title: Louisiana Creole

text: No standard name for the language exists historically. In the language, community members in various areas of Louisiana and elsewhere have referred to it in many expressions, though Kréyol/Kréyòl has been the most widespread of them. Until the rise of Cajunism in the 1970s and 1980s, many Louisiana Francophones also identified their language as Créole, since they self-identified as Louisiana Creoles. In Louisiana's case, self-identity has determined how locals identify the language they speak. This leads to linguistic confusion. To remedy this, language activists beginning in the 2010s began promoting Kouri-Vini, to avoid any linguistic ambiguity with Louisiana French.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: The boundaries of historical Louisiana were first shaped by the French, then in statehood after 1812 took on its modern form. By the time of the Louisiana Purchase by the U.S in 1803, the boundaries came to include most of the Central U.S, ranging from present-day Montana; parts of North Dakota, Wyoming, Colorado; all of South Dakota, Nebraska, and Kansas; part of Southeast Texas; all of Oklahoma; most of Missouri and Arkansas; as well as Louisiana.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: In 1978, researchers located a document from a murder trial in the colonial period which acknowledges the existence of Louisiana Creole. The documentation does not include any examples of orthography or structure.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: In an 1807 document, a grammatical description of the language is included in the experiences of an enslaved woman recorded by C.C. Robin. This was prior to arrival in Louisiana of French-speaking colonists and enslaved Africans from Saint-Domingue; the whites and free people of color (also French speaking), were refugees from the Haitian Revolution, that had established the first empire in the western hemisphere. The statements collected from Robin showed linguistic features that are now known to be typical of Louisiana Creole.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: The term “Criollo” appears in legal court documents during the Spanish colonial period (1762-1803); the Spanish reference to the language stated that the language was used among slaves and whites.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: The importation of African slaves increased after France ceded the colony to Spain in 1763, following France's defeat by Great Britain in the Seven Years' War in Europe. Some Spaniards immigrated to the colony, but it was dominated by French language and culture. Like South Carolina, Louisiana had a "minority" population of Africans that greatly outnumbered the European settlers, including those white Creoles born in the colony.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: In the case of Louisiana Creole, a "diglossia" resulted between Louisiana Creole and Louisiana French. Michael Picone, a lexicographer, proposed the term "Plantation Society French" to describe a version of French which he associated with plantation owners, plantation overseers, small landowners, military officers/soldiers and bilingual, free people of color, as being a contributor to Louisiana Creole's lexical base. Over the centuries, Louisiana Creole's negative associations with slavery stigmatized the language to the point where many speakers are reluctant to use it for fear of ridicule. In this way, the assignment of "high" variety (or H language) was allotted to standard Louisiana French and that of "low" variety (or L language) was given to Louisiana Creole and to Louisiana French.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: The social status of Louisiana Creole further declined as a result of the Louisiana Purchase. Americans and their government made it illegal for Louisiana Creoles to speak their language. Public institutions like schools refused to teach children in their native tongue and children and adults were often punished by corporal punishment, fines, and social degradation. By the 21st century, other methods were enforced. The promise of upward socioeconomic mobility and public shaming did the rest of the work, prompting many speakers of Louisiana Creole to abandon their stigmatised language in favor of English. Additionally, the development of industry, technology and infrastructure in Louisiana reduced the isolation of Louisiana Creolophone communities and resulted in the arrival of more English-speakers, resulting in further exposure to English. Because of this, Louisiana Creole exhibits more recent influence from English, including loanwords, code-switching and syntactic calquing.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Today, Louisiana Creole is spoken by fewer than 10,000 people. Though national census data includes figures on language usage, these are often unreliable in Louisiana due to respondents' tendencies to identify their language in line with their ethnic identity. For example, speakers of Louisiana Creole who identify as Cajuns often label their language 'Cajun French', though on linguistic grounds their language would be considered Louisiana Creole.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Efforts to revitalize French in Louisiana have placed emphasis on "Cajun French", to the exclusion of Creole. A small number of community organizations focus on promoting Louisiana Creole, for example CREOLE, Inc. and the 'Creole Table' founded by Velma Johnson. Northwestern State University developed the Creole Heritage Centre designed to bring people of Louisiana Creole heritage together, as well as preserve Louisiana Creole through their Creole Language Documentation Project. In addition, there is an active online community of language-learners and activists engaged in language revitalization, led by language activist Christophe Landry. These efforts have resulted in the creation of a popular orthography, a digitalized version of Valdman et al.'s "Louisiana Creole Dictionary", and a free spaced repetition course for learning vocabulary hosted on Memrise created by a team led by Adrien Guillory-Chatman. A first language primer was released in 2017 and revised into a full-length language guide and accompanying website in 2020. 2022 saw the publication of an anthology of contemporary poetry in Louisiana Creole, the first book written completely in the language.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Speakers of Louisiana Creole are mainly concentrated in south and southwest Louisiana, where the population of Creolophones is distributed across the region. St. Martin Parish forms the heart of the Creole-speaking region. Other sizeable communities exist along Bayou Têche in St. Landry, Avoyelles, Iberia, and St. Mary Parishes. There are smaller communities on False River in Pointe-Coupée Parish, in Terrebone Parish, and along the lower Mississippi River in Ascension, St. Charles Parish, and St. James and St. John the Baptist parishes.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: There once were Creolophones in Natchitoches Parish on Cane River and sizable communities of Louisiana Creole-speakers in adjacent Southeast Texas (Beaumont, Houston, Port Arthur, Galveston) and the Chicago area. Louisiana Creole speakers in California reside in Los Angeles, San Diego and San Bernardino counties and in Northern California (San Francisco Bay Area, Sacramento County, Plumas County, Tehama County, Mono County, and Yuba County). Historically, there were Creole-speaking communities in Mississippi and Alabama (on Mon Louis Island); however, it is likely that no speakers remain in these areas.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: The phonology of Louisiana Creole has much in common with those of other French-based creole languages. In comparison to most of these languages, however, Louisiana Creole diverges less from the phonology of French in general and Louisiana French in particular.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: The table above shows the consonant sounds of Louisiana Creole, not including semivowels and . In common with Louisiana French, Louisiana Creole features postalveolar affricates and , as in ‘weak coffee’ and ‘mouth’.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Speakers of the language may use rounded vowels , and where they occur in French. This is subject to a high degree of variation with the same region, sociolinguistic group, and even within the same speaker. Examples of this process include:


