title: Boll weevil

text: Boll weevils begin to die at temperatures at or below . Research at the University of Missouri indicates they cannot survive more than an hour at . The insulation offered by leaf litter, crop residues, and snow may enable the beetle to survive when air temperatures drop to these levels.


title: Boll weevil

text: Other limitations on boll weevil populations include extreme heat and drought. The weevil’s natural predators include fire ants, other insects, spiders, birds, and a parasitoid wasp, "Catolaccus grandis". The weevils sometimes emerge from diapause before cotton buds are available.


title: Boll weevil

text: The insect crossed the Rio Grande near Brownsville, Texas, to enter the United States from Mexico in 1892 and reached southeastern Alabama in 1909. By the mid-1920s, it had entered all cotton-growing regions in the U.S., traveling 40 to 160 miles per year. It remains the most destructive cotton pest in North America. Since the boll weevil entered the United States, it has cost U.S. cotton producers about $13 billion, and in recent times about $300 million per year.


title: Boll weevil

text: The boll weevil contributed to Southern farmers' economic woes during the 1920s, a situation exacerbated by the Great Depression in the 1930s.


title: Boll weevil

text: The boll weevil appeared in Venezuela in 1949 and Colombia in 1950. The Amazon Rainforest was thought to present a barrier to the insect's further spread, until it was detected in Brazil in 1983. An estimated 90% of the cotton farms in Brazil are now infested. During the 1990s, the weevil spread to Paraguay and Argentina. The International Cotton Advisory Committee (ICAC) has proposed a control program similar to that used in the U.S.


title: Boll weevil

text: During early years of the weevil's presence, growers sought relatively warm soils and early-ripening cultivars. Following World War II, the development of new pesticides such as DDT enabled U.S. farmers again to grow cotton as an economic crop. DDT was initially extremely effective, but U.S. weevil populations developed resistance by the mid-1950s. Methyl parathion, malathion, and pyrethroids were subsequently used, but environmental and resistance concerns arose as they had with DDT, and control strategies changed.


title: Boll weevil

text: While many control methods have been investigated since the boll weevil entered the United States, insecticides have always remained the main control methods. In the 1980s, entomologists at Texas A&M University pointed to the spread of another invasive pest, the red imported fire ant, as a factor in the weevils' population decline in some areas.


title: Boll weevil

text: Other avenues of control that have been explored include weevil-resistant strains of cotton, the parasitoid wasp "Catolaccus grandis", the fungus "Beauveria bassiana", and the Chilo iridescent virus. Genetically engineered Bt cotton is not protected from the boll weevil.


title: Boll weevil

text: Although it was possible to control the boll weevil, the necessary insecticide was costly. The goal of many cotton entomologists was to eventually eradicate the pest from U.S. cotton. In 1978, a large-scale test was begun in eastern North Carolina and in adjacent Southampton County, Virginia, to determine the feasibility of eradication. Based on the success of this test, area-wide programs were begun in the 1980s to eradicate the insect from whole regions. These are based on cooperative effort by all growers together with the assistance of the Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service (APHIS) of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).


title: Boll weevil

text: Research methods were developed. The ability to distinguish between individuals which had eaten certain substances and those which had not was needed, to determine effectiveness of the active ingredients used. Lindig et al 1980 studied several dietary dyes as markers. They find Calco Oil Red N-1700 to persist from larval feeding to adulthood, and for females to their eggs, although the resulting first instar was too faintly pink to be distinguishable.


title: Boll weevil

text: The program has been successful in eradicating boll weevils from all cotton-growing states with the exception of Texas, and most of this state is free of boll weevils. Problems along the southern border with Mexico have delayed eradication in the extreme southern portions of this state. Follow-up programs are in place in all cotton-growing states to prevent the reintroduction of the pest. These monitoring programs rely on pheromone-baited traps for detection. The boll weevil eradication program, although slow and costly, has paid off for cotton growers in reduced pesticide costs. This program and the screwworm program of the 1950s are among the biggest and most successful insect control programs in history.


title: Boll weevil

text: The Library of Congress American Memory Project contains a number of oral history materials on the boll weevil's impact.


title: Boll weevil

text: It devastated black Americans disproportionately because most were directly financially dependent on cotton as a cash crop. By 1922 it was taking 8% of the cotton in the country annually. This failure of the south's primary crop became a major impetus for the Great Migration of the time, although not the only one. Thereby it was one of the factors in the birth of the Harlem Renaissance - including the culture of the Cotton Club. A 2009 study found "that as the weevil traversed the American South [in the period 1892-1932], it seriously disrupted local economies, significantly reduced the value of land (at this time still the most important asset in the American South), and triggered substantial intraregional population movements." A 2020 "Journal of Economic History" study found that the boll weevil spread between 1892 and 1922 had a beneficial impact on educational outcomes, as children were less likely to work on cultivating cotton. A 2020 NBER paper found that the boll weevil spread contributed to fewer lynchings, less Confederate monument construction, less KKK activity, and higher non-white voter registration.


title: Boll weevil

text: The boll weevil infestation has been credited with bringing about economic diversification in the Southern US, including the expansion of peanut cropping. The citizens of Enterprise, Alabama, erected the Boll Weevil Monument in 1919, perceiving that their economy had been overly dependent on cotton, and that mixed farming and manufacturing were better alternatives.


title: Jason Miller (communications strategist)

text: Jason Miller (born c. 1975) is an American communications strategist, political adviser and CEO, best known as the chief spokesman for the Donald Trump 2016 presidential campaign and transition of Donald Trump. He was a Senior Adviser to the Trump 2020 re-election campaign. From 2010 through 2016, Miller was a partner and executive vice-president at Jamestown Associates. He was initially announced as the incoming White House Communications Director during the presidential transition, though he withdrew shortly after amidst news of an extramarital relationship with a staffer who joined the 2016 campaign two months before the election.


text: In 2017, he became a contributor on CNN, but left the position in 2018 amidst an unsubstantiated third-party allegation about a separate affair, which was denied by both alleged participants under oath in federal court. In March 2021, Miller became a contributor for Newsmax. Miller left his position as Trump's spokesman in June 2021 to become the CEO of Gettr, a micro-blogging social network with a conservative user base.


text: Miller was born and raised in Seattle. His father was a welder, and his mother worked as a bookkeeper and receptionist. Miller graduated from George Washington University, where he majored in political science, in 1997.


text: His first job in politics, from 1994 through 1997, was as a staff assistant to U.S. Senator Slade Gorton of Washington.


text: After graduating from college, Miller moved to San Diego, California, where he spent most of the next year as coalitions director for businessman Darrell Issa who unsuccessfully sought the U.S. Senate nomination in the 1998 primary. Miller returned to the state in late-1999 to serve as Issa's political director in his successful 2000 campaign for California's 48th congressional district.


text: In late 2000, Miller became campaign manager for Ric Keller, who won an open seat in the House of Representatives representing Florida with 50.8% of the vote. Miller went on to serve as Keller's chief of staff and to lead his successful re-election effort in 2002. Keller won with 65% of the vote.


text: From July 2003 to July 2004, Miller managed Jack Ryan's campaign for U.S. Senate in Illinois. Under Miller's leadership, Ryan's campaign succeeded in winning a sharply contested race for the GOP nomination. Ryan's Democratic opponent was Barack Obama, then a state senator. However, Ryan chose to end his candidacy abruptly after a judge in California ordered the unsealing of the Republican candidate's custody file, over the objections of both parents, creating a public furor. Ryan was replaced as nominee by Maryland resident Alan Keyes, and Obama coasted to an easy election that November.


text: Miller then moved to Florida, where he served as political and communications consultant for the successful primary campaign of Mel Martínez for U.S. Senate, against several well-known contenders. He closed out 2004 doing press and voter-contact consulting in Tom Coburn's winning effort for the Senate from Oklahoma.


text: In January 2005, Miller was hired to manage the re-election campaign of Virginia Senator George F. Allen, widely tapped as a leading contender for the 2008 Republican presidential nomination. In an amicable parting designed to help Allen's long-term national ambitions, Miller left Allen's re-election in November 2005 to helm the re-election effort of South Carolina Gov. Mark Sanford. Allen's presidential hopes were dashed afterwards, losing a close contest after several major gaffes, while Sanford cruised to a 55% re-election. After the campaign, Miller took a job with the State of South Carolina, doing strategic planning for the governor, also serving as Deputy Chief of Staff.


text: National politics beckoned in April 2007, when Miller moved to New York and joined the Rudy Giuliani 2008 presidential campaign as Deputy Communications Director. Giuliani ended his campaign prior to Super Tuesday, after finishing third behind eventual nominee John McCain in the Florida primary.


text: In 2008, Miller joined Denzenhall Associates, a D.C.-based public relations firm specializing in crisis communications, advising major corporations, trade associations, and prominent individuals.


text: Miller joined the New Jersey-based Jamestown Associates consulting firm in January 2010 as Partner and Executive Vice President, working closely on campaigns with Jamestown CEO Larry Weitzner.


text: Beginning in 2012 and continuing through 2016, Miller and Jamestown took on several insurgent candidates challenging Republican incumbents. These included Mourdock, in Indiana (who defeated longtime Sen. Richard Lugar in the 2012 primary, losing to Democrat Joe Donnelly in the fall;) and radiologist Milton R. Wolf, who nearly upset Kansas Sen. Pat Roberts in the August 2014 primary. They did work for the Club for Growth PAC, which used Jamestown to help challenge a GOP incumbent in Mississippi and nominate a Tea Party conservative in Nebraska. And in early 2015, they also worked on Ted Cruz's presidential campaign.


text: In 2013, Miller returned to South Carolina as ad producer and strategist for Mark Sanford's comeback campaign for U.S. House, following the former Governor's scandalous affair with an Argentinian journalist and subsequent divorce. Despite being actively shunned by national party committees and major donors, Sanford won the GOP nomination with 56.5%, and then captured the coastal 1st District seat with 54% in the May special election. Of Miller, Sanford chief of staff Scott English said, "He's disciplined in the middle of a firefight. He's good at thinking about, 'What are we talking about? What are we trying to accomplish?' and then going back on message again... A lot of people come into a safe environment, where they already know the outcome. He takes on challenges."


