title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: "Pholcus phalangioides" was first described in 1775 by the Swiss entomologist Johann Kaspar Füssli. A member of the genus "Pholcus" in the family Pholcidae, "P. phalangioides" shares ancestry with roughly 1,340 similar cellar-spiders such as the granddaddy long-legs spider, carpenter spider, and vibrating spider. All of these spiders are known for their characteristic long legs, which can range from 5 to 6 times the size of their bodies. This is not to be confused with organisms with similar physical appearances, such as the crane fly - an insect - and harvestmen of the arachnid order Opiliones.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: The population sizes of "P. phalangioides" are influenced greatly by the presence of human-made buildings since these spiders prefer warmer habitats indoors. The large number of buildings in the world has favoured "P. phalangioides", though populations tend to be relatively small, widely dispersed, and greatly isolated from one another. This small size combined with low mobility of populations results in an increased importance placed on the role of genetic drift, more specifically the founder effect, on population structure. Although some gene flow does exist between populations, its importance has been insignificant when compared to that of geographical isolation-driven genetic drift. As a result, most "P. phalangioides" individuals of the same population that live in the same geographical region will have a very low degree of genetic variation (intrapopulation differentiation). On the other hand, this genetic drift results in significant interpopulation differentiation.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: "Pholcus phalangioides" are sexually dimorphic, where females are slightly larger than the males of the species. The body length of this species varies between males and females. Males tend to be around 6 to 10 mm in length with the average male being around 6 mm. The average female ranges from 7 to 8 mm in length. As indicated by their common name, "daddy long-legs", these spiders boast eight very long and thin legs which are covered in thin, grey bristles. On average, their legs are roughly 5 to 6 times as long as the spider's body. The average length of an adult female's legs is roughly 50 mm.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: The bodies of "P. phalangioides", as with all spiders, can be divided into two parts: the prosoma and the opisthosoma. The prosoma is commonly known as the cephalothorax, and the opisthosoma is commonly known as the abdomen. The opisthosoma is considered the posterior part of the body which contains most of the spider's internal organs. The round, peanut-like shape of the spider's cephalothorax has earned the species the nickname "skull spider". The translucent bodies of "P. phalangioides" tend to be a grey-pale brown color with a dark spot on the back of the prosoma and some dark, blurred spots on the dorsal side of the opisthosoma.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Although some other members of the family Pholcidae have six eyes, "Pholcus phalangioides" is an eight-eyed spider. The eyes are arranged such that there is a pair of smaller, dark eyes at the front of the prosoma followed by three parallel rows of pairs of larger eyes.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Similar to other species of spider, a hard exoskeleton coats the bodies of "P. phalangioides". Depending on the age of the spider, this exoskeleton must be shed at differing intervals; younger spiders tend to molt much more often. During molting, the spider will produce certain enzymes that release the rest of its body from the underlying tissue of its exoskeleton. The spider is then able to escape the exoskeleton. The remnant outer skin or exoskeleton is known as the exuviae.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: It takes about one year for these spiders to mature after they are born, and their life span is up to two years post-maturity.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: This species is native to the subtropical regions of Asia, thus it has a preference for warmer, more humid climates. Meanwhile, a synanthropic species, the "Pholcus phalangioides" has largely had its modern geographic distribution determined by the evolution and spread of humans around the world. Today, these spiders can be found on every continent in the world but are especially concentrated in South America and Europe.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: "P. phalangioides" are not suited for survival in cold environments which is why they prefer the warmth of the indoors, specifically inside human dwellings. These spiders have a particular affinity for dimly lit, dark areas that are quiet and calm. They are commonly found in the corners of buildings and people's homes as well as in attics. Populations of "Pholcus phalangioides" living outdoors can be found in caves and in between rock crevices.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: "P. phalangioides" are carnivorous predators that feed on insects, other spiders, and other small invertebrates. Unlike many other spiders, who simply feed on prey that have gotten stuck in their webs, these spiders frequently venture out from their own webs to hunt other spiders resting in their respective webs and feed on them or their eggs. In times of low prey availability, both the males and females of the species will turn to cannibalism to meet their nutritional needs.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: In general, the webs of "P. phalangioides" are loose and horizontal with many irregularities. These webs are often intertwined with webs of other skull spiders of the same population. They live peacefully unless resources are low at which point the spiders turn to cannibalism.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: The extent of the "P. phalangioides" communication is seen in times of mating. The primary form of communication for these spiders is through the use of touch and chemicals, specifically pheromones.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: This species is preyed upon by jumping spiders of the Salticidae family. Some of these spiders simply leap into the webs of their prey and attack them. Others, employ a certain strategy known as mimicry in order to trick "P. phalangioides" and capture them.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: A jumping spider species whose aggressive mimicry behavior towards "P. phalangioides" has been well studied is the "Portia fimbriata" jumping spider species of the genus "Portia". During mimicry, the jumping spider produces certain specialized vibrations near the edge of the webs of "P. phalangioides." These vibrations cause the webs of "P. phalangioides" to oscillate in such a way that they mimic the oscillations that would be produced when a form of prey gets stuck in the web. The jumping spider will then continue on with these vibrations for very long durations of time, up to three days in some instances. "P. phalangioides" often assume that this is an indication that they have caught some sort of prey and will move toward the host of the vibrations. At this point, the jumping spider is in an optimal position to leap onto and attack "P. phalangioides", thus subduing them in many instances. In addition to employing mimicry, these jumping spiders are also particularly good at preventing "P. phalangioides" from inducing their whirling defense mechanism, which tends to be an effective way for "P. phalangioides" spiders to defend themselves from predators.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: The primary defense strategy performed by "P. phalangioides" in moments of predation is whirling. Whirling, or a gyration of the body, consists of the skull spider swinging its body around in a circle repeatedly while its legs remain fixed on the web. This whirling strategy is induced as soon as the individual recognizes any sort of movement occurring in its web. The duration of this whirling is related to the specific kind of predator that the skull spider encounters. Short-duration whirling can be induced simply by a human touching the skull spider's web or occasionally by spider of a different species. Long-duration whirling, which can last several hours or even days, is performed specifically in response to the presence of the more threatening Salticid, or jumping spiders, much more often than for spiders of other families. The rapid gyrating associated with the whirling disturbs the vision of the Salticid spiders such that they can no longer rely on their acute eyesight to pinpoint the location of "P. phalangioides". This disruption results in the safety of the skull spiders from an otherwise deadly predator.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Much like the Salticidae family of spiders, "P. phalangioides" also use mimicry as a predatory tactic to subdue their prey; however, unlike jumping spiders, "P. phalangioides" do not rely on vision for predation. This mimicry consists of creating specialized vibrations to trick the prey into thinking that it has caught an insect or another spider. The prey then slowly approaches its supposed catch at which point the "P. phalangioides" spider raises up on its long legs. The spider patiently waits until the exact moment at which the prey touches one of its legs. Then, the "P. phalangioides" spider quickly immobilizes its prey by using its legs to wrap up it up in layers of silk. Its long legs give it plenty of distance from the prey to avoid being bitten in retaliation. After immobilizing its prey, "P. phalangioides" can administer their venomous bite to the prey and consume it.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Even forms of prey that do not fully make it onto the web of "P. phalangioides" are not safe. Often, prey will trip over the edges of the web, thus providing "P. phalangioides" with an optimal time to attack. "P. phalangioides" is capable of clinging onto their web with two of their legs while the rest of their body leans out of the web and shoots silk in the direction of the prey to subdue it.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: It is a common misconception that "P. phalangioides" is incapable of biting humans due to an inability of their fangs to penetrate the human epidermis. These spiders can bite humans since their fangs are roughly 0.25 mm long, while the thickness of the human epidermis is less, around 0.1 mm thick; however, there are hardly any reports on bites.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Although these spiders are capable of hunting and killing some of the most venomous spiders in the world such as the redback spider, they are not dangerous to humans. According to researchers Greta Binford and Pamela Zobel-Thropp, the effects of "P. phalangioides" venom on humans and other mammals are negligible. In humans, the skull spider bite simply results in a mild stinging sensation that has no long-term health consequences. A recent study has even shown that Pholcidae venom has a relatively weak effect, even on insects.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: The genital system of an adult male "P. phalangioides" is located in the ventral portion of the opisthosoma and can be characterized by a large pair of testes and thin, twisted vasa deferentia which become thicker upon nearing the genital opening of the male pedipalp. These vasa deferentia distally fuse creating the ductus ejaculatorius of the spider. The ductus ejaculatorius is composed of lumen which contains large quantities of spermatozoa and other secretions. This variety of secretions is not seen in subadult males whose lumen only contains dense secretion matrix. Ventrally surrounding specific portions of the genital tract are apullate silk glands, and overall, the genital system is bordered by parts of the midgut gland. All stages of spermatogenesis are apparent in the adult testes, and the spermatozoa are coiled. In order to reach this stage with a fully formed male genital system, "P. phalangioides" must first go through two subadult phases.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: The first stage occurs roughly four weeks before the spider's final molt. Unlike adult males, young males possess a broad tarsus that does not appear to consist of any internal structures or appendages. Their pedipalps are greatly bent at a joint connecting the between the tibia and patella. The testes at this point in the young male's life appear very similar to those of the adult males both in terms of physical structure and presence of all stages of spermatogenesis. This spermatogenesis takes place in cysts which contain spermatids. During this time, there is very little observable secretory activity in the testes. In a similar manner to the adult genital system, the vas deferens in young males is connected to the distal, thin part of the testis. The distal portion of the vas deferens is incredibly narrow and is not characterized by the presence of spermatozoa or other secretions. On the other hand, the proximal region consists of a thick epithelium and intricate luminal region containing spermatozoa.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: The second stage of development is observed two weeks prior the spider's final molt. At this point, the pedipalps of the spider are only partially bent, and the internal structures of the tarsus can be seen. The testes are dimensionally very similar to those of subadult stage one males and adult males. The distal portion of the vas deferens becomes thinner and twists in a tube-like shape. Spermatozoa and other secretions are extensively present in proximal portion of the vas deferens. But similar to the stage one males, these males still do not appear to contain any sort of secretions or spermatozoa in the distal portion of the vas deferens. This is in contrast to adults where spermatozoa are present in all regions of the vas deferens.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Spermatogenesis for males of the "P. phalangioides" species commences weeks before maturity and continues throughout their lives.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Many female spiders possess sac-like structures where sperm from the male spider is stored; however, females of the "P. phalangioides" species do not have these receptaculum seminis. Instead, the posterior wall of uterus externus, or genital cavity, serves as the site of sperm storage. The females have two accessory glands located in the dorsal part of the uterus externus. These glands release a secretion into the uterus externus which functions as a matrix to hold the male spermatozoa and seminal fluid in place upon copulation. These accessory glands are composed of multiple glandular units, they themselves consisting of two secretory and envelope cells each. The inner and outer envelope cells surround the secretory cells and serve to create a cuticular ductule or canal that runs from the secretory cells to the two pore plates located on the uterus externus. These pore plates are the exit sites for the aforementioned glandular secretion into the uterus externus.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Male courtship in "P. phalangioides" can be observed in four different steps: abdominal vibrations, tapping of the female's web, web jerking, and tapping the female's legs. In order to mate with the females, the males must perform courtship in a manner which will not result in the female assuming that the male is prey. Otherwise, the male would be attacked.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: As the males approach the females, they begin to do a series of rapid dorso-ventral vibrations with their opisthosoma. This only occurs once the females have noticed the presence of the males. The males then use the ventral portion of their tarsus to begin tapping on the web of the female. This tapping can last up to twenty minutes as the male inches closer to the female. Then, using claws on their tarsus, the males hook onto the web and perform rapid jerk movements using their legs. On average, this jerking lasts for a few minutes with each jerk lasting less than half of a second. In between sequences of jerking, the males continue to move closer to the females. The males then tap on the female's legs with their cephalothorax positioned downwards for, on average, eight minutes. At this point, receptive females will take on a specific position in which they are motionless with their opisthosoma turned horizontally and their legs extended outward. Before coupling, many of the males will use their pedipalps to cut certain parts of the web closest to the female.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Copulation begins as the males use their chelicerae to rapidly move back and forth across the female's ventral body surface. This is an attempt to grab hold of the female's body and mount onto their epigyne. For some males, it can take up to 100 attempts to properly mount. Once mounted, the males pull the females closer to them resulting in rotation of the female opisthosoma from a horizontal to vertical position. At this point, the male is able to insert his pedipalps into the genital cavity of the female. During the multiple insertions, the male pedipalps are twisted into different motions in a synchronous fashion with the procursi being inserted deeply into the female genital cavity to release sperm into the uterus externus. As the coupling duration lengthens, the amount of palpal insertions decreases. The duration of copulation is dependent upon whether or not the female "P. phalangioides" have previously mated with any males. If the females have mated, second males are only allowed to engage in copulation for a few minutes. On the other hand, first males are able to copulate for anywhere between 16 and 122 minutes. Once the mating has finished, the females often act aggressively towards the males in an attempt to drive them off.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Because palpal, or genital bulb, movements from the males result in the displacement of spermatozoa and other seminal fluid from the female uterus externus, sperm competition exists between males of the "P. Phalangioides" species. A rival male can attempt to displace the sperm of another male from the female's genital cavity by copulating with her; however, because the copulation duration is greatly decreased in second males, and thus there is less time to displace a rival's sperm, it is unlikely that the spermatozoa of rival, second male would greatly outnumber those of the first male in the uterus externus.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: The use of spider silk in the medical field has gained much recognition over the last twenty years. Silk has been praised for its wound healing purposes because it contains compounds such as vitamin K. Spider silk is primarily composed of proteins made up of non-polar amino acids such as glycine and alanine. However, it also contains the organic compound pyrrolidine which functions to hold the silk's moisture and potassium nitrate which prevents any fungal or bacterial growth from occurring on the silk.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Certain antimicrobial biomolecules found in the spider silk of "P. phalangioides" are able to elicit an inhibitory effect on drug-resistant human pathogens including gram-positive bacteria "L. monocytogenes", gram-negative "E. coli, Staphylococcus aureus, Bacillus subtilis," and "Pseudomonas aeruginosa". More generally, researchers are hoping that the anti-microbial biomolecules of this spider silk could serve as a natural anti-microbial agent in the future against a host of infectious bacterial diseases that are resistant to antibiotics.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: Spiders are capable of spinning a multitude of unique silks. These silks vary in compounds and proteins that they consist of and in their use for the spider. One specific type of silk, known as dragline silk, is of particular interest to researchers due to its high elasticity, toughness, and large tensile strength. This silk has been shown to be significantly stronger than steel of the same weight. Dragline silk serves as the spider's attachment to its web should it need to retreat from predators or just go back in general. This silk also forms the radial spokes of a spider's web.


