title: Borchardt C-93

text: DWM employed Georg Luger to promote the Borchardt pistol in military and commercial channels. The pistol was tested by the U.S. Navy as early as 1894 and later by the U.S. Army. Although it was accurate and its rate of fire was rapid, the Borchardt pistol was expensive to produce and unwieldy to handle due to its almost vertical grip and distribution of weight. Furthermore, its recoil was unexpectedly powerful. These criticisms were noted in the Swiss Army field tests. However, Borchardt refused to make any changes to his original design. DWM then appointed Georg Luger to make the requested improvements to the pistol. Luger took the Borchardt design, using the shorter 7.65×21mm Parabellum cartridge, which allowed him to incorporate a shorter stroke of the toggle mechanism and a narrower, angular grip. Luger's design eventually became the Luger Parabellum pistol.


title: Borchardt C-93

text: The cartridge used in the Borchardt C93 Pistol was the basis for the primary cartridge used in the Mauser C96 pistol (7.63×25mm Mauser); they have the same dimensions, but the 7.63 mm Mauser generally had a more powerful powder charge (contemporary loading data indicated it took approximately 20% more powder than the Borchardt) and is considered to be too strong to be used in a Borchardt C93. Nonetheless, cartridge boxes from some manufacturers were marked "For Borchardt and Mauser Automatic Pistols."


title: Borchardt C-93

text: The Borchardt C93 was manufactured and sold solely in its proprietary caliber, the 7.65×25mm Borchardt. Some test models were made in 7.65×21mm Parabellum and 9×18mm Borchardt, an experimental bottlenecked cartridge developed in 1902.


title: Kalam

text: ʿIlm al-Kalām (, literally "science of discourse"), usually foreshortened to Kalām and sometimes called "Islamic scholastic theology" or "speculative theology", is the philosophical study of Islamic doctrine ("'aqa'id"). It was born out of the need to establish and defend the tenets of the Islamic faith against the philosophical doubters. However, this picture has been increasingly questioned by scholarship that attempts to show that kalām was in fact a demonstrative rather than a dialectical science and was always intellectually creative.


title: Kalam

text: The Arabic term "Kalām" means "speech, word, utterance" among other things. There are many possible interpretations as to why this discipline was originally called so; one is that one of the widest controversies in this discipline, in the second and third centuries of Hijra, has been about whether the "Word of God" ("Kalām Allāh"), as revealed in the Quran, is an eternal attribute of God and therefore not created, or whether it is created words in the sense of ink and sounds. A scholar of Kalām is referred to as a mutakallim (plural: mutakallimūn), and it is a role distinguished from those of Islamic philosophers, jurists, and scientists.


title: Kalam

text: As early as in the times of the Abbasid Caliphate (750–1258 CE), the discipline of Kalām arose in an "attempt to grapple" with several "complex problems" early in the history of Islam, according to historian Majid Fakhry. One was how to rebut arguments "leveled at Islam by pagans, Christians and Jews". Another was how to deal with (what some saw as the conflict between) the predestination of sinners to hell on the one hand and "divine justice" on the other (some asserting that to be punished for what is beyond someone's control is unjust). Also Kalam sought to make "a systematic attempt to bring the conflict in data of revelation (in the Quran and the Traditions) into some internal harmony".


title: Kalam

text: In early Islam, "Ahl al-Kalām" essentially referred to the Mu'tazilites, in addition to other smaller schools. Historian Daniel W. Brown describes "Ahl al-Kalām" as one of three main groups engaged in polemical disputes over sources of authority in Islamic law during the second century of Islam -- "Ahl ar-Ra'y" and "Ahl al-Hadith" being the other two. "Ahl al-Kalām" agreed with "Ahl al-Hadith" that the example of the Islamic prophet Muhammad was authoritative, but it did not believe it to be divine revelation, a status that only the Quran had (in its view). It also rejected the authority of the hadith on the grounds that its corpus was "filled with contradictory, blasphemous, and absurd" reports, and that in jurisprudence, even the smallest doubt about a source was too much. Thus, they believed, the true legacy of Muhammad was to be found elsewhere, i.e. in the "sunnah", which is separate from the hadith. "Ahl al-Hadith" prevailed over the "Ahl al-Kalām" (and Muslims, or at least mainstream Muslims, now accept the authority of the hadith), so that most of what is known about their arguments comes from the writings of their opponents, such as Imam al-Shafi'i. Brown also describes the Muʿtazila as "the later "ahl al-Kalām"", suggesting the "ahl al-Kalām" were forerunners of the Muʿtazilites.


title: Kalam

text: Although seeking knowledge in Islam is considered a religious obligation, the study of kalam is considered by Muslim scholars to fall beyond the category of necessity and is usually the preserve of qualified scholars, eliciting limited interest from the masses or common people.


title: Kalam

text: The early Muslim scholar al-Shafi‘i held that there should be a certain number of men trained in kalam to defend and purify the faith, but that it would be a great evil if their arguments should become known to the mass of the people.


title: Kalam

text: Similarly, the Islamic scholar al-Ghazali held the view that the science of kalam is not a personal duty on Muslims but a collective duty. Like al-Shafi‘i, he discouraged the masses from studying it.


title: Kalam

text: Despite the dominance of kalam as an intellectual tradition within Islam, some scholars were critical of its use. For example, the Hanbali Sufi, Khwaja Abdullah Ansari wrote a treatise entitled "Dhamm al-Kalam" where he criticized the use of kalam.


title: Karthik Raja

text: Karthik Raja is an India composer based in Chennai, India. He made his debut as film composer in the Tamil film "Pandiyan" (1992) and went on to score music for many critically and commercially acclaimed feature films.


title: Karthik Raja

text: Karthik Raja is the eldest son of music composer Ilaiyaraaja. His brother Yuvan Shankar Raja and sister Bhavatharini, who are also Tamil film music directors and playback singers, have worked with him on notable projects. He did his schooling at St. Bede's School and Boston Matriculation higher secondary school in Chennai. On 8 June 2000, Karthik Raja married Raja Rajeswari at Tirupati, Andhra Pradesh, India.


title: Karthik Raja

text: Born to a family of musicians, he had exposure to various kinds of music at a very early age. He had his formal training in Western classical music from the Trinity School of Music, mainly in piano (affiliated with Jacob John). He also had training in Carnatic music from T. V. Gopalakrishnan and Malayalam composer V. Dakshinamoorthy.


title: Karthik Raja

text: As a child, he often used to accompany his father to the recording studios. At the age of 13, Karthik Raja played the keyboard for the song "Kannukkum" from the Tamil movie "Ninaikka Therinda Maname" (1987). Many such outings followed including playing keyboard for the soundtrack of the movie "Nayakan". Karthik also arranged many recordings for his father and composed his first song "Pandianin Rajiyathil" for the movie "Pandiyan" (1992) and "Ninaikindra" for the movie "Athma" (1993). Around this time, he also composed some background scores for the TV series "Bible".


title: Karthik Raja

text: He debuted as a full-fledged composer in 1996 through the Tamil movie "Alexander", soon followed by "Manikkam". Then came many chart-busters that included "Ullaasam", "Naam Iruvar Nammaku Iruvar", "Kadhala Kadhala" and "Dumm Dumm Dumm" among others. He also debuted in Hindi films with "Grahan" which won him the R.D. Burman award for the best new talent.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: Gadsby is a 1939 novel by Ernest Vincent Wright which does not include any words that contain the letter E, the most common letter in English. A work that deliberately avoids certain letters is known as a lipogram. The plot revolves around the dying fictional city of Branton Hills, which is revitalized as a result of the efforts of protagonist John Gadsby and a youth organizer.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: Though vanity published and little noticed in its time, the book has since become a favorite of fans of constrained writing and is a sought-after rarity among some book collectors. Later editions of the book have sometimes carried the alternative subtitle "50,000 Word Novel Without the Letter "E"".


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: Despite Wright's claim, some editions of the book accidentally contain a handful of uses of the letter "e". The 1939 first edition, for example, contains "the" three times and "officers" once.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: In the introduction to the book (which, not being part of the story, does contain the letter 'e') Wright says his primary difficulty was avoiding the "-ed" suffix for past tense verbs. He made extensive use of verbs that do not take the -ed suffix and constructions with "do" and "did" (for instance "did walk" instead of "walked"). Scarcity of word options also drastically limited discussion involving quantity, pronouns, and many common words. Wright was unable to talk about any quantity between six and thirty.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: An article in the linguistic periodical "Word Ways" said that 250 of the 500 most commonly used words in English were still available to Wright despite the omission of words with "e".


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: Wright uses abbreviations on occasion, but only if the full form is similarly lipogrammatic, e.g. "Dr." (Doctor) and "P.S." (postscript) would be allowed but not "Mr." (Mister).


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: Wright also turns famous sayings into lipogrammatic form. Instead of William Congreve's original line, "Music has charms to soothe a savage breast", Wright writes that music "hath charms to calm a wild bosom." John Keats' "a thing of beauty is a joy forever" becomes "a charming thing is a joy always". In other respects Wright does not avoid topics which would otherwise require the letter 'e', for example a detailed description of a horse-drawn fire engine is made without using the words "horse", "fire" or "engine".


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: Fifty-year-old John Gadsby is alarmed by the decline of his hometown, Branton Hills, and rallies the city's youth to form an "Organization of Youth" to build civic spirit and improve living standards. Gadsby and his youthful army, despite some opposition, transform Branton Hills from a stagnant municipality into a bustling, thriving city. Toward the conclusion of the book, the members of Gadsby's organization receive diplomas in honor of their work. Gadsby becomes mayor and helps increase Branton Hills' population from 2,000 to 60,000.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: The story starts around 1906 and continues through World War I, Prohibition, and President Warren G. Harding's administration. "Gadsby" is divided into two parts: the first, about a quarter of the book's total length, is strictly a history of the city of Branton Hills and John Gadsby's place in it, while the second part of the book fleshes out the book's main characters.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: The novel is written from the point of view of an anonymous narrator, who continually complains about his poor writing skills and often uses circumlocution. "Now, naturally, in writing such a story as this, with its conditions as laid down in its Introduction, it is not surprising that an occasional 'rough spot' in composition is found", the narrator says. "So I trust that a critical public will hold constantly in mind that I am voluntarily avoiding words containing that symbol which is, by far, of most common inclusion in writing our Anglo-Saxon as it is, today".