title: Louisiana Creole

text: In common with Louisiana French, Louisiana Creole vowels are nasalized where they precede a nasal consonant, e.g. 'young', 'apple'. Unlike most varieties of Louisiana French, Louisiana Creole also exhibits progressive nasalization: vowels following a nasal consonant are nasalized, e.g. 'know'.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: In nineteenth century sources, determiners in Louisiana Creole appear related to specificity. Bare nouns are non-specific. As for specific nouns, if the noun is pre-supposed it took a definite determiner ("-la", singular; "-la-ye", plural) or by an indefinite determiner ("en," singular; "de" or "-ye", plural). Today, definite articles in Louisiana Creole vary between the "le", "la" and "lê", placed before the noun as in Louisiana French, and post-positional definite determiners -"la" for the singular, and -"yé" for the plural. This variation is but one example of the influence of Louisiana French on Louisiana Creole, especially in the variety spoken along the Bayou Têche which has been characterized by some linguists as decreolized, though this notion is controversial.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Some speakers of that variety display a highly variable system of number and gender agreement, as evidenced in possessive pronouns.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Possession is shown by noun-noun possessum-possessor constructions (e.g. "lamézon mô papa" 'house (of) my grandfather') or with the preposition "a" (e.g. "lamézon a mô papa" 'house of my grandfather').


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Older forms of Louisiana Creole featured only one form of each verb without any inflection, e.g. 'to eat'. Today, the language typically features two verb classes: verbs with only a single form ( 'to drink') and verbs with a 'long' or 'short' form (, 'to eat').


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Like other creole languages, Louisiana Creole features preverbal markers of tense, aspect and mood as listed in the table below


title: Louisiana Creole

text: The vocabulary of Louisiana Creole is primarily of French origin, as French is the language's lexifier. Some local vocabulary, such as topography, animals, plants are of Amerindian origin. In the domains folklore and Voodoo, the language has a small number of vocabulary items from west and central African languages. Much of this non-French vocabulary is shared with other French-based creole languages of North America, and Louisiana Creole shares all but a handful of its vocabulary with Louisiana French.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: The current Louisiana Creole alphabet consists of twenty-three letters of the ISO basic Latin alphabet (not including c, q, or x) and several special letters and diacritics.