title: Pholcus phalangioides

text: To examine the potential role of this dragline silk in biological imaging, resin was then dripped onto the fibers of "Pholcus phalangioides" silk. As it condensed, the silk molded naturally into a dome or lens shape. By shining a laser onto this lens, researchers were able to generate high-quality photonic nanojets (PNJs), or high-intensity scattered beams of light. These photonic nanojets could be adjusted by manipulating the amount of time that the silk spends in contact with the resin. This adjustable spider silk-based lens could be used in the future for biological tissue imaging, highlighting the biomedical importance of "P. phalangioides".


title: Bruce Welch

text: Bruce Welch (born 2 November 1941 as Bruce Cripps) is an English guitarist, songwriter, producer, singer and businessman best known as a founding member of the Shadows.


title: Bruce Welch

text: Welch's parents (Stan Cripps and Grace Welch) moved him to 15 Broadwood View, Chester-le-Street, County Durham. Welch's mother died when he was aged six, and he grew up with his Aunt Sadie. After learning to play the guitar, he formed a Tyneside skiffle band called the Railroaders when he was fourteen. His Rutherford Grammar School friend Brian Rankin (later to be known as Hank Marvin) joined the group, and they travelled to London in 1958 for the final of a talent competition. Although they did not win, they joined with members of other entrant bands and formed the Five Chesternuts with Pete Chester (born 1942), son of comedian Charlie Chester, on drums.


title: Bruce Welch

text: Upon moving to London, Bruce Welch and Hank Marvin briefly operated as the Geordie Boys before enlisting in an outfit called the Drifters.


title: Bruce Welch

text: In September 1958, Welch and Marvin joined the Drifters, later to become the Shadows, as Cliff Richard's backing band. As well as success with the Shadows, Welch acted as producer for (among others) Richard and songwriter for his ex-fiancée, Olivia Newton-John. He also released a solo single, "Please Mr. Please", which was not commercially successful, though the song has been covered by several recording artists (most notably Newton-John, who would take it into the top 10 of the US pop and country charts in 1975).


title: Bruce Welch

text: Welch wrote several number 1 hit singles for Richard and for the Shadows. Among tunes or songs written or co-written by Welch are the Shadows' hits "Foot Tapper", "Theme for Young Lovers", and "The Rise and Fall of Flingel Bunt", Marvin Welch & Farrar's "Faithful" and "My Home Town", and Cliff Richard hits "Please Don't Tease", "In the Country", "Summer Holiday", "I Love You" and "I Could Easily Fall (In Love with You)".


title: Bruce Welch

text: After the Shadows disbanded in 1990, with Marvin deciding to tour with his own band, Welch's plans for his own tours did not fully materialise until 1998, when he formed Bruce Welch's Shadows (originally called 'Bruce Welch's Moonlight Shadows' – a name that was dropped after 1998). The group featured former Shadows bassist Alan Jones and keyboardist Cliff Hall, with Bob Watkins on drums. Phil Kelly and Barry Gibson (owner of Burns Guitars) shared lead guitar duties until Gibson's departure in 2000. Daniel Martin replaced Phil Kelly for the 2012 "Shadowmania".


title: Bruce Welch

text: In 1998, he produced "Shadowmania", a one-day show comprising various Shadows tribute bands, with his own band topping the bill. Due to the event's success he presented it annually until 2012, missing only 2004 and 2009 due to tours with the reformed Shadows.


title: Bruce Welch

text: At "Shadowmania" 2011 he included a 'Tribute to Jet Harris', his former band member who had died from cancer in March of that year. At "Shadowmania" 2012, Phil Kelly could not appear because of illness and was replaced by session guitarist-songwriter Daniel Martin, and Justin Daish, leader of The Shadowers (Jet Harris' final backing band).


title: Bruce Welch

text: He was appointed OBE (Officer of the Order of the British Empire) in the 2004 Birthday Honours list for services to music.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Germany entered into World War I on August 1, 1914, when it declared war on Russia. In accordance with its war plan, it ignored Russia and moved first against France–declaring war on August 3 and sending its main armies through Belgium to capture Paris from the north. The German invasion of Belgium caused Britain to declare war on Germany on August 4. Most of the main parties were now at war. In October 1914, Turkey joined the war on Germany's side, becoming part of the Central Powers. Italy, which was allied with Germany and Austria-Hungary before World War I, was neutral in 1914 before switching to the Allied side in May 1915.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Historians have vigorously debated Germany's role. One line of interpretation, promoted by German historian Fritz Fischer in the 1960s, argues that Germany had long desired to dominate Europe politically and economically, and seized the opportunity that unexpectedly opened in July 1914, making Germany guilty of starting the war. At the opposite end of the moral spectrum, many historians have argued that the war was inadvertent, caused by a series of complex accidents that overburdened the long-standing alliance system with its lock-step mobilization system that no one could control. A third approach, especially important in recent years, is that Germany saw itself surrounded by increasingly powerful enemies – Russia, France and Britain – who would eventually crush it unless Germany acted defensively with a preemptive strike.