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: Wright appears to have worked on the manuscript for a number of years. Though its official publication date is 1939, references in newspaper humor columns are made to his manuscript of a book without an "e" years earlier. Prior to publication he occasionally referred to his manuscript as "Champion of Youth". In October 1930, while Wright was living near Tampa, Florida, he wrote a letter to "The Evening Independent" newspaper, boasted that he had written a fine lipogrammatic work, and suggested the paper hold a lipogram competition, with $250 for the winner. The paper turned him down.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: Wright struggled to find a publisher for the book, and eventually used Wetzel Publishing Co., a self-publishing press. A 2007 post on the "Bookride" blog about rare books says a warehouse holding copies of "Gadsby" burned shortly after the book was printed, destroying "most copies of the ill fated novel". The blog post says the book was never reviewed "and only kept alive by the efforts of a few avant garde French intellos and assorted connoisseurs of the odd, weird and zany". The book's scarcity and oddness has seen original copies priced at $4,000 to $7,500 by book dealers. Wright died the same year of publication, 1939.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: In 1937, Wright said writing the book was a challenge and the author of an article on his efforts in "The Oshkosh Daily" recommended composing lipograms for insomnia sufferers. Wright said in his introduction to "Gadsby" that "this story was written, not through any attempt to attain literary merit, but due to a somewhat balky nature, caused by hearing it so constantly claimed that 'it can't be done'". He said he tied down the "e" key on his typewriter while completing the final manuscript. "This was done so that none of that vowel might slip in, accidentally; and many did try to do so!" And in fact, the 1939 printing by the Wetzel Publishing Co. contains four such slips, the word "the" on pages 51, 103 and 124, and the word "officers" on page 213.


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: "La Disparition" ("A Void") is a lipogrammatic French novel partly inspired by "Gadsby" that likewise omits the letter "e" and is 50,000 words long. Its author, Georges Perec, was introduced to Wright's book by a friend of his in Oulipo, a multinational constrained-writing group. Perec was aware from Wright's lack of success that publication of such a work "was taking a risk" of finishing up "with nothing [but] a "Gadsby"". As a nod to Wright, "La Disparition" contains a character named "Lord Gadsby V. Wright", a tutor to protagonist Anton Voyl; in addition, a composition attributed to Voyl in "La Disparition" is actually a quotation from "Gadsby".


title: Gadsby (novel)

text: An article in the "Oshkosh Daily" in 1937 wrote (lipogrammatically) that the manuscript was "amazingly smooth. No halting parts. A continuity of plot and almost classic clarity obtains". "The Village Voice" wrote a humor column about "Gadsby". Author Ed Park jokingly aped Wright's style ("Lipogram aficionados—folks who lash words and (alas!) brains so as to omit particular symbols—did in fact gasp, saying, 'Hold that ringing communication tool for a bit! What about J. Gadsby?'"). David Crystal, host of BBC Radio 4's linguistics program "English Now", called it "probably the most ambitious work ever attempted in this genre". Trevor Kitson, writing in New Zealand's "Manawatu Standard" in 2006, said he was prompted to write a short lipogram after seeing Wright's book. The attempt gave him an appreciation for how difficult Wright's task was, but he was less impressed with the result. "It seems extraordinarily (not that it uses that word, of course) and mostly about all-American kids going to church and getting married" he wrote.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Nicolas Poussin (, , ; June 1594 – 19 November 1665) was the leading painter of the classical French Baroque style, although he spent most of his working life in Rome. Most of his works were on religious and mythological subjects painted for a small group of Italian and French collectors. He returned to Paris for a brief period to serve as First Painter to the King under Louis XIII and Cardinal Richelieu, but soon returned to Rome and resumed his more traditional themes. In his later years he gave growing prominence to the landscape in his paintings. His work is characterized by clarity, logic, and order, and favors line over color. Until the 20th century he remained a major inspiration for such classically-oriented artists as Jacques-Louis David, Jean-Auguste-Dominique Ingres and Paul Cézanne.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Details of Poussin's artistic training are somewhat obscure. Around 1612 he traveled to Paris, where he studied under minor masters and completed his earliest surviving works. His enthusiasm for the Italian works he saw in the royal collections in Paris motivated him to travel to Rome in 1624, where he studied the works of Renaissance and Baroque painters—especially Raphael, who had a powerful influence on his style. He befriended a number of artists who shared his classicizing tendencies, and met important patrons, such as Cardinal Francesco Barberini and the antiquarian Cassiano dal Pozzo. The commissions Poussin received for modestly scaled paintings of religious, mythological, and historical subjects allowed him to develop his individual style in works such as "The Death of Germanicus", "The Massacre of the Innocents", and the first of his two series of the "Seven Sacraments".


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: He was persuaded to return to France in 1640 to be First Painter to the King but, dissatisfied with the overwhelming workload and the court intrigues, returned permanently to Rome after a little more than a year. Among the important works from his later years are "Orion Blinded Searching for the Sun", "Landscape with Hercules and Cacus", and "The Seasons".


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Nicolas Poussin's early biographer was his friend Giovanni Pietro Bellori, who relates that Poussin was born near Les Andelys in Normandy and that he received an education that included some Latin, which would stand him in good stead. Another early friend and biographer, André Félibien, reported that "He was busy without cease filling his sketchbooks with an infinite number of different figures which only his imagination could produce." His early sketches attracted the notice of Quentin Varin, who passed some time in Andelys, but there is no mention by his biographers that he had a formal training in Varin's studio, though his later works showed the influence of Varin, particularly by their storytelling, accuracy of facial expression, finely painted drapery and rich colors. His parents apparently opposed a painting career for him, and In or around 1612, at the age of eighteen, he ran away to Paris.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: He arrived in Paris during the regency of Marie de Medici, when art was flourishing as a result of the royal commissions given by Marie de Medici for the decoration of her palace, and by the rise of wealthy Paris merchants who bought art. There was also a substantial market for paintings in the redecoration of churches outside Paris destroyed during the French Wars of Religion, which had recently ended, and for the numerous convents in Paris and other cities. However, Poussin was not a member of the powerful guild of master painters and sculptors, which had a monopoly on most art commissions and brought lawsuits against outsiders like Poussin who tried to break into the profession.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: His early sketches gained him a place in the studios of established painters. He worked for three months in the studio of the Flemish painter Ferdinand Elle, who painted almost exclusively portraits, a genre that was of little interest to Poussin. He moved next to the studio of Georges Lallemand, but Lallemand's inattention to precise drawing and the articulation of his figures apparently displeased Poussin. Moreover, Poussin did not fit well into the studio system, in which several painters worked on the same painting. Thereafter he preferred to work very slowly and alone. Little is known of his life in Paris at this time. Court records show that he ran up considerable debts, which he was unable to pay. He studied anatomy and perspective, but the most important event of his first residence in Paris was his discovery of the royal art collections, thanks to his friendship with Alexandre Courtois, the "valet de chambre" of Marie de Medicis. There he saw for the first time engravings of the works of Giulio Romano and especially of Raphael, whose work had an enormous influence on his future style.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: He first tried to travel to Rome in 1617 or 1618, but made it only as far as Florence, where, as his biographer Bellori reported, "as a result of some sort of accident, he returned to France." On his return, he began making paintings for Paris churches and convents. In 1622 made another attempt to go to Rome, but went only as far as Lyon before returning. In the summer of the same year, he received his first important commission: the Order of Jesuits requested a series of six large paintings to honor the canonization of their founder, Saint Francis Xavier. The originality and energy of these paintings (since lost) brought him a series of important commissions.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Giambattista Marino, the court poet to Marie de Medici, employed him to make a series of fifteen drawings, eleven illustrating Ovid's "Metamorphoses" and four illustrating battle scenes from Roman history. The "Marino drawings", now at Windsor Castle, are among the earliest identifiable works of Poussin. Marino's influence led to a commission for some decoration of Marie de Medici's residence, the Luxembourg Palace, then a commission from the first Archbishop of Paris, Jean-François de Gondi, for a painting of the death of the Virgin (since lost) for the Archbishop's family chapel at the Cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris. Marino took him into his household, and, when he returned to Rome in 1623, invited Poussin to join him. Poussin remained in Paris to finish his earlier commissions, then arrived to Rome in the spring of 1624.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Poussin was thirty when he arrived in Rome in 1624. The new Pope, Urban VIII, elected in 1623, was determined to maintain the position of Rome as the artistic capital of Europe, and artists from around the world gathered there. Poussin could visit the churches and convents to study the works of Raphael and other Renaissance painters, as well as the more recent works of Carracci, Guido Reni and Caravaggio (whose work Poussin detested, saying that Caravaggio was born to destroy painting). He studied the art of painting nudes at the Academy of Domenichino, and frequented the Academy of Saint Luke, which brought together the leading painters in Rome, and whose head in 1624 was another French painter, Simon Vouet, who offered lodging to Poussin.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Poussin became acquainted with other artists in Rome and tended to befriend those with classicizing artistic leanings: the French sculptor François Duquesnoy whom he lodged with in 1626 in via dei Maroniti; the French artist Jacques Stella; Claude Lorraine; Domenichino; Andrea Sacchi; and joined an informal academy of artists and patrons opposed to the current Baroque style that formed around Joachim von Sandrart.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Rome also offered Poussin a flourishing art market and an introduction to an important number of art patrons. Through Marino, he was introduced to Cardinal Francesco Barberini, the brother of the new Pope, and to Cassiano dal Pozzo, the Cardinal's secretary and a passionate scholar of ancient Rome and Greece, who both later became his important patrons. The new art collectors demanded a different format of paintings; instead of large altarpieces and decoration for palaces, they wanted smaller-size religious paintings for private devotion or picturesque landscapes, mythological and history paintings.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: The early years of Poussin in Rome were difficult. His patron Marino departed Rome for Naples in May 1624, shortly after Poussin arrived, and died there in 1625. His other major sponsor, Cardinal Francesco Barberini, was named a papal legate to Spain and also departed soon afterwards, taking Cassiano dal Pozzo with him. Poussin became ill with syphilis, but refused to go to the hospital, where the care was extremely poor, and he was unable to paint for months. He survived by selling the paintings he had for a few ecus. Thanks to the assistance of a chef, Jacques Dughet, whose family took him in and cared for him, he largely recovered by 1629, and on September 1, 1630 he married Anne-Marie Dughet, the daughter of Dughet. His two brothers-in-law were artists, and Gaspard Dughet later took Poussin's surname.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Cardinal Barberini and Cassiano dal Pozzo returned to Rome in 1626, and by their patronage Poussin received two major commissions. In 1627, Poussin painted "The Death of Germanicus" (Minneapolis Institute of Arts) for Cardinal Barberini. The painting’s erudite use of ancient textual and visual sources (the "Histories" of Tacitus and the Meleager sarcophagus), stoic restraint and pictorial clarity established Poussin’s reputation as a major artist. In 1628, he was living on the via Paolino (Babuino) with Jean le Maire.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: The success of the Germanicus led to an even more prestigious commission in 1628 for an altarpiece depicting the "Martyrdom of St. Erasmus", for the Erasmus Chapel in the basilica of St. Peter’s (now in the Vatican Pinacoteca). The Fabricca di San Pietro had originally awarded the commission to Pietro da Cortona, who had produced only preliminary designs for the altarpiece when he was unexpectedly transferred to another project. Thanks to Cassiano dal Pozzo’s influence, Poussin was chosen to paint the Saint Erasmus altarpiece, following Pietro da Cortona’s original design.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: With its plunging diagonal composition and high narrative drama, the "Martyrdom of St. Erasmus" is Poussin’s most overtly “baroque” work. Despite its adherence to the pictorial idiom of the day, for unknown reasons, the "Martyrdom of St. Erasmus" seems to have met with official displeasure and generated no further papal commissions. This disappointment, and the loss of a competition for a fresco cycle in San Luigi dei Francesi, convinced Poussin abandon the pursuit of large-scale, public commissions and the burdensome competitions, content restrictions, and political machinations they entailed. Instead, Poussin would re-orient his art towards private collectors, for whom he could work more slowly, with increasing control over subject matter and style.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Along with Cardinal Barberini and Cassiano dal Pozzo, for whom he painted the first "Seven" "Sacraments" series"," Poussin’s early private patrons included the Chanoine Gian Maria Roscioli, who bought "The Young Pyrrhus Saved" and several other important works; Cardinal Rospigliosi, for whom he painted the second version of "The Shepherds of Arcadia"; and Cardinal Luigi Omodei, who received the "Triumphs of Flora" (c. 1630–32, Louvre). He painted the "Massacre of the Innocents" for the Banker Vincenzo Giustiniani; the jewel thief and art swindler, Fabrizio Valguarnera, bought "Plague of Ashdod" and commissioned "The Empire of Flora". He also received his first French commissions from the Marechal de Crequi, the French envoy to Italy, later, from Cardinal de Richelieu for a series of "Bacchanales".


