text: In the 1918 United Kingdom general election, the result in Ireland showed a landslide victory for the Irish republican party Sinn Féin, who vowed in their manifesto to establish an independent Irish Republic. Accordingly, Sinn Féin MPs, though ostensively elected to sit in the House of Commons, refused to take their seats in Westminster, and instead assembled in 1919 to proclaim Irish independence and form a revolutionary unicameral parliament for the independent Irish Republic, called Dáil Éireann, which in turn established its own government, called the Ministry of Dáil Éireann. At the same time, the Irish Volunteers, who came under the control of the Dáil and became known as the Irish Republican Army, fought against British state forces in the Irish War of Independence. By 1920, the IRA and the Irish Republican Police had a presence in 21 of Ireland's 32 counties, and British authority was only exercised in urban areas. Thus, David Lloyd George, who has been Prime Minister both at the formal proclamation of the Irish Republic in 1919 and at its effective takeover of Ireland in 1920, was the last prime minister to exercise effective authority in both Britain and the whole of Ireland.


title: History of the prime minister of the United Kingdom

text: The War of Independence ended with the Anglo-Irish Treaty of 6 December 1921, which was to be put into effect within one year. A Provisional Government was set up under the terms of the treaty, but the Irish Republic nominally remained in existence until 6 December 1922, when 26 of the island's 32 counties became a self-governing British dominion under the Irish Free State Constitution Act 1922, called the Irish Free State. Bonar Law, who had been in office as Prime Minister of Great Britain and Ireland for only six weeks, and who had just won the general election of November 1922, thus became the last prime minister whose nominal responsibilities covered both Britain and the whole of Ireland. Most of a parliamentary session beginning on 20 November was devoted to the Act, and Bonar Law pushed through the creation of the Free State in the face of opposition from the "die hards".


text: Despite the reluctance to legally recognise the premiership, ambivalence toward it waned in the 1780s. During the first 20 years of his reign, George III (1760–1820) tried to be his own "prime minister" by controlling policy from outside the Cabinet, appointing and dismissing ministers, meeting privately with individual ministers, and giving them instructions. These practices caused confusion and dissension in Cabinet meetings; King George's experiment in personal rule was generally a failure. After the failure of Lord North's ministry (1770–1782) in March 1782 due to Britain's defeat in the American Revolutionary War and the ensuing vote of no confidence by Parliament, the Marquess of Rockingham reasserted the prime minister's control over the Cabinet. Rockingham assumed the Premiership "on the distinct understanding that measures were to be changed as well as men; and that the measures for which the new ministry required the royal consent were the measures which they, while in opposition, had advocated." He and his Cabinet were united in their policies and would stand or fall together; they also refused to accept anyone in the Cabinet who did not agree. King George threatened to abdicate but in the end reluctantly agreed out of necessity: he had to have a government.


text: From this time, there was a growing acceptance of the position of prime minister and the title was more commonly used, if only unofficially. Associated initially with the Whigs, the Tories started to accept it. Lord North, for example, who had said the office was "unknown to the constitution", reversed himself in 1783 when he said, "In this country some one man or some body of men like a Cabinet should govern the whole and direct every measure." In 1803, William Pitt the Younger, also a Tory, suggested to a friend that "this person generally called the first minister" was an absolute necessity for a government to function, and expressed his belief that this person should be the minister in charge of the finances.


text: The Tories' wholesale conversion started when Pitt was confirmed as prime minister in the election of 1784. For the next 17 years until 1801 (and again from 1804 to 1806), Pitt, the Tory, was prime minister in the same sense that Walpole, the Whig, had been earlier.


text: Their conversion was reinforced after 1810. In that year, George III, who had suffered periodically from mental instability (possibly due to porphyria), became permanently insane and spent the remaining 10 years of his life unable to discharge his duties. The Prince Regent was prevented from using the full powers of kingship. The regent became George IV in 1820, but during his 10-year reign was indolent and frivolous. Consequently, for 20 years the throne was virtually vacant and Tory Cabinets led by Tory prime ministers filled the void, governing virtually on their own.


text: The Tories were in power for almost 45 years, except for a Whig ministry from 1806 to 1807. Lord Liverpool was prime minister for almost 15 years; together he and Pitt held the position for almost 33 years. Under their long, consistent leadership, Cabinet government became a convention of the constitution. Although subtle issues remained to be settled, the Cabinet system of government is essentially the same today as it was in 1830.


text: Under this form of government, called the Westminster system, the sovereign is head of state and titular head of His Majesty's Government. The sovereign selects as prime minister the person who is able to command a working majority in the House of Commons, and invites him or her to form a government. As the actual head of government, the prime minister selects the Cabinet, choosing its members from among those in Parliament who agree or generally agree with his or her intended policies. The prime minister then recommends the Cabinet to the sovereign who confirms the selection by formally appointing them to their offices. Led by the prime minister, the Cabinet is collectively responsible for whatever the government does. The Sovereign does not confer with members privately about policy, nor attend Cabinet meetings. With respect to "actual" governance, the monarch has only three constitutional rights: to be kept informed, to advise, and to warn. In practice this means that the sovereign reviews state papers and meets regularly with the prime minister, usually weekly, when he may advise and warn him or her regarding the proposed decisions and actions of His Government.


text: The modern British system includes not only a government formed by the majority party (or coalition of parties) in the House of Commons but also an organised and open opposition formed by those who are not members of the governing party. Called His Majesty's Most Loyal Opposition, they occupy the benches to the speaker's left. Seated in the front, directly across from the ministers on the Treasury Bench, the leaders of the opposition form a "shadow government", complete with a salaried "shadow prime minister", the leader of the Opposition, ready to assume office if the government falls or loses the next election.


text: Opposing the king's government was considered disloyal, even treasonous, at the end of the 17th century. During the 18th century this idea waned and finally disappeared as the two party system developed. The expression "His Majesty's Opposition" was coined by John Hobhouse, 1st Baron Broughton. In 1826, Broughton, a Whig, announced in the Commons that he opposed the report of a Bill. As a joke, he said, "It was said to be very hard on His Majesty's ministers to raise objections to this proposition. For my part, I think it is much more hard on His Majesty's Opposition to compel them to take this course." The phrase caught on and has been used ever since. Sometimes rendered as the "Loyal Opposition", it acknowledges the legitimate existence of several political parties, and describes an important constitutional concept: opposing the government is not treason; reasonable men can honestly oppose its policies and still be loyal to the Sovereign and the nation.


text: Informally recognized for over a century as a convention of the constitution, the position of leader of the Opposition was given statutory recognition in 1937 by the Ministers of the Crown Act.


text: British prime ministers have never been elected directly by the public. A prime minister need not be a party leader; David Lloyd George was not a party leader during his tenure during World War I, and neither was Ramsay MacDonald from 1931 to 1935. Prime ministers have taken office because they were members of either the Commons or Lords, and either inherited a majority in the Commons or won more seats than the opposition in a general election.


text: Since 1722, most prime ministers have been members of the Commons; since 1902, all have had a seat there. Like other members, they are elected initially to represent only a constituency. Former prime minister Tony Blair, for example, represented Sedgefield in County Durham from 1983 to 2007. He became prime minister because in 1994 he was elected Labour Party leader and then led the party to victory in the 1997 general election, winning 418 seats compared to 165 for the Conservatives and gaining a majority in the House of Commons.


text: Neither the sovereign nor the House of Lords had any meaningful influence over who was elected to the Commons in 1997 or in deciding whether or not Blair would become prime minister. Their detachment from the electoral process and the selection of the prime minister has been a convention of the constitution for almost 200 years.


text: Prior to the 19th century, however, they had significant influence, using to their advantage the fact that most citizens were disenfranchised and seats in the Commons were allocated disproportionately. Through patronage, corruption and bribery, the Crown and Lords "owned" about 30% of the seats (called "pocket" or "rotten boroughs") giving them a significant influence in the Commons and in the selection of the prime minister.


text: In 1830, Charles Grey, 2nd Earl Grey a life-long Whig, became prime minister and was determined to reform the electoral system. For two years, he and his Cabinet fought to pass what has come to be known as the Great Reform Bill of 1832. The greatness of the Great Reform Bill lay less in substance than in symbolism. As John Bright, a liberal statesman of the next generation, said, "It was not a good Bill, but it was a great Bill when it passed." Substantively, it increased the franchise by 65% to 717,000; with the middle class receiving most of the new votes. The representation of 56 rotten boroughs was eliminated completely, together with half the representation of 30 others; the freed up seats were distributed to boroughs created for previously disenfranchised areas. However, many rotten boroughs remained and it still excluded millions of working-class men and all women.


text: Symbolically, however, the Reform Act exceeded expectations. It is now ranked with Magna Carta and the Bill of Rights as one of the most important documents of the British constitutional tradition.


text: First, the Act removed the sovereign from the election process and the choice of prime minister. Slowly evolving for 100 years, this convention was confirmed two years after the passage of the Act. In 1834, King William IV dismissed Melbourne as premier, but was forced to recall him when Robert Peel, the king's choice, could not form a working majority. Since then, no sovereign has tried to impose a prime minister on Parliament.


text: Second, the Bill reduced the Lords' power by eliminating many of their pocket boroughs and creating new boroughs in which they had no influence. Weakened, they were unable to prevent the passage of more comprehensive electoral reforms in 1867, 1884, 1918 and 1928 when universal equal suffrage was established.


text: Ultimately, this erosion of power led to the Parliament Act 1911, which marginalised the Lords' role in the legislative process and gave further weight to the convention that had developed over the previous century that a prime minister cannot sit in the House of Lords. The last to do so was Robert Gascoyne-Cecil, 3rd Marquess of Salisbury, from 1895 to 1902. Throughout the 19th century, governments led from the Lords had often suffered difficulties governing alongside ministers who sat in the Commons.


text: Grey set an example and a precedent for his successors. He was "primus inter pares" (first among equals), as Bagehot said in 1867 of the prime minister's status. Using his Whig victory as a mandate for reform, Grey was unrelenting in the pursuit of this goal, using every parliamentary device to achieve it. Although respectful toward the king, he made it clear that his constitutional duty was to acquiesce to the will of the people and Parliament.


text: The Loyal Opposition acquiesced too. Some disgruntled Tories claimed they would repeal the bill once they regained a majority. But in 1834, Robert Peel, the new Conservative leader, put an end to this threat when he stated in his Tamworth Manifesto that the bill was "a final and irrevocable settlement of a great constitutional question which no friend to the peace and welfare of this country would attempt to disturb".