title: German entry into World War I

text: As the war started, Germany stood behind its ally Austria-Hungary in a confrontation with Serbia, but Serbia was under the protection of Russia, which was allied to France. Germany was the leader of the Central Powers, which included Austria-Hungary at the start of the war as well as the Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria; arrayed against them were the Allies, consisting chiefly of Russia, France, and Britain at the beginning of the war, Italy, which joined the Allies in 1915, and the United States, which joined the Allies in 1917.


title: German entry into World War I

text: There were several main causes of World War I, which broke out unexpectedly in June–August 1914, including the conflicts and hostility of the previous four decades. Militarism, alliances, imperialism, and ethnic nationalism played major roles. However, the immediate origins of the war lay in the decisions taken by statesmen and generals during the July Crisis of 1914, which was sparked by the assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, heir to the throne of Austria-Hungary, by a Serbian secret organization, the Black Hand.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Since the 1870s or 1880s all the major powers had been preparing for a large-scale war, although none expected one. Britain focused on building up its Royal Navy, already stronger than the next two navies combined. Germany, France, Austria, Italy and Russia and some smaller countries set up conscription systems whereby young men would serve from one to three years in the army, then spend the next 20 years or so in the reserves with annual summer training. Men of higher social status became officers.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Each country devised a mobilisation system whereby the reserves could be called up quickly and sent to key points by rail. Every year the plans were updated and increased in complexity. Each country stockpiled arms and supplies for an army that ran into the millions. Germany in 1874 had a regular professional army of 420,000, with an additional 1.3 million reserves. By 1897, the regular German army was 545,000 strong and the reserves 3.4 million. The French in 1897 had 3.4 million reservists, Austria 2.6 million, and Russia 4.0 million. All major countries had a general staff which designed war plans against possible enemies. All plans called for a decisive opening and a short war. Germany's Schlieffen Plan was the most elaborate; the German Army was so confident that it would succeed that they made no alternative plans. It was kept secret from Austria, as well as from the German Navy, the chancellor and the foreign ministry, so there was no coordination–and in the end the plan failed. Indeed there was no joint planning with Vienna before the war started—and very little afterwards.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Historians focus on a handful of German leaders, as is the case for most countries in 1914. For Germany special attention focuses on the Chancellor Theobald von Bethmann-Hollweg, thanks to the discovery of the very rich, candid diary of his top aide Kurt Riezler.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Wilhelm II, German Emperor, the Kaiser, was given enormous publicity by both sides, and signed off on major decisions, but he was largely shunted aside or persuaded by others.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Helmuth von Moltke, the Chief of the German General Staff, was in charge of all planning and operations for the German army. He kept his plans quiet. He had the Kaiser's approval, but did not share any details with the Navy, the Chancellor, or his allies. Increasingly as a crisis grew, Moltke became the most powerful man in Germany.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Public opinion and pressure groups played a major role in influencing German politics. The Army and Navy each had their nationwide network of supporters, with a million members in the German Navy League, founded in 1898, and 20,000 in the German Army League, founded in 1912. The most articulate and aggressive civilian organization was the "Pan-German League". The agrarian interest was led by large landowners who were especially interested in exports and was politically well organized. Major corporations in the steel and coal industries were effective lobbyists. All of these economic groups promoted an aggressive foreign-policy. Bankers and financiers were not as pacifistic as their counterparts in London, but they did not play a large role in shaping foreign policy.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Pacifism had its own well-organized groups, and the labour unions strongly denounced war before it was declared. In the 1912 elections, the Socialists (Social Democratic Party or SPD), based in the labour unions, won 35% of the national vote. Conservative elites exaggerated the implicit threats made by radical Socialists such as August Bebel and became alarmed. Some looked to a foreign war as a solution to Germany's internal problems; others considered ways to suppress the Socialists. SPD policy limited antimilitarism to aggressive wars—Germans saw 1914 as a defensive war. On 25 July 1914, the SPD leadership appealed to its membership to demonstrate for peace and large numbers turned out in orderly demonstrations. The SPD was not revolutionary and many members were nationalistic. When the war began, some conservatives wanted to use force to suppress the SPD, but Bethmann-Hollweg wisely refused. The SPD members of parliament voted 96–14 on 3 August to support the war. There remained an antiwar element especially in Berlin. They were expelled from the SPD in 1916 and formed the Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Newspaper editorials indicated that the nationalist right-wing was openly in favor of war, even a preventive one, while moderate editors would only support a defensive war. Both the conservative press and the liberal press increasingly used the rhetoric of German honour and popular sacrifice, and often depicted the horrors of Russian despotism in terms of Asiatic barbarism.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Historian Fritz Fischer unleashed an intense worldwide debate in the 1960s on Germany's long-term goals. American historian Paul Schroeder agrees with the critics that Fischer exaggerated and misinterpreted many points. However, Schroeder endorses Fischer's basic conclusion:


title: German entry into World War I

text: However, Schroeder argues, all that was not the main cause of the war in 1914—indeed, the search for a single main cause is not a helpful approach to history. Instead, there are multiple causes any one or two of which could have launched the war. He argues, "The fact that so many plausible explanations for the outbreak of the war have been advanced over the years indicates on the one hand that it was massively overdetermined, and on the other that no effort to analyze the causal factors involved can ever fully succeed."


title: German entry into World War I

text: Historians have stressed that insecurity about the future deeply troubled German policy makers and motivated them toward preemptive war before it was too late. The nation was surrounded by enemies who were getting stronger; the bid to rival British naval supremacy had failed. Berlin was deeply suspicious of a supposed conspiracy of its enemies: that year-by-year in the early 20th century it was systematically encircled by enemies. There was a growing fear that the supposed enemy coalition of Russia, France and Britain was getting stronger militarily every year, especially Russia. The longer Berlin waited the less likely it would prevail in a war. According to American historian Gordon A. Craig, it was after the set-back in Morocco in 1905 that the fear of encirclement began to be a potent factor in German politics." Few outside observers agreed with the notion of Germany as a victim of deliberate encirclement. English historian G. M. Trevelyan expressed the British viewpoint:The encirclement, such as it was, was of Germany's own making. She had encircled herself by alienating France over Alsace-Lorraine, Russia by her support of Austria-Hungary's anti--Slav policy in the Balkans, England by building her rival fleet. She had created with Austria-Hungary a military bloc in the heart of Europe so powerful and yet so restless that her neighbors on each side had no choice but either to become her vassals or to stand together for protection...They used their central position to create fear in all sides, in order to gain their diplomatic ends. And then they complained that on all sides they had been encircled.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Bethmann-Hollweg was mesmerized by the steady growth of Russian power, which was in large part due to French financial and technical assistance. For the Germans, this deepened the worry often expressed by the Kaiser that Germany was being surrounded by enemies who were growing in strength. One implication was that time was against them, and a war happening sooner would be more advantageous for Germany than a war happening later. For the French, there was a growing fear that Russia would become significantly more powerful than France, and become more independent of France, possibly even returning to its old military alliance with Germany. The implication was that a war sooner could count on the Russian alliance, but the longer it waited the greater the likelihood of a Russian alliance with Germany that would doom France.


title: German entry into World War I

text: France, a third smaller than Germany, needed Russia's vast potential, and the fear was that together the two would in a few years clearly surpass Germany's military capability. This argued for war sooner rather than later. Bethmann-Hollweg knew he was undertaking a calculated risk by backing a local war in which Austria would politically destroy Serbia. The hope was to "localize" that war by keeping the other powers out of it. Russia had no treaty obligations to Serbia, but was trying to fashion itself as the leader of the Slavic peoples in opposition to their German and Austrian oppressors. If Russia intervened to defend Serbia, Germany would have to intervene to defend Austria, and very likely France would honor its treaty obligation and join with Russia. Bethmann-Hollweg assumed Britain had no interest in the Balkans and would remain neutral. It was also possible that Russia would go to war but France would not follow, in which case the Triple Entente would become meaningless. The calculated risk failed when Russia mobilized. The German general staff, which was always hawkish and eager for war, now took control of German policy. Its war plan called for immediate action before Russia could mobilize much force, and instead use very rapid mobilization of German active duty and reserve forces to invade France through Belgium. Once France was knocked out, the German troops would be sent to the East to defeat Russia with the assistance of the Austrian army. Once Russia mobilized, on July 31, Austria and Germany mobilized. The Germans had a very sophisticated plan for rapid mobilization. It worked well while everyone else was days or weeks behind. The general staff convinced the Kaiser to activate their war plan, and Bethmann-Hollweg could only follow along. Most historians treat the Kaiser as a man far out of his depth who was under the spell of the Army General staff.


title: German entry into World War I

text: In 1913, the Army Act raised Germany's peace strength to 870,000 men, and raising the eventual war strength from 4.5 million to 5.4 million. France responded by expanding the training period for all draftees from two years to three. Russia likewise raised its army size to a wartime basis of 5.4 million. Austria in 1913 raised its war strength to 2.0 million. All the rival armies improved their efficiency, especially with more powerful artillery and machine guns.


title: German entry into World War I

text: The main war plan, the Schlieffen Plan, was drawn up by the Army headquarters. It called for a great infantry sweep through Belgium to encircle Paris and defeat France in a matter of weeks. Then the forces would be moved by rail to the Eastern Front, to defeat the Russians. The plan was not shared with the Navy, the Foreign Office, the Chancellor, the main ally in Vienna, or the separate Army commands in Bavaria and the other states. No one could point out problems or plan to coordinate with it. The generals who did know about it counted on it giving a quick victory within weeks—if that did not happen there was no "Plan B." No German leaders had a long-term plan when the war began. There were no long-term goals—the first ones—the proposed “Septemberprogramm” was hurriedly put together in September 1914 after the war began and was never formally adopted.


