexicali work in El Centro. "The Economist" added that there are likely many El Centro residents who work in Mexicali and collect unemployment benefits in El Centro; Ruben Duran, the city manager of El Centro, said that if the Mexicali jobs were factored into the employment rate, El Centro would have a normal employment rate. The manager of a job search agency called One Stop, said that about 3,000 people per month come into her agency; she says that some make a genuine effort to find jobs, while many do not have motivation to actually find a job, but to instead show proof that they tried to find a job. Kelly stated that unemployment fraud does not account for all of the issues with the El Centro area; he said that many residents have a lack of education and a lack of English language proficiency, so some of them cannot find jobs. "The Economist" added that the collapse of the housing market eliminated some construction jobs; the magazine countered that the scenario is true in many places in the United States. In December 2008 listed as No. 5 on Forbes.com's list of "The Top 10 Places in America Where Homes are Losing their Value Fastest" with 31.4% of homeowners owing more on their mortgages than their homes are worth. A national report on the effects of the "Great recession" of 2008/09 has found El Centro and the Imperial Valley in the top 5 poorest medium-sized cities in the U.S. in poverty and unemployment rates.


title: El Centro, California

text: While the majority of the residents in this community are Hispanic, there is a diverse population with a wide array of interests. In the winter residents race on nearby sand dunes using four wheel drive buggies. During the summer residents spend time indoors instead of outside. Spanish is a dominant language among residents and over the radio. Many area residents live in both the United States and Mexico and go across the border frequently.


title: El Centro, California

text: The 2010 United States Census reported that El Centro had a population of 42,598. The population density was . The racial makeup of El Centro was 25,376 (59.6%) White, 1,081 (2.5%) African American, 554 (1.3%) Native American. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 34,751 persons (81.6%), 965 (2.3%) Asian, 34 (0.1%) Pacific Islander, 12,356 (29.0%) from other races, and 2,232 (5.2%) from two or more races.


title: El Centro, California

text: The Census reported that 41,782 people (98.1% of the population) lived in households, 296 (0.7%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 520 (1.2%) were institutionalized.


title: El Centro, California

text: There were 13,108 households, out of which 6,257 (47.7%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 6,550 (50.0%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 2,845 (21.7%) had a female householder with no husband present, 815 (6.2%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 804 (6.1%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 58 (0.4%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. Of the households, 2,458 (18.8%) were made up of individuals, and 1,004 (7.7%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.19. There were 10,210 families (77.9% of all households); the average family size was 3.64.


title: El Centro, California

text: The population was spread out, with 12,671 people (29.7%) under the age of 18, 4,803 people (11.3%) aged 18 to 24, 10,661 people (25.0%) aged 25 to 44, 9,907 people (23.3%) aged 45 to 64, and 4,556 people (10.7%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 31.8 years. For every 100 females, there were 94.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 90.3 males.


title: El Centro, California

text: There were 14,476 housing units at an average density of , of which 13,108 were occupied, of which 6,488 (49.5%) were owner-occupied, and 6,620 (50.5%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.8%; the rental vacancy rate was 7.2%. 21,429 people (50.3% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 20,353 people (47.8%) lived in rental housing units.


title: El Centro, California

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 37,835 people, 11,439 households, and 8,910 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 12,263 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 46.9% White, 3.2% Black or African American, 1.0% Native American, 3.5% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 41.7% from other races, and 3.7% from two or more races. 74.6% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: El Centro, California

text: There were 11,439 households, out of which 47.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 53.9% were married couples living together, 18.7% had a female householder with no husband present, and 22.1% were non-families. Of all households, 18.8% were made up of individuals, and 7.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.2 and the average family size was 3.7.


title: El Centro, California

text: In the city, the population was spread out, with 33.6% under the age of 18, 9.7% from 18 to 24, 28.9% from 25 to 44, 18.5% from 45 to 64, and 9.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 30 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.6 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.5 males.


title: El Centro, California

text: The median income for a household in the city was $33,161, and the median income for a family was $36,910. Males had a median income of $36,753 versus $24,514 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,874. About 20.6% of families and 22.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 29.5% of those under age 18 and 14.8% of those age 65 or over.


title: El Centro, California

text: In 2009 the Latinos in El Centro mainly consisted of dual citizens and permanent resident card (green card) holders. Illegal immigrants tended to go through Imperial County instead of staying in Imperial County.