text: The premiership was a reclusive office prior to 1832. The incumbent worked with his Cabinet and other government officials; he occasionally met with the sovereign and attended Parliament when it was in session during the spring and summer. He never went out on the stump to campaign, even during elections; he rarely spoke directly to ordinary voters about policies and issues.


text: After the passage of the Great Reform Bill, the nature of the position changed: prime ministers had to go out among the people. The Bill increased the electorate to 717,000. Subsequent legislation (and population growth) raised it to 2 million in 1867, 5.5 million in 1884 and 21.4 million in 1918. As the franchise increased, power shifted to the people, and prime ministers assumed more responsibilities with respect to party leadership. It naturally fell on them to motivate and organise their followers, explain party policies, and deliver its "message". Successful leaders had to have a new set of skills: to give a good speech, present a favourable image, and interact with a crowd. They became the "voice", the "face" and the "image" of the party and ministry.


text: Robert Peel, often called the "model prime minister", was the first to recognise this new role. After the successful Conservative campaign of 1841, J. W. Croker said in a letter to Peel, "The elections are wonderful, and the curiosity is that all turns on the name of Sir Robert Peel. It's the first time that I remember in our history that the people have chosen the first Minister for the Sovereign. Mr. Pitt's case in '84 is the nearest analogy; but then the people only confirmed the Sovereign's choice; here every Conservative candidate professed himself in plain words to be Sir Robert Peel's man, and on that ground was elected."


text: Benjamin Disraeli and William Ewart Gladstone developed this new role further by projecting "images" of themselves to the public. Known by their nicknames "Dizzy" and the "Grand Old Man", their colourful, sometimes bitter, personal and political rivalry over the issues of their time – Imperialism vs. Anti-Imperialism, expansion of the franchise, labour reform, and Irish Home Rule – spanned almost twenty years until Disraeli's death in 1881. Documented by the penny press, photographs and political cartoons, their rivalry linked specific personalities with the premiership in the public mind and further enhanced its status.


text: Each created a different public image of himself and his party. Disraeli, who expanded the Empire to protect British interests abroad, cultivated the image of himself (and the Conservative Party) as "Imperialist", making grand gestures such as conferring the title "Empress of India" on Queen Victoria in 1876. Gladstone, who saw little value in the Empire, proposed an anti-Imperialist policy (later called "Little England"), and cultivated the image of himself (and the Liberal Party) as "man of the people" by circulating pictures of himself cutting down great oak trees with an axe as a hobby.


text: Gladstone went beyond image by appealing directly to the people. In his Midlothian campaign – so called because he stood as a candidate for that county – Gladstone spoke in fields, halls and railway stations to hundreds, sometimes thousands, of students, farmers, labourers and middle class workers. Although not the first leader to speak directly to voters – both he and Disraeli had spoken directly to party loyalists before on special occasions – he was the first to canvass an entire constituency, delivering his message to anyone who would listen, encouraging his supporters and trying to convert his opponents. Publicised nationwide, Gladstone's message became that of the party. Noting its significance, Lord Shaftesbury said, "It is a new thing and a very serious thing to see the Prime Minister on the stump."


text: Campaigning directly to the people became commonplace. Several 20th-century prime ministers, such as David Lloyd George and Winston Churchill, were famous for their oratorical skills. After the introduction of radio, motion pictures, television, and the internet, many used these technologies to project their public image and address the nation. Stanley Baldwin, a master of the radio broadcast in the 1920s and 1930s, reached a national audience in his talks filled with homely advice and simple expressions of national pride. Churchill also used the radio to great effect, inspiring, reassuring and informing the people with his speeches during the Second World War. Two recent prime ministers, Margaret Thatcher and Tony Blair (who both spent a decade or more as prime minister), achieved celebrity status like rock stars, but have been criticised for their more 'presidential' style of leadership. According to Anthony King, "The props in Blair's theatre of celebrity included ... his guitar, his casual clothes ... footballs bounced skilfully off the top of his head ... carefully choreographed speeches and performances at Labour Party conferences."


text: In addition to being the leader of a political party and the head of His Majesty's Government, the modern prime minister directs the law-making process, enacting into law his or her party's programme. For example, Tony Blair, whose Labour party was elected in 1997 partly on a promise to enact a British Bill of Rights and to create devolved governments for Scotland and Wales, subsequently stewarded through Parliament the Human Rights Act (1998), the Scotland Act (1998) and the Government of Wales Act (1998).


text: From its appearance in the fourteenth century Parliament has been a bicameral legislature consisting of the Commons and the Lords. Members of the Commons are elected; those in the Lords are not. Most Lords are called "Temporal" with titles such as duke, marquess, earl, and viscount. The balance are Lords Spiritual (prelates of the Anglican Church).


text: For most of the history of the Upper House, Lords Temporal were landowners who held their estates, titles, and seats as a hereditary right passed down from one generation to the next – in some cases for centuries. In 1910, for example, there were nineteen whose title was created before 1500.


text: Until 1911, prime ministers had to guide legislation through the Commons and the Lords and obtain majority approval in both houses for it to become law. This was not always easy, because political differences often separated the chambers. Representing the landed aristocracy, lords temporal were generally Tory (later Conservative) who wanted to maintain the status quo and resisted progressive measures such as extending the franchise. The party affiliation of members of the Commons was less predictable. During the 18th century its makeup varied because the Lords had considerable control over elections: sometimes Whigs dominated it, sometimes Tories. After the passage of the Great Reform Bill in 1832, the Commons gradually became more progressive, a tendency that increased with the passage of each subsequent expansion of the franchise.


text: In 1906, the Liberal Party, led by Sir Henry Campbell-Bannerman, won an overwhelming victory on a platform that promised social reforms for the working class. With 379 seats compared to the Conservatives' 132, the Liberals could confidently expect to pass their legislative programme through the Commons. At the same time, however, the Conservative Party had a huge majority in the Lords; it could easily veto any legislation passed by the Commons that was against their interests.


text: For five years, the Commons and the Lords fought over one bill after another. The Liberals pushed through parts of their programme, but the Conservatives vetoed or modified others. When the Lords vetoed the "People's Budget" in 1909, the controversy moved almost inevitably toward a constitutional crisis.


text: In 1910, Prime Minister H. H. Asquith introduced a bill "for regulating the relations between the Houses of Parliament" which would eliminate the Lords' veto power over legislation. Passed by the Commons, the Lords rejected it. In a general election fought on this issue, the Liberals were weakened but still had a comfortable majority. At Asquith's request, King George V then threatened to create a sufficient number of new Liberal peers to ensure the bill's passage. Rather than accept a permanent Liberal majority, the Conservative lords yielded, and the bill became law.


text: The Parliament Act 1911 established the supremacy of the Commons. It provided that the Lords could not delay for more than one month any bill certified by the speaker of the Commons as a money bill. Furthermore, the Act provided that any bill rejected by the Lords would nevertheless become law if passed by the Commons in three successive sessions provided that two years had elapsed since its original passage. The Lords could still delay or suspend the enactment of legislation but could no longer veto it. The Lords' "suspending" power was reduced to one year by the Parliament Act 1949.


text: Indirectly, the Act enhanced the already dominant position of prime minister in the constitutional hierarchy. Although the Lords are still involved in the legislative process and the prime minister must still guide legislation through both Houses, the Lords no longer have the power to veto or even delay enactment of legislation passed by the Commons. Prime ministers are assured of passing their legislative agenda, assuming the prime minister maintains control of the Cabinet, maintains party discipline, and commands a majority in the Commons.


title: Franco Armani

text: Franco Armani (; born 16 October 1986) is an Argentine professional footballer who plays as a goalkeeper for Argentine Primera División club River Plate and the Argentina national team.


title: Franco Armani

text: Franco Armani left Deportivo Merlo in 2010 for Medellin's Atletico Nacional. He stayed for 8 seasons and became their first choice goalkeeper. He was described as a hero to the Nacional fans, particularly being praised as an effective and reliable shot-stopper. Armani would go on to win thirteen trophies, including the Copa Libertadores – South America's Champions League – against Independiente del Valle in 2016.


title: Franco Armani

text: In January 2018, River Plate paid Armani's buyout clause to Nacional, a reported $3 million. On 11 January 2018, he signed a three-year contract with Los Millonarios, which was renewed for an additional year in May 2018.


title: Franco Armani

text: On 14 March 2018, he was named man of the match in River's 2–0 triumph over arch rivals Boca Juniors for the 2017 Supercopa Argentina. The man of the match award was sponsored by the fast food company Burger King and he was literally 'crowned' on the pitch after the game.


title: Franco Armani

text: Armani married a Colombian and applied for citizenship. Colombia were reportedly interested in naturalising Armani so that he could play for their national team; however, he wished to return to Argentina to press his case for a World Cup berth with the nation of his birth.


title: Franco Armani

text: In June 2018, Armani was named in Argentina's 23-man squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia by manager Jorge Sampaoli. On 26 June, he made his international debut starting in place of Willy Caballero for Argentina's final group match against Nigeria; Argentina advanced to the second round as group runners-up following a 2–1 victory. On 30 June, Armani started in the Round of 16 match against France, which saw Argentina eliminated from the tournament following a 4–3 defeat.


title: Franco Armani

text: He was named in Argentina's final 23-man squad for the 2019 Copa América by manager Lionel Scaloni. He played every minute of the tournament as Argentina claimed the bronze medal by finishing third after defeating Chile 2–1 in the third place play-off match.


title: Franco Armani

text: He was named in Argentina's 28-man squad for the 2021 Copa América. He made his only appearance in Argentina's final group match, where they defeated Bolivia 4–1 to progress to the next round. He remained understudy to Emiliano Martínez in the remaining matches as Argentina won the tournament by defeating Brazil 1–0 in the final.


title: Franco Armani

text: On 1 June 2022, Armani remained as an unused substitute as Argentina won 3–0 against reigning European Champions Italy at Wembley Stadium in the 2022 Finalissima.


title: Franco Armani

text: He was named in Argentina's final 26-man squad for the 2022 FIFA World Cup in Qatar by Scaloni. He did not play a single minute in the tournament, with Emiliano Martinez as first-choice, as Argentina won the World Cup by defeating France 4–2 in a penalty shoot-out to win the final.