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Buoyed by this commercial success, Poussin bought a life interest in a small house on Via Paolina (Babuino) for his wife and himself in 1632 and entered his most productive period. His house was at the foot of Trinité des Monts, near the city gate, where other foreigners and artists lived; its exact location is not known but it was opposite the church of Sant'Atanasio dei Greci.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: As the work of Poussin became well known in Rome, he received invitations to return to Paris for important royal commissions, proposed by Sublet de Noyers, the Superintendent of buildings for Louis XIII. When Poussin declined, Noyers sent his cousins, Roland Fréart de Chambray and Paul Fréart, to Rome to persuade Poussin to come home, offering him the title of First Painter to the King, plus a substantial residence at the Tuileries Palace. Poussin yielded, and in December 1640 he was back in Paris.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: The correspondence of Poussin to Cassiano dal Pozzo and his other friends in Rome show that he was appreciative of the money and honors, but he was quickly overwhelmed by a large number of commissions, particularly since he had taken the habit of working slowly and carefully. His new projects included "The Institution of the Eucharist" for the chapel of the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, and "The Miracle of Saint Francis-Xavier" for the altar of the church of the novitiate of the Jesuits. In addition, he was asked to the ceilings and vaults for the Grand gallery of the Louvre, and to paint a large allegorical work for the study of Cardinal Richelieu, on the theme "Time Defending Truth from the Attacks of Envy and Discord", with the figure of "Truth" clearly standing for Cardinal Richelieu. He was also expected to provide designs for royal tapestries and the front pieces for books from the royal printing house. He was also subjected to considerable criticism from the partisans of other French painters, including his old friend Simon Vouet. He completed a painting of the "Last Supper" (now in the Louvre), eight cartoons for the Gobelins tapestry manufactory, drawings for a proposed series of grisaille paintings of the "Labors of Hercules" for the Louvre, and a painting of the "Triumph of Truth" for Cardinal Richelieu (now in the Louvre). He was increasingly unhappy with the court intrigues and the overwhelming number of commissions. In the autumn of 1642, when the King and court were out of Paris in Languedoc, he found a pretext to leave Paris and to return permanently to Rome.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: When he returned to Rome in 1642, he found the art world was in transition. Pope Urban VIII died in 1644, and the new Pope, Innocent X, was less interested in art patronage, and preferred Spanish over French culture. Poussin's great patrons, the Barberinis, departed Rome for France. He still had a few important patrons in Rome, including Cassiano dal Pozzo and the future Cardinal Camillo Massimi, but began to paint more frequently for the patrons he had found in Paris. Cardinal Richelieu died in 1632, and Louis XIII died in 1643, and Poussin's Paris sponsor, Sublet de Noyer, lost his position, but Richelieu's successor, Cardinal Mazarin, began to collect Poussin's works. In October 1643, Poussin sold the furnishings of his house in the Tuileries in Paris, and settled for the rest of his life in Rome.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: In 1647, André Félibien, the secretary of the French Embassy in Rome, became a friend and painting student of Poussin, and published the first book devoted entirely to his work. His growing number of French patrons included the Abbé Louis Fouquet, brother of Nicolas Fouquet, the celebrated superintendent of finances of the young Louis XIV. In 1655 Fouquet obtained for Poussin official recognition of his earlier title as First Painter of the King, along with payment for his past French commissions. To thank Fouquet, Poussin made designs for the baths Fouquet was constructing at his château at Vaux-le-Vicomte.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Another important French patron of Poussin in this period was Paul Fréart de Chantelou, who came to Rome in 1643 and stayed there for several months. He commissioned from Poussin some of his most important works, including the second series of the "Seven Sacraments", painted between 1644 and 1648, and his "Landscape with Diogenes". In 1649 he painted the "Vision of St Paul" for the comic poet Paul Scarron, and in 1651 the "Holy Family" for the duc de Créquy. Landscapes had been a secondary feature of his early work; in his later work nature and the landscape was frequently the central element of the painting.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: He lived an austere and comfortable life, working slowly and apparently without assistants. The painter Charles Le Brun joined him in Rome for three years, and Poussin's work had a major influence on Le Brun's style. In 1647, his patrons Chantelou and Pointel requested portraits of Poussin. He responded by making two self-portraits, completed together in 1649.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: He suffered from declining health after 1650, and was troubled by a worsening tremor in his hand, evidence of which is apparent in his late drawings. Nonetheless, in his final eight years he painted some of the most ambitious and celebrated of his works, including "The Birth of Bacchus", "Orion Blinded Searching for the Sun", "Landscape with Hercules and Cacus", the four paintings of "The Seasons" and "Apollo in love with Daphné".


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: His wife Anne-Marie died in 1664, and thereafter his own health sank rapidly. On 21 September he dictated his will, and he died in Rome on 19 November 1665 and was buried in the church of San Lorenzo in Lucina.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Each of Poussin's paintings told a story. Though he had little formal education, Poussin became very knowledgeable in the nuances of religious history, mythology and classical literature, and, usually after consulting with his clients, took his subjects from these topics. Many of his paintings combined several different incidents, occurring at different times, into the same painting, in order to tell the story, and the "affetti", or facial expressions of the participants, showed their different reactions. Aside from his self-portraits, Poussin never painted contemporary subjects.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Religion was the most common subject of his paintings, as the church was the most important art patron in Rome and because there was a growing demand by wealthy patrons for devotional paintings at home. He took a large part of his themes from the Old Testament, which offered more variety and the stories were often more vague and gave him more freedom to invent. He painted different versions of the stories of Eliazer and Rebecca from the Book of Genesis and made three versions of "Moses saved from the waters". The New Testament provided the subject of one of his most dramatic paintings, "The Massacre of the Innocents", where the general slaughter was reduced to a single brutal incident. In his "Judgement of Solomon" (1649), the story can be read in the varied facial expressions of the participants.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: His religious paintings were sometimes criticized by his rivals for their variation from tradition. His painting of Christ in the sky in his painting of Saint Francis-Xavier was criticized by partisans of Simon Vouet for having "Too much pride, and resembling the god Jupiter more than a God of Mercy". Poussin responded that "he could not and should not imagine a Christ, no matter what he is doing, looking like a gentle father, considering that, when he was on earth among men, it was difficult to look him in the face".