title: El Centro, California

text: Within its boundary, there are three school districts – McCabe Union Elementary School District, El Centro School District and Central Union High School District.


title: El Centro, California

text: The Central Union High School District includes two four-year comprehensive high schools (Central Union and Southwest) and one alternative education school (Desert Oasis). The school district's 3,450 students are supported by more than 350 certified and classified staff. The District is governed by a five-member Board of Trustees.


title: El Centro, California

text: Opportunities to attend college are available through Imperial Valley College, a local 2-year college, and an extension of San Diego State University located in the nearby city of Calexico. San Diego State University's Calexico Campus offers a variety of bachelor's and master's degrees.


title: El Centro, California

text: There are three major highways that serve El Centro. Interstate 8 connects San Diego to the west and Yuma, Arizona to the east. State Route 86 and State Route 111 parallel each other as they go north to Brawley before running along the west and east shores of the Salton Sea, respectively, on their way to the Coachella Valley. Going south from El Centro, State Route 86 terminates at State Route 111, which runs to Calexico and Mexicali, Mexico.


title: El Centro, California

text: Imperial Valley Transit is the primary provider of mass transportation in the Imperial Valley. Formed in 1989 with just 3 buses and serving just 3,000 people per month, the agency now currently serves more than 73,000 riders within the area per month.


title: El Centro, California

text: Through a partnership between the Imperial County Transportation Commission (ICTC), the Yuma County Intergovernmental Public Transportation Authority (YCIPTA), and the Quechan Indian Tribe, Yuma County Area Transit Turquoise Route 10 buses stop at El Centro locations and connects the city to Winterhaven, California and Yuma, Arizona.


title: El Centro, California

text: El Centro operates under a council–manager form of government. The members of the City Council also sit as the Community Development Commission (Commission) and Redevelopment Agency (Agency) governing boards. The City Manager is empowered as the Executive Director of the Commission and Agency.


title: MxPx

text: MxPx () is an American pop punk band from Bremerton, Washington, founded in 1992 as Magnified Plaid. As of 2016, current members include Mike Herrera on lead vocals and bass guitar, Yuri Ruley on drums and percussion, Tom Wisniewski on lead guitar and backing vocals and Chris Adkins on rhythm guitar and backing vocals. The band's discography includes twelve studio albums, four EPs, four compilation albums, a live album, a VHS tape, a DVD and 20 singles. A number of the group's releases have charted on "Billboard", including the "Billboard" 200 and No. 1 on "Billboard" Christian Albums.


title: MxPx

text: MxPx was formed in Bremerton, Washington in July 1992 by Mike Herrera, Yuri Ruley, and Andy Husted, who were 15 years old at the time, playing their first show in Herrera's parents' backyard. Herrera and Ruley were classmates at Central Kitsap High School in Silverdale, Washington, and Husted attended South Kitsap High School in Port Orchard, Washington.


title: MxPx

text: The group were originally called Magnified Plaid, which was a tribute to Husted's fascination with plaid shirts, but did not fit on the band's posters. Consequently, the name was abbreviated to M.P. on show posters. Yuri Ruley, who used Xs in place of periods, made the posters for the band, resulting in the four-letter moniker.


title: MxPx

text: MxPx recorded a four-song 7-inch record with Aaron Sprinkle in Seattle, who played it for Brandon Ebel of Tooth & Nail Records. The band then played a showcase for the label in 1993 in Herrera's parents' garage. The band's first major album, "Pokinatcha" (1994), was released while the band members were still in high school. The album, though classified as Christian punk, incorporated the quick styles of hardcore punk, and is composed of influence from skate punk and punk underground. Their debut album is characterized by their raw punk sound, catchy rhythm, and classic punk three-chord guitar style.


title: MxPx

text: Guitarist Andy Husted soon left the band and was replaced by a friend, Tom Wisniewski. Despite only knowing power chords on guitar, Wisniewski was willing to be in the band. MxPx released two further albums with Tooth & Nail: "Teenage Politics" in 1995, and "Life in General" in 1996, which features the single "Chick Magnet" and artwork by the artist Coop.