title: Infiniti M

text: The Infiniti M is a line of mid-size luxury (executive) cars from the Infiniti luxury division of Nissan. From 2013 (model year 2014) on it has been marketed as the Infiniti Q70, reflecting the company's new naming scheme.


title: Infiniti M

text: The first iteration was the M30 Coupé/Convertible, which were rebadged JDM Nissan Leopard. After a long hiatus, the M nameplate was used for Infiniti's mid-luxury sedans (executive cars). First was the short-lived M45 sedan, a rebadged version of the Japanese-spec Nissan Gloria. The next generations, the M35/45 and M37/56/35h/30d, became the flagship of the Infiniti brand and are based on the JDM Nissan Fuga.


title: Infiniti M

text: The Infiniti M30 was a 2-door coupé based on the Japanese market Nissan Leopard (chassis code F31). It was launched alongside the flagship Q45 in 1989 for the 1990 model year, and was intended as a stopgap until the later introduction of the G20 and J30 sedans. The M30 was a Japanese car designed for the Japanese market; when it came to America, there was very little change and interior room, style, and ergonomics remained rather outdated. The M30 used a left-hand drive version of the angular dashboard from the R31 generation Nissan Skyline, rather than the rounded "Kouki" dashboard seen in the 1989-1992 Leopard.


title: Infiniti M

text: The Infiniti M30 was powered by a 3.0 liter SOHC V6, and 4-speed automatic transmission. Standard equipment included a driver's airbag, anti-lock brakes, an anti-theft security system with an engine immobilizer, Nissan Sonar Suspension II, and leather upholstery. Other standard equipment included a 4 speaker Nissan-Bose audio system with a cassette player and an electric mast antenna, automatic climate control, cruise control, a power moonroof, power windows, power locks, and power mirrors. Infiniti emphasized comfort and luxury, as well as simplicity. Although dealerships offered an in-car cellular telephone and in-dash CD player as accessories, the M30 had no factory options.


title: Infiniti M

text: A convertible was introduced for the 1991 model year. All convertibles originated as coupe models, and were shipped to California and converted by American Sunroof Corporation (ASC). The electric canvas top featured fully automatic push-button operation. Unlike the coupe, the M30 convertibles utilized manual climate controls, and a standard Active Sound audio system. The convertible model was never officially sold in Japan, and was exclusive to the US market, although convertibles have been imported to Japan in the last few years by collectors.


title: Infiniti M

text: The M30 was discontinued after the 1992 model year following a production run of approximately 17,000 cars. It was replaced in the Infiniti lineup by the J30 sedan, which used a DOHC V6, and was based on the Japanese market Nissan Leopard J. Ferie (chassis code Y32).


title: Infiniti M

text: For the 1991 model year, the cable-type speedometer became electric, instrument cluster typeface changed to match that of the Q45, and fuel and coolant temperature gauges were switched. The driver's and passenger's side door keyhole and interior dome light would illuminate upon pulling the outer door handle while the vehicle was locked. Selective door lock logic allowed unlocking of the passenger door from the driver's keyhole by turning the key twice.


title: Infiniti M

text: All 1992 models gained the addition of a central locking switch next to the Sonar Suspension II selector, and the intake plenum cover changed to display the Infiniti logo, rather than the Nissan logo and the "V6 3000" script on 1990 and 1991 cars.


title: Infiniti M

text: Power came from Nissan's 3.0 VG30E V6, which produced at 6000 rpm, and of torque at 3500 rpm. All M30s were equipped with a Jatco RE4R01A 4-speed automatic transmission. The differential was a Nissan open R200 unit. Although most Nissan Leopards were equipped with a DOHC V6, offered in 2.0 liter, 3.0 liter, naturally aspirated, and turbocharged forms, the M30 was only offered with the SOHC VG30E. Although it was a smooth powertrain, which Infiniti touted in its brochures for the M30, the coupe and convertible were generally received as overweight and underpowered. Infiniti marketed the car as a luxury sports coupe, and its relatively low power output, combined with the absence of a manual transmission, hampered its performance and sporting image.


title: Infiniti M

text: Like the Nissan Maxima, the M30 was equipped with Nissan's Sonar Suspension II. Using a sonar sensor mounted underneath the front bumper that scanned the road surface ahead of the vehicle, it would instantly change damping based on varying road surfaces, using individual actuators on each shock absorber. A center console-mounted switch allowed drivers to choose between Comfort (soft) and Sport (firm) suspension modes.


title: Infiniti M

text: Infiniti M45 was designed in 2000 at the Nissan Technical Center (NTC) in Atsugi, Japan; was manufactured in Tochigi, Japan; and is based on eleventh generation, Y34-series Nissan Gloria. In contrast to the Japanese models, which were available only with 6-cylinder engines, the M45 was powered by Nissan's VK45DE V8, producing and of torque, which it shared with the Infiniti's flagship Q45.


title: Infiniti M

text: In addition to the difference in powertrain with the Y34 Cedric/Gloria, the Y34 M45 uses a different instrument panel design, similar to the F50 Q45 as well as a different rear multi-link suspension design. The Y34 Cedric/Gloria's rear multi-link suspension design is similar to Z32 300ZX, and S14/S15 Silvia/200SX/240SX where the rear spring is mounted on the strut. The rear suspension design on the Y34 M45 is much like the rear suspension design on the Z33 350Z, where the spring is mounted independent of the shock/strut, and sits directly on the lower arm, in a spring cup.


title: Infiniti M

text: The front suspension design carries over from the Y33 Q45, with a one-piece strut/upright. In place of the stamped steel front lower arm, the Y34 M45 has a cast aluminum lower A-arm.


title: Infiniti M

text: The M45 broadened Nissan's use of the 4.5L V8 that had been exclusive to the Q45, allowing the company to better amortize the engine's development cost.


title: Infiniti M

text: Infiniti released a redesigned M for the 2006 model year, released in February 2005, and marketed in Japan as the Nissan Fuga. All-wheel-drive models, marketed as the M35x and M45x, use a system (ATTESA-ETS) to send all power to the rear wheels until slip is detected. As the Q45 was no longer exported from Japan after model year 2006, the M45 became Infiniti's flagship.


title: Infiniti M

text: The M used a more rigid version of the Nissan FM platform shared with the G35/350Z/FX — and was available with the VQ-series 3.5 L V6 in the M35, or the Q45's 4.5 L V8 in the M45.


title: Infiniti M

text: While shorter than the last Q45 at , the M offered greater interior space, performance, a rear multilink suspension and front double wishbone, and improved ergonomics as well as a longer wheelbase.


title: Infiniti M

text: The automotive press the Y50 Infiniti M several praised the M35 and M45's driving involvement and handling dynamics vs the GS and E-Class while having superior ergonomics to the 5 Series; furthermore the M was equipped and priced competitively against its German rivals, while the M35 also received strong reviews. Despite entering a very crowded, competitive segment in which almost every member has been recently redesigned, the M managed to claim several key distinctions. The M is near or at the top of its class of every interior dimension, actually breaking into the United States Environmental Protection Agency "large" category depending on which option packages are selected.


title: Infiniti M

text: The Infiniti M did not gain a significant share in the mid-luxury market. The Infiniti G37 sedan and coupe, competing in the entry-level luxury sport category, accounted for half of the marque's sales as of 2009. Out of that year's 81000 Infiniti cars sold, only 10000 were of the M nameplate. Furthermore, the 2009 update left M35 and M45 in awkward positions of the Infiniti lineup, as though they were the flagships of the marque, they were out-powered by the VQ37VHR engines fitted in the 2009 G37 coupe and sedan. For that model year while the G Series received 7-speed automatic transmissions across the lineup, only the M35 RWD was upgraded to a 7-speed automatic while the rest of the nameplate retained the aging 5-speed automatic.


title: Infiniti M

text: For the 2008 model year, the Infiniti M received a facelift, receiving optional all wheel drive (M45x), revised front and rear fascias, revised tail lights, and redesigned blue-highlted gauges, previously orange. Infiniti also offered an S type version for the M45/M45x similar to the previous Sport model. Other new features on the 2008 model include touch screen hard drive based navigation, iPod integration, and a music hard drive.


title: Infiniti M

text: For 2009, the M35 received a new V6 engine producing and of torque and a 7-speed automatic transmission. The 2009 M35x, M45, and M45x retained the five-speed automatic.


title: Infiniti M

text: The Y51, designed by Hideo Komuro during 2006 and 2008 under the supervision of Shiro Nakamura, took on a more fluid look, recalling the coke bottle styling of a 1960s and 1970s.


title: Infiniti M

text: The 2011 Infiniti M debuted at the 59th Annual Pebble Beach Concours d'Elegance, and at a media event in Beverly Hills, California in December 2009, to coincide with the LA Auto Show in Los Angeles. The production version went on sale globally starting in the spring of 2010, as a 2011 model — and in the US on March 1, 2010. It was launched in Europe at the 2010 Geneva Motor Show.


title: Infiniti M

text: A driving mode selector was included on all models, situated below the transmission gear lever and between the heated and ventilated front seat controls, providing four selections labeled "Standard", "Sport", "Eco", and "Snow", allowing the 7-speed transmission, engine and various systems to optimize driving in varying conditions. To minimize intrusion of exhaust noise in the passenger compartment, the M included a noise cancelling system marketed as "Active Noise Control". Double-piston shock absorbers, developed by Kayaba Industry Company, have replaced those previously supplied by Hitachi.


title: Infiniti M

text: The 5.6L V8 VK56VD in the Infiniti M56 was competitive with other V8 mid-luxury (executive) cars such as the BMW 550i and Mercedes-Benz E550. The 5.6L V8 is not shared with its Japanese domestic market counterpart, the Nissan Fuga, as Nissan opted instead to have the hybrid version as the performance option. The extended length version of the Fuga, known as the Cima, is offered as the Infiniti Q70L beginning from model year 2015.


title: Infiniti M

text: Safety technology included Lane Departure Prevention, which uses a small camera mounted above the rearview mirror to gauge distance from the lane markers, and would lightly deploy selected brakes to help ease the car into the correct lane. It allowed for unimpeded lane changes when the turn signal is used and yields control to the driver at all times. Blind Spot Intervention System used sensors to provide a visual warning in the side view mirror. If the car sensed movement toward an obstacle, it provided an audible warning and applied opposite side brakes to guide the vehicle to the correct lane.