title: Louisiana Creole

text: Catholic prayers are recited in French by speakers of Kouri-Vini. Today, efforts are being led by various language activists and learners to translate the prayers in Kouri-Vini.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Tondo is a district located in Manila, Philippines. It is the largest in terms of area and population of Manila's sixteen districts, with a Census-estimated 631,313 people in 2015 and consists of two congressional districts. It is also the second most densely populated district in the city.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: The name Tondo can be derived from its Old Tagalog name, Tundun as inscribed in the Laguna Copperplate Inscription of 900 AD, the earliest native document found within the Philippines. Dutch anthropologist Antoon Postma, the first to translate the copperplate, believes the term "tundun" originated from the old Indian language Sanskrit, which was used alongside Old Malay as a language of politics and religion in the area at the time.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Before this landmark discovery, several theories (however incorrect now) existed. Philippine National Artist Nick Joaquin once suggested that it might be a reference to a high ground ("tundok"). On the other hand, French linguist Jean-Paul Potet, supposed that the river mangrove, which at the time was called "tundok" ("tinduk-tindukan" today), was the most likely origin of the name.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: The region of Tondo has been settled by humans for over 1,100 years. Historically, Tondo already existed in the year 900 AD according to the Laguna Copperplate Inscription, a legal document that is the earliest document in the Philippines, written in Kawi now housed in the National Museum of Anthropology.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: According to this document, Tondo was ruled by an unnamed person who held the Sanskrit title of senapati or the equivalent of an admiral. Tondo also had influence all the way to the modern-day province of Bulacan particularly around Lihan (Malolos) and Gatbuca (Calumpit). Tondo was ruled by a line of lakan until the Spanish conquest.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: After the Spaniards conquered Tondo in January 1571 they established the Province of Tondo which covered many territories in Northern Luzon particularly Pampanga, Bulacan and Rizal (formerly called Morong), with the city of Manila as its center.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: In a census conducted by Miguel de Loarca in 1583, Tondo was reported to have spoken the same language as the natives of the province of Pampanga.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Institute of National Language commissioner Jose Villa Panganiban also wrote that the dividing line between Kapampangan and Tagalog was the Pasig River, and that Tondo therefore originally spoke Kapampangan. However, Fray Isacio Rodriquez's Historia dela Provincia del Santisimo Nombre de Jesus de Filipinas stated that Provincia de Tagalos which is Tondo covers all the territories of the future Archdiocese of Manila.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Prior to the establishment of the Province of Bulacan in 1578 Malolos and Calumpit were also included in the territory of Tondo as its "visitas". In 1800, the Province of Tondo was renamed to Province of Manila.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Tondo was one of the first provinces to declare rebellion against Spain in the year 1896. In 1911, under the American colonial regime, there was a major reorganization of political divisions, and the province of Tondo was dissolved, with its towns given to the provinces of Rizal and Bulacan. Today, Tondo just exists as a district in the City of Manila.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Slums developed in Tondo along the Pasig River. Authorities sought to improve housing conditions on these areas without condoning the action of squatting committed by the slums' residents. In the 1970s, the World Bank provided funds to improve conditions in Tondo which led the increase of rent prices and a property boom in the area. These caused the poor to be marginalized. The slums that were upgraded were legalized but these areas remain vastly different from other parts of Manila with higher population density, more irregular road and plot patterns, and uncontrolled housing.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: In the 1987 constitution, Tondo split into two congressional districts of Manila making the first district to the west while the second district in the east. Paco also split by fifth and sixth congressional districts which the fifth in the south and sixth in the north.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Tondo hosts the Manila North Harbor Port, the northern half of the Port of Manila, the primary seaport serving Metro Manila and surrounding areas.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: The area also hosted Smokey Mountain, a landfill which served Metro Manila and employed thousands of people from around 1960s until its closure in the late 1990s. The dumpsite served as a symbol of poverty even at least two decades since its closure.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Urbanization as well as the Lina Law which favors squatters over land owners has resulted in Tondo being one of the most densely populated areas in the world at .


title: Tondo, Manila

text: Tondo has developed a reputation for criminality and poverty. In 2010, Manila records state that Tondo has the highest criminal rate in the whole city with the most common crime being pick pocketing.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: The district celebrates the feast of the Santo Niño de Tondo annually in January, which is dedicated to the image of the Santo Niño housed within the 16th century Augustinian Tondo Church. The Lakbayaw Street Dance Festival, a competition among Ati-Atihan groups and school, local and religious groups, served as the climax of the feast.


title: Tondo, Manila

text: The Manila office of the Department of Education lists 26 public elementary schools and 11 public high schools in Tondo.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Computational linguistics is an interdisciplinary field concerned with the computational modelling of natural language, as well as the study of appropriate computational approaches to linguistic questions. In general, computational linguistics draws upon linguistics, computer science, artificial intelligence, mathematics, logic, philosophy, cognitive science, cognitive psychology, psycholinguistics, anthropology and neuroscience, among others.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Traditionally, computational linguistics emerged as an area of artificial intelligence performed by computer scientists who had specialized in the application of computers to the processing of a natural language. With the formation of the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and the establishment of independent conference series, the field consolidated during the 1970s and 1980s.