text: In 2015, Miller and Jamestown Associates were the principal consultants for media and communications for Matt Bevin in Kentucky. Bevin, who had lost his challenge to Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell a year earlier, was the surprise winner of a three-way race for the gubernatorial nomination in May—a victory attributed in part to a closing ad by Miller and Jamestown, "Food Fight." After a difficult campaign he was behind in most polls; Bevin then won a 53% to 44% victory against attorney general Jack Conway that November.


text: During the Bevin campaign and thereafter into early 2016, Miller was Texas Senator Ted Cruz's "digital and communications adviser" in his campaign for the Republican presidential nomination. The "Washington Post"'s Katie Zezima wrote that Miller's challenge was "crafting Cruz's message of unyielding conservatism and spreading it among grassroots groups, where the senator hopes to gain the most support”. Cruz suspended his campaign on May 5, following his defeat in the Indiana primary.


text: Miller’s relationship with Donald Trump dated from before the 2016 campaign. In 2011, when Trump was mulling a 2012 campaign, Miller was slated to serve as campaign manager. On June 29, 2016, the Trump campaign announced hiring Miller as senior communications adviser. BloombergPolitics described it as an attempt to "professionalize" the Trump communications operation. After the announcement, some reporters noted the many anti-Trump Tweets Miller had sent prior to the end of Cruz's campaign.


text: After the election, Miller was part of the Trump transition team, serving as its chief spokesman from November 2016 to January 2017. On December 22, he was announced as the President's choice for White House Communications Director. However, two days later, Miller declined the offer, stating: "After spending this past week with my family, the most amount of time I have been able to spend with them since March 2015, it is clear they need to be my top priority right now and this is not the right time to start a new job as demanding as White House communications director. My wife and I are also excited about the arrival of our second daughter in January, and I need to put them in front of my career... I look forward to continuing to support the President-elect from the outside after my work on the transition concludes."


text: His decision came after allegations of an extramarital affair with Trump campaign staffer Arlene J. Delgado. As a result of the affair with Delgado, Miller became the father to a baby boy in July 2017.


text: In January 2017, Miller sold his interest in Jamestown Associates, and joined Teneo Strategy. Teneo advises "Fortune 500 CEOs on crisis communications, corporate communications and media relations," according to the Axios blog. In the role of Trump adviser, Miller had criticized Teneo as a "corporate consultancy" created by Doug Band "to trade off the influence and power gained through the affiliation with [Hillary Clinton]." Miller continued at Teneo through 2019.


text: In 2017, he became a CNN political contributor. He was subsequently quit the network due to legal difficulties.


text: In October 2019, Miller began co-hosting, with Steve Bannon, "War Room: Impeachment", a daily radio show and podcast intended to advise the Trump White House and its allies into how to fight the impeachment inquiry against Donald Trump. The podcast was removed from YouTube in January 2021, following the 2021 storming of the United States Capitol.


text: The Trump 2020 campaign hired Miller as a senior adviser in June 2020. The Trump campaign routed his $35,000 monthly salary through his former firm, making it harder for the mother of Miller's son to prove his income in court, and aiding him in dodging approximately $3,000 per month in child support.


text: In October 2020, shortly after the FBI announced that it had thwarted an attempt by a right-wing militia group to kidnap Michigan Governor Gretchen Whitmer, Miller said it was "shameful" for Whitmer to call out President Trump's divisive rhetoric. Trump had tweeted, "LIBERATE MICHIGAN!" in April 2020, which was seen as a rallying cry for opponents of Whitmer. Miller said, "If we want to talk about hatred, then Gov. Whitmer, go look in the mirror."


text: In the days before the 2020 election, Miller claimed in an ABC News interview with George Stephanopoulos that he believed that Trump would secure a sure win with at least 290 electoral votes on election night. Spencer Cox, then-Lieutenant Governor of Utah, stated on Twitter that people should "ignore this type of garbage," referring to Miller's remarks. Cox's additional remarks in response to Miller, in which he stated, "elections are never decided on election night," did not acknowledge the predictions Miller had cited in the ABC News interview that Trump would secure "280" or "over 290" electoral votes (i.e., over the necessary 270 votes to be declared winner) on election night. In his exchange with Stephanopoulos, Miller did not dispute or even address the use of mail-in ballots, and he did not claim that vote counts were typically finalized or certified on election night.


text: In June 2021, it was reported that Miller had left the Trump team to become CEO of a tech company. Miller was replaced by Liz Harrington. On July 1, 2021, he launched a beta version of the social network Gettr, which is targeted at conservatives and which Miller has described as a "place people won't be canceled". In the first week, Gettr attracted more than 1.4 million users. Miller stated in a Fox Business Interview, he said "prominent Republicans like former Secretary of State Mike Pompeo, House Minority Leader Kevin McCarthy, House GOP Conference Chair Elise Stefanik, former Secretary of Housing and Urban Development Ben Carson and more have joined the platform, along with other popular conservative voices like Charlie Kirk, Monica Crowley, Rogan O’Handley and more."


text: Miller met his wife, Kelly, while working for a congressional campaign in California. They live in suburban Washington, D.C. and have two daughters.


text: He also fathered a child with A. J. Delgado during a two-month extra-marital affair, born six months after his second child.


text: On September 14, 2018, A. J. Delgado, the mother of Miller's son, filed a suit in a Miami-Dade, Florida, Circuit Court.


text: Ultimately, the court ordered Miller to pay Delgado thousands of dollars for child support. Miller had said he was working hard to become a "better husband and father" and took his parental obligations "very seriously", and that Ms. Delgado had "turned a simple paternity proceeding into all-out war".


text: Miller and an unnamed Doe denied all parts of an accusation made by Delgado in her 2018 suit in which Delgado claimed that Miller had drugged Doe with an abortifacient drug, by blending a pill into a fruit smoothie. The ensuing controversy caused him to leave his position as a political commentator on CNN. In the suit, Delgado requested that Miller undergo a psychological evaluation, because she alleged that she was told the story by a Republican lobbyist, and she further alleged that journalist Yashar Ali confirmed the story. Miller questioned the propriety of publishing that unverified claim (from what was then a sealed Florida court filing and was denied by the alleged mistress), causing damage to his reputation. He sued Gizmodo Media Group and Splinter News reporter Katherine Krueger (author of the article) for $100 million for its reporting of the allegation. Chapo Trap House co-host Will Menaker was added as a defendant in the lawsuit after Menaker labeled Miller a "baby killer" in a Twitter post.


text: The US District Court in New York dismissed Miller's suit, ruling that the "fair report" doctrine (which bars civil actions arising from a "fair and true report "of a judicial proceeding"") protected Gizmodo from liability for defamation, as the article accurately reported the allegation Delgado had included in the Florida filing. In its ruling, the New York court stated that the Gizmodo article had "essentially summarize[d] or restate[d] the allegations" made by Delgado; by granting summary judgement to Gizmodo (necessarily occurring before the fact-finding stage in U.S. civil litigation), the New York court did not and could not rule on the accuracy of the Florida allegation itself.


text: Miller later brought another suit in Florida, which ended in August 2019 when the court granted Gizmodo's motion for summary judgment, as had occurred in the New York case. The Florida court applied similar reasoning as the New York court had applied (i.e., the "fair report" privilege enjoyed by publications citing a judicial proceeding) to the claims brought against the publication and author. In its opinion granting Gizmodo's motion, the Florida court opined that Gizmodo and Krueger (whose article made reference to Delgado's third-party allegations, which were denied by Miller and Doe) had disclosed the "potential biases" involved in those allegations, explaining, "by disclosing this information, Defendants [Gizmodo and Krueger] invite readers to decide for themselves" whether the third-party allegations were credible. The Florida court also found that declarations made by Krueger and her editors at Gizmodo suggested that "neither Krueger nor her editors intended to augment the credibility of the accusations...by attributing them to Jane Doe herself." In May 2021, nearly two years after the case ended, the Florida court approved Gizmodo's request for Miller to pay $42,000 in legal fees incurred by Gizmodo while defending the case.


text: Neither courts' granting of the defendants' motions for summary judgement, which precluded fact-finding by the courts with respect to the underlying disputed third-party allegations against Miller, addressed whether he had actually done what Delgado alleged. In their answers before the Florida court, both Miller and alleged previous mistress Doe denied under oath that they had ever had a sexual relationship. Both testified that Doe had never become pregnant with his child, that Miller had never been to Doe's apartment, and denied that he had given her a smoothie — the drink that allegedly contained the pill. Doe specifically denied that she had ever "lost a pregnancy" as a result of a beverage given to her by him.


text: In September 2021, Miller and other American right-wing media personalities in his traveling party were detained and questioned for three hours at the international airport in Brasília, Brazil, before returning to the U.S. following participation in a CPAC Brasil Conference. The investigation was part of an inquiry by Brazilian Supreme Court Justice Alexandre de Moraes into misinformation allegedly perpetuated by the administration of President Jair Bolsonaro. Miller noted that Brazil was the second-largest market for Gettr, and praised Bolsonaro's supporters as "proud patriots". Miller later said that Brazilian officials had not accused him of any wrongdoing. Miller continued to advise Jair Bolsonaro after his October 2022 election defeat, meeting with the president's son, Eduardo Bolsonaro, in November 2022, as protests and election challenges continued.


text: During the third public hearing on the investigation of the January 6, 2021 attack on the US Capitol, Miller appeared via a taped deposition. He stated that on January 5, 2021, he helped Donald Trump craft a statement in response to a New York Times story that said Pence disagreed with Trump’s claims that Pence had the authority to change the results of the election. In the statement, Trump claimed that he and Vice President Mike Pence were in agreement, while in fact Pence had made clear multiple times that he disagreed strongly with Trump on this issue.