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: The most famous of his religious works were the two series called "The Seven Sacraments", representing the meaning of the moral laws behind each of the principal ceremonies of the church, illustrated by incidents in the life of Christ. The first series was painted in Rome by his major early patron, Cassiano dal Pozzo, and was finished in 1642. It was viewed by his later patron, Paul Fréart de Chantelou, who asked for a copy. Instead of making copies, Poussin painted an entirely new series of paintings, which was finished by 1647. The new series had less of the freshness and originality of the first series, but was striking for its simplicity and austerity in achieving its effects; the second series illustrated his mastery of the balance of the figures, the variety of expressions, and the juxtaposition of colors.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Classical Greek and Roman mythology, history and literature provided the subjects for many of his paintings, particularly during his early years in Rome. His first successful painting in Rome, "The Death of Germanicus", was based upon a story in the "Annals" of Tacitus. In his early years he devoted a series of paintings, full of color, movement and sensuality, to the Bacchanals, colorful portrayals of ceremonies devoted to the god of wine Bacchus, and celebrating the goddesses Venus and Flore. He also created "The Birth of Venus" (1635), telling the story of the Roman goddess through an elaborate composition full of dynamic figures for the French patron, Cardinal Richelieu, who had also commissioned the Bacchanals. Many of his mythological paintings featured gardens and floral themes; his first Roman patrons, the Barberini family, had one of largest and most famous gardens in Rome. Another of his early major themes was the Rape of the Sabine Women, recounting how the King of Rome, Romulus, wanting wives for his soldiers, invited the members of the neighboring Sabine tribe for a festival, and then, on his signal, kidnapped all of the women. He painted two versions, one in 1634, now in the Metropolitan Museum, and the other in 1637, now in the Louvre. He also painted two versions illustrating a story of Ovid in the "Metamorphoses" in which Venus mourning the death of Adonis after a hunting accident, transforms his blood into the color of the anemone flower.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Throughout his career, Poussin frequently achieved what the art historian Willibald Sauerländer terms a "consonance ... between the pagan and the Christian world". An example is "The Four Seasons" (1660–64), in which Christian and pagan themes are mingled: "Spring", traditionally personified by the Roman goddess Flora, instead features Adam and Eve in the garden of Eden; "Summer" is symbolized not by Ceres but by the biblical Ruth.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: In his later years, his mythological paintings became more somber, and often introduced the symbols of mortality and death. The last painting he was working on before his death was "Apollo in love with Daphne", which he presented to his patron, the future Cardinal Massimi, in 1665. The figures on the left of the canvas, around Apollo, largely represented vitality and life, while those on the right, around Daphne, were symbols of sterility and death. He was unable to complete the painting because of the trembling of his hand, and the figures on the right are unfinished.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Besides classical literature and myth, he drew often from works of the romantic and heroic literature of his own time, usually subjects decided in advance with his patrons. He painted scenes from the epic poem "Jerusalem Delivered" by Torquato Tasso (1544–1595), published in 1581, and one of the most popular books in Poussin's lifetime. His painting "Renaud and Armide" illustrated the death of the Christian knight Arnaud at the hands of the magician Armide. who, when she saw his face, saw her hatred turn to love. Another poem by Tasso with a similar theme inspired "Tancred and Hermiene"; a woman finds a wounded knight on the road, breaks down in tears, then finds the strength through love to heal him.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Allegories of death are common in Poussin's work. One of the best-known examples is "Et in Arcadia ego", a subject he painted in about 1630 and again in the late 1630s. Idealized shepherds examine a tomb inscribed with the title phrase, "Even in Arcadia I exist", reminding that death was ever-present.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: A fertile source for Poussin was Cardinal Giulio Rospigliosi, who wrote moralistic theatrical pieces which were staged at the Palace Barberini, his early patron. One of his most famous works, "A Dance to the Music of Time", was inspired by another Rospigliosi piece. According to his early biographers Bellori and Felibien, the four figures in the dance represent the stages of life: Poverty leads to Work, Work to Riches, and Riches to Luxury; then, following Christian doctrine, luxury leads back to poverty, and the cycle begins again. The three women and one man who dance represent the different stages and are distinguished by their different clothing and headdresses, ranging from plain to jeweled. In the sky over the dancing figures, the chariot of Apollo passes, accompanied by the Goddess Aurora and the Hours, a symbol of passing time.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Poussin is an important figure in the development of landscape painting. In his early paintings the landscape usually forms a graceful background for a group of figures, but later the landscape played a larger and larger role and dominated the figures, illustrating stories, usually tragic, taken from the Bible, mythology, ancient history or literature. His landscapes were very carefully composed, with the vertical trees and classical columns carefully balanced by the horizontal bodies of water and flat building stones, all organized to lead the eye to the often tiny figures. The foliage in his trees and bushes is very carefully painted, often showing every leaf. His skies played a particularly important part, from the blue skies and gray clouds with bright sunlit borders (a sight often called in France "a Poussin sky") to illustrate scenes of tranquility and the serenity of faith, such as the "Landscape with Saint John on Patmos", painted in the late 1630s before his departure for Paris; or extremely dark, turbulent and threatening, as a setting for tragic events, as in his "Landscape with Pyramus and Thisbe" (1651). Many of his landscapes have enigmatic elements noticeable only with closer inspection; for example, in the center of the landscape with Pyramus and Thisbe, despite the storm in the sky, the surface of the lake is perfectly calm, reflecting the trees.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Between 1650 and 1655, Poussin also painted a series of paintings now often called "townscapes", where classical architecture replaces trees and mountains in the background. The painting "The Death of Saphire" uses this setting to illustrate two stories simultaneously; in the foreground, the wife of a wealthy merchant dies after being chastised by St. Peter for not giving more money to the poor; while in the background another man, more generous, gives alms to a beggar.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Throughout his life Poussin stood apart from the popular tendency toward the decorative in French art of his time. In Poussin's works a survival of the impulses of the Renaissance is coupled with conscious reference to the art of classical antiquity as the standard of excellence. Rejecting the emotionalism of Baroque artists such as Bernini and Pietro da Cortona, he emphasized the cerebral. His goal was clarity of expression achieved by "disegno" or ‘nobility of design’ in preference to "colore" or color.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: During the late 1620s and 1630s, he experimented and formulated his own style. He studied the Antique as well as works such as Titian’s Bacchanals ("The Bacchanal of the Andrians", "Bacchus and Ariadne", and "The Worship of Venus") at the Casino Ludovisi and the paintings of Domenichino and Guido Reni.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: In contrast to the warm and atmospheric style of his early paintings, Poussin by the 1630s developed a cooler palette, a drier touch, and a more stage-like presentation of figures dispersed within a well defined space. In "The Triumph of David" (c. 1633–34; Dulwich Picture Gallery), the figures enacting the scene are arranged in rows that, like the architectural facade that serves as the background, are parallel to the picture plane. The violence of "The Rape of the Sabine Women" (c. 1638; Louvre) has the same abstract, choreographed quality seen in "A Dance to the Music of Time" (1639–40).


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Contrary to the standard studio practice of his time, Poussin did not make detailed figure drawings as preparation for painting, and he seems not to have used assistants in the execution of his paintings. He produced few drawings as independent works, aside from the series of drawings illustrating Ovid's "Metamorphoses" he made early in his career. His drawings, typically in pen and ink wash, include landscapes drawn from nature to be used as references for painting, and composition studies in which he blocked in his figures and their settings. To aid him in formulating his compositions he made miniature wax figures and arranged them in a box that was open on one side like a theatre stage, to serve as models for his composition sketches. Pierre Rosenberg described Poussin as "not a brilliant, elegant, or seductive draughtsman. Far from it. His lack of virtuosity is, however, compensated for by uncompromising rigour: there is never an irrelevant mark or a superfluous line."


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: In the years following Poussin's death, his style had a strong influence on French art, thanks in particular to Charles Le Brun, who had studied briefly with Poussin in Rome, and who, like Poussin, became a court painter for the King and later the head of the French Academy in Rome. Poussin's work had an important influence on the 17th-century paintings of Jacques Stella and Sébastien Bourdon, the Italian painter Pier Francesco Mola, and the Dutch painter Gerard de Lairesse.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: A debate emerged in the art world between the advocates of Poussin's style, who said the drawing was the most important element of a painting, and the advocates of Rubens, who placed color above the drawing. During the French Revolution, Poussin's style was championed by Jacques-Louis David in part because the leaders of the Revolution looked to replace the frivolity of French court art with Republican severity and civic-mindedness. The influence of Poussin was evident in paintings such as "Brutus" and "Death of Marat". Benjamin West, an American painter of the 18th century who worked in Britain, found inspiration for his canvas of "The Death of General Wolfe" in Poussin's "The Death of Germanicus".


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: The 19th century brought a resurgence of enthusiasm for Poussin. French writers were seeking to create a national art movement and Poussin became one of their heroes: the founding father of the French School; he appears in plays, stories and novels as well as physiognomic studies. He also became the model for the myth of the child genius, who becomes the miserable artist rejected by society, as can be seen in Francois-Marius Granet's painting of the death of Poussin. One of his greatest admirers was Ingres, who studied in Rome and became Director of the French Academy there. Ingres wrote, "Only great painters of history can paint a beautiful landscape. He (Poussin) was the first, and only, to capture the nature of Italy. By the character and taste of his compositions, he proved that such nature belonged to him; so much so that when facing a beautiful site, one says, and says correctly, that it is "Poussinesque". Another 19th-century admirer of Poussin was Ingres' great rival, Eugène Delacroix; he wrote in 1853: "The life of Poussin is reflected in his works; it is in perfect harmony with the beauty and nobility of his inventions...Poussin was one of the greatest innovators found in the history of painting. He arrived in the middle of the school of mannerism, where the craft was preferred to the intellectual role of art. He broke with all of that falseness".


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: Cézanne appreciated Poussin's version of classicism. "Imagine how Poussin entirely redid nature, that is the classicism that I mean. What I don't accept is the classicism that limits you. I want that a visit to a master will help me find myself. Every time I leave a Poussin, I know better who I am." Cézanne was described in 1907 by Maurice Denis as "the Poussin of Impressionism". Georges Seurat was another Post-Impressionist artist who admired the formal qualities of Poussin's work.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: In the 20th century, some art critics suggested that the analytic Cubist experiments of Pablo Picasso and Georges Braque were also founded upon Poussin's example. In 1963 Picasso based a series of paintings on Poussin's "The Rape of the Sabine Women". André Derain, Jean Hélion, Balthus, and Jean Hugo were other modern artists who acknowledged the influence of Poussin. Markus Lüpertz made a series of paintings in 1989–90 based on Poussin's works.


title: Nicolas Poussin

text: The finest collection of Poussin's paintings today is at the Louvre in Paris. Other significant collections are in the National Gallery in London; the National Gallery of Scotland; the Dulwich Picture Gallery; the Musée Condé, Chantilly; the Hermitage Museum, Saint Petersburg; and the Museo del Prado, Madrid.


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: Mazes and Monsters (also known as Rona Jaffe's Mazes and Monsters) is a 1982 American made-for-television film directed by Steven Hilliard Stern about a group of college students and their interest in a fictitious role-playing game (RPG) of the same name.


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: The film opens with a scene that is revisited later in which a reporter meets with police searching a cavern. He is told a game of "Mazes and Monsters" got out of hand.


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: Robbie Wheeling (Tom Hanks) starts college at the fictional Grant University and soon develops a group of friends, all of whom have their own personal problems and issues. Jay-Jay (Chris Makepeace) feels marginalized by his mother, who constantly redecorates his room since she cannot make up her mind about the best look. In his "self-decorating", he wears a variety of unusual hats. Kate (Wendy Crewson) has had a series of failed relationships, and suffers from her father leaving home; Daniel's (David Wallace) parents reject his dream of becoming a video game designer; and Robbie's alcoholic mother and strict father fight constantly, and he is still tormented by the mysterious disappearance of his brother, Hall. They are fans of "Mazes and Monsters", a fantasy role-playing game that had previously caused Robbie to get kicked out of his last school when he became too obsessed with it. Though he is reluctant, the other three students convince him to start playing again with them.