title: Computational linguistics

text: The term "computational linguistics" is nowadays (2020) taken to be a near-synonym of natural language processing (NLP) and language technology. These terms put a stronger emphasis on aspects of practical applications rather than theoretical inquiry. In practice, they have largely replaced the term "computational linguistics" in the NLP/ACL community, although they specifically refer to the sub-field of applied computational linguistics, only.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Computational linguistics has both theoretical and applied components. Theoretical computational linguistics focuses on issues in theoretical linguistics and cognitive science. Applied computational linguistics focuses on the practical outcome of modeling human language use.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Theoretical computational linguistics includes the development of formal theories of grammar (parsing) and semantics, often grounded in formal logics and symbolic (knowledge-based) approaches. Areas of research that are studied by theoretical computational linguistics include:


title: Computational linguistics

text: Applied computational linguistics has been dominated by statistical methods, like neural networks and machine learning, since about 1990. Socher et al. (2012) was an early deep learning tutorial at the ACL 2012, and met with both interest and (at the time) scepticism by most participants. Until then, neural learning was basically rejected because of its lack of statistical interpretability. Until 2015, deep learning had evolved into the major framework of NLP. As for the tasks addressed by applied computational linguistics, see Natural language processing article. This includes classical problems such as the design of POS-taggers (part-of-speech taggers), parsers for natural languages, or tasks such as machine translation (MT), the sub-division of computational linguistics dealing with having computers translate between languages. As one of the earliest and most difficult applications of computational linguistics, MT draws on many subfields and both theoretical and applied aspects. Traditionally, automatic language translation has been considered a notoriously hard branch of computational linguistics.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Aside from dichotomy between theoretical and applied computational linguistics, other divisions of computational into major areas according to different criteria exist, including:


title: Computational linguistics

text: Traditionally, applications of computers to address research problems in other branches of linguistics have been described as tasks within computational linguistics. Among other aspects, this includes


title: Computational linguistics

text: Computational linguistics is often grouped within the field of artificial intelligence but was present before the development of artificial intelligence. Computational linguistics originated with efforts in the United States in the 1950s to use computers to automatically translate texts from foreign languages, particularly Russian scientific journals, into English. Since computers can make arithmetic (systematic) calculations much faster and more accurately than humans, it was thought to be only a short matter of time before they could also begin to process language. Computational and quantitative methods are also used historically in the attempted reconstruction of earlier forms of modern languages and sub-grouping modern languages into language families. Earlier methods, such as lexicostatistics and glottochronology, have been proven to be premature and inaccurate. However, recent interdisciplinary studies that borrow concepts from biological studies, especially gene mapping, have proved to produce more sophisticated analytical tools and more reliable results.


title: Computational linguistics

text: When machine translation (also known as mechanical translation) failed to yield accurate translations right away, automated processing of human languages was recognized as far more complex than had originally been assumed. Computational linguistics was born as the name of the new field of study devoted to developing algorithms and software for intelligently processing language data. The term "computational linguistics" itself was first coined by David Hays, a founding member of both the Association for Computational Linguistics (ACL) and the International Committee on Computational Linguistics (ICCL).


title: Computational linguistics

text: To translate one language into another, it was observed that one had to understand the grammar of both languages, including both morphology (the grammar of word forms) and syntax (the grammar of sentence structure). To understand syntax, one had to also understand the semantics and the lexicon (or 'vocabulary'), and even something of the pragmatics of language use. Thus, what started as an effort to translate between languages evolved into an entire discipline devoted to understanding how to represent and process natural languages using computers.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Nowadays research within the scope of computational linguistics is done at computational linguistics departments, computational linguistics laboratories, computer science departments, and linguistics departments.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Some research in the field of computational linguistics aims to create working speech or text processing systems while others aim to create a system allowing human-machine interaction. Programs meant for human-machine communication are called conversational agents.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Just as computational linguistics can be performed by experts in a variety of fields and through a wide assortment of departments, so too can the research fields broach a diverse range of topics. The following sections discuss some of the literature available across the entire field broken into four main area of discourse: developmental linguistics, structural linguistics, linguistic production, and linguistic comprehension.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Language is a cognitive skill that develops throughout the life of an individual. This developmental process has been examined using several techniques, and a computational approach is one of them. Human language development does provide some constraints which make it harder to apply a computational method to understanding it. For instance, during language acquisition, children are largely only exposed to positive evidence. This means that during the linguistic development of an individual, the only evidence for what is a correct form is provided, and no evidence for what is not correct. This is insufficient information for a simple hypothesis testing procedure for information as complex as language, and so provides certain boundaries for a computational approach to modeling language development and acquisition in an individual.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Attempts have been made to model the developmental process of language acquisition in children from a computational angle, leading to both statistical grammars and connectionist models. Work in this realm has also been proposed as a method to explain the evolution of language through history. Using models, it has been shown that languages can be learned with a combination of simple input presented incrementally as the child develops better memory and longer attention span. This was simultaneously posed as a reason for the long developmental period of human children. Both conclusions were drawn because of the strength of the artificial neural network which the project created.