title: MxPx

text: In 1997, MxPx inked a deal with A&M Records. This record deal saw the re-release of 1996's "Life in General". MxPx then released two more studio albums, the first, "Slowly Going the Way of the Buffalo" was released in 1998. The album peaked at No. 99 on the "Billboard" 200 and was certified gold on January 27, 2000, by the RIAA. The band first appeared on Kevin Lyman’s Vans Warped Tour in 1997 alongside Blink-182, The Descendents and more, and went on the full tour in 1998 alongside Bad Religion, Rancid, NOFX, and many others.


title: MxPx

text: In 1999, they released "At the Show", their first live album that they recorded on August 24, 1998, at the 930 Club in Washington, DC and on August 25, 1998, at TLA in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. At the time of the recording, the band was touring in support of "Slowly Going the Way of the Buffalo" as well as the B-sides collection "Let it Happen", also released in 1998.


title: MxPx

text: "The Ever Passing Moment" was released in May 2000 via A&M Records. The band gained critical recognition for this album and landed a slot supporting the Offspring and Cypress Hill on the "Conspiracy of One" tour. "Responsibility" proved to be a radio hit, peaking at #24 on the Billboard Modern Rock chart. The video, directed by The Malloys, features the band messing around and causing mayhem while caddying at a golf course, and also includes an appearance by "Cheers" star George Wendt. The song was featured in the Daria Television Movie "Is It Fall Yet?".


title: MxPx

text: The band once again joined the cross-country Vans Warped Tour in 2002 alongside Bad Religion, NOFX, Reel Big Fish, and more.


title: MxPx

text: The band's version of the song "Scooby Doo, Where Are You?" is in the soundtrack of the 2002 movie "Scooby-Doo". MxPx toured alongside New Found Glory and Good Charlotte on the annual Honda Civic Tour in May and June 2003. The group's studio album "Before Everything & After," was released by A&M in 2003. The album achieved the band's highest ever chart position on the "Billboard" 200, peaking at No. 51.


title: MxPx

text: On August 20, 2004, MxPx joined My Chemical Romance, Pennywise, and “many bands from previous tours” to perform at the Vans Warped Tour 10-year celebration show in Foxborough, Massachusetts at the Gillette Stadium near Boston.


title: MxPx

text: The group provided the song "The Empire" for "", which won the Gospel Music Association 2005 Dove Award for Special Event Album of the Year.


title: MxPx

text: In 2005 MxPx was dropped by A&M, signed with SideOneDummy Records and then released their seventh full-length album "Panic" in June. "Panic" turned out to be a breakthrough moment for the band when their single "Heard That Sound" proved a radio hit. It also featured the Blink-182/+44 singer-bassist Mark Hoppus on "Wrecking Hotel Rooms." "Panic" heightened the return of the band's skate punk/punk-rock roots sound. In support of Panic, MxPx joined the 2005 Vans Warped Tour alongside supergroup Transplants, Fall Out Boy, The Offspring, and more.


title: MxPx

text: In September 2006, MxPx and the City of Bremerton started a marketing effort revolving around the band's song "Move to Bremerton". The band was given keys to the city by Mayor Cary Bozeman in recognition of the group's contributions to the city.


title: MxPx

text: MxPx spent the majority of 2005 and 2006 touring in support of the band's 7th album "Panic". On November 21, 2006, Tooth & Nail Records re-released "Let It Happen", an earlier rarities compilation, in a "Deluxe Edition" which included a bonus DVD featuring 12 music videos, new artwork, and two new songs. "Let's Rock", MxPx's second rarities album, was released on Side One Dummy Records on October 24, 2006. The album consists of many previously unreleased songs, re-recorded B-sides and acoustic demos.


title: MxPx

text: MxPx released the full-length album "Secret Weapon" in 2007, the band's first release on its original label Tooth & Nail since 1996's "Life in General". The album debuted at No. 76 on the Billboard 200. The album's sound was a shift back to the group's original punk-rock stylings.


title: MxPx

text: In 2009, the band released a six-song EP entitled "Left Coast Punk EP", which was the first record released by Rock City Recording Company, MxPx's own record label. Also in 2009, the group released a Christmas album, titled "Punk Rawk Christmas". In late 2009, Mike Herrera teamed up with frontman of The Ataris, Kris Roe, the drummer of The Summer Obsession, and Chris Wilson (formerly of Good Charlotte) for the MxPx All Stars tour in Japan and Malaysia.