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: Through the course of playing the game, Robbie and Kate begin a serious relationship, in which he confides in her that he still has nightmares about his missing brother. Eventually, Jay-Jay, upset by feeling left out by his friends, decides to commit suicide in a local cavern. In the process of planning it out, he changes his mind and decides the cavern would be better suited to a new "Mazes and Monsters" campaign. He dramatically kills off his character to force them to start a new campaign, in which he describes they will be living out their fantasy. He proposes playing his new game in a disused and condemned cavern, and dismisses the warnings from his friends – who reluctantly agree to participate.


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: During the actual spelunking, Robbie experiences a psychotic episode involving the last time he saw his brother, and he hallucinates that he has slain a monster, called a Gorvil. From this point forward, Robbie believes he is actually his character, the cleric Pardieu. This leads him to break off his relationship with Kate (to maintain celibacy), and to start drawing maps that will lead him to a sacred place he has seen in his dreams called the Great Hall. In his dream, the Great Hall tells him to go to the Two Towers, and he disappears.


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: His friends report him to the police while concealing their trip into the caverns. They and police investigators suspect he is deceased. Robbie travels to New York City, where he stabs a mugger whom he imagines to be a monster. He sees blood on his knife, then sees his bloodied clothes in a window and breaks out of his delusions for long enough to call Kate from a payphone. After he agrees to go to Jay-Jay's house, a delusion leads him into the subway. Not finding him at Jay-Jay's house, the friends deduce Robbie has equated the Two Towers with the Twin Towers of the World Trade Center. Robbie believes that by jumping off one of them and casting a spell, he will finally join the Great Hall. After a search, his friends find him and stop him from jumping off the south tower observation deck using the game's rules, once again pulling him out of his delusion.


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: The film ends with the friends visiting Robbie at his parents' estate, hoping to pick up their friendship where they left off. Though he is now in regular counseling, it is implied that Robbie will live out the rest of his life trapped in his imaginary world believing that he is still Pardieu, that his friends are really their characters, and that he is living at an inn (actually his parents' home) and paying for his boarding with a magic coin, which "magically" reappears in his pouch each morning. He then tells his shocked friends of a great evil lurking in the forest across the lake, believing that it threatens the lives of the "innkeeper" and his wife. The three, feeling sorry for Robbie and guilty for their role in his psychotic break, decide to engage him in a "game" of "Mazes and Monsters", letting Robbie dictate the events to them. In the end, Kate says, "And so ... we played the game again ... for one last time."


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: The film was adapted from the novel "Mazes and Monsters" by Rona Jaffe. Jaffe had based her 1981 novel on inaccurate newspaper stories about the disappearance of James Dallas Egbert III from Michigan State University in 1979. Early media accounts had over-emphasized Egbert's participation in fantasy role playing, often speculating that his hobby of "Dungeons & Dragons" might have been a factor in his disappearance. William Dear, the private investigator on the case, explained actual events and the reasons behind the media myth in his 1984 book "The Dungeon Master". Jaffe wrote her novel in a matter of days because of a fear that another author might also be fictionalizing the Egbert investigation.


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: Like the book on which it is based, the film touches on the claim that the playing of role-playing games could be related to psychological problems. At least one protagonist is (or at least appears to be) suffering from schizophrenia (or some analogous condition).


title: Mazes and Monsters

text: The film has been available on VHS tape, DVD and various streaming services. The film received a 40th anniversary blu-ray release in 2022, which was its first high definition version. It was published by Plumeria Pictures on 19 September.


title: Dispersion relation

text: In the physical sciences and electrical engineering, dispersion relations describe the effect of dispersion on the properties of waves in a medium. A dispersion relation relates the wavelength or wavenumber of a wave to its frequency. Given the dispersion relation, one can calculate the phase velocity and group velocity of waves in the medium, as a function of frequency. In addition to the geometry-dependent and material-dependent dispersion relations, the overarching Kramers–Kronig relations describe the frequency dependence of wave propagation and attenuation.


title: Dispersion relation

text: Dispersion may be caused either by geometric boundary conditions (waveguides, shallow water) or by interaction of the waves with the transmitting medium. Elementary particles, considered as matter waves, have a nontrivial dispersion relation even in the absence of geometric constraints and other media.


title: Dispersion relation

text: In the presence of dispersion, wave velocity is no longer uniquely defined, giving rise to the distinction of phase velocity and group velocity.


title: Dispersion relation

text: Dispersion occurs when sinusoidal waves of different wavelengths have different propagation velocities, so that a wave packet of mixed wavelengths tends to spread out in space. The speed of a plane wave, formula_1, is a function of the wave's wavelength formula_2:


title: Dispersion relation

text: The function formula_5 expresses the dispersion relation of the given medium. Dispersion relations are more commonly expressed in terms of the angular frequency formula_6 and wavenumber formula_7. Rewriting the relation above in these variables gives


title: Dispersion relation

text: where we now view "f" as a function of "k". The use of "ω"("k") to describe the dispersion relation has become standard because both the phase velocity "ω"/"k" and the group velocity "dω"/"dk" have convenient representations via this function.


title: Dispersion relation

text: Plane waves in vacuum are the simplest case of wave propagation: no geometric constraint, no interaction with a transmitting medium.


title: Dispersion relation

text: This is a "linear" dispersion relation. In this case, the phase velocity and the group velocity are the same:


title: Dispersion relation

text: Total energy, momentum, and mass of particles are connected through the relativistic dispersion relation established by Paul Dirac:


title: Dispersion relation

text: where formula_15 is the invariant mass. In the nonrelativistic limit, formula_16 is a constant, and formula_17 is the familiar kinetic energy expressed in terms of the momentum formula_18.


title: Dispersion relation

text: The transition from ultrarelativistic to nonrelativistic behaviour shows up as a slope change from "p" to "p" as shown in the log–log dispersion plot of "E" vs. "p".


title: Dispersion relation

text: Elementary particles, atomic nuclei, atoms, and even molecules behave in some contexts as matter waves. According to the de Broglie relations, their kinetic energy "E" can be expressed as a frequency "ω", and their momentum "p" as a wavenumber "k", using the reduced Planck constant "ħ":


title: Dispersion relation

text: Accordingly, angular frequency and wavenumber are connected through a dispersion relation, which in the nonrelativistic limit reads


title: Dispersion relation

text: As mentioned above, when the focus in a medium is on refraction rather than absorption—that is, on the real part of the refractive index—it is common to refer to the functional dependence of angular frequency on wavenumber as the "dispersion relation". For particles, this translates to a knowledge of energy as a function of momentum.


title: Dispersion relation

text: The name "dispersion relation" originally comes from optics. It is possible to make the effective speed of light dependent on wavelength by making light pass through a material which has a non-constant index of refraction, or by using light in a non-uniform medium such as a waveguide. In this case, the waveform will spread over time, such that a narrow pulse will become an extended pulse, i.e., be dispersed. In these materials, formula_21 is known as the group velocity and corresponds to the speed at which the peak of the pulse propagates, a value different from the phase velocity.


title: Dispersion relation

text: where "g" is the acceleration due to gravity. Deep water, in this respect, is commonly denoted as the case where the water depth is larger than half the wavelength. In this case the phase velocity is


title: Dispersion relation

text: where "T" is the tension force in the string, and "μ" is the string's mass per unit length. As for the case of electromagnetic waves in vacuum, ideal strings are thus a non-dispersive medium, i.e. the phase and group velocities are equal and independent (to first order) of vibration frequency.


title: Dispersion relation

text: In the study of solids, the study of the dispersion relation of electrons is of paramount importance. The periodicity of crystals means that many levels of energy are possible for a given momentum and that some energies might not be available at any momentum. The collection of all possible energies and momenta is known as the band structure of a material. Properties of the band structure define whether the material is an insulator, semiconductor or conductor.


title: Dispersion relation

text: Phonons are to sound waves in a solid what photons are to light: they are the quanta that carry it. The dispersion relation of phonons is also non-trivial and important, being directly related to the acoustic and thermal properties of a material. For most systems, the phonons can be categorized into two main types: those whose bands become zero at the center of the Brillouin zone are called acoustic phonons, since they correspond to classical sound in the limit of long wavelengths. The others are optical phonons, since they can be excited by electromagnetic radiation.


title: Dispersion relation

text: With high-energy (e.g., ) electrons in a transmission electron microscope, the energy dependence of higher-order Laue zone (HOLZ) lines in convergent beam electron diffraction (CBED) patterns allows one, in effect, to "directly image" cross-sections of a crystal's three-dimensional dispersion surface. This dynamical effect has found application in the precise measurement of lattice parameters, beam energy, and more recently for the electronics industry: lattice strain.


title: Dispersion relation

text: Isaac Newton studied refraction in prisms but failed to recognize the material dependence of the dispersion relation, dismissing the work of another researcher whose measurement of a prism's dispersion did not match Newton's own.


title: Dispersion relation

text: The universality of the Kramers–Kronig relations (1926–27) became apparent with subsequent papers on the dispersion relation's connection to causality in the scattering theory of all types of waves and particles.


title: Dave Aranda

text: David Christopher Aranda (born September 29, 1976) is an American football coach who is currently the head coach at Baylor University. He previously served as the defensive coordinator at LSU, Wisconsin, Utah State, Hawaii, Delta State, and Cal Lutheran.


title: Dave Aranda

text: Born in Southern California to Mexican immigrant parents from Guadalajara, Aranda graduated from Redlands High School in Redlands, California in 1994, where he was a linebacker.


title: Dave Aranda

text: After high school, Aranda retired from playing football due to injuries, so he became an assistant coach at Redlands High in 1995. He tried to join the U.S. Navy, but his football injuries—specifically the aftereffects of a shoulder fracture he had suffered in high school—caused him to fail the physical. While coaching at his old high school, he also worked night shifts as a security guard. During this time, Aranda visited a friend who was attending California Lutheran University, and soon enrolled there in an attempt to return to play. While his injuries made it impossible for him to play, he got an opportunity to become a student assistant while an undergraduate, serving as linebackers coach for the Kingsmen from 1996 to 1999. Aranda was also the roommate of Tom Herman. Aranda graduated from Cal Lutheran in 1999 with a bachelor's degree in philosophy. He also sought out coaches to talk about the profession, and became enamored with the book "Thinking Body, Dancing Mind" by sports psychologist Jerry Lynch, who has consulted with numerous championship teams in several sports and whose thinking has influenced coaches such as Phil Jackson and Steve Kerr.