text: Marc Short, Pence’s Chief of Staff, expressed his displeasure that Miller had allowed such a statement to be released without consulting Pence.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The Imperial Japanese occupation of Hong Kong began when the Governor of Hong Kong, Sir Mark Young, surrendered the British Crown colony of Hong Kong to the Empire of Japan on 25 December 1941. The surrender occurred after 18 days of fierce fighting against the overwhelming Japanese forces that had invaded the territory. The occupation lasted for three years and eight months until Japan surrendered at the end of the Second World War. The length of this period (, ) later became a metonym of the occupation.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: During the Imperial Japanese military's full-scale invasion of China in 1937, Hong Kong as part of the British empire was not under attack. Nevertheless, its situation was influenced by the war in China due to proximity to the mainland China. In early March 1939, during an Imperial Japanese bombing raid on Shenzhen, a few bombs fell accidentally on Hong Kong territory, destroying a bridge and a train station.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In 1936, Germany and the Empire of Japan signed the Anti-Comintern Pact. In 1937 Fascist Italy joined the pact, forming the core to what would become known as the Axis Powers.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In the autumn of 1941, Nazi Germany was near the height of its military power. After the invasion of Poland and fall of France, German forces had overrun much of Western Europe and were racing towards Moscow. The United States was neutral and opposition to Nazi Germany was given only by Britain, the British Commonwealth and the Soviet Union.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The United States provided minor support to China in its fight against Imperial Japan's invasion. It imposed an embargo on the sale of oil to Japan after less aggressive forms of economic sanctions failed to halt Japanese advances. On 7 December 1941 (Honolulu time), Japan entered World War II with the Japanese occupation of Malaya, as well as other attacks including attacking the U.S. naval base at Pearl Harbor and American-ruled Philippines, and the Japanese invasion of Thailand.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: As part of a general Pacific campaign, the Japanese launched an assault on Hong Kong on the morning of 8 December 1941. British, Canadian, and Indian forces, supported by the Hong Kong Volunteer Defence Forces attempted to resist the rapidly advancing Japanese, but were heavily outnumbered. After racing down the New Territories and Kowloon, Japanese forces crossed Victoria Harbour on 18 December. After fierce fighting continued on Hong Kong Island on 25 December 1941, British colonial officials headed by the Governor of Hong Kong Mark Aitchison Young surrendered at the Japanese headquarters. To the local people, the day was known as "Black Christmas".


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The surrender of Hong Kong was signed on the 26th at The Peninsula Hotel. On 20 February 1942 General Rensuke Isogai became the first Imperial Japanese governor of Hong Kong. This ushered in almost four years of Imperial Japanese administration.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Throughout the Imperial Japanese occupation, Hong Kong was ruled under martial law as an occupied territory. Led by General Rensuke Isogai, the Japanese established their administrative centre and military headquarters at the Peninsula Hotel in Kowloon. The military government; comprising administrative, civilian affairs, economic, judicial, and naval departments; enacted stringent regulations and, through executive bureaus, exercised power over all residents of Hong Kong. They also set up the puppet Chinese Representative Council and Chinese Cooperative Council consisting of local leading Chinese and Eurasian community leaders.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In addition to Governor Mark Young, 7,000 British soldiers and civilians were kept in prisoner-of-war or internment camps, such as Sham Shui Po Prisoner Camp and Stanley Internment Camp. Famine, malnourishment and sickness were pervasive. Severe cases of malnutrition among inmates occurred in the Stanley Internment Camp in 1945. Moreover, the Imperial Japanese military government blockaded Victoria Harbour and controlled various warehouses in and around the city.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Early in January 1942, former members of the Hong Kong Police, including Indians and Chinese, were recruited into a reformed police called the "Kempeitai" with new uniforms. The police routinely performed executions at King's Park in Kowloon by using Chinese for beheading, shooting and bayonet practice. The Imperial Japanese gendarmerie took over all police stations and organised the Police in five divisions, namely East Hong Kong, West Hong Kong, Kowloon, New Territories and Water Police. This force was headed by Colonel Noma Kennosuke. The headquarters was situated in the former Supreme Court Building. Police in Hong Kong were under the organisation and control of the Imperial Japanese government. Imperial Japanese experts and administrators were chiefly employed in the Governor's Office and its various bureaus. Two councils of Chinese and Eurasian leaders were set up to manage the Chinese population.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: All trade and economic activities were strictly regulated by Japanese authorities, who took control of the majority of the factories. Having deprived vendors and banks of their possessions, the occupying forces outlawed the Hong Kong Dollar and replaced it with the Japanese Military Yen. The exchange rate was fixed at 2 Hong Kong dollars to one military yen in January 1942. Later, the yen was re-valued at 4 Hong Kong dollars to a yen in July 1942, which meant local people could exchange fewer military notes than before. While the residents of Hong Kong were impoverished by the inequitable and forcibly imposed exchange rate, the Imperial Japanese government sold the Hong Kong Dollar to help finance their war-time economy. In June 1943, the military yen was made the sole legal tender. Prices of commodities for sale had to be marked in yen. Hyper-inflation then disrupted the economy, inflicting hardship upon the residents of the colony. Enormous devaluation of the Imperial Japanese Military Yen after the war made it almost worthless.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Public transportation and utilities unavoidably failed, owing to the shortage of fuel and the aerial bombardment of Hong Kong by the Americans. Tens of thousands of people became homeless and helpless, and many of them were employed in shipbuilding and construction. In the agricultural field, the Imperial Japanese took over the race track at Fanling and the air strip at Kam Tin for their rice-growing experiments.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: With the intention of boosting the Imperial Japanese influence on Hong Kong, two Imperial Japanese banks, the Yokohama Specie Bank and the Bank of Taiwan, were re-opened. These two banks replaced the Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) and two other British banks responsible for issuing the banknotes. They then liquidated various Allied banks. British, American and Dutch bankers were forced to live in a small hotel, while some bankers who were viewed as enemies of the Imperial Japanese were executed. In May 1942, Imperial Japanese companies were encouraged to be set up. A Hong Kong trade syndicate consisting of Imperial Japanese firms was set up in October 1942 to manipulate overseas trade.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In order to cope with a lack of resources and the potential for Chinese residents of Hong Kong to support the allied forces in a possible invasion to retake the colony, the Japanese introduced a policy of forced deportation. As a result, the unemployed were deported to Mainland China, and the population of Hong Kong dwindled from 1.6 million in 1941 to 600,000 in 1945.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Furthermore, the Japanese modified the territory's infrastructure and landscape significantly in order to serve their wartime interests. In order to expand the Kai Tak Airport, for example, the Japanese demolished the Sung Wong Toi Monument in today's Kowloon City. Buildings of prestigious secondary schools such as Wah Yan College Hong Kong, Diocesan Boys' School, the Central British School, the St. Paul's Girls' College of the Anglican church and La Salle College were commandeered by occupying forces as military hospitals. It was rumoured that Diocesan Boys' School was used by the Japanese as an execution site.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Life was hard for Hong Kong people under Japanese rule. As there was inadequate food supply, the Japanese rationed necessities such as rice, oil, flour, salt and sugar. Each family was given a rationing licence, and every person could only buy 6.4 taels (), of rice per day. Most people did not have enough food to eat, and many died of starvation. The rationing system was abolished in 1944.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: According to eyewitnesses, the Japanese committed atrocities against many local Hong Kong people, including the rape of many ethnic Chinese women. During the three years and eight months of occupation, an estimated 10,000 civilian Hong Kong people were executed, while many others were tortured, raped, or mutilated.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Between the Surrender of Japan (15 August 1945) and formal surrender of Hong Kong to Rear Admiral Sir Cecil Harcourt (16 September 1945), fifteen Japanese soldiers arrested, tortured and executed around three hundred villagers of Silver Mine District of Lantau Island as retaliation after being ambushed by Chinese guerrillas. The incident was later referred as Silver Mine Bay massacre () by locals.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: During the occupation, hospitals available to the masses were limited. The Kowloon Hospital and Queen Mary Hospital were occupied by the Japanese army. Despite the lack of medicine and funds, the Tung Wah and Kwong Wah Hospital continued their social services but to a limited scale. These included provision of food, medicine, clothing, and burial services. Although funds were provided, they still had great financial difficulties. Failure to collect rents and the high reparation costs forced them to promote fundraising activities like musical performances and dramas.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Tung Wah hospital and the charitable organisation Po Leung Kuk continued to provide charity relief, while substantial donations were given by members of the Chinese elite. Po Leung Kuk also took in orphans, but were faced with financial problems during the occupation, as their bank deposits could not be withdrawn under Japanese control. Their services could only be continued through donations by Aw Boon Haw, a long-term financier of Po Leung Kuk.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: There were very few public hospitals during the Japanese occupation, as many of them were forcibly converted to military hospitals. Despite the inadequate supply of resources, Tung Wah Hospital and Kwong Wah Hospital still continuously offered limited social services to needy people. In June 1943, the management of water, gas and electricity was transferred into private Japanese hands.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Through schooling, mass media and other means of propaganda, the Japanese tried to foster favourable view amongst residents of the occupation. This process of Japanisation prevailed in many aspects of daily life.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: It was the Japanese conviction that education was key to securing their influence over the populace. The Japanese language became a mandatory subject in schools, and students who performed poorly in Japanese exams risked corporal punishment. According to a testimonial, English was forbidden from being taught and was not tolerated outside the classroom. Some private Japanese language schools were established to promote oral Japanese. The Military Administration ran the Teachers' Training Course, and those teachers who failed a Japanese bench-mark test would need to take a three-month training course. The Japanese authorities tried to introduce Japanese traditions and customs to Hong Kong students through the Japanese lessons at school. Famous historical stories such as Mōri Motonari's ""Sanbon no ya" (Three Arrows)" and Xufu's () voyage to Japan were introduced in Japanese language textbooks. The primary aim of the Japanisation of the education system was to facilitate Japanese control over the territory's populace in furtherence of the establishment of the Greater East Asia Co-prosperity Sphere.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: By 1943, in stark contrast to the successful imposition of the Japanese language upon the local populace, only one formal language school, the Bougok School (), was providing Cantonese language courses to Japanese people in Hong Kong. According to an instructor at the Bougok School, "teaching Cantonese is difficult because there is no system and set pattern in Cantonese grammar; and you have to change the pronunciation as the occasion demands" and "it would be easier for Cantonese people to learn Japanese than Japanese people to learn Cantonese".