title: MxPx

text: The band released a documentary entitled "Both Ends Burning" on December 1, 2011. In addition, Mike, Tom, and Yuri were working on their ninth studio album. On December 19, 2011, the band announced that the album would be called "Plans Within Plans". It was released on April 3, 2012. In 2012, drummer Yuri Ruley and guitarist Tom Wisniewski announced their retirement from touring. After a brief hiatus, they both returned as full-time members in 2015 and continue to tour with the band today.


title: MxPx

text: In honor of the 20th anniversary "Life in General", the band released a re-recorded version free of charge for a limited time on September 18, 2016. It can now be found as "Life in General 2.0" on music streaming platforms. In 2017 it was added to the "Rolling Stone" "50 Greatest Pop-Punk Albums of All Time" article, landing the esteemed record at No. 27.


title: MxPx

text: After MxPx fulfilled their contractual obligations with former labels, the band moved to return to their DIY roots, taking back control of their music and lengthy catalog of music.


title: MxPx

text: On March 29, 2018, the band announced a Kickstarter campaign to fund their tenth full-length studio album. The self-titled album, "MxPx", was released July 25, 2018. Before the release of the album, a music video for "Let's Ride" came out at the end of June 2018. The album was performed live on Facebook on the release date.


title: MxPx

text: After its release, "Let's Ride" was added to the relaunched 2020 edition of Tony Hawk Pro Skater 1+ 2 Remastered. According to ScreenRant, MxPx's "Let's Ride" joined new and returning artists for the famous soundtrack that made tracks such as Goldfinger's "Superman" a mainstay.


title: MxPx

text: MxPx went back on tour in 2019 and early 2020, selling out self-booked and promoted tours nationwide. An audio recording at their San Antonio show in early 2020 was captured for a future live album release.


title: MxPx

text: Due to the COVID-19 pandemic, the band has been unable to perform live for much of 2020 and 2021. On April 1, 2020, Mike Herrera announced the Life in Quarantine live streams every Friday on the group's official Facebook page throughout April and May. The streams included live performances, Herrera answering fan questions, and more. After concluding the Life in Quarantine series on May 29, 2020, the group took songs from the live recordings and released Life in Quarantine-The Collection on July 3, 2020. The group followed up the collection with a brand new single, "Fever Dream", which was released on July 16, 2020.


title: MxPx

text: On October 6, 2020, the group announced they would be starting a new live performance experience separated into various rounds. The first round of the series titled "Between This World and the Next" premiered on October 16, 2020, in which the band performed a full livestream concert. The group hosted several rounds of "Between This World and the Next" which featured new tracks, custom set lists, and fan questions.


title: MxPx

text: On March 11, 2021, the band announced the release of their exclusive MxPx Box Collection featuring 10 full-length albums, original album artwork, bonus inserts and album commentary, zoetropic slipmat, hardcover book, and durable outer case. The box set was made available for pre-order on March 19, 2021, and immediately sold out units on the same day. To thank fans for instantly selling out the exclusive box set, the group organized and announced the release of their new single "Can't Keep Waiting" and a free live show hosted on April 16, 2021.


title: MxPx

text: Of "Can't Keep Waiting", Herrera told SPIN Magazine in an interview, "[‘Can't Keep Waiting’] morphed a little bit as we played it on the livestreams, and people kept asking when it was coming out, so we finally were like, ‘OK, we should probably record this thing.’"


title: MxPx

text: In July 2021, MxPx teamed up with Kalie Wolfe of rising band RIVALS to release an upbeat track titled, "Say Yes", which was placed on Five Guys’ streaming station and later featured on Fortnite Radio.


title: MxPx

text: On November 12, 2021, MxPx surprise dropped their new live album "Southbound to San Antonio". The album features 23 of the band's live performances from their last in-person show before the pandemic on February 29, 2020. Following the release of Southbound to San Antonio, the group announced that they would be returning to the stage for two special performances on April 1, 2022, in Anaheim, California at House of Blues and the following night on April 2, 2022, in Phoenix, Arizona at the Marquee Theatre.


title: MxPx

text: Arthur is a side project of MxPx featuring all three members of MxPx and their former tech assistant Neil Hundt, who now techs for Pearl Jam. The group released an EP called "Loneliness Is Bliss" in 1999. The band members went by their middle names: Arthur (where the band name came from), Edmund, Zane, and Alexander (Mike Herrera, Tom Wisniewski, Yuri Ruley, and Neil Hundt, respectively). After over ten years since the inception of "Loneliness Is Bliss", the band released a full-length album called "Watch the Years Crawl By" on December 7, 2010. In 2013 those involved in the project announced that they would be discontinuing the project.