title: Dave Aranda

text: In 2000, Aranda enrolled in graduate school at Texas Tech University and served as a graduate assistant for Texas Tech Red Raiders football from 2000 to 2002 under Mike Leach. While back in Southern California during an offseason break in 2001, Aranda cold-called Lynch and asked for a face-to-face meeting with him in Santa Cruz, about 300 miles from Redlands. In a 2022 ESPN story, Lynch, who normally works with teams instead of individuals, recalled, "There was something about Dave when he contacted me. I felt, through his words, a sense of being genuine, authentic and vulnerable. Those are the three keys that attract me to people. It's almost like, OK, I don't want to let this opportunity go by so I saw it as an opportunity for me to learn about this young man." Aranda spent three days with Lynch, and they have maintained their relationship ever since, with Aranda having written the foreword to Lynch's 13th book, "Everyday Champion Wisdom".


title: Dave Aranda

text: From 2003 to 2004, Aranda was linebackers coach at Houston. He then returned to Cal Lutheran as defensive coordinator and linebackers coach, positions he held for the 2005 and 2006 seasons. In 2007, Aranda was defensive coordinator and secondary coach for Delta State.


title: Dave Aranda

text: Following stints at California Lutheran and Delta State University, in 2008 he was tapped by his coaching mentor, Greg McMackin, to serve as the defensive line coach for the University of Hawaii Warriors. In Aranda's first season, he cultivated a talented unit that included David Veikune, Joshua Leonard and Keala Watson. In 2009, Aranda was credited with developing a creative defensive scheme that stymied Navy's vaunted rushing attack and allowed the Warriors to earn a 24–17 victory over a Midshipmen squad that defeated Notre Dame two weeks earlier. The following year he was elevated to defensive coordinator. He helped lead the Warriors to victory in nine of their last ten regular season games. In those wins, Aranda's opportunistic defense limited the opposition to 16.1 points per game, only allowed 2.4 yards per rush and held Colin Kaepernick in check en route to handing the Nevada Wolf Pack its only loss of the season. Under Aranda's guidance the Warriors led the nation in turnovers caused (38) and tied a school record for most defensive touchdowns (5).


title: Dave Aranda

text: Although the Warriors struggled to a 6–7 record in 2011, Aranda's defense was particularly impressive in a 34–17 drubbing of Colorado. Leading up to the game, Colorado coach Jon Embree boasted that as to Hawaii's defense, the Buffaloes were going to "run the ball down their throat." Aranda, who later acknowledged that he took Embree's comment personally, met the challenge head on and limited the boastful Buffaloes to just 17 net rushing yards on the night. For the year, Aranda's defense led the Western Athletic Conference and was tied for 15th in the FBS in sacks (35). At the conclusion of the season, he found himself on the wrong-side of the ledger and was fired after head coach Greg McMackin resigned. Despite the circumstances, Aranda said later "I miss the family atmosphere there. I miss the people."


title: Dave Aranda

text: In 2012, Aranda was the defensive coordinator for one year for the Utah State Aggies under Gary Andersen. That same year he was a nominee for the Broyles Award as the Aggies defense finished in the top 15 of all FBS schools in all four major defensive categories; seventh in scoring defense (15.4 points per game), 13th in rushing defense (113.8 yards per game), eighth in pass-efficiency defense (14 interceptions, 12 touchdowns, 54.1% completion rate, 5.7 yards per attempt) and 14th in total defense (322.1 ypg).


title: Dave Aranda

text: When Gary Andersen was hired as the new Wisconsin Badgers head coach, following the 2012 football season, Aranda followed him to Wisconsin. Aranda turned down offers from Texas Tech and California. Aranda changed the Badgers' base defense from a 4–3 to a 3–4 and developed a more aggressive defense, putting pressure on the quarterback. His first year as defensive coordinator the Badgers defense ranked in the top 20 in all four major defensive categories; scoring defense (6th), total defense (7th), rushing defense (5th) and passing defense (17th).


title: Dave Aranda

text: Week 10 of the 2014 football season Aranda was named "Coordinator of the Week" by Athlon Sports after his Wisconsin Badgers defense shutout Rutgers Scarlet Knights 37–0. It was Wisconsin's first road shutout since 1998. The Badgers took 1st place in the West Division with a 10–2 record, going 7–1 in the conference. Wisconsin played Ohio State for the conference title in the 2014 Big Ten Championship Game where the Badgers lost to Ohio State 59–0. It was the first time since 1997 that the Badgers were shutout and the worst loss since 1979 when Ohio State also defeated the Badgers 59–0.


title: Dave Aranda

text: Four days after the Badgers lost to Ohio State, Gary Andersen departed Wisconsin for Oregon State. Former Badgers offensive coordinator (2005–2011) and Pitt head coach (2012–2014), Paul Chryst, was hired as the next head coach of the Badgers. Aranda was the only assistant coach to remain on the coaching staff after Andersen's departure.


title: Dave Aranda

text: Two of Aranda's three years at Wisconsin one of his linebackers won the Big Ten Linebacker of the Year, Chris Borland in 2013 and Joe Schobert in 2015. Borland also won Big Ten Defensive Player of the Year in 2013. Aranda alongside his OLB coach Tim Tibesar were named Linebacker Coaches of the Year for 2015 by FootballScoop. Over Aranda's three-year span as defensive coordinator at Wisconsin his defense ranked first nationally in total defense, second in scoring defense, third in pass defense and fourth in run defense. His final season with the Badgers his defense came in first in scoring defense, allowing just 13.1 points per game.


title: Dave Aranda

text: On January 1, 2016, it was announced that Aranda was hired to replace Kevin Steele as defensive coordinator for the LSU Tigers. The move to LSU saw his starting salary more than double from $520,000 to $1.3 million. His contract was guaranteed for three years and was not tied to the contract of LSU head coach Ed Orgeron. On January 5, 2018, it was announced that Aranda received a new four-year contract that will pay him $2.5 million annually and the entire $10 million deal is guaranteed. This was in response to several attempts by Texas A&M to hire Aranda. In 2019 season, he won a championship with LSU.


title: Dave Aranda

text: On January 16, 2020, Aranda was named the head coach at Baylor University, replacing Matt Rhule, who left to become the head coach of the Carolina Panthers.


title: Dave Aranda

text: In the spring of 2020, Aranda was tasked with navigating the 2020 Baylor Bears football team through the COVID-19 pandemic. The Bears' spring practices as well as the Baylor football spring "Green and Gold game" were canceled due to the COVID-19 pandemic, leaving first time head coach Aranda and his new team without practice prior to entering the 2020 football season. Aranda finished the 2020 season 2-7 overall, and 2-7 in Big 12 play. After the season concluded, Aranda and Baylor parted ways with the Bears' first year offensive coordinator, Larry Fedora, and then later hired Jeff Grimes from Brigham Young University for the same role.


title: Dave Aranda

text: In 2021, Aranda led the Bears to their best season in school history. The Bears were ranked in the top 25 for the majority of the 2021 football season and finished with a 12-2 record (7-2 in Big 12 play), the most wins in program history. In the 2021 Big 12 Championship Game, Aranda and the Bears beat Oklahoma State 21-16 on an iconic goal line stand to win Baylor's 3rd Big 12 football championship. The season ended with a historic Sugar Bowl win where they beat Ole Miss 21-7. Aranda won the AP Big 12 Coach of the Year (2021), the Paul “Bear” Bryant Awards program's Big 12 Coach of the Year, and was the first Baylor football coach to win the George Munger Award. Aranda was also a finalist for many other national awards, including the 2021 Eddie Robinson Award, Bobby Dodd Coach of the Year Award, Associated Press College Football Coach of the Year Award, and Paul "Bear" Bryant Award for National Coach of the Year.


title: Universal Numbering System

text: The Universal Numbering System, sometimes called the "American System", is a dental notation system commonly used in the United States.


title: Universal Numbering System

text: Most of the rest of the world uses the FDI World Dental Federation notation, accepted as an international standard by the International Standards Organization as ISO 3950. However, dentists in the United Kingdom commonly still use the older Palmer notation despite the difficulty in representing its graphical components in computerized (non-handwritten) records.


title: Universal Numbering System

text: Dental charts are normally arranged from the viewpoint of a dental practitioner facing a patient. The patient's right side appears on the left side of the chart, and the patient's left side appears on the right side of the chart.


title: Universal Numbering System

text: The labels "right" and "left" on the charts in this article correspond to the patient's right and left, respectively.


title: Universal Numbering System

text: Although it is named the "universal numbering system", it is also called the "American system" as it is only used in the United States. The uppercase letters "A" through "T" are used for primary teeth and the numbers 1 - 32 are used for permanent teeth. The tooth designated "1" is the maxillary right third molar ("wisdom tooth") and the count continues along the upper teeth to the left side. Then the count begins at the mandibular left third molar, designated number 17, and continues along the bottom teeth to the right side. Each tooth has a unique number or letter, allowing for easier use on keyboards.


title: Carrier air wing

text: A carrier air wing (abbreviated CVW) is an operational naval aviation organization composed of several aircraft squadrons and detachments of various types of fixed-wing and rotary-wing aircraft. Organized, equipped and trained to conduct modern US Navy carrier air operations while embarked aboard aircraft carriers, the various squadrons in an air wing have different but complementary (and sometimes overlapping) missions, and provide most of the striking power and electronic warfare capabilities of a carrier battle group (CVBG). While the CVBG term is still used by other nations, the CVBG in US parlance is now known as a carrier strike group (CSG).


title: Carrier air wing

text: Until 1963, Carrier Air Wings were known as Carrier Air Groups (CVGs). Carrier Air Wings are what the United States Air Force would call "composite" wings, and should not be confused with U.S. Navy "Type" Wings (such as Strike Fighter Wing Atlantic), which are primarily administrative and training commands composed of squadrons of the same type of carrier-based aircraft when not deployed. The United States Marine Corps equivalent command-level organization to a CVW is the Marine Aircraft Group (MAG). However, MAGs are shore-based (with sea-based capability) and may contain any combination of aircraft squadrons and aviation support units. Carrier Air Wings integrate closely with their assigned aircraft carriers, forming a "carrier/air wing team" that trains and deploys together. There are currently nine U.S. Navy Carrier Air Wings; four of the wing commanders and their staffs are based at Naval Air Station Oceana, Virginia, four are based at Naval Air Station Lemoore, California, and one is aboard Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni, Japan. The squadrons which make up each wing are based at various bases in the U.S. with their respective Type Wing Commanders with the exception of those squadrons assigned to the Japan based airwing which are based at Marine Corps Air Station Iwakuni (fixed wing squadrons) and Naval Air Facility Atsugi, Japan (helicopters).