title: German entry into World War I

text: In explaining why neutral Britain went to war with Germany, Paul Kennedy (1980) recognized it was critical for war that Germany become economically more powerful than Britain, but he downplays the disputes over economic trade imperialism, the Baghdad Railway, confrontations in Central and Eastern Europe, highly-charged political rhetoric and domestic pressure groups. Germany's reliance time and again on sheer power, while Britain increasingly appealed to moral sensibilities, played a role, especially in seeing the invasion of Belgium as a profound moral and diplomatic crime. Kennedy argues that by far the main reason was London's fear that a repeat of 1870 — when Prussia and the German states smashed France in the Franco-Prussian War — would mean that Germany, with a powerful army and navy, would control the English Channel and northwest France. British policymakers insisted that that would be a catastrophe for British security.


title: German entry into World War I

text: The British Royal Navy dominated the globe in the 19th century, but after 1890, Germany attempted to challenge Britain's supremacy. The resulting naval race heightened tensions between the two nations. In 1897, Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz became German Naval Secretary of State and began transformation of the Imperial German Navy from a small, coastal defence force to a fleet that was meant to challenge British naval power. As part of the wider bid to alter the international balance of power decisively in Germany's favour, Tirpitz called for a "Risikoflotte" (Risk Fleet), so called because, although still smaller than the British fleet, it would be too large for Britain to risk taking it on.


title: German entry into World War I

text: The German Navy, under Tirpitz, had ambitions to rival the Royal Navy and dramatically expanded its fleet in the early 20th century to protect the colonies, German commerce, the homeland, and to exert power worldwide. In 1890, to protect its new fleet, Germany traded possessions. It obtained the strategic island of Heligoland off the German North Sea coast and gave up the island of Zanzibar in Africa. In 1898, Tirpitz started a programme of warship construction. The British, however, were always well ahead in the race. The British "Dreadnought" battleship of 1907 was so advanced in terms of speed and firepower that all other warships were immediately made obsolete. Germany copied it but never surged ahead in quality or numbers.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Berlin repeatedly and urgently called on Vienna to act quickly in response to the assassination at Sarajevo on June 28, 1914, so that a counter alliance would not have time to organize, and Austria could blame its intense anger at the atrocious act. Vienna delayed its critical ultimatum until July 23, and its actual invasion until August 13. That allowed time for the Russian-French opposition to organize. It also allowed an investigation to turn up many details but no evidence pointing directly to the government of Serbia. The main reason for the delay was the fact that practically the entire Austrian army was tied down at home in harvest work, providing a food supply that would be essential for any war once the reserves were called to duty.


title: German entry into World War I

text: In July, 1914, Germany gave Austria a "blank cheque" in handling its punishment of Serbia regarding the assassination of the heir to the Austrian throne. It meant that Germany would support whatever decision Austria made. Austria decided on war with Serbia, which quickly led to escalation with Russia. Bethmann-Hollweg on July 6 told the Austrian ambassador in Berlin:


title: German entry into World War I

text: Shortly after the war began, the German foreign office issued a statement justifying the Blank Check as necessary for the preservation of Austria, and the Teutonic (German) race in central Europe. The statement said:


title: German entry into World War I

text: In early July 1914, in the aftermath of the assassination of Franz Ferdinand and the immediate likelihood of war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia, the German government informed the Austro-Hungarian government that Germany would uphold its alliance with Austria-Hungary and defend it from possible Russian intervention if a war between Austria-Hungary and Serbia took place.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Austria depended entirely on Germany for support – it had no other ally it could trust– but the Kaiser lost control of the German government. Bethmann-Hollweg had repeatedly rejected pleas from Britain and Russia to put pressure on Austria to compromise. German elite and popular public opinion also was demanding mediation. Now in late July he reversed himself, and pleaded, or demanded, that Austria accept mediation, warning that Britain would probably join Russia and France if a larger war started. The Kaiser made a direct appeal to Emperor Franz Joseph along the same lines. However, Bethmann-Hollweg and the Kaiser did not know that the German military had its own line of communication to the Austrian military, and insisted on rapid mobilization against Russia. German Chief of Staff Moltke sent an emotional telegram to the Austrian Chief of Staff Conrad on July 30: "Austria-Hungary must be preserved, mobilise at once against Russia. Germany will mobilise." Vienna officials decided that Moltke was really in charge—which was true—and refused mediation and mobilized against Russia.


title: German entry into World War I

text: When Russia enacted a general mobilization, Germany viewed the act as provocative. The Russian government promised Germany that its general mobilization did not mean preparation for war with Germany but was a reaction to the events between Austria-Hungary and Serbia. The German government regarded the Russian promise of no war with Germany to be nonsense in light of its general mobilization, and Germany, in turn, mobilized for war. On 1 August, Germany sent an ultimatum to Russia stating that since both Germany and Russia were in a state of military mobilization, an effective state of war existed between the two countries. Later that day, France, an ally of Russia, declared a state of general mobilization. The German government justified military action against Russia as necessary because of Russian aggression as demonstrated by the mobilization of the Russian army that had resulted in Germany mobilizing in response.


title: German entry into World War I

text: After Germany declared war on Russia, France with its alliance with Russia prepared a general mobilization in expectation of war. On 3 August 1914, Germany responded to this action by declaring war on France. Germany, facing a two-front war, enacted what was known as the Schlieffen Plan, which involved German armed forces needing to move through Belgium and swing south into France and towards the French capital of Paris. This plan aimed to gain a quick victory against the French and allow German forces to concentrate on the Eastern Front. Belgium was a neutral country and would not accept German forces crossing its territory. Germany disregarded Belgian neutrality and invaded the country to launch an offensive towards Paris. This caused Great Britain to declare war against the German Empire, as the action violated the Treaty of London that both Britain and Prussia had signed in 1839 guaranteeing Belgian neutrality and defense of the kingdom if a nation reneged.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Subsequently, several states declared war on Germany in late August 1914, with Italy declaring war on Austria-Hungary in 1915 and Germany on 27 August 1916; the United States on 6 April 1917 and Greece in July 1917.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Germany attempted to justify its actions through the publication of selected diplomatic correspondence in the German White Book which appeared on 4 August 1914, the same day as Britain's war declaration. In it, they sought to establish justification for their own entry into the war, and cast blame on other actors for the outbreak. The White Book was only the first of such compilations to occur, including the British Blue Book two days later, followed by numerous color books by the other European powers.


title: German entry into World War I

text: Turkey had been badly defeated in a series of wars in the previous decade, losing the two Balkan Wars of 1912–13 and the Italo-Turkish War in 1911–12. However, relations with Germany had been excellent, involving investment aid in financing, and assistance for the Turkish army. In late 1913 German general Liman von Sanders was hired to reorganize the army, and to command the Ottoman forces at Constantinople. Russia and France vigorously objected, and forced a reduction in his role. Russia had the long-term goal of sponsoring the new Slavic states in the Balkan region, and had designs on control of the Straits (allowing entry into the Mediterranean), and even taking over Constantinople.


title: German entry into World War I

text: There was a long-standing conflict between Britain and Germany over the Baghdad Railway through the Ottoman Empire, which would have projected German power toward Britain's sphere of influence in India and southern Persia. This was resolved in June 1914 when Berlin agreed not to construct the line south of Baghdad and to recognize Britain's preponderant interest in the region. The issue was resolved to the satisfaction of both sides and did not play a role in causing the war.


title: German entry into World War I

text: In June, 1914, Vienna and Berlin discussed bringing Bulgaria and Turkey into their military alliance to neutralize the threat of the Balkan League under Russian and French auspices. When the war broke out, the Ottoman Empire was officially neutral at first, but leaned toward the Central Powers. Promises of war loans, military coordination and recovery of lost territories appealed to Turkish nationalists, especially the Young Turks under Enver Pasha and the nationalist Committee of Union and Progress (CUP).


title: German entry into World War I

text: Canadian historian Holger Herwig summarizes the scholarly consensus on Germany's final decicion: Berlin did not go to war in 1914 in a bid for ‘world power’, as historian Fritz Fischer claimed, but rather first to secure and thereafter to enhance the borders of 1871. Secondly, the decision for war was made in July 1914 and not, as some scholars have claimed, at a nebulous ‘war council’ on 8 December 1912. Thirdly, no one in Berlin had planned for war before 1914; no long-term economic or military plans have been uncovered to suggest otherwise...The fact remains that on 5 July 1914 Berlin gave Vienna unconditional support (‘blank cheque’) for a war in the Balkans...Civilian as well as military planners in Berlin, like their counterparts in Vienna, were dominated by a 'strike-now-better-than-later' mentality. They were aware that Russia’s 'Big Programme' of rearmament...would be completed around 1916–17...No one doubted that war was in the offing. The diplomatic and political record...contains countless dire prognostications of the inevitability of a 'final reckoning' between Slavs and Teutons. Leaders in Berlin also saw war as the only solution to 'encirclement'...In short, war was viewed as both apocalyptic fear and apocalyptic hope.


title: Cissy Wang

text: Cecilia Wang Shi Shi (; born 21 April 1981), also known as Cissy Wang, is a Hong Kong model who was crowned Miss Chinese Toronto Pageant in 2000. She is the wife of Donnie Yen.


title: Cissy Wang

text: Wang was born in Hong Kong on 21 April 1981. Her parents were in the jewelry business. She has a younger sister named Irene Wang Yuen Yuen (). They spent their childhood in Lima, Peru before moving to Canada. Wang speaks Cantonese, Mandarin Chinese, English, Spanish and French.


title: Cissy Wang

text: Wang contested in the Fairchild TV Miss Chinese Toronto Pageant at Toronto in 2000 and won the first place. She was also awarded Miss Photogenic, Most Talented Award and Best Posture Award.


title: Cissy Wang

text: On 30 August 2003, Wang married Donnie Yen. They have two children: a daughter named Jasmine Yen (), and a son named James Yen ().


title: Tansy

text: Tansy ("Tanacetum vulgare") is a perennial, herbaceous flowering plant in the genus "Tanacetum" in the aster family, native to temperate Europe and Asia. It has been introduced to other parts of the world, including North America, and in some areas has become invasive. It is also known as common tansy, bitter buttons, cow bitter, or golden buttons. The Latin word "vulgare" means "common".