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The Japanese promoted the use of Japanese as the lingua franca between the locals and the occupying forces. English shop signs and advertisements were banned and, in April 1942, streets and buildings in Central were renamed in Japanese. For example, Queen's Road became Meiji-dori and Des Voeux Road became Shōwa-dori. Similarly, the Gloucester Hotel became the Matsubara. The Peninsula Hotel, the Matsumoto; Lane Crawford, Matsuzakaya. The Queen's was renamed first the Nakajima Theatre, then the Meiji Theatre. Their propaganda also pointed to the pre-eminence of the Japanese way of life, of Japanese spiritual values and the ills of western materialism.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Government House, the residence of British governors prior to occupation, was the seat of power for the Japanese military governors. During the occupation, the buildings were largely reconstructed in 1944 following designs by Japanese engineer Siechi Fujimura, including the addition of a Japanese-style tower which remains to this day. Many Georgian architectural features were removed during this period. The roofs also continue to reflect a Japanese influence.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The commemoration of Japanese festivals, state occasions, victories and anniversaries also strengthened the Japanese influence over Hong Kong. For instance, there was Yasukuri or Shrine Festival honouring the dead. There was also a Japanese Empire Day on 11 February 1943 centred around the worship of the Emperor Jimmu.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The "Hong Kong News", a pre-war Japanese-owned English newspaper, was revived in January 1942 during the Japanese occupation. The editor, E.G. Ogura, was Japanese and the staff members were mainly Chinese and Portuguese who previously worked for the "South China Morning Post". It became the mouthpiece of the Japanese propaganda. Ten local Chinese newspapers had been reduced to five in May. These newspapers were under press censorship. Radio sets were used for Japanese propaganda. Amusements still existed, though only for those who could afford them. The cinemas only screened Japanese films, such as "The Battle of Hong Kong", the only film made in Hong Kong during the Japanese occupation. Directed by Shigeo Tanaka ( "Tanaka Shigeo") and produced by the Dai Nippon Film Company, the film featured an all-Japanese cast but a few Hong Kong film personalities were also involved. This film appeared on the first anniversary of the attack.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In 1941, the Japanese army transported a carload of people to the beach near the Queen Mary Hospital and killed them all. Identities of the victims are still unknown.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: On 19 May 1942, 10,000 refugees were detained by the Japanese army and escorted to the Sai Wan, where they boarded the ships. When they boarded the ship, each was given a jar of rice weighing about two kilograms, two pieces of bread, and ten Hong Kong dollars. After boarding the ship, the refugees were locked in the bilge. A total of nineteen ships were towed by a small boat, but soon after the journey started,  a typhoon hit and the ships were left to drift on their own. Fourteen sank, killing about 3,000 people. The bow of another ship was destroyed. Survivors rescued later were unable to walk due to starvation. Many of them died on the beach.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: On 18 September 1942, the Japanese Occupation Government in Hong Kong held the first population census.  According to historical documents, more than 2,000 people were killed or disappeared after being arrested during the census.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: On 25 September 1942, the Japanese army brought 1,816 prisoners of war from the Sham Shui Po prisoner of war camp to the  freighter "Lisbon Maru" moored at Stonecutters Island , and set sail two days later to transport the prisoners of war to Japan for hard labor. The Japanese army did not mark the ship as transporting POWs. Lisbon Maru was torpedoed by the submarine " USS Grouper " of the US Pacific Fleet in the sea off Zhoushan, Zhejiang. The ship sank on 2 October. Although some prisoners of war swam out of the cabin to escape, the Japanese soldiers on the adjacent ships shot and killed the escaped prisoners, resulting in about 1,000 deaths and 384 injuries.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In July 1944, about 400 refugees were found on the Beaufort Island where there were few plants or animals. They were left to fend for themselves.  According to residents of Cape D'Aguilar in the nearby region, they often heard screams and cries coming from the island. Skeletons were found all over the area later on, most died from starvation or drowning in failed escape.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: During the Japanese occupation, most people released from the Station died soon after, and it is estimated that more than 100 died due to starvation or torture.The police also transported some prisoners directly for execution without trials. Most of the interrogations were conducted by the Japanese military police only. There were no judges, lawyers, and observers.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In March 1942 , 484 civilians who had been imprisoned at the Hop Kee Company on Gloucester Road, Wanchai, were deported to Hainan Island via the Japanese cargo ship " “Yuen Lam” for forced labour. After the Liberation of Hong Kong, only a hundred people were able to return. More than 300 people died of torture and starvation.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: During the Japanese occupation, a total of 20,000 Hong Kong people and 20,000 mainlanders were abducted to mine in Hainan Island , where they were abused and many died of starvation.Of the 40,000 Chinese workers on Hainan Island, only 5,000 survived.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: On the afternoon of 1 December 1944 , a woman went out to collect firewood sticks on the side of the mountain. Suddenly, a Japanese military police and two Chinese police officers came to arrest her and stabbed her in the back.Two other elderly women who were arrested at the same time were also stabbed in the back. They were immediately taken to the Aberdeen Police Station and imprisoned. During the period, they were not provided with food and water. They were taken to the North Point Refugee Camp on 2 December.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: There were also many prisoners in the camp, and the camp gate was guarded by Japanese military police and Chinese police with weapons. Some said there were only two meals a day in the camp, including a bowl of congee given at 8:00 in the morning. Prisoners were confined in jail all day. Some were stripped naked.There were children in the camp as well.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Two weeks later, the number of people in the camp reached 400. At 4 pm that day, all of them were forced to board a boat by the port at North Point. After a day, they arrived in Pinghai Town, Huizhou City . The able-bodied refugees were released; about seventy people deemed physically weak were slaughtered and their bodies were dumped into the sea.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: On 19 December 1941, a group of Japanese soldiers killed ten St. John stretcher bearers at Wong Nai Chung Gap despite the fact that all the stretcher bearers wore the red cross armband. These soldiers captured a further five medics who were tied to a tree, two of whom were taken away by the soldiers, never to be seen again. The remaining three attempted to escape during the night, but only one survived the escape. A team of amateur archaeologists found the remains of half of a badge. Evidence pointed to its belonging to Barclay, the captain of the Royal Army Medical Corps, therefore the archaeologists presented it to Barclay's son, Jim, who had never met his father before his death. Other notable massacres near the end of the Battle of Hong Kong including the St. Stephen's College massacre.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Between the Surrender of Japan (15 August 1945) and formal surrender of Hong Kong to Rear Admiral Sir Cecil Harcourt (16 September 1945), fifteen Japanese soldiers arrested, tortured and executed around three hundred villagers of Sliver Mine District of Lantau Island as retaliation after being ambushed by Chinese guerrillas. The incident was later referred as Silver Mine Bay massacre () by locals.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The 38th Infantry Division, the unit mainly responsible for capturing Hong Kong, departed in January 1942. The Hong Kong Defence Force was established during the same month, and was the main Japanese military unit in Hong Kong throughout the occupation. The other Japanese military units stationed in Hong Kong from early 1942 were the small Hong Kong Artillery Force and the Imperial Japanese Navy's Hong Kong Base Force, which formed part of the 2nd China Expeditionary Fleet.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Originally formed by Zeng Sheng () in Guangdong in 1939, this group mainly comprised peasants, students, and seamen, including Yuan Geng. When the war reached Hong Kong in 1941, the guerrilla force grew from 200 to more than 6,000 soldiers. In January 1942, the Guangdong people's anti-Japanese East River guerrillas () was established to reinforce anti-Japanese forces in Dongjiang and Zhujiang Pearl River deltas. The guerillas' most significant contribution to the Allies, in particular, was their rescue of twenty American pilots who parachuted into Kowloon when their planes were shot down by the Japanese. In the wake of the British retreat, the guerillas picked up abandoned weapons and established bases in the New Territories and Kowloon. Applying the tactics of guerrilla warfare, they killed Chinese traitors and collaborators. They protected traders in Kowloon and Guangzhou, attacked the police station at Tai Po, and bombed Kai Tak Airport. During the Japanese occupation the only fortified resistance was mounted by the East River guerillas.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In January 1942 the HK-Kowloon brigade () was established from the Guangdong People's anti-Japanese guerilla force. In February 1942 with local residents Choi Kwok-Leung () as commander and Chan Tat-Ming () as political commissar, they were armed with 30 machine guns and several hundred rifles left by defeated British forces. They numbered about 400 between 1942 and 1945 and operated in Sai Kung. Additionally, the guerillas were noteworthy in rescuing prisoners-of-war, notably Sir Lindsay Ride, Sir Douglas Clague, Professor Gordan King, and David Bosanquet. In December 1943 the Guangdong force reformed, with the East River guerillas absorbing the HK-Kowloon brigade into the larger unit.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The British Army Aid Group was formed in 1942 at the suggestion of Colonel Lindsay Ride. The group rescued allied POWs including airmen shot down and workers trapped in the occupied colony. It also developed a role in intelligence gathering. In the process, the Group provided protection to the Dongjiang River which was a source for domestic water in Hong Kong. This was the first organisation in which Britons, Chinese and other nationalities served with no racial divide. Francis Lee Yiu-pui and Paul Tsui Ka-cheung were commissioned as officers.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) units based in China attacked the Hong Kong area from October 1942. Most of these raids involved a small number of aircraft, and typically targeted Japanese cargo ships which had been reported by Chinese guerrillas. By January 1945 the city was being regularly raided by the USAAF. The largest raid on Hong Kong took place on 16 January 1945 when, as part of the South China Sea raid, 471 United States Navy aircraft attacked shipping, harbour facilities and other targets.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The Japanese occupation of Hong Kong ended in 1945, after Japan surrendered on 15 August 1945. Hong Kong was handed over by the Imperial Japanese Army to the Royal Navy on 30 August 1945; British control over Hong Kong was thus restored. 30 August was declared as "Liberation Day" (), and was a public holiday in Hong Kong until 1997.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: General Takashi Sakai, who led the invasion of Hong Kong and subsequently served as governor-general during the Japanese occupation, was tried as a war criminal, convicted and executed on 30 September 1946.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: In the aftermath of the Japanese surrender, it was unclear whether the United Kingdom or the Republic of China would assume sovereignty of the territory. The Kuomintang's Chiang Kai-shek assumed that China, including formerly European-occupied territories such as Hong Kong and Macau, would be re-unified under his rule. Several years earlier, U.S. President Franklin Roosevelt insisted that colonialism would have to end, and promised Soong Mei-ling that Hong Kong would be restored to Chinese control.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: However, the British moved quickly to regain control of Hong Kong. As soon as he heard word of the Japanese surrender, Franklin Gimson, Hong Kong's colonial secretary, left his prison camp and declared himself the territory's acting governor. A government office was set up at the Former French Mission Building in Victoria on 1 September 1945. On 30 August 1945, British Rear Admiral Sir Cecil Halliday Jepson Harcourt sailed into Hong Kong on board the cruiser to re-establish the British government's control over the colony. Harcourt personally selected Chinese-Canadian Lt(N) William Lore of the Royal Canadian Navy as the first Allied officer ashore, in recognition of the sacrifices made by Canadian soldiers in the defence of Hong Kong.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: On 16 September 1945, Harcourt formally accepted the Japanese surrender from Maj.-Gen. Umekichi Okada and Vice Admiral Ruitaro Fujita at Government House.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: The United Kingdom would administer the territory for another 52 years. Hong Kong's post-war recovery was swift. By November 1945, government controls were lifted and free markets restored. The population returned to around one million by early 1946 due to immigration from China.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Colonial taboos also broke down in the post-war years as the United Kingdom realised that they could no longer administer their colonies as they did before the war, with numerous racial barriers and prejudices. Examples include no longer forbidding Chinese people and Asians from certain beaches, or from living on Victoria Peak stemming from the Peak District Reservation Ordinance 1904.