title: Carrier air wing

text: In addition to the squadrons which happen to be based at NAS Oceana and NAS Lemoore with the wing staffs the CONUS-based air wings also have squadrons based at NAS Whidbey Island, Washington; NAS Point Mugu, NAS North Island, and MCAS Miramar in California; NAS Jacksonville, Florida; MCAS Beaufort, South Carolina; MCAS Cherry Point, North Carolina; and NS Norfolk/Chambers Field, Virginia. These air wings are occasionally reassigned to different aircraft carriers based on carrier maintenance schedules. A modern air wing consists of roughly 1,500 personnel and 74–78 aircraft.


title: Carrier air wing

text: The first "Carrier Air Groups" (as they were then called) were activated in 1937. From July 1937 to mid-1942, Carrier Air Groups were permanently assigned to and identified by their parent aircraft carrier, and group squadrons were numbered according to the carrier's hull number. For example, the "Enterprise Air Group", assigned to , were all numbered "6": Fighting Squadron (VF) 6, Bombing Squadron (VB) 6, etc. From 1942, numerical designation of air groups began, the first being Carrier Air Group 9 (CVG-9), established on 1 March 1942. For a while, they were given unique numbers according to their assigned carriers' hull number (i.e., the Saratoga Air Group became CVG-3). This numbering scheme was also soon scrapped as carrier groups (now abbreviated CVGs) frequently moved from carrier to carrier. At this point, the carrier groups simply retained their number designation regardless of the carrier assigned.


title: Carrier air wing

text: The first formal system for air group identification ("Visual Identification System for Naval Aircraft") was established in January 1945. This consisted of geometric symbols that identified the parent carrier, not the air group. As there were just too many carriers and the symbols were hard to remember or to describe over the radio, a single or double letter system was introduced in July 1945. The letters, however, still identified the carrier, not the air group. The following identifications are known:


title: Carrier air wing

text: "Shangri-La" is known to have had her Lightning Bolt on the flight deck forward and aft replaced by her air group identification letter "Z", as the slight remaining Lightning Bolt can be seen painted on the deck beneath the Z on the victory photos of the carrier.


title: Carrier air wing

text: Due to the ongoing combat and the end of the war, a mix of identification codes was used in late 1945. Starting in late 1946, the letters identified the carrier air group, and not the carrier. The use of single letters was discontinued in 1957.


title: Carrier air wing

text: On 15 November 1946, to correct the results of demobilization which had left squadron numbers all out of sequence, sweeping changes were made in air unit designations. Carrier Air Groups of four types were designated according to their assigned ship, as CVBG for Battle Carrier, CVG for Attack Carrier, CVLG for Light Carrier and CVEG for Escort Carrier. Two years later, on 1 September 1948, all carrier air groups became CVG regardless of their carrier affiliation.


title: Carrier air wing

text: On 20 December 1963, Carrier Air Groups were retitled Wings, and the acronym CVG became CVW. Replacement Air Groups, which were set up in 1958, became Combat Readiness Air Groups on 1 April 1963. Often known by the short titles RAG and CRAG in the respective periods, their designation throughout was RCVG. When Groups became Wings, CRAG became CRAW and RCVG became RCVW.


title: Carrier air wing

text: From 1960 to 1974, the U.S. Navy also operated "Carrier Anti-Submarine Air Groups (CVSG)". These typically consisted of two fixed-wing anti-submarine squadrons (VS), a helicopter anti-submarine squadron (HS), and two smaller squadrons or squadron detachments of 3–4 aircraft for airborne early warning (VAW) and self-defense (VA, VMA, VSF, VF).


title: Carrier air wing

text: Initially and during WWII, the commander of the air group (known as the "CAG") was the most senior officer of the embarked squadrons and was expected to personally lead all major strike operations, co-ordinating the attacks of the carrier's fighter, bomber, and torpedo planes in combat. The CAG was a department head of the ship reporting to the carrier's commanding officer.


title: Carrier air wing

text: In 1963 when Carrier Air Groups were retitled Wings, the commander retained the legacy title of "CAG" which continues to this day.


title: Carrier air wing

text: After WWII through 1983, CAGs were typically post-squadron command aviators in the rank of commander. Though the CAG was in command of the air wing, he functioned as a department head reporting to the carrier's commanding officer once the wing embarked. The CAG would typically be promoted to captain after their tour and subsequently command a deep draft support vessel, then an aircraft carrier as a senior captain. In 1983, Secretary of the Navy John Lehman elevated the CAG position to a captain's billet and on-par with aircraft carrier's commander while embarked, both officers reporting directly to the Carrier Battle Group commander. During this transition period some air wings were commanded by commanders, others by captains; these new captain CAGs were dubbed "Super CAGs" until all air wings transitioned. Later the position of deputy CAG (DCAG) was established and filled by junior captains who assisted the CAGs until they eventually "fleet up" to replace the out-going CAG. This system remains in place today.


title: Carrier air wing

text: A modern carrier air wing has a small command staff consisting of 16–20 officers and approximately 20 enlisted personnel. It is headed by the CAG, who is a navy captain with an aeronautical designation as a Naval Aviator or naval flight officer. In the decade of the 2000s, the Navy and Marine Corps "cross pollinated" Carrier Air Wings and Marine Aircraft Groups by assigning a Marine Corps colonel as the commander of one carrier air wing and a Navy captain as the commander of one Marine aircraft group. That practice ceased before the end of the decade.


title: Carrier air wing

text: Second in command is the deputy commander (DCAG), also a navy captain aviator or NFO, who "fleets up" to the CAG position after about 18 months. Also on the staff are an operations officer (typically a commander), a number of warfare specialists (typically lieutenant commanders or lieutenants), two wing landing signal officers, an intelligence officer, a weapons officer and a maintenance officer. The air wing staff is often supplemented with squadron personnel, such as the squadron intelligence officers. The CAG reports to a rear admiral in the position of commander, Carrier Strike Group and is equal with the commanding officer of the aircraft carrier as well as the embarked Destroyer Squadron (DESRON) commander and the attached guided missile cruiser commanding officer. The CAG serves as the Strike Group's strike warfare commander, responsible for all offensive strike operations (including Tomahawk missiles). CAGs are typically qualified to fly at least two types of aircraft in the Carrier Air Wing inventory.


title: Carrier air wing

text: Typical air group composition aboard the Yorktown Class carriers, at the beginning of World War II, consisted of approximately 72 aircraft:


title: Carrier air wing

text: During the course of the war in the Pacific, the compositions of the air groups changed drastically. The scouting squadrons were disestablished by early 1943 and the number of fighter planes was increased continuously. Typically in 1943 an Essex class carrier carried 36 fighters, 36 bombers and 18 torpedo planes.


title: Carrier air wing

text: Carrier Air Groups typically had four fighter squadrons with 58 planes and an attack squadron of 14 planes.


title: Carrier air wing

text: New to the air wings in the Cold War period after Korea and just prior to Vietnam were specialized squadrons or detachments of aircraft for heavy attack/nuclear strike (VAH), photographic reconnaissance (VAP/VFP, RVAH), airborne early warning (VAW), all-weather medium attack (VA), advanced twin-seat fighters (VF), electronic countermeasures (VAQ), and rescue and plane guard helicopters (HU).


title: Carrier air wing

text: During the Vietnam War, Attack Carrier Air Wings typically consisted of approximately 70 aircraft, including two fighter squadrons and three attack squadrons, plus the special squadrons and detachments (VAW, VAQ, RVAH or VFP, VQ, HC or HS).


title: Carrier air wing

text: An anti-submarine air group (CVSG) aboard the "Essex"-class anti-submarine carriers (CVS) operated up to five squadrons and two detachments:


title: Carrier air wing

text: From 1969 to 1977, a number of carrier air wings were disestablished in the post-Vietnam drawdown: Carrier Air Wing 10 on 20 November 1969, Readiness Carrier Air Wing 12 on 1 June 1970, Readiness Carrier Air Wing 4 on 1 July 1970, Carrier Air Wing 16 on 30 June 1971, Carrier Air Wing 21 on 12 December 1975, and Carrier Air Wing 19 on 30 June 1977 along with all of the Anti-Submarine Air Groups which were disestablished by 1974.


title: Carrier air wing

text: In the mid 1970s the Navy decommissioned its Anti-Submarine Aircraft Carriers (CVS) and its Attack Carriers (CVA) were re-designated CV. The VS and HS squadrons of the former Anti-Submarine Air Groups joined the Carrier Air Wings and the HS squadrons, in addition to their Anti-Submarine role, assumed the search and rescue (SAR) and plane guard roles formerly filled by the HC detachments. By the early 1980s, typical air wings were replacing F-4 Phantom IIs with Grumman F-14 Tomcats on Forrestal, Kitty Hawk, Enterprise and Nimitz class carriers and with F/A-18 Hornets onboard Midway class carriers. LTV A-7 Corsair IIs were also being replaced with F/A-18s, while Grumman KA-6D Intruder tankers and A-6E bombers with aerial refueling pods had replaced A-3s as tankers. EA-6B Prowlers had largely replaced EA-3s in the VAQ mission, although detachments of EA-3s from fleet air reconnaissance squadrons (VQ) soldiered on through the late 1980s as ELINT aircraft until replaced by the Lockheed ES-3A Shadow in the carrier-based VQ mission. The North American RA-5C Vigilante was also phased out in January 1980, replaced by F-14 Tomcats with Tactical Air Reconnaissance Pods (TARPS). The typical Carrier Air Wing of this period consisted of the following.


title: Carrier air wing

text: On 1 March 1984, Carrier Air Wing 13 was established. Between 1 October 1985 and 30 September 1989 the wing made three deployments aboard "Coral Sea." Carrier Air Wing 10 was re-established on 1 November 1986 for eighteen months, but then disestablished again in March 1988.


title: Carrier air wing

text: The Gulf War marked the largest concentrated use of carrier air wings since World War II. All F-4s had been retired and A-7Es had largely been replaced with F/A-18 Hornets.