title: Computational linguistics

text: The ability of infants to develop language has also been modeled using robots in order to test linguistic theories. Enabled to learn as children might, a model was created based on an affordance model in which mappings between actions, perceptions, and effects were created and linked to spoken words. Crucially, these robots were able to acquire functioning word-to-meaning mappings without needing grammatical structure, vastly simplifying the learning process and shedding light on information which furthers the current understanding of linguistic development. It is important to note that this information could only have been empirically tested using a computational approach.


title: Computational linguistics

text: As our understanding of the linguistic development of an individual within a lifetime is continually improved using neural networks and learning robotic systems, it is also important to keep in mind that languages themselves change and develop through time. Computational approaches to understanding this phenomenon have unearthed very interesting information. Using the Price equation and Pólya urn dynamics, researchers have created a system which not only predicts future linguistic evolution but also gives insight into the evolutionary history of modern-day languages. This modeling effort achieved, through computational linguistics, what would otherwise have been impossible.


title: Computational linguistics

text: It is clear that the understanding of linguistic development in humans as well as throughout evolutionary time has been fantastically improved because of advances in computational linguistics. The ability to model and modify systems at will affords science an ethical method of testing hypotheses that would otherwise be intractable.


title: Computational linguistics

text: To create better computational models of language, an understanding of language's structure is crucial. To this end, the English language has been meticulously studied using computational approaches to better understand how the language works on a structural level. One of the most important pieces of being able to study linguistic structure is the availability of large linguistic corpora or samples. This grants computational linguists the raw data necessary to run their models and gain a better understanding of the underlying structures present in the vast amount of data which is contained in any single language. One of the most cited English linguistic corpora is the Penn Treebank. Derived from widely-different sources, such as IBM computer manuals and transcribed telephone conversations, this corpus contains over 4.5 million words of American English. This corpus has been primarily annotated using part-of-speech tagging and syntactic bracketing and has yielded substantial empirical observations related to language structure.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Theoretical approaches to the structure of languages have also been developed. These works allow computational linguistics to have a framework within which to work out hypotheses that will further the understanding of the language in a myriad of ways. One of the original theoretical theses on the internalization of grammar and structure of language proposed two types of models. In these models, rules or patterns learned increase in strength with the frequency of their encounter. The work also created a question for computational linguists to answer: how does an infant learn a specific and non-normal grammar (Chomsky normal form) without learning an overgeneralized version and getting stuck? Theoretical efforts like these set the direction for research to go early in the lifetime of a field of study, and are crucial to the growth of the field.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Structural information about languages allows for the discovery and implementation of similarity recognition between pairs of text utterances. For instance, it has recently been proven that based on the structural information present in patterns of human discourse, conceptual recurrence plots can be used to model and visualize trends in data and create reliable measures of similarity between natural textual utterances. This technique is a strong tool for further probing the structure of human discourse. Without the computational approach to this question, the vastly complex information present in discourse data would have remained inaccessible to scientists.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Information regarding the structural data of a language is available for English as well as other languages, such as Japanese. Using computational methods, Japanese sentence corpora were analyzed and a pattern of log-normality was found in relation to sentence length. Though the exact cause of this lognormality remains unknown, it is precisely this sort of information which computational linguistics is designed to uncover. This information could lead to further important discoveries regarding the underlying structure of Japanese and could have any number of effects on the understanding of Japanese as a language. Computational linguistics allows for very exciting additions to the scientific knowledge base to happen quickly and with very little room for doubt.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Without a computational approach to the structure of linguistic data, much of the information that is available now would still be hidden under the vastness of data within any single language. Computational linguistics allows scientists to parse huge amounts of data reliably and efficiently, creating the possibility for discoveries unlike any seen in most other approaches.


title: Computational linguistics

text: The production of language is equally as complex in the information it provides and the necessary skills which a fluent producer must have. That is to say, comprehension is only half the problem of communication. The other half is how a system produces language, and computational linguistics has made interesting discoveries in this area.