title: Tansy

text: Tansy is a flowering herbaceous plant with finely divided compound leaves and yellow, button-like flowers. It has a stout, somewhat reddish, erect stem, usually smooth, tall, and branching near the top. The leaves are alternate, long and are pinnately lobed, divided almost to the center into about seven pairs of segments, or lobes, which are again divided into smaller lobes having saw-toothed edges, giving the leaf a somewhat fern-like appearance. The roundish, flat-topped, button-like, yellow flower heads are produced in terminal clusters from mid-to-late summer. The scent is similar to that of camphor with hints of rosemary. The leaves and flowers are toxic if consumed in large quantities; the volatile oil contains toxic compounds including thujone, which can cause convulsions and liver and brain damage. Some insects, notably the tansy beetle "Chrysolina graminis", have resistance to the toxins and subsist almost exclusively on the plant.


title: Tansy

text: Tansy is native to Eurasia; it is found in almost all parts of mainland Europe, as well as Britain and Ireland. It is absent from Siberia and from some of the Mediterranean islands. The ancient Greeks may have been the first to cultivate it as a medicinal herb. In the sixteenth century it was considered to be "necessary for a garden" in Britain.


title: Tansy

text: Tansy has a long history of use. The first historical records of its cultivation for medicinal purposes involved the ancient Greeks. In the 8th century AD it was grown in the herb gardens of Charlemagne and by Benedictine monks of the Swiss monastery of Saint Gall. Tansy was used to treat intestinal worms, rheumatism, digestive problems, fevers, sores, and to bring out measles.


title: Tansy

text: During the Middle Ages and later, high doses were used to induce abortions. On the other hand, tansy was also used to help women conceive and to prevent miscarriages. In the 15th century, Christians began serving tansy with Lenten meals to commemorate the Passover bitter herbs eaten by the Israelites. Tansy was thought to have the added Lenten benefits of controlling flatulence brought on by days of eating fish and pulses and of preventing the intestinal worms believed to be caused by eating fish during Lent.


title: Tansy

text: Tansy was used as a face wash and was reported to lighten and purify the skin. In the 19th century, Irish folklore suggested that bathing in a solution of tansy and salts would cure joint pain.


title: Tansy

text: Tansy has also been used as insect repellent and in embalming. It was packed into coffins, wrapped in funeral winding sheets, and tansy wreaths were sometimes placed on the dead. Henry Dunster, the first president of Harvard University, was buried wearing a tansy wreath in a coffin packed with tansy; when the cemetery was moved in 1846 the tansy had maintained its shape and fragrance, helping to identify the president's remains. By the 19th century, tansy was used so much at New England funerals that people began to disdain it for its morbid association with death.


title: Tansy

text: During the American colonial period, meat was frequently rubbed with or packed in tansy leaves to repel insects and delay spoilage. Tansy was frequently worn at that time in shoes to prevent malaria and other fevers; it has been shown, however, that some mosquito species, including "Culex pipiens", take nectar from tansy flowers.


title: Tansy

text: Tansy can be used as in companion planting and for biological pest control. It is planted alongside potatoes to repel the Colorado potato beetle, with one study finding tansy reduced the beetle population by 60 to 100 percent.


title: Tansy

text: In England tansy is placed on window sills to repel flies; sprigs are placed in bed linen to drive away pests, and it has been used as an ant repellent.


title: Tansy

text: In the 1940s, distilled tansy oil mixed with fleabane, pennyroyal and diluted alcohol was a well-known mosquito repellent; collectors were paid five cents a pound for tansy in full bloom. Research has found that tansy extracts do indeed repel mosquitoes, but not as effectively as products containing DEET. In 2008, researchers in Sweden investigated the use of tansy to repel ticks, showing a 64–72 percent repellency for each oil constituent.


title: Tansy

text: Many tansy species contain a volatile oil which can cause contact dermatitis in sensitive individuals. If taken internally, toxic metabolites are produced as the oil is broken down in the liver and digestive tract. It is highly toxic to internal parasites, and for centuries tansy tea has been prescribed by herbalists to expel worms. Tansy is an effective insecticide and is highly toxic to arthropods. Because it contains thujone, the U.S. FDA limits the use of tansy to alcoholic beverages, and the final product must be thujone-free. "Tanacetum annuum" is often confused with common tansy ("Tanacetum vulgare") but the former produces an essential oil that is completely different chemically as it contains no thujone and high amounts of chamazulene making the oil dark blue in color, giving rise to its common name of Blue Tansy Oil. Despite claims by some unethical resellers of essential oils who adulterate the very expensive Blue Tansy ("Tanacetum annuum") oil with the much cheaper oil from "Tanacetum vulgare", the oil from "Tanacetum vulgare" is never blue in color as it contains no chamazulene. For this reason a high thujone oil from "Tanacetum vulgare" should never be referred to as "Blue Tansy" oil and any such blue oil containing significant thujone is an adulterated product.


title: Tansy

text: The active components of the volatile oil include 1,8-cineole, "trans"-thujone, camphor and myrtenol, with the quantities and proportions of each varying seasonally and from plant to plant.


title: Tansy

text: Tansy was formerly used as a flavouring for puddings and omelettes, but is now almost unknown, except in Cork, where it is used in a sauce to accompany drisheens. The herbalist John Gerard (c. 1545–1612) noted that tansy was well known as “pleasant in taste”, and he recommends tansy sweetmeats as “an especial thing against the gout, if every day for a certain space a reasonable quantitie thereof be eaten fasting.” In Yorkshire, tansy and caraway seeds were traditionally used in biscuits served at funerals.


title: Tansy

text: During the Restoration, a "tansy" was a sweet omelette flavoured with tansy juice. In the BBC documentary "The Supersizers go ... Restoration", Allegra McEvedy described the flavour as "fruity, sharpness to it and then there's a sort of explosion of cool heat a bit like peppermint." However, the programme's presenter Sue Perkins experienced tansy toxicity.


title: Tansy

text: According to liquor historian A. J. Baime, in the 19th century Tennessee whiskey magnate Jack Daniel enjoyed drinking his own whiskey with sugar and crushed tansy leaf.


title: Tansy

text: In the Belgian coastal province of West-Flanders small quantities of crushed dried tansy leaf were traditionally used as culinary herb to spice up pancakes and omelettes. There tansy is colloquially known as "pancake herb".


title: Tansy

text: For many years, tansy has been used as a medicinal herb despite its toxicity. 19th-century Irish folklore suggests bathing in a solution of tansy and salt as a cure for joint pain. A bitter tea made with tansy flowers has been used for centuries as an anthelmintic to treat parasitic worm infestations, and tansy cakes were traditionally eaten during Lent because it was believed that eating fish during Lent caused intestinal worms. Various "Tanacetum" species are used ethnomedically to treat migraine, neuralgia and rheumatism and as anthelmintics. Traditionally, tansy was often used for its emmenagogue effects to bring on menstruation or end an unwanted pregnancy, and pregnant women are advised to not use this herb.


title: Tansy

text: Research published in 2011 identified 3,5-dicaffeoylquinic acid (3,5-DCQA) and axillarin in tansy as antiviral compounds that are active against herpes simplex virus.


title: Tansy

text: The Cherokee use an infusion of the plant for backache, use the plant as a tonic, and wear it around the waist and in shoes to prevent miscarriages. The Cheyenne use an infusion of the pulverized leaves and blossoms for dizziness and weakness.


title: Tansy

text: Some traditional dyers use tansy to produce a golden-yellow color. The yellow flowers are dried for use in floral arrangements.


title: Tansy

text: Tansy is also used as a companion plant, especially with cucurbits like cucumbers and squash, or with roses or various berries. It is thought to repel ants, cucumber beetles, Japanese beetles, squash bugs, and some kinds of flying insects, among others.


title: Cars (video game)

text: Cars (also known as Cars: The Video Game) is an open world racing video game, based on the 2006 Pixar film of the same name. Developed by Rainbow Studios, it was released for the GameCube, PlayStation 2, Xbox, Microsoft Windows, Game Boy Advance, Nintendo DS, and PSP in June 2006, with versions for the Xbox 360 and Wii released later that year. The Wii version includes functionality geared towards its Wii Remote controller, and was a launch game for the system.


title: Cars (video game)

text: Taking place after the events of the film, the player controls the protagonist Lightning McQueen as he participates in the new racing season with the end goal of winning the Piston Cup for the first time in his career, while also racing and training with the local community of Radiator Springs. In the PSP version, the player again controls Lightning McQueen. After meeting and narrowly avoiding a collision with the Delinquent Road Hazards gang, he challenges them to a race to which they agree. The console versions feature the full voice-over cast from the film, including the likes of Owen Wilson, Michael Keaton, Paul Newman, and Larry the Cable Guy. However in the PSP and DS versions, Lightning McQueen is instead voiced by Keith Ferguson.


title: Cars (video game)

text: The home console and PC versions received positive reviews from critics, though the GBA version met negative reception, This may be due to it being at a strange angle and being hard to know where to go or what to do. This game was followed by two sequels; "Cars Mater-National Championship" (2007) and "Cars Race-O-Rama" (2009).


title: Cars (video game)

text: The console versions of the game are set in the fictional town of Radiator Springs, where it takes place after the movie. The player must compete in 19 road races, 8 mini-games, and 5 piston cup races to help Lightning McQueen win his first Piston Cup. In the PSP version, the game presumably takes place on an alternate timeline. The player must compete in 13 races, as well as 5 boss races, to help Lightning McQueen claim Radiator Springs back from the Delinquent Road Hazards gang. The game takes place in a open world in the vein of "Need for Speed", "Grand Theft Auto" and "Midnight Club" and features ten playable characters from the film (16 in the PSP version), all voiced by the original voice talent. The game also features a number of minigames and items for the player to collect.