title: Infiniti M

text: The third generation Infiniti M models were given a "Top Safety Pick" by the Insurance Institute for Highway Safety (IIHS) by earning a "Good" score for all four IIHS crash tests while also featuring standard stability control to help avoid accidents altogether.


title: Infiniti M

text: The Infiniti M Hybrid, to be sold as the Nissan Fuga Hybrid in Japan where it is the top performance trim there, will introduce Nissan's first in-house developed electric hybrid technology, and the carmaker claims it will double the fuel economy of its gasoline-powered version. Nissan also announced that the Nissan Infiniti/Fuga Hybrid, together with the Nissan Leaf, will include its new Vehicle Sound for Pedestrians system to alert pedestrians, the blind and others to their presence when the hybrid is operating at low speeds in all-electric mode.


title: Infiniti M

text: The hybrid includes one electric motor and two clutches to allow the 3.5L V6 ( and ) gas engine and electric motor to drive the rear wheels simultaneously. The lithium-ion battery pack will come from the Infiniti Essence. The VQ35HR 3.5 L V6 Hybrid utilizes the Atkinson cycle. The electric motor, installed in parallel between the engine and the transmission, produces from 1.3kWh lithium-ion batteries that are expected to have a service life of 10 years. The batteries are installed upright behind the rear seats. The main sacrifices are that the luggage compartment space is reduced, the hybrid's rear seats are fixed in place and cannot fold down, and all-wheel drive is not available. One benefit of the battery placement though, is that it leaves the hybrid with a 51/49 front to rear weight distribution.


title: Infiniti M

text: The combined power output of the M35H's hybrid power-train is at 6500 rpm, and an estimated of torque at 2000 rpm.


title: Infiniti M

text: Reviewers have considered the 2012 Infiniti M35h, along with the 2011 Porsche Panamera S Hybrid which also debuted in the same calendar year, as among the best executed hybrid performance luxury cars. The M35h and Panamera S Hybrid are the first hybrid gasoline-electric vehicles with an automatic transmission to return frugal fuel economy figures "and" retain the acceleration/handling characteristics of its gasoline-only counterparts. Earlier hybrids such as the Lexus 2007 GS 450h used a CVT for fuel economy at the cost of driving dynamics, while the 2010 BMW ActiveHybrid 7 which has an automatic transmission did not feature significantly improved mileage over its gasoline counterpart. The M35h's fuel economy is superior to the M37, and it is almost as fast as the M56 while providing a more balanced, near 50/50, front/rear weight distribution.


title: Infiniti M

text: On August 23, 2011, the Infiniti M35h set an official Guinness world record for the world's fastest accelerating production full hybrid. The feat took place at the United Kingdom's Santa Pod Raceway, where CAR magazine journalist Tim Pollard drove the vehicle down the quarter-mile dragstrip in 13.896 seconds. The M35h averaged 13.9031 seconds for all runs, reaching speeds over . Guinness adjudicators were present to witness the run and certify the record. The official claimed 0– time for the Infiniti M35h is 5.5 seconds.


title: Infiniti M

text: In 2010, at the Geneva Motor Show, the Infiniti M was introduced with a diesel engine for the first time. It will be sold across Europe starting in September 2010. The V9X diesel engine produces and of torque at 2,500 rpm. In western Europe, this V6 performance diesel will be offered as a high performance option in lieu of the M56 V8. The M30d will not be sold in the US or Canada.


title: Infiniti M

text: In 2019, Nissan confirmed that the Infiniti Q70, Q70L, Q30, and QX30 models will be discontinued after the 2019 model year due to poor sales as buyers in the United States, Canada, and Mexico preferred crossovers and SUVs instead of sedans, hatchbacks, wagons, convertibles, and coupes. Another reason for the discontinuation was Nissan's plans to withdraw the Infiniti brand from the Australian, New Zealand, South Korean, Hong Kong, Macau, Vietnamese, Indonesian, Malaysian, and West European markets by the end of 2020, with Nissan already withdrawing the Infiniti brand from the South African market in 2017 due to losses and poor sales. Nissan has no plans of abandoning sedans entirely and plans on possibly introducing an Infiniti EV vehicle in 2021 for the 2022 model year based from QS Inspiration concept.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: Lake Maracaibo (Spanish: Lago de Maracaibo; Anu: Coquivacoa) is a lagoon in northwestern Venezuela, the largest lake in South America and one of the oldest on Earth, formed 36 million years ago in the Andes Mountains. The fault in the northern section has collapsed and is rich in oil and gas resources. It is Venezuela's main oil producing area and an important fishing and agricultural producing area. It is inhabited by a quarter of the country's population and is also the place with the most frequent lightning on earth. The famous Catatumbo lightning can illuminate nighttime navigation, and eutrophication caused by oil pollution is a major environmental problem facing the lake.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: Lake Maracaibo is located in the Maracaibo lowland in the faulted basin between the Perija Mountains and the Merida Mountains of the Eastern Cordillera Mountains in northwestern Venezuela. The lake is in the shape of a vase. It is 210 kilometers long from north to south, 121 kilometers wide from east to west, covers an area of 13,512 square kilometers, the deepest is 35 meters, the shore length is about 1000 kilometers, and the volume is about 280 cubic kilometers. The largest river entering the lake, the Catatumbo River, enters the lake from west to east, providing 57% of the water entering the lake. In addition to the influence of the prevailing wind, the lake water circulates counterclockwise. There are also the Santa Ana River, Chama River, Motatán River, Escalante River, and about fifty other rivers which drain into it.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: Lake Maracaibo is deep in the south and shallow in the north. The northern half of the lake, which looks like a bottleneck, is 55 kilometers long. The southeastern edge of the lake basin with a flat bottom is steep and the northwestern edge is gentle. It is slightly salty due to the influence of tides, and the overall salinity is between 1.5 and 3.8%. The Catatumbo River forms a bird-foot-shaped delta in the southwest of the lake basin, and the surface lake water in the delta has a salinity of only 0.13%. However, the intrusion of seawater from the mouth of the lake makes the salinity of the bottom lake water higher, reaching 0.2-0.3%. The north is connected with the Gulf of Venezuela, and the spit at the mouth of the lake extends for about 26 kilometers.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: The annual average temperature of the lake area is 28°C, the precipitation is more in the south and less in the north, and the average annual rainfall in the south is 1400 mm. The mountain wind from the Andes at night contacts the warm and humid air on the lake surface, forming an average of 297 mm per year. The second night thunderstorm makes the lake area the place with the most frequent lightning on earth. There are about 233 lightning strikes per square kilometer in a year on average. The nocturnal thunderstorms occur on average about 297 days per year. At its peak in September, the lake area can experience up to 280 lightning strikes per hour, approximately 28 lightning strikes per minute, lasting up to 9 hours, and is capable of illuminating nighttime navigation.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: Lake Maracaibo is one of the oldest lakes on earth. It was formed 36 million years ago when the faults collapsed when the Andes were uplifted in the late Eocene. In the geological history, sea water and fresh water have alternated many times, and have flooded the area. At the end of the last glacial period, the sea level rose, connecting Lake Maracaibo directly with the Atlantic Ocean, and the lighter fresh water floated on the heavier salt water, causing nutrients to be deposited on the bottom of the lake, forming the formation on the bedrock. More than five kilometers thick sediment.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: The Spanish explorer Alonso de Ojeda's fleet sailed here on August 24, 1499, the first time Europeans entered this area. Spain made two attempts to establish settlements around the lake in 1529 and 1569, but it was not until 1574 that the city of Maracaibo was successfully established. On June 24, 1823, Venezuela won the famous Battle of Lake Maracaibo on the lake during the Venezuelan War of Independence.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: The original depth of the lake mouth, which was only more than 4 meters deep, was increased to 8 meters after dredging in the 1930s, and the 3-kilometer-long stone breakwater was further increased to 11 meters after its completion in 1957, allowing ocean-going tankers to enter the lake, At the same time, the northern part, which was originally fresh water, became brackish. The 8,678-meter General Rafael Udaneta Bridge over the lake connecting Maracaibo and Santa Rita was completed in 1962.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: Lake Maracaibo is rich in oil and gas resources and is known as the "oil lake". The first Spaniards who arrived used tar seeping from the lake to fill ship cracks. The Maracaibo oil field was discovered in 1914, the first oil well was constructed in 1917, and large-scale exploitation began in 1922. The oil fields are concentrated in the northeast and northwest of the lake, and the oil-producing layers are mainly Tertiary sandstone and Cretaceous limestone, with a hydrocarbon-bearing area of 1,300 square kilometers, mainly concentrated in the coastal waters 105 kilometers long and 32 kilometers wide in the east of the lake, the extracted oil accounts for 75% of Venezuela's total oil production.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: Maracaibo on the northwest coast is the capital of Zulia State, the second largest city in Venezuela and an important oil export port in the world. The lake area is also an important fishing and agricultural production area in Venezuela, supporting more than 20,000 fishermen, many of whom live in colorful traditional stilt houses built with iron sheets on the lake. The main crops on the south bank of the lake are bananas, Peanuts, cocoa, coconut, sugar cane and coffee, the western shore of the lake developed dairy industry.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: Lake Maracaibo and the Catatumbo River are the main traffic lines for the transportation of commodities in the nearby area, and the city of Maracaibo is the transshipment center of coffee produced in the Andes. The waterway can pass through large sea-going ships and oil tankers, exporting crude oil and agricultural and livestock products from the Andean mountains and lakes. The Lake District is home to a quarter of Venezuela's population, and with the influx of farmers from the nearby Andes, the population of the Lake District increased from about 300,000 in 1936 to over 3.62 million in 2007.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: Lake Maracaibo is home to clams, blue crabs, shrimps and other aquatic products, and is also home to two endangered aquatic mammals, the West Indian manatee and the Amazon river dolphin. About 145 species of fish inhabit the lake, including many endemic species such as the Maracaibo half-hooked catfish, the Maracaibo hairy catfish, the Maracaibo Lake Lamont catfish, Lake Maracaibo tetra, and Maracaibo wolf anchovies living in surface waters.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: The lake has been drilled about 14,000 times, and more than 15,000 miles of oil and gas pipelines criss-cross the lake floor, but most of these pipelines are half a century old, with oil leaking from many aging underwater pipes. Before the 1950s, the lake water could still be used directly for domestic use, but then due to the intrusion of tidal salt water caused by the widening of the lake mouth channel, the salinity of the northern lake area increased by about 1,000%, and the south also increased by 300-500%.