title: Computational linguistics

text: In a now famous paper published in 1950 Alan Turing proposed the possibility that machines might one day have the ability to "think". As a thought experiment for what might define the concept of thought in machines, he proposed an "imitation test" in which a human subject has two text-only conversations, one with a fellow human and another with a machine attempting to respond like a human. Turing proposes that if the subject cannot tell the difference between the human and the machine, it may be concluded that the machine is capable of thought. Today this test is known as the Turing test and it remains an influential idea in the area of artificial intelligence.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Some projects are still trying to solve the problem which first started computational linguistics off as its field in the first place. However, methods have become more refined, and consequently, the results generated by computational linguists have become more enlightening. To improve computer translation, several models have been compared, including hidden Markov models, smoothing techniques, and the specific refinements of those to apply them to verb translation. The model which was found to produce the most natural translations of German and French words was a refined alignment model with a first-order dependence and a fertility model. They also provide efficient training algorithms for the models presented, which can give other scientists the ability to improve further on their results. This type of work is specific to computational linguistics and has applications that could vastly improve understanding of how language is produced and comprehended by computers.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Work has also been done in making computers produce language in a more naturalistic manner. Using linguistic input from humans, algorithms have been constructed which are able to modify a system's style of production based on a factor such as linguistic input from a human, or more abstract factors like politeness or any of the five main dimensions of personality. This work takes a computational approach via parameter estimation models to categorize the vast array of linguistic styles we see across individuals and simplify it for a computer to work in the same way, making human–computer interaction much more natural.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Many of the earliest and simplest models of human–computer interaction, such as ELIZA for example, involve a text-based input from the user to generate a response from the computer. By this method, words typed by a user trigger the computer to recognize specific patterns and reply accordingly, through a process known as keyword spotting.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Recent technologies have placed more of an emphasis on speech-based interactive systems. These systems, such as Siri of the iOS operating system, operate on a similar pattern-recognizing technique as that of text-based systems, but with the former, the user input is conducted through speech recognition. This branch of linguistics involves the processing of the user's speech as sound waves and the interpreting of the acoustics and language patterns for the computer to recognize the input.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Much of the focus of modern computational linguistics is on comprehension. With the proliferation of the internet and the abundance of easily accessible written human language, the ability to create a program capable of understanding human language would have many broad and exciting possibilities, including improved search engines, automated customer service, and online education.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Early work in comprehension included applying Bayesian statistics to the task of optical character recognition, as illustrated by Bledsoe and Browing in 1959 in which a large dictionary of possible letters was generated by "learning" from example letters and then the probability that any one of those learned examples matched the new input was combined to make a final decision. Other attempts at applying Bayesian statistics to language analysis included the work of Mosteller and Wallace (1963) in which an analysis of the words used in "The Federalist Papers" was used to attempt to determine their authorship (concluding that Madison most likely authored the majority of the papers).


title: Computational linguistics

text: In 1971 Terry Winograd developed an early natural language processing engine capable of interpreting naturally written commands within a simple rule-governed environment. The primary language parsing program in this project was called SHRDLU, which was capable of carrying out a somewhat natural conversation with the user giving it commands, but only within the scope of the toy environment designed for the task. This environment consisted of different shaped and colored blocks, and SHRDLU was capable of interpreting commands such as "Find a block which is taller than the one you are holding and put it into the box." and asking questions such as "I don't understand which pyramid you mean." in response to the user's input. While impressive, this kind of natural language processing has proven much more difficult outside the limited scope of the toy environment. Similarly, a project developed by NASA called LUNAR was designed to provide answers to naturally written questions about the geological analysis of lunar rocks returned by the Apollo missions. These kinds of problems are referred to as question answering.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Initial attempts at understanding spoken language were based on work done in the 1960s and 1970s in signal modeling where an unknown signal is analyzed to look for patterns and to make predictions based on its history. An initial and somewhat successful approach to applying this kind of signal modeling to language was achieved with the use of hidden Markov models as detailed by Rabiner in 1989. This approach attempts to determine probabilities for the arbitrary number of models that could be being used in generating speech as well as modeling the probabilities for various words generated from each of these possible models. Similar approaches were employed in early speech recognition attempts starting in the late 70s at IBM using word/part-of-speech pair probabilities.


title: Computational linguistics

text: More recently these kinds of statistical approaches have been applied to more difficult tasks such as topic identification using Bayesian parameter estimation to infer topic probabilities in text documents.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Applied computational linguistics is largely equivalent with natural language processing. Example applications for end users include speech recognition software, such as Apple's Siri feature, spellcheck tools, speech synthesis programs, which are often used to demonstrate pronunciation or help disabled people, and machine translation programs and websites, such as Google Translate.


title: Computational linguistics

text: Computational linguistics are also helpful in situations involving social media and the Internet, e.g., for providing content filters in chatrooms or on website searches, for grouping and organizing content through social media mining, document retrieval and clustering. For instance, if a person searches "red, large, four-wheeled vehicle," to find pictures of a red truck, the search engine will still find the information desired by matching words such as "four-wheeled" with "car".