title: Japanese occupation of Hong Kong

text: Sovereignty of Hong Kong was eventually handed over to the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1997, after the 1984 Sino–British Joint Declaration. The Republic of China government is now based in Taipei, having lost the mainland in the Chinese Civil War shortly after the Japanese surrender.


title: James Adomian

text: James Adomian (born January 31, 1980) is an Armenian-American stand-up comedian, actor, and impressionist. He is best known for his work on "Comedy Bang! Bang!", "Chapo Trap House", "Last Comic Standing", "The Late Late Show with Craig Ferguson" where he impersonated President George W. Bush until 2009, and for portraying Bernie Sanders during the 2016 "Trump vs. Bernie" tour. He voices Talking Ben in the "Talking Tom and Friends" animated series.


title: James Adomian

text: Adomian was born in Omaha, Nebraska on January 31, 1980 and raised in Atlanta, Georgia. His family moved to Los Angeles, when he was ten years old. Adomian is an alumnus of Los Angeles Baptist High School and attended Whittier College studying in a self-designed major in Economics and Theatre Arts. He notes that he did not graduate during a 2017 interview with Pete Holmes. Adomian is of partial Armenian descent.


title: James Adomian

text: Adomian began appearing as President George W. Bush frequently on "The Late Late Show" after Craig Ferguson took over hosting the show in January 2005 until 2009.


title: James Adomian

text: He has appeared on several other comedy programs, including "MADtv", "Mind of Mencia", "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", "", "Atom TV", "Cavemen", "Recount" and "Players".


title: James Adomian

text: As a voice-over artist, Adomian performed on "The Onion Radio News", as several recurring characters on the PBS cartoon series "WordGirl", as President Bush on a few episodes of "MADtv", as Jimmy Kimmel on "Celebrity Deathmatch", and on a number of other cartoons.


title: James Adomian

text: In 2011, he was cast as a co-lead in the unaired Kari Lizer pilot project for NBC alongside Sarah Paulson and Tim Meadows.


title: James Adomian

text: In 2012, Adomian appeared on "Comedy Bang! Bang!" as PBS broadcaster Huell Howser, on Adult Swim's "Childrens Hospital" as Madonna, and on MTV's "Money from Strangers" as himself, also making regular appearances as various sketch characters on "Conan".


title: James Adomian

text: For the Freddie Mercury episode of the 2019 Netflix program "Historical Roasts", Adomian played the title character.


title: James Adomian

text: In 2012, Adomian released his debut comedy album "Low Hangin Fruit". The release was the first album released by Earwolf, and received mostly positive reviews. The one-hour stand-up set features personal stories, a number of celebrity impressions and political material including observations regarding the cultural perceptions of LGBT people.


title: James Adomian

text: Adomian frequently performs live at Upright Citizens Brigade Theatre in sketch and stand-up shows such as "Comedy Bang! Bang!", "Who Charted?", and many others. He is also an alumnus of the Sunday Company at The Groundlings Theatre, where he still frequently performs. He also regularly performs at "The Tomorrow Show" and other stand-up shows in Hollywood. Adomian is known for doing many impressions at live shows, both in-costume and as part of his standup act, including Vincent Price, Lewis Black, Orson Welles, Jesse Ventura, Paul Giamatti, Michael Caine, Philip Seymour Hoffman, Sam Elliott, Al Franken, Huell Howser, Christopher Hitchens, Gary Busey, John McCain, Joe Lieberman, Marc Maron, Jimmy Kimmel, Andy Kindler, Tom Leykis, Todd Glass, George W. Bush, and Bernie Sanders. He has performed several impressions as recurring characters on "Comedy Bang! Bang!"


title: James Adomian

text: Adomian often makes live appearances around the country doing standup or characters, particularly at left-wing political events like YearlyKos, Laughing Liberally, the National Conference for Media Reform and campaign events for Congressman Alan Grayson. In 2010, he made several live standup appearances across North America in the Breaking Even tour.


title: James Adomian

text: In 2008, he appeared with comedian Greg Giraldo at venues around the country as part of the Indecision '08 Tour produced by Comedy Central. He has performed at comedy festivals across North America, including Just for Laughs in Montreal. In March 2012, Adomian had his first overseas appearance, headlining a sold-out two night show in Seoul, South Korea for Stand Up Seoul.


title: James Adomian

text: Adomian is gay. He is the grandson of Armenian-American mathematician George Adomian. He is a member of the Democratic Socialists of America.


title: Churchill (film)

text: Churchill is a 2017 British historical war-drama film directed by Jonathan Teplitzky, which portrays Winston Churchill in June 1944 – especially in the hours leading up to D-Day. The film stars Brian Cox as the titular character, with Miranda Richardson and John Slattery in supporting roles.


title: Churchill (film)

text: Exhausted by years of war, Winston Churchill awaits the 1944 Normandy landings, which he believes will be a disaster.


title: Churchill (film)

text: On 4 November 2015 it was reported that Brian Cox would star as Winston Churchill in "Churchill" after Gary Oldman turned it down. Brian Welsh would direct from a script by Alex von Tunzelmann. On 12 February 2016 it was reported that Jonathan Teplitzky would replace Welsh as director. Miranda Richardson and Stanley Tucci would also join the cast as Clementine Churchill and Dwight D. Eisenhower, respectively. On 28 April 2016, John Slattery replaced Tucci. On 24 May 2016 it was announced that principal photography had begun. Some scenes were shot in Edinburgh and Glasgow; Arniston House was used as film location for many of the scenes between Gen. Eisenhower and Churchill, specifically the Oak Room as Gen Eisenhower's war room and the north exterior.


title: Churchill (film)

text: On review aggregator site Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 49% based on 116 reviews, with an average rating of 5.2/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""Churchill" gets sterling work out of Brian Cox in the leading role, but it isn't enough to overcome a muddled and ultimately unsuccessful approach to an incredible real-life story." On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted average rating to reviews, the film has a score of 44 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: Churchill (film)

text: Noted Churchill biographer Andrew Roberts gave the film a scathing review, saying that a series of historical errors made Winston Churchill almost unrecognisable. After praising the film's acting, photography, and music, he wrote that the film failed due to a script filled with blatant errors, grossly mis-characterizing Churchill on numerous points. About the film's author, who, while a historian, is not a WWII scholar, he wrote, """The only problem with the movie – written by the historian Alex von Tunzelmann – is that it gets absolutely everything wrong. Never in the course of movie-making have so many specious errors been made in so long a film by so few writers." His review went into detail on numerous errors, such as the false portrayal of Churchill as anti-American, or claims that he dithered about Operation Overlord (the Normandy landing), or the marital strife with his wife, Clementine. None of these points have a basis in fact, according to Roberts.


title: Churchill (film)

text: Robbie Collin of "The Daily Telegraph" rated the film 4/5 stars and said that "Brian Cox dazzles in a scalpel-sharp, timely lesson in political leadership", while Peter Bradshaw, writing for "The Guardian," noted that "Miranda Richardson shrewdly plays Churchill's wife Clemmie: imperious, exasperated, gimlet-eyed", and rated the film 3/5 stars. In "The Independent" rated the film 3/5 stars and wrote "There are elements of both King Lear and of Colonel Blimp about Cox's Churchill. Like Blimp, he's a man out of time, accused of trying to fight a modern war with a mindset stuck years in the past. Like Lear, he is an old man, raging against the elements." In "Time Out" magazine, Tom Huddleston rated the film 3/5 stars and wrote "Cox is rudely magnificent, capturing not just the wilfulness of the man but the nagging self-doubt at his inner core." Peter Travers, writing for "Rolling Stone," said Brian Cox's performance "cannot be faulted. It's a master class in acting", and gave the film 3/4 stars. Gary Goldstein of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "Brian Cox's towering performance in "Churchill" is worthy of the great man himself". In the "Radio Times", Alan Jones said Cox "gives a tremendous performance as the charismatic politician who inspired Great Britain to resist Adolf Hitler."