title: Cars (video game)

text: On May 8, 2002, video game publisher THQ acquired the rights to the next three titles from Pixar Animation Studios – "Finding Nemo", "The Incredibles", and "Cars". "Cars" was announced on February 7, 2006, and was later announced for Wii and Xbox 360. On June 6, 2006, THQ announced that the game would be shipping out for all platforms except Wii and Xbox 360. The Wii version was released on November 19 as a launch title for the console. The current-generation and 360 versions were developed by Rainbow Studios, while the Wii version was developed by Incinerator Games.


title: Cars (video game)

text: "Cars" received "generally positive" reviews. "GameSpot" gave 7.0 out of 10 for Xbox 360 and Wii versions, 7.6 out of 10 for the GameCube and Xbox versions, and 7.4 out of 10 for the PSP version. Metacritic gave 65 out of 100 for the Wii version, 54 out of 100 for the DS version, 73 out of 100 for the PC version, 71 out of 100 for the PlayStation 2 version, and 70 out of 100 for the PSP version.


title: Cars (video game)

text: The PlayStation 2 and Nintendo DS releases of "Cars" each received a "Platinum" sales award from the Entertainment and Leisure Software Publishers Association (ELSPA), indicating sales of at least 300,000 copies per version in the United Kingdom. In total, the game sold more than 8 million copies as of May 2007.


title: Cars (video game)

text: The GBA version was criticized as being "the worst version of the game" because of its incredibly short length, zoomed-in camera, a lack of a multiplayer mode, and a lack of any depth.


title: David Ojabo

text: David Ojabo (born May 17, 2000) is a Scottish-Nigerian American football outside linebacker for the Baltimore Ravens of the National Football League (NFL). He played college football at Michigan.


title: David Ojabo

text: Ojabo was born in Port Harcourt, Nigeria, and moved to Aberdeen, Scotland with his family in 2007. At 17, he moved to Blairstown, New Jersey, in the United States and began attending Blair Academy. He initially played basketball before switching to American football. Ojabo committed to the University of Michigan to play college football in part because the Michigan weather was similar to Scotland and made him feel at home.


title: David Ojabo

text: Ojabo did not play his first year at Michigan in 2019. As a sophomore in 2020, he played in six games and made one tackle. Ojabo took over as a starter in 2021. On January 4, 2022, he announced that he would forgo his senior year and enter the draft.


title: David Ojabo

text: While performing on Pro Day at Michigan, Ojabo suffered a left ankle injury while performing a drill. It was later confirmed that he had suffered a torn Achilles.


title: David Ojabo

text: Ojabo was drafted by the Baltimore Ravens in the second round, 45th overall, of the 2022 NFL Draft. He was placed on injured reserve on August 31, 2022 as he continued to recover from the Achilles injury he suffered in March. He was activated on November 1.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: "Shambel" Abebe Bikila (; August 7, 1932 – October 25, 1973) was an Ethiopian marathon runner who was a back-to-back Olympic marathon champion. He is the first Ethiopian Olympic gold medalist, winning his and Africa's first gold medal at the 1960 Summer Olympics in Rome while running barefoot. At the 1964 Tokyo Olympics, he won his second gold medal. In turn, he became the first athlete to successfully defend an Olympic marathon title. In both victories, he ran in world record time.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Born in Shewa, Abebe moved to Addis Ababa around 1952 and joined the 5th Infantry Regiment of the Ethiopian Imperial Guard, an elite infantry division that safeguarded the emperor of Ethiopia. Enlisting as a soldier before his athletic career, he rose to the rank of "shambel" (captain). Abebe participated in a total of sixteen marathons. He placed second on his first marathon in Addis Ababa, won twelve other races, and finished fifth in the 1963 Boston Marathon. In July 1967, he sustained the first of several sports-related leg injuries that prevented him from finishing his last two marathons. Abebe was a pioneer in long-distance running. Mamo Wolde, Juma Ikangaa, Tegla Loroupe, Paul Tergat, and Haile Gebrselassie—all recipients of the New York Road Runners' Abebe Bikila Award—are a few of the athletes who have followed in his footsteps to establish East Africa as a force in long-distance running.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: On March 22, 1969, Abebe was paralysed due to a car accident. He regained some upper-body mobility, but he never walked again. While he was receiving medical treatment in England, Abebe competed in archery and table tennis at the 1970 Stoke Mandeville Games in London. Those games were an early predecessor of the Paralympic Games. He competed in both sports at a 1971 competition for disabled people in Norway and won its cross-country sleigh-riding event. Abebe died at age 41 on October 25, 1973, of a cerebral haemorrhage related to his accident four years earlier. He received a state funeral, and Emperor Haile Selassie declared a national day of mourning. Many schools, venues, and events, including Abebe Bikila Stadium in Addis Ababa, are named after him. He is the subject of biographies and films documenting his athletic career, and he is often featured in publications about the marathon and the Olympics.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe Bikila was born on August 7, 1932, in the small community of Jato, then part of the Selale District of Shewa. His birthday coincided with the 1932 Los Angeles Olympic marathon. Abebe was the son of Wudinesh Beneberu and her second husband, Demissie. During the Second Italo-Ethiopian War (1935–1937), his family was forced to move to the remote town of Gorro. By then, Wudinesh had divorced Abebe's father and married Temtime Kefelew. The family eventually moved back to Jato (or nearby Jirru), where they had a farm.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: As a young boy, Abebe played gena, a traditional long-distance hockey game played with goalposts sometimes kilometres apart. Around 1952, he joined the 5th Infantry Regiment of the Imperial Guard after moving to Addis Ababa the year before. During the mid-1950s, Abebe ran from the hills of Sululta to Addis Ababa and back every day. Onni Niskanen, a Swedish coach employed by the Ethiopian government to train the Imperial Guard, soon noticed him and began training him for the marathon. In 1956, Abebe finished second to Wami Biratu in the Ethiopian Armed Forces championship. According to biographer Tim Judah, his entry in the Olympics was a "long planned operation" and not a last-minute decision, as was commonly thought.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe was 27 when he married 15-year-old Yewebdar Wolde-Giorgis on March 16, 1960. Although the marriage was arranged by his mother, Abebe was happy and they remained married for the rest of his life.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: In July 1960, Abebe won his first marathon in Addis Ababa. A month later he won again in Addis Ababa with a time of 2:21:23, which was faster than the existing Olympic record held by Emil Zátopek. Niskanen entered Abebe Bikila and Abebe Wakgira in the marathon at the 1960 Rome Olympics, which would be run on September 10. In Rome, Abebe purchased new running shoes, but they did not fit well and gave him blisters:). He consequently decided to run barefoot instead.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Due to Rome's blistering heat, the race started in late-afternoon at the foot of the Capitoline Hill staircase and finished at night at the Arch of Constantine, just outside the Colosseum. The course twice passed Piazza di Porta Capena, where the Obelisk of Axum was then located. When the runners passed the obelisk the first time, Abebe was at the rear of the lead pack, which included Great Britain's Arthur Keily, Moroccan Rhadi Ben Abdesselam, Ireland's Bertie Messitt, and Belgian Aurèle Vandendriessche.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Between and , the lead changed hands several times. By about , however, Abebe and ben Abdesselam moved away from the rest of the pack. Trailing by about two minutes at the mark were New Zealand's Barry Magee, who was to finish third in 2:17:18.2 and Sergei Popov, the world marathon record holder at the time, who finished fifth.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe and ben Abdesselam remained together until the last . Nearing the obelisk again, Abebe sprinted to the finish. In the early-evening darkness, his path along the Appian Way was lined with Italian soldiers holding torches. Abebe's winning time was 2:15:16.2, twenty-five seconds faster than ben Abdesselam at 2:15:41.6, and breaking Popov's world record by eight tenths of a second. Immediately after crossing the finish line Abebe began to touch his toes and run in place, and later said that he could have run another .


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe returned to his homeland as a hero. He was greeted by a large crowd, many dignitaries and the commander of the Imperial Guard, Brigadier-General Mengistu Neway. Abebe was paraded through the streets of Addis Ababa along a procession route lined with thousands of people and presented to Emperor Haile Selassie. The Emperor awarded him the Star of Ethiopia and promoted him to the rank of "asiraleqa" (corporal). He was given the use of a chauffeur-driven Volkswagen Beetle (since he did not yet know how to drive) and home, both owned by the guard.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: On December 13, 1960, while Haile Selassie was on a state visit to Brazil, Imperial Guard forces led by Mengistu Neway began an unsuccessful coup and briefly proclaimed Selassie's eldest son Asfaw Wossen Taffari emperor. Fighting took place in the heart of Addis Ababa, shells detonated in the Jubilee Palace, and many of those closest to the Emperor were killed. Although Abebe was not directly involved, he was briefly arrested and questioned. Mengistu was later hanged, and his forces (which included many members of the Imperial Guard) were killed in the fighting, arrested or fled.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: In the 1961 Athens Classical Marathon, Abebe again won while running barefoot. This was the second and last event in which he competed barefooted. The same year he won the marathons in Osaka and Košice. While in Japan, he was approached by a Japanese shoe company, Onitsuka Tiger, with the possibility of wearing its shoes; they were informed by Niskanen that Abebe had "other commitments". Kihachiro Onitsuka suspected that Abebe had a secret sponsorship deal with Puma, in spite of the now-abandoned rules against such deals.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe ran the 1963 Boston Marathon—which was between his Olympic wins in 1960 and 1964—and finished fifth in 2:24:43. This was the only time in his competitive career that he completed an international marathon without winning. He and countryman Mamo Wolde, who finished 12th, had run together on record pace for 18 miles, until cold winds and the hills in Newton caused both to fall back. The race was won by Belgium's Aurele Vandendriessche in a course record 2:18:58. Abebe returned to Ethiopia and did not compete in another marathon until 1964 in Addis Ababa. He won that race in a time of 2:23:14.8.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Forty days before the 1964 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Abebe began to feel pain while training in Debre Zeit. He was brought to the hospital and diagnosed with acute appendicitis, and had an appendectomy on September 16. Back on his feet in a few days, Abebe left the hospital within a week.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: He entered the October 21 marathon wearing Puma shoes. This was in contrast to the previous Olympics in Rome, where he ran barefoot. Abebe began the race right behind the lead pack until about the mark, when he slowly increased his pace. At , he was in third place behind Ron Clarke of Australia—who had been upset by Billy Mills in the 10,000 meters—and Jim Hogan of Ireland. Shortly before , Abebe took the lead; only Hogan was in contention, as Clarke began to slow. By , Abebe was almost two-and-a-half minutes in front of Hogan and Kokichi Tsuburaya of Japan was 17 seconds behind Hogan in third place. Hogan soon dropped out, exhausted, leaving only Tsuburaya three minutes behind Abebe by the mark.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe entered the Olympic stadium alone, to the cheers of 75,000 spectators. The crowd had been listening on the radio and anticipated his triumphant entrance. Abebe finished with a time of 2:12:11.2, four minutes and eight seconds ahead of silver medallist Basil Heatley of Great Britain, who passed Tsuburaya inside the stadium. Tsuburaya was third, a few seconds behind Heatley. Abebe did not appear exhausted after the finish, and he again performed a routine of calisthenics, which included touching "his toes twice then [lying] down on his back, cycling his legs in the air".