title: Computational linguistics

text: Computational approaches are also important to support linguistic research, e.g., in corpus linguistics or historical linguistics. As for the study of change over time, computational methods can contribute to the modeling and identification of language families (see further quantitative comparative linguistics or phylogenetics), as well as the modeling of changes in sound and meaning.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: Gursimran Singh "Sim" Bhullar (born December 2, 1992) is a Canadian professional basketball player for the Tainan TSG GhostHawks of the T1 League. He played college basketball for New Mexico State University and is the first player of Indian descent to play in the NBA. At 7'5", he also became the sixth-tallest player in NBA history, being tied with Chuck Nevitt and Pavel Podkolzin for that record.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: Born in Toronto, Ontario, Bhullar grew up in Brampton and attended Father Henry Carr Catholic Secondary School in Etobicoke, Toronto before moving to Saltsburg, Pennsylvania, to attend The Kiski School for the 2009–10 school year. That year, Bhullar averaged a near triple-double for the Kiski basketball team with 16 points, 14 rebounds, and eight blocks per game. At the FIBA Americas Under-18 tournament in the summer of 2010, Bhullar impressed with his size and performance. In a loss to the United States, Bhullar came off the bench to record 14 points, four rebounds and three blocks.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: At the end of November 2010, in the middle of Kiski's basketball season, Bhullar withdrew from Kiski and transferred to Huntington Prep School in West Virginia. At Huntington, Bhullar improved on his conditioning, dropping from to .


title: Sim Bhullar

text: Bhullar originally committed to playing for Xavier University in Cincinnati, Ohio, but decommitted in August 2011 to play for the New Mexico State Aggies. He turned down Xavier because he learned he was not qualified to immediately play and would have to pay the full $42,000-a-year tuition, which his family refused to do. Bhullar, however, was not able to play until the 2012–13 season because the NCAA denied him an eligibility waiver and rejected the school's appeal. His brother, Tanveer, joined the team for the 2013–14 season, although he redshirted his freshman year.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: During his freshman season, Bhullar played 24.4 minutes per game, averaging 10.1 points, 6.7 rebounds, and 2.4 blocks per game. In his sophomore season, he improved to 26.3 minutes per game, with 10.4 points, 7.8 rebounds, and 3.4 blocks per game. He is a two-time WAC tournament MVP, winning the award in 2013 and 2014, where he also helped New Mexico State reach the NCAA tournament.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: In April 2014, Bhullar declared for the NBA draft, forgoing his final two years of college eligibility.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: After going undrafted in the 2014 NBA draft, Bhullar joined the Sacramento Kings for the 2014 NBA Summer League. On August 14, 2014, he signed with the Kings, becoming the first player of Indian descent to sign with an NBA team. However, he was waived by the Kings on October 19 after appearing in two preseason games. On November 2, 2014, he was acquired by the Reno Bighorns of the NBA Development League as an affiliate player of the Kings. Bhullar made his D-League debut on December 6 and recorded four points, eight rebounds and six blocks in Reno's 141–140 loss to the Los Angeles D-Fenders. On February 22, 2015, he recorded his first career triple-double with 26 points, 17 rebounds and 11 blocked shots against the D-Fenders.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: On April 2, 2015, Bhullar signed a 10-day contract with the Sacramento Kings. Five days later, he made history when he checked in the fourth quarter for the final 16.1 seconds of the Kings' 116–111 win over the Minnesota Timberwolves, becoming the first player of Indian descent to play in an NBA game. He scored his first two points on April 8 in a 103–91 loss to the Utah Jazz. Bhullar was not retained by the Kings following the expiration of his 10-day contract.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: In July 2015, Bhullar re-joined the Kings for the 2015 NBA Summer League. After appearing in just one game for the Kings, Bhullar left the team in order to join the Canadian national team for the Pan Am Games.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: On October 31, 2015, Bhullar was acquired by Raptors 905 of the NBA Development League. In 39 games for Raptors 905 in 2015–16, he averaged 9.6 points, 6.9 rebounds, 1.1 assists and 1.3 blocks per game.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: On April 27, 2017, Bhullar signed with Guangxi Rhino of the National Basketball League, the second-tier league of China.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: Bhullar played for Canada in the 2010 FIBA Americas U18 Championship where he averaged 6.0 points and 3.8 rebounds in five games. Canada won the bronze medal after finishing with a 3–2 record. Bhullar then played for Canada in the 2011 FIBA Under-19 World Championship. In six games, he averaged 12.3 points and 6.3 rebounds per game. Canada finished in 11th place with a 3–5 record.