title: Churchill (film)

text: Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of "The A.V. Club" described the film as "inert, decorous, and almost absurdly repetitive," and wrote: "All too often, it toes the line that separates legitimately stupid movies from ones that merely presume that the viewer is stupid."


title: Churchill (film)

text: Brian Cox said that he talked to military experts from the Sandhurst military academy about Churchill's own plan to invade Europe, and that "... they said it would have probably shortened the war by six months."


title: Tse Chi Lop

text: Tse Chi Lop (, born 1963) is the alleged kingpin behind Asia-Pacific based international crime supersyndicate Sam Gor, also referred to as "The Company", and former member of the Hong Kong, Toronto and Vancouver-based triad crime group the Big Circle Gang. Aliases used by Tse include Tse Chi Lap, Brother No. 3, Sam Gor, T1, Ah Lap, Dennis and Xie Zii. Some police forces refer to Tse as "T1" (top target). A Reuters report in 2019 stated that Tse was a "Canadian national" but did not specify the location of his residence; as of June 2020, he held a Canadian passport. At that time he was said to be 56 years old.


title: Tse Chi Lop

text: The Sam Gor syndicate generates billions of dollars each year from the trade in methamphetamine and other synthetic drugs. The United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime estimated that Sam Gor generated between $8 billion and $17.7 billion in revenue from meth in 2018 had "expanded at least fourfold in the past five years". Some leading authorities asserted that Tse is as big of a player in the global drug trade as Mexican drug lord Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán. Sam Gor is said to be largely responsible for the dramatic shift in recent years away from drugs such as heroin and towards synthetics such as methamphetamine, ketamine and fentanyl in East and Southeast Asia, and has been implicated in very large shipments outside the immediate region including a 1.2 ton seizure of methamphetamine in Geraldton, Western Australia in 2017. The group's methamphetamine production operations in the Golden Triangle area of Myanmar are "protected by private militias" according to a June 2020 news report. The group is believed to source and sell a range of drugs and precursor chemicals from a variety of sources and countries.


title: Tse Chi Lop

text: Tse was arrested by Dutch police in Schiphol Airport on 22 January 2021 when he was on his way to Canada from Taiwan. He is currently waiting for extradition to Australia.


title: Tse Chi Lop

text: In Toronto, he was part of the Big Circle Boys, a faction of the Big Circle Gang, which was originally formed by imprisoned members of Mao's Red Guard during the 1960s Cultural Revolution in China. In 1998, Tse was convicted of transporting heroin through Canada into the United States in partnership with the Rizzuto crime family which was the dominant North American Italian mafia family at the time. Tse served nine years behind bars with fellow big circle boys associates, Wai dai Cheung and Chung wai hung. Tse has been compared in prominence to Joaquín "El Chapo" Guzmán and Pablo Escobar. Tse has been wanted for years and subject to an Interpol notice since 2019 after he was named publicly. Tse was arrested en route to Canada from Taiwan during a stop over in Amsterdam on 22 January 2021. The Australian Federal Police (AFP) is seeking his extradition from the Netherlands to face trial. The arrest was the culmination of multi-year Operation Kungur, led by the AFP and supported in different ways by twenty law enforcement agencies with interests in the case including from Canada, China, Hong Kong SAR, Japan, Macau SAR, Myanmar, New Zealand, Thailand, and the US (including the DEA). Taiwan's Ministry of Justice Investigation Bureau assisted. It remains unclear how he was able to live without detection or arrest in Taiwan after being public named in 2019. Raising concerns about the influence of organized crime in the region after the arrest, UNODC commenting that "It's a great result...[b]ut the organisation remains...while taking down syndicate leadership matters, the conditions they have effectively used in the region to do business remain unaddressed, and the network remains in-place. The demand for synthetic drugs has been built, and someone will step in to replace Tse."


title: Tse Chi Lop

text: In 1998, lop pleaded guilty to a one charge of conspiracy to import heroin into the United States, serving six years of a nine-year sentence at Federal Correctional Institution, Elkton. It is also said he was involved with the Rizzuto crime family at the time. Following his release, Tse was able to rise to power in a few short years by creating a triad alliance while effectively maintaining his anonymity and enjoying life in Hong Kong and Macau. Sam Gor is made up of five members of different triads: the 14K Triad, Wo Shing Wo, Sun Yee On, Big Circle Gang and Bamboo Union. The group is associated and does business with many other local crime groups such as the Yakuza in Japan, the Satudarah mc and the Comanchero Motorcycle Club and Lebanese and other mafias in Australia, and is responsible for what is thought to be the biggest drug-trafficking operation in Asia's history.


title: Tse Chi Lop

text: Tse has been wanted for years and subject to an Interpol notice since 2019 after he was named publicly. Tse was arrested en route to Canada from Taiwan during a stopover in Amsterdam's Schiphol Airport on 22 January 2021. The Australian Federal Police (AFP) is seeking his extradition from the Netherlands to face trial. The arrest was the culmination of Operation Kungur, led by the AFP and supported by roughly twenty law enforcement agencies in Canada, China, Japan, Myanmar, Thailand, and the US (including the DEA) Taiwan's Ministry of Justice Investigation Bureau assisted. It remains unclear how he was able to live without detection or arrest in Taiwan after being publicly named in 2019. Raising concerns about the influence of organized crime in the region after the arrest, UNODC Regional Representative Jeremy Douglas commented "It’s a great result...[b]ut the organisation remains". He added, "...while taking down syndicate leadership matters, the conditions they have effectively used in the region to do business remain unaddressed, and the network remains in-place. The demand for synthetic drugs has been built, and someone will step in to replace Tse."


title: Tse Chi Lop

text: In November 2021 Discovery released a documentary on Lop titled "The World's Biggest Druglord – Tse Chi Lop" on Discovery+ as well as on its linear channels in South East Asia, Taiwan, Japan, Australia, and New Zealand.


title: Lead generation

text: In marketing, lead generation () is the initiation of consumer interest or enquiry into products or services of a business. A lead is the contact information and, in some cases, demographic information of a customer who is interested in a specific product or service.


title: Lead generation

text: Leads may come from various sources or activities, for example, digitally via the Internet, through personal referrals, through telephone calls either by the company or telemarketers, through advertisements, and events.


title: Lead generation

text: Lead generation is often paired with lead management to move leads through the purchase funnel. This combination of activities is referred to as pipeline marketing, which is often broken into a marketing and a sales pipeline.


title: Lead generation

text: Lead scoring is "an effective model that helps sales and marketing departments identify which prospects are potentially most valuable to the company and its current sales funnel." It involves a quantitative method of assigning a "score" to a lead to determine whether a lead is valid for a company's pipeline. When a lead reaches a certain score threshold, it is then sent from marketing to the sales team for examination.


title: Lead generation

text: In a database, typically a customer relationship management tool, leads are assigned a status. These statuses may vary by company, but some common terms are:


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement (VHEMT) is an environmental movement that calls for all people to abstain from reproduction in order to cause the gradual voluntary extinction of humankind. VHEMT supports human extinction primarily because, in the group's view, it would prevent environmental degradation. The group states that a decrease in the human population would prevent a significant amount of human-caused suffering. The extinctions of non-human species and the scarcity of resources caused by humans are frequently cited by the group as evidence of the harm caused by human overpopulation.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: VHEMT was founded in 1991 by Les U. Knight, an American activist who became involved in the American environmental movement in the 1970s and thereafter concluded that human extinction was the best solution to the problems facing the Earth's biosphere and humanity. Knight publishes the group's newsletter and serves as its spokesman. Although the group is promoted by a website and represented at some environmental events, it relies heavily on coverage from outside media to spread its message. Many commentators view its platform as unacceptably extreme, while endorsing the logic of reducing the rate of human reproduction. In response to VHEMT, some journalists and academics have argued that humans can develop sustainable lifestyles or can reduce their population to sustainable levels. Others maintain that, whatever the merits of the idea, the human reproductive drive will prevent humankind from ever voluntarily seeking extinction.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: The Voluntary Human Extinction Movement was founded by Les U. Knight, a graduate of Western Oregon University and high school substitute teacher living in Portland, Oregon. After becoming involved in the environmental movement as a college student in the 1970s, Knight attributed most of the dangers faced by the planet to human overpopulation. He joined the Zero Population Growth organization, and chose to be vasectomised at age 25. He later concluded that the extinction of humanity would be the best solution to the Earth's environmental problems. He believes that this idea has also been held by some people throughout human history.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: In 1991, Knight began publishing VHEMT's newsletter, known as "These Exit Times". In the newsletter, he asked readers to further human extinction by not procreating. VHEMT has also published cartoons, including a comic strip titled "Bonobo Baby", featuring a woman who forgoes childbearing in favor of adopting a bonobo. In 1996, Knight created a website for VHEMT; it was available in 11 languages by 2010. VHEMT's logo features the letter "V" (for voluntary) and a picture of the Earth with north at the bottom.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: VHEMT functions as a loose network rather than a formal organization, and does not compile a list of members. Daniel Metz of Willamette University stated in 1995 that VHEMT's mailing list had just under 400 subscribers. Six years later, Fox News said the list had only 230 subscribers. Knight says that anyone who agrees with his ideology is a member of the movement; and that this includes "millions of people".


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Knight serves as the spokesman for VHEMT. He attends environmental conferences and events, where he publicizes information about population growth. VHEMT's message has, however, primarily been spread through coverage by media outlets, rather than events and its newsletter. VHEMT sells buttons and T-shirts, as well as bumper stickers that read "Thank you for not breeding".