title: Lake Maracaibo

text: In lakeside towns such as the city of Maracaibo, the lake water is contaminated with E. coli from feces, oil pollution, and eutrophication caused by agricultural sewage discharged into the lake, as well as domestic and industrial wastewater, resulting in the blooms of duckweed and green algae. In the spring of 2004, heavy rains fell in the Lake Maracaibo basin, causing a large influx of fresh water into the lake, causing nutrients originally deposited on the bottom of the lake to float to the surface of the lake, causing the duckweed to multiply and triggering a bloom that lasted for up to eight months. , the blooms once covered 18% of the lake in June, and the local government had to spend about $2 million per month on cleanup work.


title: 1955–56 European Cup

text: The 1955–56 European Cup was the first season of the European Cup, UEFA's premier club football tournament. The tournament was won by Real Madrid, who defeated Stade de Reims 4–3 in the final at Parc des Princes, Paris, on 13 June 1956.


title: 1955–56 European Cup

text: The participating clubs in the first five seasons of the European Cup were selected by French football magazine "L'Equipe" on the basis that they were representative and prestigious clubs in Europe. When the tournament started, Real Madrid, Anderlecht, Milan, Rot-Weiss Essen, Stade de Reims, Djurgården and AGF Aarhus were the reigning champions of their respective national leagues. English champions Chelsea initially agreed to compete and were drawn against Swedish side Djurgården; however, under pressure from the Football League, who saw the tournament as a distraction to domestic football, they later withdrew from the competition, and were replaced by Gwardia Warszawa of Poland. Scottish champions Aberdeen withdrew under similar circumstances. In addition, Holland Sport, Honvéd and AB rejected the opportunity to represent the Netherlands, Hungary and Denmark respectively, being replaced by PSV Eindhoven, Vörös Lobogó and AGF Aarhus (PSV and Vörös Lobogó becoming the last teams until 1997–98 to qualify for the European Cup not by either winning a domestic league or being current title holders). This was also the only UEFA tournament to include a representative of Saarland, unified into West Germany in 1957.


title: 1955–56 European Cup

text: The first round pairings were fixed by the organisers and not drawn as would be the case for all future European Cup matches.


title: Tina Burner

text: Kristian Seeber (born November 10, 1980), known professionally as Tina Burner, is an American drag performer most known for appearing in "" and on the thirteenth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race". She was a part of a boy band named 5th Ring.


title: Tina Burner

text: Seeber used to be in a boy band. Tina Burner has been named National Miss Comedy Queen and competed on thirteenth season of "RuPaul's Drag Race", where she was eliminated in episode 11 and finished in seventh place. She also worked with fashion designer Nicolas Putvinski for a time.


title: Tina Burner

text: Seeber was previously in a relationship with Graham Norton, a judge on "RuPaul's Drag Race UK"; the two had met at Barracuda Lounge in New York City. Seeber moved to the United Kingdom to be with Norton, until their separation in 2006.


title: Hit Row

text: Hit Row is an American professional wrestling stable consisting of Ashante "Thee" Adonis, Top Dolla, and B-Fab. The stable is currently performing in WWE on the SmackDown brand. They previously performed on the NXT brand. After their release from WWE in November 2021, they have worked the independent circuit and made appearances together at companies such as MCW Pro Wrestling under the name The HitMakerZ. In August 2022, the stable returned to WWE, without original member Isaiah "Swerve" Scott.


title: Hit Row

text: In October 2020 at TakeOver 31, Isaiah "Swerve" Scott faced Santos Escobar for the NXT Cruiserweight Championship and during the match, Joaquin Wilde and Raul Mendoza attempted to interfere on Escobar's behalf but were thwarted off by Ashante "Thee" Adonis, who entered to save Scott. However, Scott ultimately lost the match against Escobar. In January 2021, Scott was paired up with Jake Atlas to compete in the Dusty Rhodes Tag Team Classic tournament. They were eliminated in the first round by eventual winners MSK (Wes Lee and Nash Carter)


title: Hit Row

text: and following the match proceeded to argue. On the February 17 episode of "NXT", Scott attacked Leon Ruff after losing a match against him, turning heel in the process.


title: Hit Row

text: Scott and Ruff continued to feud with it culminating on the May 4th, 2021 episode of "NXT" where Scott defeated Ruff following interference from a debuting A. J. Francis. Following the match, Scott and Francis were joined by Tehuti Miles, under the ring name Ashante "Thee" Adonis, and Briana Brandy as B-Fab. The following week, Francis and Brandy were introduced as Top Dolla and B-Fab, respectively, and the group were named Hit Row. On the May 18 episode of "NXT", Adonis and Top Dolla debuted as a tag team and defeated Ariya Daivari and Tony Nese. On the June 29 episode of "NXT", Scott defeated Bronson Reed to capture the NXT North American Championship, giving the stable their first title.They wrestled only four more matches, sometime after the group was drafted to the Smackdown Brand where Adonis showed his final appearance on the NXT brand alongside Hit Row as the show was transformed from NXT into the newly "NXT 2.0". their final match held on the August 24th, 2021, episode of NXT 2.0, losing a six-man tag match to Legado Del Fantasma (Joaquin Wilde, Raul Mendoza & Santos Escobar) while B-Fab feuded on and off again in the ring with Elektra Lopez who was the apposing teams female valet and manager as B-Fab was to Hit Row.


title: Hit Row

text: On October 1st, 2021, Hit Row was called up to the main roster and drafted to SmackDown where Isaiah "Swerve" Scott and Top Dolla wrestled their main roster debut tag team match on the SmackDown roster against two local competitors while Adonis and B-Fab managed the two in their corner on the October 22nd, 2021, episode of "Friday Night SmackDown". Despite the stable being drafted to the SmackDown brand as part of the 2021 WWE Draft, B-Fab was released on November 4, 2021, while Adonis, Dolla, and Scott were released 15 days later as part of a seventh round of layoffs, due to the COVID-19 pandemic, that involved administrative staff, plant and talents of the franchise.


title: Hit Row

text: After three months of inactivity following the WWE releases, Hit Row reunited at the MCW Pro Wrestling Spring Fever show under the name the HitMakerZ on March 19, 2022 in Parkville, Maryland, minus "Swerve" Scott, who had signed with All Elite Wrestling. On August 6, 2022, Top Dolla made his return to Coastal Championship Wrestling in Hialeah, Florida, under the ring name FRAN¢; attacking Cha Cha Charlie in the main event of Bash At The Brew 19.


title: Hit Row

text: On the August 12, 2022 episode of "SmackDown", Hit Row, without Scott, made their return as fan favorites, where Top Dolla and Ashante "Thee" Adonis, alongside B-Fab, defeated two local competitors. Shortly afterwards, Hit Row began a feud with Maximum Male Models (ma.çé and mån.sôör) which they defeated the latter on the September 2, 2022 edition of "SmackDown".


title: Hit Row

text: The members of Hit Row were all featured on the stable's WWE theme song titled "Now You Know", which was released by the company on streaming services in 2021. They had also previously been involved with the music industry, recording music independently and collaborating with other artists. Briana Brandy has released multiple songs since 2013. Tehuti Miles also made an appearance in the music video for Dominique Danielle's 2022 song "Come Through".


title: Hit Row

text: Isaiah "Swerve" Scott made his video game debut in "WWE 2K22" after his WWE release (this was due to Isaiah being a member of the 2020 NXT Breakout Superstars alongside Angel (formerly Angel Garza).


title: Kamakhya

text: Kamakhya, a mother goddess, is a Shakta Tantric deity; considered to be the embodiment of "Kama (desire)", she is regarded as the goddess of sex. Her abodeKamakhya Temple is located in the Kamarupa region of Assam, India. Originally a Kirata goddess, Kamakhya remained outside Brahmanical influence until at least 7th century CE. Residing on Nilachal hills across the banks of the Brahmaputra river, west of Guwahati in the 10th/11th century Temple rebuilt in 1565 CE, she is worshiped in a non-iconic and un-anthropomorphic form of stone shaped like yoni fed by a perennial stream. The temple is primary amongst the 51 Shakti Peethas, and is one of the most important Shakta temples.


title: Kamakhya

text: Kamakhya's iconography is mentioned in the Hindu scripture "Kalika Purana." She has twelve arms and six heads of varying colours: white, red, yellow, green, black and colourful. Each head has a third eye. She is wearing opulent jewelry and red flowers such as hibiscus. She holds in each of ten hands a lotus, trident, sword, bell, discus, bow, arrows, club or scepter, goad, and shield. Her remaining two hands hold a bowl, which is made either of gold or a skull. She is seated upon a lotus, directly on top of Shiva, who in turn lies atop a lion.


title: Kamakhya

text: This historical origin of the Kamakhya Temple, to which the goddess Kamakhya is associated is not certain. The earliest stratum appears to be from the seventh century, and the evidence of a temple complex is dated to 10th/11th century. The Kalika Purana, dated similarly, gives an extensive description of the goddess, Assam and the temple.


title: Kamakhya

text: The origin of the 'Shakti Peetha' at the site is associated with the legend of Sati, also known as Dakshayani, who was the wife of Shiva and daughter of the Puranic King Daksha. Daksha was unhappy with his daughter's choice of husband, and when he performed a grand Yagna for all the deities, he did not invite Shiva or Sati. Sati however went to the sacrifice. Daksha humiliated Shiva, Sati couldn't bear the insults toward her husband and so, she jumped into the fire and left her body. Because she was the all-powerful mother goddess, Sati left her body in that moment to be reborn as the goddess Parvati. Meanwhile, Shiva was stricken with grief and rage at the loss of his wife. He threw two locks of his hair on the ground and from it emerged Veerabhadra and Mahakali. Veerabhadra and Mahakali destroyed the sacrifice while the former killed Daksha by cutting his head and burning it. After Daksha's family and the other gods implored Shiva to restore his life, Shiva ordered the head of the sacrificial goat to be brought to him. The goat's head was later fixed on Daksha's body. Daksha later repented for his wrongdoings. Shiva forgave him and saw Sati's charred body. He put Sati's body over his shoulder and began his "tandava" (dance of cosmic destruction) throughout the heavens, and vowed not to stop until the body was completely rotted away. The other gods, afraid of the annihilation of the 3 worlds, implored Vishnu to pacify Shiva. Thus, wherever Shiva wandered while dancing, Vishnu followed. He sent his weapon, the Sudarshana Chakra to destroy the corpse of Sati. Pieces of her body fell until Shiva was left without a body to carry. Seeing this, Shiva sat down to do "Mahatapasya" (great penance). Despite the similarity in name, scholars do not generally believe that this legend gave rise to the practice of sati.