title: MxPx

text: MxPx is usually described as a pop punk band, but has also been labeled as skate punk and punk rock. Originally a punk rock band, by the rise of popularity of pop punk in the late 1990s and early 2000s the group leaned more towards a more pop punk sound. Albums like "The Ever Passing Moment" and "Before Everything and After" were criticized by some fans for its pop punk style. MxPx's influences include Descendents, NOFX, Bad Religion, Rancid, Social Distortion, All, the Clash, the Dead Milkmen, The Who, Sex Pistols, Black Flag, and the Ramones.


title: MxPx

text: Many of the band's early releases touch on Christian themes and placed them in the front of the Christian punk scene. However, by 2012, "Christian punk" was a genre classification that the band was trying to distance themselves from. As of 2015, MxPx singer Mike Herrera has said he is no longer Christian. When asked about the topic he stated "...do I believe in god? I'm not sure. Do I believe in this exact religion? No I don't."


Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States are general representations of Americans considered of Hispanic and Latino ancestry or immigrants to the United States from Spain or Latin America, often exhibited in negative caricatures or terms. Latin America is generally considered to comprise all of the politically independent territory of the Western Hemisphere other than Canada and the United States that was originally colonized by the Spaniards or Portuguese. "Latino" is the umbrella term for people of Latin American descent that in recent years has supplanted the more imprecise and bureaucratic designation "Hispanic." Part of the mystery and the difficulty of comprehension lie in the fact that the territory called Latin America is not homogeneous in nature or culture. Latin American stereotypes have the greatest impact on public perceptions, and Latin Americans were the most negatively rated on several characteristics. Americans' perceptions of the characteristics of Latin American immigrants are particularly strongly linked to their beliefs about the impact of immigration, especially on unemployment, schools, and crime.


title: Stereotypes of Hispanic and Latino Americans in the United States

text: When discussing how Hispanic and Latino individuals are represented in television and film media, it is also important to acknowledge their vast underrepresentation in popular programming. The individuals are often stereotyped on television, but they are rarely even seen. Latino Americans represent approximately 18% of the US population but only 0.6 to 6.5% of all primetime program characters, 1% of television families, and fewer than 4.5% of commercial actors. That poses the issue that Hispanic and Latino characters are not rarely seen, but even when they are, they are more than likely to be stereotyped. In the unlikely case that they are depicted, they are more likely to be limited to stereotypic characters, usually negatively. In September 2021, Bryan Dimas, co-founder of Latinx in Animation, mentioned an animated series with about 52 episodes which never "had a person of color that was a writer...other than one of the executive producers and some of the production crew," but said that shows are moving away from "having white writers writing for Black characters or Asian characters or Latino characters," and said that he believed there was a wave of more diverse representation in the future.


text: Stereotypical representation of Hispanic and Latino characters are typically negatively presented and attack the entire ethnic group's morality, work ethic, intelligence, or dignity. Even in non-fiction media, such as news outlets, Hispanics are usually reported on in crime, immigration, or drug-related stories than in accomplishments. The stereotypes can also differ between men and women. Hispanic and Latino men are more likely to be stereotyped as unintelligent, comedic, aggressive, sexual, and unprofessional, earning them titles as "Latin lovers," buffoons, or criminals. That often results in the individuals being characterized as working less-respectable careers, being involved in crimes (often drug-related), or being uneducated immigrants. Hispanic characters are more likely than non-Hispanic white characters to possess lower-status occupations, such as domestic workers, or be involved in drug-related crimes. Hispanic and Latina women, similarly, are typically portrayed as lazy, verbally aggressive, and lacking work ethic. Latinas in modern movies follow old stereotypes. Latinas are still deemed as "less than", objectified and known for being to be alluring to others.


text: According to Qingwen, "the impact of television portrayals of minorities is significant because of the ability of television images to activate racial stereotypes and the power exerted by visual images." Non-Hispanic white Americans who lack real-life contact with Hispanic or Latino individuals are forced to rely heavily on television and film, their only source of exposure to the ethnic group, as the foundation of perceiving Hispanic and Latino individuals. If nearly all of the few representations of the individuals are negatively stereotyped, non-Hispanic and Latino white individuals are likely to carry the perception into real life, embedding that stereotypical image of Hispanic and Latino individuals into their consciousness. Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory gives insight into how the stereotypical character representations are carried into the real world and points to the way in which individuals' perceptions are limited to what they have experienced. Those who lack real-life contact with the stereotyped individuals are unable to counter the television portrayals of this ethnic group with a more realistic and less negative image.