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: In 2018, a supporter of the movement appeared on the popular YouTube channel LAHWF in a video called, "Chatting with a Supporter of the Voluntary Human Extinction Movement".


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Knight argues that the human population is far greater than the Earth can handle, and that the best thing for Earth's biosphere is for humans to voluntarily cease reproducing. He says that humans are "incompatible with the biosphere" and that human existence is causing environmental damage which will eventually bring about the extinction of humans (as well as other organisms). According to Knight, the vast majority of human societies have not lived sustainable lifestyles, and attempts to live environmentally friendly lifestyles do not change the fact that human existence has ultimately been destructive to the Earth and many of its non-human organisms. Voluntary human extinction is promoted on the grounds that it will prevent human suffering and the extinction of other species; Knight points out that many species are threatened by the increasing human population.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: James Ormrod, a psychologist who profiled the group in the journal "Psychoanalysis, Culture & Society", notes that the "most fundamental belief" of VHEMT is that "human beings should stop reproducing", and that some people consider themselves members of the group but do not actually support human extinction. Knight, however, believes that even if humans become more environmentally friendly, they could still return to environmentally destructive lifestyles and hence should eliminate themselves. Residents of First World countries bear the most responsibility to change, according to Knight, as they consume the largest proportion of resources.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Knight believes that Earth's non-human organisms have a higher overall value than humans and their accomplishments, such as art: "The plays of Shakespeare and the work of Einstein can't hold a candle to a tiger". He argues that species higher in the food chain are less important than lower species. His ideology is drawn in part from deep ecology, and he sometimes refers to the Earth as Gaia. He notes that human extinction is unavoidable, and that it is better to become extinct soon to avoid causing the extinction of other animals. The potential for evolution of other organisms is also cited as a benefit.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Knight sees abstinence from reproduction as an altruistic choice – a way to prevent involuntary human suffering – and cites the deaths of children from preventable causes as an example of needless suffering. Knight claims that non-reproduction would eventually allow humans to lead idyllic lifestyles in an environment comparable to the Garden of Eden, and maintains that the last remaining humans would be proud of their accomplishment. Other benefits of ceasing human reproduction that he cites include the end of abortion, war, and starvation. Knight argues that "procreation today is de facto child abuse". He maintains that the standard of human life will worsen if resources are consumed by a growing population rather than spent solving existing issues. He speculates that if people ceased to reproduce, they would use their energy for other pursuits, and suggests adoption and foster care as outlets for people who desire children.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: VHEMT rejects government-mandated human population control programs in favor of voluntary population reduction, supporting only the use of birth control and willpower to prevent pregnancies. Knight states that coercive tactics are unlikely to permanently lower the human population, citing the fact that humanity has survived catastrophic wars, famines, and viruses. Though their newsletter's name recalls the suicide manual "Final Exit", the idea of mass suicide is rejected, and they have adopted the slogan "May we live long and die out". A 1995 survey of VHEMT members found that a majority of them felt a strong moral obligation to protect the Earth, distrusted the ability of political processes to prevent harm to the environment, and were willing to surrender some of their rights for their cause. VHEMT members who strongly believed that "Civilization [is] headed for collapse" were most likely to embrace these views. However, VHEMT does not take any overt political stances.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: VHEMT promotes a more extreme ideology than Population Action International, which argues for population reduction but not extinction. However, the VHEMT platform is more moderate and serious than the Church of Euthanasia, which advocates population reduction by suicide and cannibalism. The 1995 survey found that 36% considered themselves members of Earth First! or had donated to the group in the last five years.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Knight states his group's ideology runs counter to contemporary society's natalism. He believes this pressure has stopped many people from supporting, or even discussing, population control. He admits that his group is unlikely to succeed, but contends that attempting to reduce the Earth's population is the only moral option.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Reception of Knight's idea in the mainstream media has been mixed. Writing in the "San Francisco Chronicle", Gregory Dicum states that there is an "undeniable logic" to VHEMT's arguments, but he doubts whether Knight's ideas can succeed, arguing that many people desire to have children and cannot be dissuaded. Stephen Jarvis echoes this skepticism in "The Independent", noting that VHEMT faces great difficulty owing to the basic human reproductive drive. At "The Guardian"s website, Guy Dammann applauds the movement's aim as "in many ways laudable", but argues that it is absurd to believe that humans will voluntarily seek extinction. Freelance writer Abby O'Reilly writes that since having children is frequently viewed as a measure of success, VHEMT's goal is difficult to attain. Knight contends in response to these arguments that though sexual desire is natural, human desire for children is a product of enculturation.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: The Roman Catholic Archdiocese of New York has criticized Knight's platform, arguing that the existence of humanity is "divinely ordained". Ormrod claims that Knight "arguably abandons deep ecology in favour of straightforward misanthropy". He notes that Knight's claim that the last humans in an extinction scenario would have an abundance of resources promotes his cause based on "benefits accruing to humans". Ormrod sees this type of argument as counter-intuitive, arguing that it borrows the language of "late-modern consumer societies". He faults Knight for what he sees as a failure to develop a consistent and unambiguous ideology. "The Economist" characterizes Knight's claim that voluntary human extinction is advisable due to limited resources as "Malthusian bosh". The paper further states that compassion for the planet does not necessarily require the pursuit of human extinction. Sociologist Frank Furedi also deems VHEMT to be a Malthusian group, classifying them as a type of environmental organization that "[thinks] the worst about the human species". Writing in "Spiked", Josie Appleton argues that the group is indifferent to humanity, rather than "anti-human".


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Brian Bethune writes in "Maclean's" that Knight's logic is "as absurd as it's unassailable". However, he doubts Knight's claim that the last survivors of the human race would have pleasant lives and suspects that a "collective loss of the will to live" would prevail. In response to Knight's platform, journalist Sheldon Richman argues that humans are "active agents" and can change their behavior. He contends that people are capable of solving the problems facing Earth. Alan Weisman, author of "The World Without Us", suggests a limit of one child per family as a preferable alternative to abstinence from reproduction.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Katharine Mieszkowski of Salon.com recommends that childless people adopt VHEMT's arguments when facing "probing questions" about their childlessness. Writing in the "Journal for Critical Animal Studies", Carmen Dell'Aversano notes that VHEMT seeks to renounce children as a symbol of perpetual human progress. She casts the movement as a form of "queer oppositional politics" because it rejects perpetual reproduction as a form of motivation. She argues that the movement seeks to come to a new definition of "civil order", as Lee Edelman suggested that queer theory should. Dell'Aversano believes that VHEMT fulfills Edelman's mandate because they embody the death drive rather than ideas that focus on the reproduction of the past.


title: Voluntary Human Extinction Movement

text: Although Knight's organization has been featured in a book titled "Kooks: A Guide to the Outer Limits of Human Belief", "The Guardian" journalist Oliver Burkeman notes that in a phone conversation Knight seems "rather sane and self-deprecating". Weisman echoes this sentiment, characterizing Knight as "thoughtful, soft-spoken, articulate, and quite serious". Philosophers Steven Best and Douglas Kellner view VHEMT's stance as extreme, but they note that the movement formed in response to extreme stances found in "modern humanism".


title: Nocturnality

text: Nocturnality is an animal behavior characterized by being active during the night and sleeping during the day. The common adjective is "nocturnal", versus diurnal meaning the opposite.


title: Nocturnality

text: Nocturnal creatures generally have highly developed senses of hearing, smell, and specially adapted eyesight. Some animals, such as cats and ferrets, have eyes that can adapt to both low-level and bright day levels of illumination (see metaturnal). Others, such as bushbabies and (some) bats, can function only at night. Many nocturnal creatures including tarsiers and some owls have large eyes in comparison with their body size to compensate for the lower light levels at night. More specifically, they have been found to have a larger cornea relative to their eye size than diurnal creatures to increase their : in the low-light conditions. Nocturnality helps wasps, such as "Apoica flavissima", avoid hunting in intense sunlight.


title: Nocturnality

text: Diurnal animals, including squirrels and songbirds, are active during the daytime. Crepuscular species, such as rabbits, skunks, tigers and hyenas, are often erroneously referred to as nocturnal. Cathemeral species, such as fossas and lions, are active both in the day and at night.


title: Nocturnality

text: While it is difficult to say which came first, nocturnality or diurnality, there is a leading hypothesis out in the evolutionary biology community. Known as the "bottleneck theory", it postulates that millions of years ago in the Mesozoic era, many ancestors of modern-day mammals evolved nocturnal characteristics in order to avoid contact with the numerous diurnal predators. A recent study attempts to answer the question as to why so many modern day mammals retain these nocturnal characteristics even though they are not active at night. The leading answer is that the high visual acuity that comes with diurnal characteristics isn't needed anymore due to the evolution of compensatory sensory systems, such as a heightened sense of smell and more astute auditory systems. In a recent study, recently extinct elephant birds and modern day nocturnal kiwi bird skulls were examined to recreate their likely brain and skull formation. They indicated that olfactory bulbs were much larger in comparison to their optic lobes, indicating they both have a common ancestor who evolved to function as a nocturnal species, decreasing their eyesight in favor of a better sense of smell. The anomaly to this theory were anthropoids, who appeared to have the most divergence from nocturnality than all organisms examined. While most mammals didn't exhibit the morphological characteristics expected of a nocturnal creature, reptiles and birds fit in perfectly. A larger cornea and pupil correlated well with whether these two classes of organisms were nocturnal or not.


title: Nocturnality

text: Being active at night is a form of niche differentiation, where a species' niche is partitioned not by the amount of resources but by the amount of time (i.e. temporal division of the ecological niche). Hawks and owls can hunt the same field or meadow for the same rodents without conflict because hawks are diurnal and owls are nocturnal. This means they are not in competition for each other's prey. Another niche that being nocturnal lessens competition within is pollination - nocturnal pollinators such as moths, beetles, thrips, and bats have a lower risk of being seen by predators, and the plants evolved temporal scent production and ambient heat to attract nocturnal pollination. Like with predators hunting the same prey, some plants such as apples can be pollinated both during the day and at night.