title: Kamakhya

text: According to various myths and traditions, there are 51 pieces of Sati's body scattered across the Indian subcontinent. These places are called Shakti Peethas and are dedicated to various powerful goddesses. Kamarupa ("form of desire") is the region in which the "yoni" ("vulva," "womb," or "source") is said to have fallen to earth, and the Kamakhya temple was said to have been constructed on this spot.


title: Kamakhya

text: Devotees believe that, In Nilachal hill the yoni (womb) of Sati fell, And that yoni (womb) took the form of a woman who is called Goddess Kamakhya. The yoni (womb) is the place where the baby is reared for 9 months, and from this the baby enters this world. And it is believed to be the reason for the creation of the world. Devotees come here to worship the fallen yoni (womb) of divine world mother Goddess Sati which is in the form of Goddess Kamakhya and worship that Goddess Sati's womb as the cause of the creation and rearing of the world. Just as a child emerges from the yoni (womb) of a human mother, in the same way, the world has arisen from the yoni (womb) of Mother Goddess Sati which is in the form of Goddess Kamakhya.


title: Kamakhya

text: The legend of this goddess combines characters from Hindu literature and local traditions. Once, Narakasura, motivated by his desire, wanted to marry Devi Kamakhya. When marriage was proposed, the goddess playfully put a condition before him that if he would be able to build a staircase from the bottom of the Nilachal Hill to the temple within one night before the cock crows to indicate dawn, then she would surely marry him. Naraka took it as a challenge, and tried all with his might to do this huge task. He was almost about to accomplish the job before it was dawn. When Kamakhya Devi got this news, she cunningly strangled a cock, and made it crow untimely to give the impression of dawn to Naraka. Duped by the trick, Naraka left it halfway through. Now, the place is known as Kukurakata, situated in the district of Darrang. The incomplete staircase is known as Mekhelauja Path.


title: Kamakhya

text: Upset with the treachery played by the devas, and as he knew himself to be unrivalled in prowess, he brought all the kingdoms on earth under his control. Next, he turned his eyes towards Svargaloka. Even the mighty Indra could not withstand the assault of this son of Vishnu, and had to flee the heavens. Narakasura had become the overlord of both the heavens and earth. As a punishment to all slights, he withheld the earrings of Aditi, the heavenly mother goddess, and took over some of her territory, while also capturing 16000 women for his own pleasure.


title: Kamakhya

text: All the devas, led by Indra, went to Vishnu to ask him to deliver them from Narakasura. Vishnu promised them that he would attend to this matter, when he would be incarnated as Krishna.


title: Kamakhya

text: As promised to Bhudevi, Narakasura was allowed to enjoy a long reign. At last, Vishnu was born as Krishna. Aditi, who was a relative of Krishna's wife, Satyabhama, (believed to be an avatar of Bhudevi - Narakasura's mother), approached Satyabhama for help. Satyabhama approached Krishna for permission to wage a war against Narakasura. As promised to the devas and Aditi, Krishna attacked the great fortress of Narakasura, riding his mount Garuda with his wife, Satyabhama. Krishna used the Narayanastra and the Agneyastra against the army of Narakasura. The battle was furiously fought. Narakasura possessed 11 akshauhinis that he unleashed on Krishna. However, the deity slew them all with little effort. Krishna also killed Mura, Narakasura's general. Thus, Krishna is called 'Murāri' (the killer of Mura).


title: Kamakhya

text: Narakasura used several divine weapons against Krishna, but Krishna easily neutralised all of them. At last, when Narakasura tried to kill Krishna with a trident, he saw goddess Kamakhya standing beside Hari, and eventually Krishna beheaded him with his Sudarshana Chakra (discus). His downfall is believed to have been caused by the maya made by the goddess Kamakhya.


title: Kamakhya

text: Before Narakasura's death, he is regarded to have requested a boon from his mother, Satyabhama, that everyone should celebrate his death with colorful light. Thus, this day is celebrated as 'Naraka Chaturdashi' - the day before Deepavali. Krishna accepted the women Naraka had captured as his wives upon their insistence to save their honour, since the populace viewed them as the spoils of Narakasura. The chief amongst them is sometimes called Rohini. After their weddings, they all lived in Dvaraka.


title: Kamakhya

text: Kamakhya is mentioned in the "Kalika Purana" as the most important goddess of Tantric worship, and is referred to in the text as "Mahamaya", the "great goddess of illusion", who takes on many forms depending on her mood. Devotees also call her Kameshwari ("beloved goddess of desire"), and consider her a form of Maha Tripura Sundari, also called Shodashi. She is identified with Kali in the "Kalika Purana", "Yoginitantra" and "Kamakhya Tantra", each of which echoes this verse:


title: Kamakhya

text: "It is certainly well known that Kamakhya is truly none other than that mother goddess Kali, who is in all things the form of wisdom."


title: Kamakhya

text: Kamakhya is associated with the Dasa Mahavidyas, who each have temples dedicated to them at the Kamakhya temple complex in Assam. She is also closely associated with durga and She also known as Virat Roopa of Mahadevi


title: Kamakhya

text: The great mythological texts including the Kalika Purana (the Asthashakti) and various Tantras recognize the four major Shakti Peethas as Adi Shakti Peethas. Like (Bimala, Pada Khanda) inside the Jagannath Temple, Puri, Odisha, (Tara Tarini) Sthana Khanda (Breasts), near Brahmapur, Odisha, (Kamakhya, Yoni khanda) in Guwahati, Assam and (Dakshina Kali, Mukha khanda) in Kalighat Kolkata, West Bengal originated from the limbs of the Corpse of Mata Sati. In a hymn, the Kalika Purana (Asthashakti) clearly says:


title: Kamakhya

text: Mantras for general worship of the Mahavidyas at the Kamakhya temple complex reveal a close identity with Kamakhya herself. Several of these goddesses are worshipped as forms of Kamakhya explicitly.


title: Kamakhya

text: Devi Kamakhya's "Ashtashaktis" or eight incarnations are Guptakama, Srikama, Vindhyavasini, Kotishvari, Vanadurga, Padadurga, Dirgheshvari and Bhuvaneshvari.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The 2012 Royal Rumble was the 25th annual Royal Rumble professional wrestling pay-per-view (PPV) event produced by WWE. It took place on January 29, 2012, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri. As has been customary since 1993, the Royal Rumble match winner received a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For the 2012 event, the winner received their choice to challenge for either the WWE Championship or World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XXVIII. It was the first Royal Rumble held since the end of the first brand extension in August 2011.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: Six professional wrestling matches were featured at the event. The main event was the 2012 Royal Rumble match. Sheamus - the 22nd entrant - won the match by last eliminating Chris Jericho, the 29th entrant. Two title matches were featured: a WWE Championship match with CM Punk defending against Dolph Ziggler, which Punk won to retain the title, and a Triple Threat Steel Cage match for the World Heavyweight Championship between the reigning champion Daniel Bryan, Big Show, and Mark Henry, which Bryan won to retain the championship. Incidentally, this event is also noted as Mick Foley's last night as an active wrestler as he would compete in the Royal Rumble match.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The event received 443,000 pay-per-view buys, slightly down from 446,000 buys the previous year's event received.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The Royal Rumble is an annual gimmick pay-per-view (PPV), produced every January by WWE since 1988—in April 2011, the promotion ceased going by its full name of World Wrestling Entertainment, with "WWE" becoming an orphaned initialism. It is one of the promotion's original four pay-per-views, along with WrestleMania, SummerSlam, and Survivor Series, dubbed the "Big Four". It is named after the Royal Rumble match, a modified battle royal in which the participants enter at timed intervals instead of all beginning in the ring at the same time. The 2012 event was the 25th event in the Royal Rumble chronology and was scheduled to be held on January 29, 2012, at the Scottrade Center in St. Louis, Missouri. It was the first Royal Rumble held since the end of the first brand split in August 2011.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The Royal Rumble match generally features 30 wrestlers. The 2011 event broke tradition and had 40 participants, but 2012 returned to 30. The winner of the match traditionally earns a world championship match at that year's WrestleMania. For 2012, the winner could choose to challenge for either the WWE Championship or World Heavyweight Championship at WrestleMania XXVIII.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The card consisted of five matches, including one on the pre-show. The matches resulted from scripted storylines, where wrestlers portrayed heroes, villains, or less distinguishable characters to build tension and culminated in a wrestling match or series of matches. Results were predetermined by WWE's writers, with storylines produced on their weekly television shows, "Raw" and "SmackDown".