title: Carrier air wing

text: From 1991 to 1995, several Type/Model/Series (T/M/S) aircraft were phased out of the active inventory (e.g., Regular Navy and Naval Air Reserve), to include the RF-8G Crusader, the A-7E Corsair II, ES-3A Shadow, SH-3H Sea King and the A-6E and KA-6D Intruder. While some of these retirements were due to obsolescence (RF-8G) or succession by newer aircraft (A-7Es replaced by F/A-18s), others were due strictly to post-Cold War perceived "Peace Dividend" budget measures on the part of certain Secretaries of Defense and the U.S. Congress (e.g., A-6 Intruder), with aircraft that still had useful remaining life being prematurely relegated to retirement. Other T/M/S aircraft saw the number of operational squadrons significantly reduced (e.g., F-14 Tomcat, E-2 Hawkeye) for similar budgetary reasons. During the same period, three more carrier air wings were disestablished: the Atlantic Fleet's Carrier Air Wing 13 on 1 January 1991, followed by Carrier Air Wing 6 on 1 April 1992, and the Pacific Fleet's Carrier Air Wing 15 on 31 March 1995. In addition, the U.S. Naval Reserve's Carrier Air Wing Reserve 30 (CVWR-30) was disestablished on 31 December 1994.


title: Carrier air wing

text: In 1992, a program named CV Integration began with Marine Corps EA-6B and F-18 squadrons augmenting Carrier Airwings due to the shortage of EA-6Bs and F-18 aircraft in the inventory. In 1996, the last Marine Corps EA-6B squadron completed their CV Integration aboard the USS "America" which was making its final cruise. Marine Corps F-18 squadrons continued to augment Navy carrier airwings on both East and West Coast Airwings.


title: Carrier air wing

text: By 2003, A-6s had been retired with their tanking duties being assumed by S-3s, ES-3s had been retired, and older F-14s were being phased out with the FA-18 E/F Super Hornets.


title: Carrier air wing

text: By 2008 the S-3B Vikings had been retired and the VS squadrons deactivated, the HS squadrons were beginning a transition from their Anti-Submarine SH-60F helicopter to the new MH-60S Naval Special Warfare support, Combat Search and Rescue, and Logistics support helicopter and were being re-designated Helicopter Sea Combat (HSC) squadrons. The Navy's other new helicopter at the time, the MH-60R combined and improved the Anti-Submarine and Anti-Surface Warfare capabilities of the old SH-60F and the old SH-60B surface ship based Light Airborne Multi-Purpose System (LAMPS) helicopter and were equipping a new carrier based helicopter squadron called the Helicopter Maritime Strike squadron (HSM). The HSM squadrons ultimately replaced the VS and HS squadrons as the carrier air wing's Anti-Submarine and Anti-Surface Warfare squadron and the VS tanking role was assumed by the airwing Super Hornet squadrons. By the beginning of the 2010s the VAQ squadrons began their transition from the EA-6B to the new EA-18G Growler.


title: Carrier air wing

text: Today's air wing composition is designed to allow for broad striking power hundreds of miles from the carrier's position, while providing defense in depth of the battle group through early warning and detection of airborne, surface and subsurface targets. The current U.S. Navy carrier air wing consists of:


title: Carrier air wing

text: Atlantic Fleet air wings have an "A" as the first letter of their tailcode identification, while those of the Pacific Fleet have an "N". The "A" or "N" is followed by a letter that uniquely identifies the air wing (e.g., CVW-1 aircraft, part of the Atlantic Fleet, have a tail code of "AB").


title: Carrier air wing

text: CVW-17 transferred from Atlantic Fleet (with tail code AA) to Pacific Fleet (with tail code NA) in 2012 and was reassigned to .<ref name="DNS-33/12U102092"></ref> USS "Enterprise" decommissioned in December 2012 and CVW-1 was reassigned to USS "Theodore Roosevelt" in 2013 until USS "Theodore Roosevelt" shifted homeport to San Diego in 2015 at which time CVW-17 shifted to her.


title: Carrier air wing

text: With the inactivation of CVWR-30 in 1994, the single remaining U.S. Navy Reserve Carrier Air Wing was Carrier Air Wing Reserve Twenty (CVWR-20). On 1 April 2007, CVWR-20 was redesignated as Tactical Support Wing (TSW):


title: Muzaffarabad

text: The city is located in Muzaffarabad District, near the confluence of the Jhelum and Neelum rivers. The district is bounded by the Pakistani province of Khyber Pakhtunkhwa in the west, the Kupwara and Baramulla districts of Indian-administered Jammu and Kashmir in the east, and the Neelum District in the north.


title: Muzaffarabad

text: Muzaffarabad was founded in 1646 by Sultan Muzaffar Khan, chief of the Bomba tribe who ruled Kashmir. Khan also constructed the Red Fort that same year for the purpose of warding off incursions from the Mughal Empire.


title: Muzaffarabad

text: The city was near the epicenter of the 2005 Kashmir earthquake, which had a magnitude of 7.6 M. The earthquake destroyed about 50% of the buildings in the city (including most government buildings) and is estimated to have killed up to 80,000 people in the Pakistani-controlled areas. , the Pakistani government's official death toll was 87,350, while other estimates have put the death toll at over 100,000.


title: Muzaffarabad

text: The district of Muzaffarabad is administratively divided into 2 tehsils, which are subdivided into 25 union councils.


title: Tim Riggins

text: Timothy "Tim" Riggins is a character in sports drama "Friday Night Lights", portrayed by actor Taylor Kitsch. Tim Riggins is the fullback/running back of the Dillon Panthers in the television series. His character is similar to Don Billingsley from the original book and 2004 film "Friday Night Lights".


title: Tim Riggins

text: Actor Taylor Kitsch says he is able to relate to the character of Tim Riggins based on his own personal experiences. "My father is out of my life, more or less", he revealed in an interview, "so I discover stuff that maybe I wasn't even dealing with as a person." Also, his background as a young and promising athlete helped him connect with the role. Nevertheless, he admits to differ from his character at least in his relations with the opposite sex; "...I didn't have as many girls at my fingertips. I don't know many guys who do!"


title: Tim Riggins

text: Throughout the series, Tim lives with his older brother Billy after having been abandoned by both their parents. Billy was about to obtain his PGA card and pursue a professional golf career when their father Walt left and Billy became the sole guardian of his younger brother. Despite their seemingly immature behavior and Tim's stoic and uncaring facade, the brothers are shown to be caring and loyal to each other in times of crisis. Tim is best friends with his quarterback, Jason Street, whom he has known since he was young. Their catchphrase is "Texas Forever".


title: Tim Riggins

text: Tim has been described as a character "who has puppy-dog, lady-killing eyes under his scraggly bangs." He is the fullback/running back of the Dillon Panthers with jersey #33. Tim is depicted as a womanizer and his ex-girlfriends include Tyra Collette and Lyla Garrity, with whom he has an off and on relationship. Described as the town drunk of the series, he copes with life through casual sex and heavy drinking. Despite his laissez-faire attitude, he is extremely loyal to his teammates when the occasion demands, as shown when he physically hits an opposition player who verbally provokes his black teammate, Smash Williams, and puts his Panthers career on the line to follow best friend, Jason Street, to Mexico to talk him out of a potentially life-threatening situation.


title: Tim Riggins

text: In season 1, Coach Taylor's wife discovers that Tim has been struggling academically and had been asking his schoolmates (especially the rally girls) to do his assignments for him. She pairs him up with Landry, who subsequently finds out that Tim has difficulty reading and writing (presumably dyslexia). Landry reads that week's assigned reading "Of Mice and Men" out loud to him and it is shown that Tim can comprehend the material better and even scored a B− on his assignment.


title: Tim Riggins

text: Tim and Jason drift apart for a while after Jason discovers that Tim has been sleeping with his girlfriend, Lyla Garrity, to cope with his guilt over Jason's accident. By season 3, they are on speaking terms again. Through all the ups and downs, they remain almost unconditionally supportive of each other and are often seen helping one another out or coming to one another's rescue.


title: Tim Riggins

text: Of the original main characters with whom he went to school, Tim is the only one who remains in Dillon when the show ended. Riggins also signs to play football at the fictional San Antonio State University, but after a short period of time, he decides that college is a waste of time for him and moves back to Dillon.


title: Tim Riggins

text: In season one, Tim is shown being unable to cope with his best friend, star quarterback Jason Street's, accident, blaming himself for not being there to block the hit that Jason takes. At the start of the series he is dating Tyra Collette, though they both repeatedly cheat on one another. After Tyra breaks up with him, he begins sleeping with his best friend's girlfriend, Lyla Garrity. After Lyla calls off their affair, Tim goes on to stand by her and encourage her to stay with cheerleading even after their relationship is discovered and she becomes a social outcast. In the back half of season one, Tim becomes close to his neighbour, Jackie, and her young son, Bo. The two have an affair, but she eventually breaks up with him as he is much younger than she is.


title: Tim Riggins

text: Billy begins to take Tim seriously as a football player in season one, talking to coach Taylor about a potential scholarship for Tim.


title: Tim Riggins

text: Tim also reunites with his absentee father this season, tracking him down after receiving a traffic ticket that may result in the loss of his license without a parent's signature. He learns that his alcoholic father is now sober.


title: Tim Riggins

text: In season two, Tim discovers that Jackie and his older brother, Billy, are in a serious relationship. He then travels to Mexico with Jason to support him while he undergoes an experimental surgery involving shark's blood and stem cells. After learning that Jason could die on the operating table he enlists the help of their ex-girlfriend, Lyla, and the two convince Jason to give up on the procedure.


title: Tim Riggins

text: Upon his return, Tim learns that he has been kicked off of the Panthers after his week long absence. He is later able to rejoin the team after showing his commitment by showing up to practice and apologizing to the members of his team.


title: Tim Riggins

text: Because he is unwilling to live with Billy as long as Billy is in a relationship with his ex, Jackie, Tim ends up briefly living with Tyra. He then moves in with a meth dealer and his ferrets only to leave once the meth dealer wakes him up one day with a gun to his face. After leaving the meth house, he moves in with Coach Taylor. He is kicked out of the Taylor residence after Coach Taylor sees Tim putting a drunken Julie in her bed and misinterprets the situation. Upon his return home he discovers that Billy and Jackie have broken up and Jackie is moving away. When Coach Taylor learns the truth behind Julie's stupor, he goes to the Riggins' household to apologize to Tim, also giving him respect for taking the blame and protecting Julie, along with not complaining once after given such menial tasks after being let back on the team.


title: Tim Riggins

text: Tim also begins to more seriously pursue Lyla, showing up at her church and vowing to do whatever it takes to get her to go out with him.