title: Abebe Bikila

text: He was the first runner to successfully defend an Olympic marathon title. Abebe, Waldemar Cierpinski, and Eliud Kipchoge are the only athletes to have won two gold medals in the event, and they all did it back-to-back. For the second time, Abebe received Ethiopia's only gold medal and again returned home to a hero's welcome. The Emperor promoted him to the commissioned-officer rank of "metoaleqa" (lieutenant). Abebe received the Order of Menelik II, a Volkswagen Beetle and a house.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: On April 21, 1965, as part of the opening ceremonies for the second season of the 1964–1965 New York World's Fair, Abebe and fellow athlete and Imperial Guardsman Mamo Wolde, ran a ceremonial half-marathon from the Arsenal in Central Park (at 64th Street and Fifth Avenue in Manhattan) to the Singer Bowl at the fair. They carried a parchment scroll with greetings from Haile Selassie.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: The following month, Abebe returned to Japan and won his second Mainichi Marathon, held in Shiga Prefecture. In 1966 he ran marathons at Zarautz and Inchon–Seoul, winning both. The following year, Abebe did not finish the Zarautz International Marathon in July 1967. He had injured his hamstring, an injury from which he would never recover. Abebe had begun to limp, and the 1966 Incheon–Seoul Marathon was the last marathon he ever completed.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: In July 1968, he travelled to Germany for treatment of "circulatory ailments" in his legs; the German government refused to accept payment for the medical services. Abebe returned in time to join the rest of the Ethiopian Olympic team training in Asmara, which has an altitude () and climate similar to Mexico City (the host of the next Olympic Games).


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Seeking a third consecutive gold medal, Abebe entered the October 20 Olympic marathon with Mamo Wolde and Gebru Merawi. Symbolically, he was issued bib number 1 for the race. A week before the race, Abebe developed pain in his left leg. Doctors discovered a fracture in his fibula, and he was advised to stay off his feet until the day of the race. Abebe had to drop out of the race after approximately and Mamo Wolde won in 2:20:26.4. This was Abebe's last marathon appearance. He was rewarded with a promotion to the rank of "shambel" (captain) upon his return to Ethiopia.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: On the night of March 22, 1969, Abebe lost control of his Volkswagen Beetle and it overturned, trapping him inside. According to biographer Tim Judah, he may have been drinking. Judah quotes Abebe's account of the accident from the biography by his daughter, Tsige Abebe, that he tried "to avoid a fast, oncoming car". Judah wrote that it was difficult to know for certain what happened. Abebe was freed from his car the following morning and brought to the Imperial Guard hospital. The accident left him a quadriplegic, paralysed from the neck down; he never walked again. On March 29 Abebe was transferred to Stoke Mandeville Hospital in England, where he spent eight months receiving treatment. He was visited by Queen Elizabeth II and received get-well cards from all over the world. Although Abebe could not move his head at first, his condition eventually improved to paraplegia, regaining the use of his arms.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: In 1970, Abebe began training for wheelchair-athlete archery competitions. In July, he competed in archery and table tennis at the Stoke Mandeville Wheelchair Games in London. The following April, Abebe participated in games for disabled people in Norway. Although he had been invited as a guest, he competed in archery and table tennis and defeated a field of sixteen in cross-country sled dog racing with a time of 1:16:17.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe was invited to the 1972 Summer Olympics in Munich as a special guest, and received a standing ovation during the opening ceremony. His countryman Mamo Wolde did not match his back-to-back Olympic marathon victories, finishing third behind Frank Shorter of the United States and Karel Lismont of Belgium. After Shorter received his gold medal, he shook Abebe's hand.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: On October 25, 1973, Abebe died in Addis Ababa at age 41 of a cerebral hemorrhage, a complication related to his accident four years earlier. He was buried with full military honours; his state funeral was attended by an estimated 65,000 people including Emperor Haile Selassie, who proclaimed a day of mourning for the country's national hero. Abebe is interred in a tomb with a bronze statue at Saint Joseph Church in Addis Ababa.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe began, and largely inspired, East African preeminence in long-distance running. According to Kenny Moore, a contemporary athlete and writer for "Sports Illustrated", he began "the great African distance running avalanche." Abebe brought to the forefront the now-accepted relationship between endurance and high-altitude training in all kinds of sports. Five years after his death, the New York Road Runners inaugurated the annual Abebe Bikila Award for contributions by an individual to long-distance running. East African recipients include Mamo Wolde, Juma Ikangaa, Tegla Loroupe, Paul Tergat, and Haile Gebrselassie.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: He is a national hero in Ethiopia, and a stadium in Addis Ababa is named in his honour. In late 1972, the American Community School of Addis Ababa dedicated its gymnasium (which included facilities for disabled people) to Abebe.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: On March 21, 2010, the Rome Marathon observed the 50th anniversary of his Olympic victory. The winner, Ethiopian runner Siraj Gena, ran the last of the race barefoot and received a €5,000 bonus. A plaque commemorating the anniversary is mounted on a wall on the Via di San Gregorio, and a footbridge in Ladispoli was named in Abebe's honour.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: According to Abebe's "New York Times" obituary, Abebe and Yewebdar had three sons, along with their daughter Tsige. In 2010, the Italian company Vibram introduced the "Bikila" model of its FiveFingers line of minimalist shoes. In February 2015, Abebe's surviving children Teferi, Tsige and Yetnayet Abebe Bikila, along with their mother, filed a lawsuit in United States federal court in Tacoma, Washington, claiming Vibram violated federal law and the state's Personality Rights Act. The case was dismissed in October 2016 on the grounds that the plaintiffs were aware of Vibram's use of the name in 2011, but did not file suit until four years later. According to judge Ronald Leighton, "this unreasonable delay prejudiced Vibram."


title: Abebe Bikila

text: It came to light in December 2019 that the family of Abebe received his Olympic ring that he lost at the Tokyo Olympic stadium's bathroom. Abebe left his winning ring in a bathroom after he won the Olympic medal. A woman who was working in the bathroom at that time took it home with her. The woman has since died, but her son said his mom later regretted taking the ring and was waiting for an opportunity to return it. He gave the ring to Yetnayet, son of the late Abebe when Yetnayet came to Kasama City in Japan in December 2019 as a guest of honour for the half marathon competition conducted in honour of his father.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe has been featured in several documentaries about his life and the Olympics in general. His victory at the 1964 Olympics was featured in the 1965 documentary, "Tokyo Olympiad" directed by Kon Ichikawa. Footage from that film was recycled in the 1976 thriller, "Marathon Man" directed by John Schlesinger and starring Dustin Hoffman. Abebe was the subject of Bud Greenspan's 1972 documentary, "The Ethiopians". The documentary was incorporated into "The Marathon", a 1976 episode of Greenspan's "The Olympiad" television documentary series. "The Marathon", which chronicles Abebe's two Olympic victories, ends with a dedication ceremony for a gymnasium named in Abebe's honour shortly before his death.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: In 1992, Yamada Kazuhiro published the first full biography about Abebe, written in Japanese and published in Tokyo; it was entitled "Do You Remember Abebe?" (). Since then, there have been at least three biographical works based on his life. Among these is "Triumph and Tragedy", written in English by his daughter Tsige Abebe and published in Addis Ababa in 1996. The other two, also written in English, are Paul Rambali's 2007 fictional biographical novel "Barefoot Runner" and Tim Judah's 2009 "Bikila: Ethiopia's Barefoot Olympian". According to the journalist Tim Lewis's comparative review of the two books, Judah's is a more journalistic, less-forgiving biography of Abebe. It refutes the mythical aspects of his life but recognises Abebe's athletic accomplishments. Judah's account of Abebe's life differs significantly from Rambali's, but confirms (and frequently cites) Tsige's biography. For example, Lewis cites the discrepancy in the circumstances surrounding Abebe's car accident:


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Abebe is also the subject of a 2009 feature film, "Atletu" ("The Athlete"), directed by Davey Frankel and Rasselas Lakew. The film starring Rasselas focuses on the final years of Abebe's life: his quest to regain the Olympic title, the accident and his struggle to compete again.