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: A highly promoted match featured CM Punk defending his WWE Championship against Dolph Ziggler. On the December 26, 2011 episode of "Raw", Punk was put into a gauntlet match by Interim Raw General Manager John Laurinaitis, with the stipulation that if either one of Jack Swagger, Ziggler, or Mark Henry defeated Punk, they would receive a championship match against the latter the next week. Ziggler won the match after Punk was distracted by Laurinaitis throwing out Vickie Guerrero and Swagger from ringside. The next week, during the title match, Punk was counted out as a result of another intervention from Laurinaitis. However, since titles cannot change hands via countout, Punk retained the championship. After the match, Laurinaitis announced that Punk would defend his championship against Ziggler in a rematch at the Royal Rumble, with himself acting as the special guest referee. Then on the January 9, 2012 edition of Raw, when Punk faced Swagger in a singles match, Laurinaitis added a stipulation that if Swagger lost, he and Vickie Guerrero would be banned from ringside at the pay-per-view; Punk won the match, and thus, Guerrero and Swagger are banned from ringside during the championship match. Additionally, a week later on the January 16 episode of "Raw", in a segment with Mick Foley, Laurinaitis revealed that he was using this opportunity to cost Punk his title for disrespecting him.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: Another match heading into the Royal Rumble featured John Cena against Kane. Upon returning to the WWE on the December 12 edition of "Raw", after an absence of nearly four months, Kane interrupted Cena's match against Mark Henry, and though it was Henry who put him out of action, he bypassed him and attacked Cena, chokeslamming him before revealing his new mask. While demanding an explanation for these events the next week on "Raw", Cena was again attacked by Kane, who revealed in the next several weeks of his desire to have Cena "embrace the hate" (his current on-screen character and T-shirt promoting otherwise) within caused by the anti-Cena crowd who continued to boo him. When Cena dismissed any intentions of doing so, Kane not only continued his attacks on Cena, but began to direct his attention to his close friend Zack Ryder, assaulting him as well, to the point of injuring him (kayfabe), ultimately leading to Ryder losing his United States Championship to Jack Swagger on the January 16, 2012 episode of "Raw", under orders from John Laurinaitis. The same night, Laurinaitis put Cena in a one-on-one match against Kane at the Royal Rumble, in addition to booking Cena in a match against Swagger. Before the match even officially started, Cena started to attack Swagger aggressively to avenge Ryder's loss, prompting Kane to appear on the TitanTron and congratulate him to have started "embracing his hate". On the January 23 episode of "Raw", during a Falls Count Anywhere match (in which Laurinaitis had prevented Cena from interfering, on the pretext of never granting Ryder a rematch for the United States Championship if he did so), Kane chokeslammed Ryder through the entrance stage, incapacitating him. As Ryder was stretchered and taken away in an ambulance, Eve Torres (Ryder's storyline girlfriend) blamed Cena for Ryder's injuries, leading to Cena knocking the microphone out of interviewer Josh Mathews' hand in frustration, and donning a very aggressive look in response to this entire situation.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: Threat Steel Cage match against Big Show and Mark Henry. In December 2011, at , after Big Show defeated Henry in a Chairs match to win the World Heavyweight Championship for the first time, Bryan immediately cashed in his Money in the Bank contract to defeat Big Show, after a post-match attack on the latter by Henry. Using his rematch clause, Big Show faced off against Bryan on "SmackDown", only for the champion to agitate Henry at ringside, who pushed Bryan, thus retaining his title. The following week on "SmackDown", Bryan defended his title against Big Show again, this time in a No Disqualification, No Count-Out match, which ended in a no contest, when Big Show accidentally ran into and injured Bryan's storyline girlfriend, AJ. The next week on "SmackDown", Henry finally enacted his rematch clause against Bryan in a lumberjack match; however, that match also ended up as a no contest, when the lumberjacks became too hostile because of how Bryan had agitated them, and the post-match scenario erupted into a large brawl involving nearly everyone. This forced "SmackDown"'s General Manager Theodore Long to officially book Bryan, Big Show and Henry in a Triple Threat Steel Cage match for the World Heavyweight Championship at the Royal Rumble.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The actual pay-per-view opened with a Triple Threat Steel Cage match with Daniel Bryan defending his World Heavyweight Championship against Mark Henry and Big Show. Bryan retained by escaping the cage after he fell from Big Show's grasp (Bryan was climbing out of the cage, and Show was trying to pull him back in over the top) and fell to the arena floor.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The next match was an Eight-Diva tag team match with Alicia Fox, Eve Torres, Kelly Kelly and Tamina Snuka taking on The Bella Twins (Nikki and Brie Bella) and The Divas of Doom (Divas Champion Beth Phoenix and Natalya). The latter team won after Phoenix tagged herself in and performed a glam slam on Kelly Kelly, scoring the pinfall.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The following match was between John Cena and Kane. After a back and forth contest, the action would spill from the ring, and the match ended in a double count-out. After the match, Kane would continue his assault, hitting Cena with multiple chair shots before attacking an injured Zack Ryder, who was watching the event from a private office. Kane dragged Ryder to the ring and performed a Tombstone Piledriver on him. Cena then reentered the ring and tried to retaliate, but Kane chokeslammed him.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The next match was made after Drew McIntyre requested a spot in the Royal Rumble, asking "Smackdown" GM Teddy Long for an opportunity to prove himself, so he gave him a match against a mystery opponent who turned out to be Brodus Clay. Despite McIntyre starting the match well, Clay would quickly defeat him after a running splash.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The penultimate match of the card was the WWE Championship match between reigning champion CM Punk and Dolph Ziggler with Raw interim GM John Laurinaitis serving as outside enforcer. As per the match stipulations, Ziggler's tag team partner Jack Swagger and manager Vickie Guerrero were both banned from ringside. The first part of the match was a hold-for-hold encounter. Towards the latter part of the match Punk had Ziggler beaten, but the referee was knocked out and unable to make the count. Punk would execute a second GTS and both the referee and enforcer Laurinaitis counted to three and Punk retained his championship.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The main event was the annual Royal Rumble match, where the winner would get a world championship match of their choice at Wrestlemania XXVIII. The Miz entered first (a result of losing a match to R-Truth on "Raw"), and would last nearly 46 minutes until entry #30 Big Show eliminated Miz. Intercontinental Champion Cody Rhodes entered at #4, lasting nearly 42 minutes, and scored the most eliminations with six. WWE legends Mick Foley, Hall of Famer (and first ever Rumble winner) "Hacksaw" Jim Duggan, and Road Dogg were all surprise entries in the match. All three announcers who called the event (Jerry "The King" Lawler, Booker T, and Michael Cole) also entered the match at various points as official entries. Kharma was another surprise entry, making her the third female superstar to enter a Rumble. Kofi Kingston was a highlight of the Rumble match, who was nearly eliminated by The Miz, when he stood on his hands at ringside and hand-walked to the ring steps to avoid elimination.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The final four consisted of Sheamus, 2009 Rumble winner Randy Orton, Chris Jericho, and Big Show. Show and Orton were quickly eliminated, and Sheamus and Jericho would then go back and forth with attempted eliminations for over five minutes. In the end, Jericho attempted a Codebreaker on Sheamus, but Sheamus countered the move and threw Jericho over the ropes onto the apron. Sheamus then executed a Brogue Kick on Jericho to eliminate him and win the match.


title: Royal Rumble (2012)