title: Nocturnality

text: Nocturnality is a form of crypsis, an adaptation to avoid or enhance predation. Although lions are cathemeral, and may be active at any time of day or night, they prefer to hunt at night because many of their prey species (zebra, antelope, impala, wildebeest, etc.) have poor night vision. Many species of small rodents, such as the Large Japanese Field Mouse, are active at night because most of the dozen or so birds of prey that hunt them are diurnal. There are many diurnal species that exhibit some nocturnal behaviors. For example, many seabirds and sea turtles only gather at breeding sites or colonies at night to reduce the risk of predation to themselves and/or their offspring. Nocturnal species take advantage of the night time to prey on species that are used to avoiding diurnal predators. Some nocturnal fish species will use the moonlight to prey on zooplankton species that come to the surface at night. Some species have developed unique adaptations that allow them to hunt in the dark. Bats are famous for using echolocation to hunt down their prey, using sonar sounds to capture them in the dark.


title: Nocturnality

text: Another reason for nocturnality is avoiding the heat of the day. This is especially true in arid biomes like deserts, where nocturnal behavior prevents creatures from losing precious water during the hot, dry daytime. This is an adaptation that enhances osmoregulation. One of the reasons that (cathemeral) lions prefer to hunt at night is to conserve water. Hamiltons Frog, found on Stephens and Maud islands, stays hidden for the majority of the day when temperatures are warmer and are mainly active at night. They will only come out during the day if there are humid and cool conditions.


title: Nocturnality

text: Many plant species native to arid biomes have adapted so that their flowers only open at night when the sun's intense heat cannot wither and destroy their moist, delicate blossoms. These flowers are pollinated by bats, another creature of the night.


title: Nocturnality

text: Climate-change and the change in global temperatures has led to an increasing amount of diurnal species to push their activity patterns closer towards crepuscular or fully nocturnal behavior. This adaptive measure allows species to avoid the heat of the day, without having to leave that particular habitat.


title: Nocturnality

text: The exponential increase in human expansion and technological advances in the last few centuries has had a major effect on nocturnal animals, as well as diurnal species. The causes of these can be traced to distinct, sometimes overlapping areas: light pollution and spatial disturbance.


title: Nocturnality

text: Light pollution is a major issue for nocturnal species, and the impact continues to increase as electricity reaches parts of the world that previously had no access. Species in the tropics are generally more affected by this due to the change in their relatively constant light patterns, but temperate species relying on day-night triggers for behavioral patterns are also affected as well. Many diurnal species see the benefit of a "longer day", allowing for a longer hunting period which is detrimental to their nocturnal prey trying to avoid them.


title: Nocturnality

text: Light pollution can disorient species that are used to darkness, as their adaptive eyes are not as used to the artificial lighting. Insects are the most obvious example, who are attracted by the lighting and are usually killed by either the heat or electrical current. Some species of frogs are blinded by the quick changes in light, while nocturnal migratory birds may be disoriented, causing them to lose direction, tire out, or be captured by predators. Sea turtles are particularly affected by this, adding to a number of threats to the different endangered species. Adults are likely to stay away from artificially lit beaches that they might prefer to lay eggs on, as there is less cover against predators. Additionally, baby sea turtles that hatch from eggs on artificially lit beaches often get lost, heading towards the light sources as opposed to the ocean.


title: Nocturnality

text: Rhythmic behaviors are affected by light pollution both seasonally and daily patterns. Migrating birds or mammals might have issues with the timing of their movement for example. On a day-to-day basis, species can see significant changes in their internal temperatures, their general movement, feeding and body mass. These small scale changes can eventually lead to a population decline, as well as hurting local trophic levels and interconnecting species. Some typically diurnal species have even become crepuscular or nocturnal as a result of light pollution and general human disturbance.


title: Nocturnality

text: There have been documented effects of light pollution on reproductive cycles and factors in different species. It can affect mate choice, migration to breeding grounds, and nest site selection. In male green frogs, artificial light causes a decrease in mate calls and continued to move around instead of waiting for a potential mate to arrive. This hurts the overall fitness of the species, which is concerning considering the overall decrease in amphibian populations.


title: Nocturnality

text: Some nocturnal predator-prey relationships are interrupted by artificial lighting. Bats that are fast-moving are often at an advantage with insects being drawn to light; they are fast enough to escape any predators also attracted to the light, leaving slow-moving bats at a disadvantage. Another example is harbor seals eating juvenile salmon that moved down a river lit by nearby artificial lighting. Once the lights were turned off, predation levels decreased. Many diurnal prey species forced into being nocturnal are susceptible to nocturnal predators and those species with poor nocturnal eyesight often bear the brunt of the cost.


title: Nocturnality

text: The increasing amount of habitat destruction worldwide as a result of human expansion has given both advantages and disadvantages to different nocturnal animals. As a result of peak human activity in the daytime, more species are likely to be active at night in order to avoid the new disturbance in their habitat. Carnivorous predators however are less timid of the disturbance, feeding on human waste and keeping a relatively similar spatial habitat as they did before. In comparison, herbivorous prey tend to stay in areas where human disturbance is low, limiting both resources and their spatial habitat. This leads to an imbalance in favor of predators, who increase in population and come out more often at night.


title: Nocturnality

text: In zoos, nocturnal animals are usually kept in special night-illumination enclosures to invert their normal sleep-wake cycle and to keep them active during the hours when visitors will be there to see them.


title: Nocturnality

text: Hedgehogs and sugar gliders are just two of the many nocturnal species kept as (exotic) pets. Cats have adapted to domestication so that each individual, whether stray alley cat or pampered housecat, can change their activity level at will, becoming nocturnal or diurnal in response to their environment or the routine of their owners. Cats normally demonstrate crepuscular behavior, bordering nocturnal, being most active in hunting and exploration at dusk and dawn.


title: Carl Laemmle

text: Carl Laemmle (; born Karl Lämmle; January 17, 1867 – September 24, 1939) was a film producer and the co-founder and, until 1934, owner of Universal Pictures. He produced or worked on over 400 films.


title: Carl Laemmle

text: Regarded as one of the most important of the early film pioneers, Laemmle was born in what is now Germany. He immigrated to the United States in 1884 and worked in Chicago for 20 years before he began buying nickelodeons, eventually expanding into a film distribution service, the Laemmle Film Service, then into production as Independent Moving Pictures Company (IMP), later renamed Universal Film Manufacturing Company, and later still renamed Universal Pictures Company.


title: Carl Laemmle

text: Karl Lämmle was born in 1867 to Julius Baruch Lämmle and Rebekka Lämmle, a Jewish couple in the Radstrasse, a street in the Jewish quarter of Laupheim, in the Kingdom of Württemberg. His father was a cattle merchant, also involved in land transactions. The family struggled financially and lived in poverty: Of his eleven siblings only 3 reached adulthood. He was one of the youngest children, and close to his mother, who enrolled him in a Jewish school. When he was 13, she arranged a three-year apprenticeship for him in Ichenhausen, a nearby village, where he learned accounting and sales, and worked to support his family.


title: Carl Laemmle

text: After his mother had died in 1883, Laemmle decided to emigrate to the US for a better life, also following his thirteen-year-older brother Joseph. For his 17th birthday, his father had given him the tickets for an Atlantic crossing on the steamboat S.S. "Neckar" plus fifty dollars. He left Bremerhaven on January 28, 1884 and arrived in New York on February 14, 1884. He settled in Chicago. Here he lived for about twenty years as a bookkeeper and office manager. In 1889, he became a naturalized American citizen. Laemmle worked a variety of jobs, but by 1894 he was the bookkeeper of the Continental Clothing Company in Oshkosh, Wisconsin, where he introduced a bolder advertising style.


title: Carl Laemmle

text: In 1906, at the age of 39, Laemmle quit his job. He initially wanted to open a network of cheap retail stores, but changed his mind after entering a nickelodeon. He started one of the first motion picture theaters in Chicago, The White Front on Milwaukee Avenue, and quickly branched out into film exchange services. He challenged Thomas Edison's monopoly on moving pictures, the Motion Picture Patents Company, under the Sherman Anti-Trust Act of 1890. As part of his offensive against Edison's company, Laemmle began advertising individual "stars," such as Mary Pickford and Florence Lawrence, thus increasing their individual earning power, and thus their willingness to side with the "Independents."


title: Carl Laemmle

text: After moving to New York, Carl Laemmle became involved in producing movies, forming Independent Moving Pictures (IMP); the city was the site of many new movie-related businesses. On April 30, 1912, in New York, Laemmle brought together Pat Powers of Powers Motion Picture Company, Mark Dintenfass of Champion Film Company, William Swanson of Rex Motion Picture Company, David Horsley of Nestor Film Company, as well as Charles Baumann and Adam Kessel of the New York Motion Picture Company, to merge their companies with IMP as the "Universal Film Manufacturing Company", with Laemmle assuming the role of president. They founded the Company with studios in Fort Lee, New Jersey, where at the beginning of the 20th century many early film studios in America's first motion picture industry were based.


title: Carl Laemmle

text: On March 15, 1915, Laemmle opened the world's largest motion picture production facility, Universal Studios Hollywood, on a 230-acre (0.9-km) converted farm in the San Fernando Valley, just over the Cahuenga Pass from Hollywood.


title: Carl Laemmle

text: Universal maintained two East Coast offices: The first was located at 1600 Broadway, New York City. This building, initially known as the Studebaker Building, was razed around 2004 or 2005. The second location to house Universal's executive offices was at 730 Fifth Avenue, New York City. Many years later, 445 Park Avenue was the location of Universal's executive offices. In 1916, Laemmle sponsored the $3,000 three-foot-tall solid silver Universal Trophy for the winner of the annual Universal race at the Uniontown Speedway board track in southwestern Pennsylvania. Universal filmed each race from 1916 to 1922.