title: Abebe Bikila

text: Robin Williams referred to Abebe's barefoot running during his 2009 stand-up comedy tour, Weapons of Self-Destruction: "[Abebe] won the Rome Olympics running barefoot. He was then sponsored by Adidas. He ran the next Olympics; he carried the fucking shoes". Abebe did not carry his shoes but wore them; he was not sponsored by Adidas but was perhaps secretly sponsored by Puma.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The economy of Estonia is an advanced economy and the country is a member of the European Union and of the eurozone. Estonia's economy is heavily influenced by developments in the Finnish and Swedish economies.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: Before the Second World War, Estonia's economy was based on agriculture, but there was a significant knowledge sector, with the university city of Tartu known for scientific contributions, and a growing industrial sector, similar to that of neighbouring Finland. Products, such as butter, milk, and cheese were widely known in the west European markets. The main markets were Germany and the United Kingdom, and only 3% of all commerce was with the neighbouring USSR. Estonia and Finland had a relatively similar standard of living.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The USSR's occupation and annexation of Estonia in 1940 and the ensuing Nazi German and Stalinist Soviet destruction during World War II crippled the Estonian economy. The subsequent Soviet occupation and post-war Sovietization of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the USSR's centrally planned structure.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: After Estonia moved away from communism in the late 1980s, restored its independence in 1991 and became a market economy, it emerged as a pioneer in the global economy. In 1992, the country adopted the Estonian kroon as its own currency, and this greatly stabilised the economy. In 1994, it became one of the first countries in the world to adopt a flat tax, with a uniform rate of 26% regardless of personal income. Estonia received more foreign investment per capita in the second half of the 1990s than any other country in Central and Eastern Europe. Between 2005 and 2008, the personal income tax rate was reduced from 26% to 21% in several steps.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The country has been quickly catching up with the EU-15; its GDP per capita having grown from 34.8% of the EU-15 average in 1996 to 65% in 2007, similar to that of Central European countries. It is already rated a high-income country by the World Bank. The GDP (PPP) per capita of the country, a good indicator of wealth, was $35,974 in 2018 according to the World Bank, between that of Lithuania and Cyprus, but below that of most long-time EU members such as Spain or Italy. Because of its economic performance after regaining independence in 1991, Estonia has been termed one of the Baltic Tigers.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: In 2008, Estonia was ranked 12th of 162 countries in the Index of Economic Freedom 2008, the best of any post-Soviet states. The same year, the country was at the bottom of the list of European states by labour market freedom, but the government is drafting improvements.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: For Estonia, the financial crisis of 2007–2008 was comparatively easier to weather, because Estonia's budget has consistently been kept balanced, and this meant that Estonia's public debt relative to the country's GDP has remained the lowest in Europe. The economy recovered in 2010.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: On 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro, and became the first ex-Soviet republic to join the eurozone.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: Until the early 13th century, the territory that is now known as Estonia was independent. The economy was largely an agricultural one, but Estonia being a country with a long coastline, there were also many maritime activities. Autonomous development was brought to an end by the Northern Crusades undertaken by the King of Denmark, the German Livonian and the Teutonic military orders. The Estonian world was transformed by military conquest. The war against the invaders lasted from 1208 to 1227. The last Estonian county to fall was the island of Saaremaa in 1261.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: Thereafter, through many centuries until WWI, Estonian agriculture consisted of native peasants working large feudal-type estates held by ethnic German landlords. In the decades prior to independence, centralised Czarist rule had created a rather large industrial sector dominated by the Kreenholm Manufacturing Company, then the world's largest cotton mill.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: After declaring independence in 1918, the Estonian War of Independence and the subsequent signing of the Treaty of Tartu in 1920, the new Estonian state inherited a ruined post-war economy and an inflated ruble currency. Despite considerable hardship, dislocation, and unemployment, Estonia spent the first decade of independence entirely transforming its economy. In 1918, The Czarist ruble was replaced by the Estonian mark, which was in circulation until 1927. By 1929, a stable currency, the kroon, had been established. It was issued by the Bank of Estonia, the country's central bank. Compensating the German landowners for their holdings, the government confiscated the estates and divided them into small farms, which subsequently formed the basis of Estonian prosperity. Trade focused on the local market and the West, particularly Germany and the United Kingdom. Only 3% of all commerce was with the USSR.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The USSR's forcible annexation of Estonia in 1940 and the ensuing Nazi and Soviet destruction during World War II crippled the Estonian economy. Post-war Soviet occupation and Sovietisation of life continued with the integration of Estonia's economy and industry into the USSR's centrally planned structure. More than 56% of Estonian farms were collectivised in the month of April 1949 alone after mass deportations to Siberia the previous month. Moscow expanded on those Estonian industries which had locally available raw materials, such as oil shale mining and phosphorites.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: "Since reestablishing independence, Estonia has styled itself as the gateway between East and West and pursued economic reform and integration with the West." Estonia's market reforms put it among the economic leaders in the former COMECON area. A balanced budget, almost non-existent public debt, flat-rate income tax, free trade regime, fully convertible currency backed by currency board and a strong peg to the euro, competitive commercial banking sector, hospitable environment for foreign investment, innovative e-Services and mobile-based services are all hallmarks of Estonia's free-market-based economy.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: In June 1992, Estonia replaced the ruble with its own freely convertible currency, the kroon (EEK). A currency board was created and the new currency was pegged to the German Mark at the rate of 8 Estonian kroons for 1 Deutsche Mark. When Germany introduced the euro the peg was changed to 15.6466 kroons for 1 euro.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: Estonia was set to adopt the euro in 2008, but due to the inflation rate being above the required 3%, the adoption date was delayed to 2011. On 1 January 2011, Estonia adopted the euro and became the 17th eurozone member state.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The privatisation of state-owned firms is virtually complete, with only the port and the main power plants remaining in government hands.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The constitution requires a balanced budget, and the protection afforded by Estonia's intellectual property laws is on a par of that of Europe's.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: In early 1992, both liquidity problems and structural weakness stemming from the communist era precipitated a banking crisis. As a result, effective bankruptcy legislation was enacted and privately owned; well-managed banks emerged as market leaders. Today, near-ideal conditions for the banking sector exist. Foreigners are not restricted from buying bank shares or acquiring majority holdings.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The fully electronic Tallinn Stock Exchange opened in early 1996, and was purchased by Finland's Helsinki Stock Exchange in 2001.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: From the early 2000s to the latter part of that decade, the Estonian economy experienced considerable growth. In the year 2000, Estonian GDP grew by 6.4%.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: GDP grew by 7.9% in 2007 alone. Increases in labor costs, the imposition of tax on tobacco, alcohol, electricity, fuel, gas, and other external pressures (growing prices of oil and food on the global market) were expected to inflate price levels by 10% in the first months of 2009.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The financial crisis of 2007–2008 has had a deep effect on the Estonian economy, primarily as a result of an investment and consumption slump that followed the burst of the real estate market bubble that had been building up during the preceding years.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: After a long period of very high growth of GDP, the GDP of Estonia decreased. In the first quarter 2008, GDP grew only 0.1%, and then decreased: negative growth was −1.4% in the 2nd quarter, a little over −3% (on a year-to-year basis) in the 3rd quarter, and −9.4% in the 4th quarter of that year.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The government made a supplementary negative budget, which was passed by the Riigikogu. The revenue of the budget was decreased for 2008 by EEK 6.1 billion and the expenditure by EEK 3.2 billion. A current account-deficit was extant, but began to shrink in the last months of 2008, and had been expected to continue to do so in the near future.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: In 2009, the Estonian economy further contracted by 15.1% in the first quarter. Low domestic and foreign demand had depressed the economy's overall output. The Estonian economy's 33.7% industrial production drop was the sharpest decrease in industrial production in the entire European Union. That year, Estonia was one of the five worst-performing economies in the world in terms of annual GDP growth rate, and had one of the greatest rates of unemployment in the EU, which rose from 3.9% in May 2008 to 15.6% in May 2009.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: In December 2008, Estonia became one of the donor countries to the IMF lead rescue package for Latvia. In response to the crisis, the Ansip government opted for fiscal consolidation and retrenchment by maintaining fiscal discipline and a balanced budget in combination with austerity packages: The government increased taxes, and reduced public spending by slashing expenditures and public salaries across the board.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: In July 2009, the value-added tax was increased from 18% to 20%. The recorded budget deficit for 2009 was just 1.7% of GDP.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: The result was, that Estonia was one of only five EU countries in 2009 that had met the Maastricht criteria for debt and deficit, and had the third-lowest deficit after Luxembourg and Sweden. Neither did Estonia need to ask help from the IMF. Despite the third-largest drop in GDP, the country had the lowest budget deficit and the lowest public debt among Central and Eastern European countries.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: In 2009, the Estonian economy began to rebound, and economic growth resumed in the second half of 2010. The country's unemployment rate has since dropped significantly to pre-recession levels. To top it off, Estonia was granted permission in 2010 to join the eurozone in 2011.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: Before joining the eurozone, the Estonian kroon had been pegged to the euro at a rate of 15.64664 EEK to one euro; before then, the kroon was pegged to the German mark at approximately 8 EEK to 1 DEM.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: Plans to join the euro were in place well before 2011. The design of Estonian euro coins was finalized in late 2004.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: Estonia's journey towards the euro took longer than originally projected, owing to the inflation rate continually being above the required 3% before 2010, which prevented the country from fulfilling the entry criteria. The country originally planned to adopt the euro on 1 January 2007; however, it did not formally apply that year, and officially changed its target date twice: first to 1 January 2008, and later to 1 January 2011.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: On 12 May 2010, the European Commission announced that Estonia had met all criteria to join the eurozone. On 8 June 2010, EU finance ministers agreed that Estonia would be able to join the euro on 1 January 2011. On 13 July 2010, Estonia received the final approval from ECOFIN to adopt the euro onwards from 1 January 2011.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: On 9 August 2011, just days after Standard & Poor's raised Estonia's credit rating from A to AA-. Among the factors, S&P cited as contributing to its decision was confidence in Estonia's ability to "sustain strong economic growth." Estonia's GDP growth rate in 2011 was above 8%, despite having negative population growth.


title: Economy of Estonia

text: In the second quarter of 2013, the average monthly gross wage in Estonia was €976 (15,271 kroons, US$1,328). This figure has grown consistently to €1,310 (20,497 kroons, US$1,473) as of 2018 and to €1,586 (20,816 kroons, US$1,876) as of June 2021.