text: The event received mixed reviews. The Canadian Online Explorer gave Royal Rumble a 6.5 out of 10, with the Royal Rumble match receiving the same rating. The World Heavyweight Championship match and the John Cena vs. Kane match were rated a 5 out of 10 and the Divas' tag-team match a 3 out of 10. The WWE Championship match received the highest rating with an 8.5 out of 10.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: The was a short undeclared military confrontation between Japan and France in northern French Indochina. Fighting lasted from 22 to 26 September 1940; the same time as the Battle of South Guangxi in the Sino-Japanese War, which was the main objective as to why Japan occupied Vietnam during this time.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: The main objective of the Japanese was to prevent China from importing arms and fuel through French Indochina along the Kunming–Haiphong railway, from the Indochinese port of Haiphong, through the capital of Hanoi to the Chinese city of Kunming in Yunnan.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: Although an agreement had been reached between the French and Japanese governments prior to the outbreak of fighting, authorities were unable to control events on the ground for several days before the troops stood down. As per the prior agreement, Japan was allowed to occupy Tonkin in northern Indochina, and thus effectively blockade China.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: The occupation of Indochina also fit into Japan’s long-term plans. Japanese leaders then dreamed of creating what they called a Greater East Asia Co-Prosperity Sphere, an economic and political coalition of Asian nations tied to Japan. Together, these Asian countries would expel Western imperialists and capitalists then share trade, resources and commodities between themselves.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: In early 1940, troops of the Imperial Japanese Army (IJA) moved to seize southern Guangxi and Longzhou County, where the eastern branch of the Kunming–Hai Phong Railway reached the border at the Friendship Pass in Pingxiang. They also tried to move west to cut the rail line to Kunming. The railway from Indochina was the Chinese government's last secure overland link to the outside world.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: On 10 May 1940, Germany invaded France. On 22 June, France signed an armistice with Germany (in effect from 25 June). On 10 July, the French parliament voted full powers to Marshal Philippe Pétain, effectively abrogating the Third Republic. Although much of metropolitan France came under German occupation, the French colonies remained under the direction of Pétain's government at Vichy. Resistance to Pétain and the armistice began even before it was signed, with Charles de Gaulle's appeal of 18 June. As a result, a "de facto" government-in-exile in opposition to Pétain, called Free France, was formed in London.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: On 19 June, Japan took advantage of the defeat of France and the impending armistice to present the Governor-General of Indochina, Georges Catroux, with a request, in fact an ultimatum, demanding the closure of all supply routes to China and the admission of a 40-man Japanese inspection team under General Issaku Nishihara. The Americans became aware of the true nature of the Japanese "request" through intelligence intercepts since the Japanese had informed their German allies. Catroux initially responded by warning the Japanese that their unspecified "other measures" would be a breach of sovereignty. He was reluctant to acquiesce to the Japanese, but with his intelligence reporting that Japanese army and navy units were moving into threatening positions, the French government was not prepared for a protracted defense of the colony. Therefore, Catroux complied with the Japanese ultimatum on 20 June. Before the end of June the last train carrying munitions crossed the border bound for Kunming. Following this humiliation, Catroux was immediately replaced as governor-general by Admiral Jean Decoux. He did not return to France, however, but to London.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: On 22 June, while Catroux was still in his post, the Japanese issued a second demand: naval basing rights at Guangzhouwan and the total closure of the Chinese border by 7 July. Issaku Nishihara, who was to lead the "inspection team", the true purpose of which was unknown, even to the Japanese, arrived in Hanoi on 29 June. On 3 July, he issued a third demand: air bases and the right to transit combat troops through Indochina. These new demands were referred to the government in France.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: The incoming governor, Decoux, who arrived in Indochina in July, urged the government to reject the demands. Although he believed that Indochina could not defend itself against a Japanese invasion, Decoux believed it was strong enough to dissuade Japan from invading. At Vichy, General Jules-Antoine Bührer, chief of the Colonial General Staff, counselled resistance. The still neutral United States had already been contracted to provide aircraft, and there were 4,000 "Tirailleurs sénégalais" in Djibouti that could be shipped to Indochina in case of need. In Indochina, Decoux had under his command 32,000 regulars, plus 17,000 auxiliaries, although they were all ill-equipped.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: On 30 August 1940, the Japanese foreign minister, Yōsuke Matsuoka, approved a draft proposal submitted by his French colleague, Paul Baudouin, whereby Japanese forces could be stationed in and transit through Indochina only for the duration of the Sino-Japanese War. Both governments then "instructed their military representatives in Indochina to work out the details [although] they would have been better advised to stick to Tokyo–Vichy channels a bit longer". Negotiations between the supreme commander of Indochinese troops, Maurice Martin, and General Nishihara began at Hanoi on 3 September.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: During negotiations, the government in France asked the German government to intervene to moderate its ally's demands. The Germans did nothing. Decoux and Martin, acting on their own, looked for help from the American and British consuls in Hanoi, and even consulted with the Chinese government on joint defence against a Japanese attack on Indochina.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: On 6 September, an infantry battalion of the Japanese Twenty-Second Army based in Nanning violated the Indochinese border near the French fort at Đồng Đăng. The Twenty-Second Army was a part of the Japanese Southern China Area Army, whose officers, remembering the Mukden incident of 1931, were trying to force their superiors to adopt a more aggressive policy. Following the Đồng Đăng incident, Decoux cut off negotiations. On 18 September, Nishihara sent him an ultimatum, warning that Japanese troops would enter Indochina regardless of any French agreement at 22:00 (local time) on 22 September. This prompted Decoux to demand a reduction in the number of Japanese troops that would be stationed in Indochina. The Japanese Army General Staff, with the support of the Japanese Southern China Area Army, was demanding 25,000 troops in Indochina. Nishihara, with the support of the Imperial General Headquarters, got that number reduced to 6,000 on 21 September.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: Seven and a half hours before the expiration of the Japanese ultimatum on 22 September, Martin and Nishihara signed an agreement authorizing the stationing of 6,000 Japanese troops in Tonkin north of the Red River, the use of four airfields in Tonkin, the right to move up to 25,000 troops through Tonkin to Yunnan and the right to move one division of the Twenty-Second Army through Tonkin via Haiphong for use elsewhere in China. Already on 5 September, the Japanese Southern Army had organized the amphibious Indochina Expeditionary Army under Major-General Takuma Nishimura, it was supported by a flotilla of ships and aircraft, both carrier- and land-based. When the accord was signed, a convoy was waiting off Hainan Island to bring the expeditionary force to Tonkin.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: The accord had been communicated to all relevant commands by 21:00, an hour before the ultimatum was set to expire. It was understood between Martin and Nishimura that the first troops would arrive by ship. The Twenty-Second Army, however, did not intend to wait to take advantage of the accord. Lieutenant-General Aketo Nakamura, commander of the 5th (Infantry) Division, sent columns across the border near Đồng Đăng at precisely 22:00.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: At Đồng Đăng there was an exchange of fire that quickly spread to other border posts overnight. The French position at the railhead at Lạng Sơn was surrounded by Japanese armour and forced to surrender on 25 September. Before surrendering, the French commanders had ordered the breechblocks of the 155mm cannons thrown into a river to prevent the Japanese from using them. During the Sino-French War of 1884–1885, the French had been forced into an embarrassing retreat from Lạng Sơn in which equipment had likewise been thrown into the same river to prevent capture. When the breechblocks of 1940 were eventually retrieved, several chests of money lost in 1885 were found also. Among the units taken captive at Lạng Sơn was the 2nd Battalion of the 5th Foreign Infantry Regiment that contained 179 German and Austrian volunteers, whom the Japanese in vain tried to induce to change sides.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: On 23 September, the French Government protested the breach of the agreements by the IJA to the Japanese government.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: On the morning of 24 September, Japanese aircraft from aircraft carriers in the Gulf of Tonkin attacked French positions on the coast. A French Government envoy came to negotiate; in the meantime, shore defenses remained under orders to open fire on any attempted landing.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: On 26 September, Japanese forces came ashore at Dong Tac, south of Haiphong, and moved on the port. A second landing put tanks ashore, and Japanese planes bombed Haiphong, causing some casualties. By early afternoon the Japanese force of some 4,500 troops and a dozen tanks were outside Haiphong.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: By the evening of 26 September, fighting had died down. Japan took possession of Gia Lam Airbase outside Hanoi, the rail marshaling yard on the Yunnan border at Lao Cai, and Phu Lang Thuong on the railway from Hanoi to Lạng Sơn, and stationed 900 troops in the port of Haiphong and 600 more in Hanoi.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: The Japanese tendered an official apology for the incident at Lạng Sơn on 5 October 1940. The Japanese-occupied towns were returned to French control and all French prisoners were released.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: The occupation of southern French Indochina did not happen immediately. On 9 December 1940, an agreement was reached whereby French sovereignty over its army and administrative affairs was confirmed, while Japanese forces were free to fight the war against the Allies from Indochinese soil. The Vichy government had agreed that some 40,000 troops could be stationed there. However, Japanese planners did not immediately move troops there, worried that such a move would be inflammatory to relations between Japan, the United Kingdom, and the United States. Furthermore, within the Japanese high command there was a disagreement over what to do about the Soviet threat to the north of their Manchurian territories. The tipping point came just after the Nazi invasion of the Soviet Union in late June 1941. With the Soviets tied down, the high command concluded that a "strike south" would solve Japan's problems with the United States, most notably the increasing American concerns about Japan's moves in China, and the possibility of a crippling oil embargo on Japan. To prepare for an invasion of the Dutch East Indies, some 140,000 Japanese troops invaded southern French Indochina on 28 July 1941. French troops and the civil administration were allowed to remain, albeit under Japanese supervision.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: The Vietnamese perspective on the Japanese occupation of French Indochina was complex. On one hand, Japanese occupation led the Vietnamese people to think about rebellion against the Western powers controlling Southeast Asia. Japan was potentially an Asian power that might "liberate" them from European colonial rule. At the same time, Japanese occupation during wartime was also seen as harsh, and contributed to the Vietnamese famine of 1945.


title: Japanese invasion of French Indochina

text: With the Allied invasion of France in 1944, Japan suspected that the French authorities in Indochina might assist Allied operations in the region. Therefore, Japan deposed the French authorities in the spring of 1945, imprisoning the French administrators and taking direct control of Indochina until the end of the war. At that point, Vietnamese nationalists under the "Viet Minh" banner took control in the August Revolution, and issued a Proclamation of Independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam. The Japanese occupation of Indochina helped strengthen the "Viet Minh" and contributed to the outbreak of the First Indochina War in 1946 against French rule.


The 2020 Conservative Party of Canada leadership election was a leadership election held to elect a successor to Andrew Scheer, who in December 2019 announced his pending resignation as leader of the Conservative Party of Canada. The election was conducted by postal ballot from mid-July to 21 August 2020, with the ballots processed and results announced on 23–24 August 2020. The $300,000 entrance fee made it the most expensive leadership race in the history of Canadian politics.


title: 2020 Conservative Party of Canada leadership election

text: Four candidates were running for the position: member of parliament and former veterans affairs minister Erin O'Toole, co-founder of the Conservative Party Peter MacKay, Toronto lawyer Leslyn Lewis and member of parliament Derek Sloan.


text: The election was originally scheduled for 27 June 2020, but on March 26, the party suspended the race due to the ongoing coronavirus pandemic crisis in Canada. Party officials said they would revisit their decision on May 1. On April 29, it was announced that the race would proceed by postal ballot with the election itself being rescheduled from June to August. To be counted, ballots needed to be completed and received by 21 August 2020 at 5:00 p.m. EDT. The leadership election results were expected to be announced on 23 August, but the first round results were not announced until the early morning on 24 August, due to machine malfunctions causing significant delays. MacKay led the first ballot with 33.52 per cent by a narrow margin of around 2 per cent. O'Toole subsequently led on the second ballot and won on the third ballot, becoming the new leader of the Conservative Party.


text: On 21 October 2019, the 2019 Canadian federal election was held. The Conservatives remained in opposition against a minority Liberal government. Under the Conservative Party's constitution, an election loss results in a leadership review at the next party convention. The following day, Scheer announced his intention to remain leader of the party.


text: As early as 23 October, there were reports that party members were already privately voicing dissatisfaction with Scheer's leadership, and suggestions that he could face a leadership challenge at the next party convention in April. By the end of the month, Conservative figures were making their criticism public, and an online petition was launched that called for Scheer to resign. Former MP and cabinet minister Peter MacKay described the election as "like having a breakaway on an open net and missing the net"; he attributed the loss to Scheer's socially conservative views, which he said "hung around [his] neck like a stinking albatross" and distracted from other policies and issues. MacKay's comments additionally fuelled speculation that he was vying for the leadership.


text: On 6 November, Scheer met with the Conservative caucus for the first time since the election, where they discussed the federal election and why the party failed to win. Scheer attributed the loss not to policy, but poor communication. During the meeting, the caucus voted against adopting the provisions of the Reform Act; as adopting them would have allowed the caucus to begin the process of ousting Scheer, his leadership was seen as safe until the April convention. However, criticism did not abate; a report in the "Toronto Star" cited calls for Scheer's resignation from within the business community, energy sector and several high-profile party insiders.


text: On 12 December, Scheer announced that he was stepping down as leader, pending the election of his successor. He also said he would stay on as MP for Regina—Qu'Appelle "for the near future". The leadership convention was scheduled for 27 June 2020.


text: The on-going COVID-19 pandemic affected the timing of the leadership election. On 12 March, Peter MacKay, Erin O'Toole, Rick Peterson and Leslyn Lewis suspended all public campaign events, while Marilyn Gladu "assess[ed] events and activities on a daily and event-by-event basis", due to public health guidelines. The next day, 13 March, Gladu, Rudy Husny and Rick Peterson called for either the race to be postponed or for entry deadlines to be pushed back. On 19 March, Husny dropped out, citing an unwillingness to fundraise during a public health emergency. Peterson followed on 20 March, criticizing the organizing committee's unwillingness to move the deadlines as unfair.


text: On 26 March, the Leadership Election Organizing Committee (LEOC) postponed the race, as well as cancelling debates planned for April and pushing back the membership deadline to 15 May. The LEOC did not set a new date, and said they would revisit the decision on 1 May. On 29 April, the LEOC announced the resumption of the contest, with the vote taking place entirely by mail-in ballot and without a convention. The ballot must be completed and received by 21 August. No definitive date was set for when the results would be announced, but the LEOC clarified that the results would be announced "as soon as those ballots can be properly processed and examined by scrutineers while respecting any health guidelines in place at that time."


text: On 19 June, Erin O'Toole accused MacKay's campaign of theft of confidential campaign data and strategy including Zoom conference videos after discovering that their "systems were hacked earlier this week". Later that day, O'Toole filed a formal complaint and requested that the RCMP, OPP, and Toronto Police Service investigate Peter MacKay's campaign and his senior campaign staff member Jamie Lall.


text: On 20 June, MacKay's campaign dismissed the allegations and called them a "desperate, last ditch strategy" and "mildly amusing." Lall publicly denied the allegations in a post on his personal Twitter account.