text: Between 2001 and 2010, the Hispanic population increased significantly in the United States, marking Hispanics as the largest minority in California. The news media began negatively framing Hispanics as criminals, illegal immigrants, dangerous and violent, further perpetuating prejudice, discrimination, and stereotypes of Hispanics. According to Loyola Marymount University researchers Santiago Arias and Lea Hellmueller:


text: "Research shows that on English-language news media networks, during the 1990s, negative attitudes started to arise against Hispanics-and-Latinos. This began after voters approved California Proposition 187 in 1994."


text: Proposition 187 was a 1994 ballot initiative to establish a California-run citizenship screening system and prohibit illegal aliens from using non-emergency health care, public education, and other services in the state. Arias and Hellmueller stated that the proposition spurred a slate of negative images and claims associated with Hispanics and Latinos in the United States, and affected the Hispanic community greatly by limiting employment opportunities, increasing maltreatment in the criminal justice system, and perpetuating victimization through violent hate crimes against Latinos. Studies show that from 2003 to 2007, violent hate crimes against Latinos rose by 40%.


text: Instead of focusing on positive attributes related to Hispanics and Latinos, Arias and Hellmueller wrote that news media content focused mainly on stereotypes and misjudgments when they addressed the population. As a result, news media programs helped build a "semantic meaning of the Hispanic-and-Latino identity as a metonym for illegal immigration."


text: "This discourse consists of promoting the idea that crime and undocumented immigrants, and the costs of illegal immigration in social services and taxes directly result from the increase of Hispanics-and-Latinos in the United States."


text: According to Arias and Hellmueller, the news media portrayed Hispanics as the enemy, consistently labeling them as illegal immigrants and violent criminals without statistics or facts to support their claims. A 2002 study conducted by Chiricos and Escholz examined race and news media content and investigated how news media content primes the local public's fear of crime.


text: "The findings suggested fear of crime forms part of a new 'modern racism'; that is, that local television news may contribute to the social construction of threat in relation to both minorities; television over-represents African Americans and Hispanics in crime news in relation to their share of the general population."


text: Another study conducted by Waldman and colleagues analyzed three cable commentators: Lou Dobbs, Bill O'Reilly, and Glenn Beck and their discussion of illegal immigration. These results concluded that 70% of the Lou Dobbs Tonight episodes in 2007 contained discussion of illegal immigration, 56% of the "O'Reilly Factor" episodes in 2007 discussed illegal immigration and Glenn Beck discussed illegal immigration in 28% of his year 2007 programs. As a result of popular shows labeling Hispanics as "illegal immigrants" and often portraying Hispanics in a negative light, the programs gave anti-immigration activists a platform for discrimination.


text: In attempt to verify the accuracy of stereotypes held against Latinos, studies conducted at Harvard and Michigan showed that undocumented and foreign-born immigrants were far less likely to commit acts of deviance, crime, drunk driving, or any kind of action that may jeopardize US citizens' well-being. In addition, the study found that the incarceration rate of foreign-born citizens is five times less the rate of native-born citizens.


text: According to several scholars, the stereotypes of Hispanics are similar to the ones associated with African-Americans. Often characterized as being dangerous, drug traffickers, drug users, violent, and gang bangers, Hispanics are subjected to much stereotyping in the United States in relation to crime, especially by their white counterparts. However, contrary to popular belief, Hispanic immigrants commit crime at lower rates than the general population.


text: A very common stereotype of Hispanic/Latino males is that of the criminal, gang member, or "cholo". It is connected to the idea of Hispanic/Latinos being lower class and living in dangerous neighborhoods that breed the attitude of "cholo". Cholo and chola are terms often used in the United States to denote members of the Chicano gang subculture. The individuals are characterized by a defiant street attitude, a distinctive dress style, and the use of caló, slang, speech. In the United States, the term "cholo" often has a negative connotation and so tends to be imposed upon a group of people, rather than being used as a means of self-identification. That leads to considerable ambiguity in the particulars of its definition. In its most basic usage, it always refers to a degree of indigeneity.