title: Sim Bhullar

text: Bhullar's parents migrated to Canada from the state of Punjab in India. His father, Avtar, is and his mother, Varinder, is . Neither parent had exposure to basketball until enrolling their sons into local youth basketball programs. Avtar himself grew up only playing kabaddi, a traditional Indian contact sport. Bhullar had a normal life as a teen having a job at 16 working at Dunkin’ Donuts. Bhullar has an older sister, Avneet, and a younger brother, Tanveer, who stands at and played college basketball for both New Mexico State and, later, Missouri State.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: The General Electric LM2500 is an industrial and marine gas turbine produced by GE Aviation. The LM2500 is a derivative of the General Electric CF6 aircraft engine.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: As of 2004, the U.S. Navy and at least 29 other navies had used a total of more than one thousand LM2500/LM2500+ gas turbines to power warships. Other uses include hydrofoils, hovercraft and fast ferries.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: In 2012, GE developed an FPSO version to serve the oil and gas industry's demand for a lighter, more compact version to generate electricity and drive compressors to send natural gas through pipelines.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: The LM2500 was first used on the US Navy in 1969, after the original FT-4 gas turbines experienced many technical problems. Later, they were used in US Navy warships in the of destroyers and the related , which were constructed from 1970. In this configuration it was rated to . This configuration was subsequently used into the 1980s in the s, and s. It was also used by one of People's Republic of China's Type 052 Luhu Class Missile Destroyer (Harbin 112) acquired before the embargo.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: The LM2500 was uprated to for the s, which were initiated in the 1980s and started to see service in the early 1990s, and the T-AOE-6 class of fast combat tanker.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: In 2001 the LM2500 (20 MW) was installed in a sound-proof capsule in the South African Navy (Meko A-200 SAN) frigates as part of a CODAG propulsion system with two MTU 16V 1163 TB93 Propulsion Diesels.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: LM2500 installations place the engine inside a metal container for sound and heat isolation from the rest of the machinery spaces. This container is very near the size of a standard intermodal shipping container – but not the same, the engine size very slightly exceeds those dimensions. The air intake ducting may be designed and shaped appropriately for easy removal of the LM2500 from their ships.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: The LM2500+ is an evolution of the LM2500, delivering up to or 28.6 MW of electric energy when combined with an electrical generator. Two of such turbo-generators have been installed in the superstructure near the funnel of "Queen Mary 2", the world's largest transatlantic ocean liner, for additional electric energy when the ship's four diesel-generators are working at maximum capacity or fail. Celebrity Cruises uses two LM2500+ engines in their s in a COGAS cycle.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: The LM2500 is license-built in Japan by IHI Corporation, in India by Hindustan Aeronautics Limited, and in Italy by Avio Aero.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: The LM2500/LM2500+ can often be found as turbine part of CODAG, CODOG, CODLAG propulsion systems or in pairs as powerplants for COGAG systems.


title: General Electric LM2500

text: The basic LM2500 has a single shaft gas generator derived from the CF6, comprising a 16 stage compressor driven by a two stage air-cooled HP turbine. The combustion chamber is annular. Shaft power is generated by a 6-stage power turbine mounted in the gas generator exhaust stream Additional power is obtained from the LM2500+ by the addition of a zero stage to the compressor, making 17 stages in all.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Columbia College Chicago is a private art college in Chicago, Illinois. Founded in 1890, it has 5,928 students pursuing degrees in more than 60 undergraduate and graduate degree programs. It is accredited by the Higher Learning Commission.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Columbia College Chicago is the host institution of several affiliated educational, cultural, and research organizations, including the Center for Black Music Research, the Center for Book and Paper Arts, the Center for Community Arts Partnerships, the Dance Center of Columbia College Chicago, and the Museum of Contemporary Photography.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Columbia College Chicago is not affiliated with Columbia University, Columbia College Hollywood, or any other Columbia College in the United States.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Columbia College Chicago was founded in 1890 as the Columbia School of Oratory by Mary A. Blood and Ida Morey Riley, both graduates of the Monroe Conservatory of Oratory (now Emerson College), in Boston, Massachusetts. Anticipating a strong need for public speaking at the 1893 World's Columbian Exposition, which celebrated the 400th anniversary of Christopher Columbus's arrival in the Americas, Blood and Riley were inspired to open their school in the exposition city, Chicago, and adopt the exposition's name. Blood and Riley became the college's first co-presidents, until Riley died in 1901; Blood served in this capacity until her death in 1927. The women established a co-educational school that "should stand for high ideals, for the teaching of expression by methods truly educational, for the gospel of good cheer, and for the building of sterling good character" in the Stevens' Art Gallery Building, 24 East Adams Street.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: The school ran as a sole proprietary business from 1890 to 1904, when the school became incorporated by the state of Illinois. On May 5, 1904, the school incorporated itself again in order to change its name to the Columbia College of Expression, adding coursework in teaching to the curriculum.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: When Blood died in 1927, George L. Scherger assumed the office of presidency after serving as a former member of the board of directors. Under his leadership, Scherger signed the paperwork at the board's annual meeting on April 14, 1928, to change the school's name to the Mary A. Blood School of Speech Arts. However, by April 30, 1928, the school reverted its name to the Columbia College of Expression by the board of directors, George L. Scherger, Herman H. Hegner, and Erme Rowe Hegner. During Scherger's presidency, the college became an official sister institution with the Pestalozzi-Froebel Teachers College, a family-run school centered on training its students for teaching kindergarten. As the president of the Pestalozzi-Froebel Teachers College, Bertha Hofer Hegner assumed the role as the fourth president of Columbia College of Expression in 1929 when Scherger resigned to become an assistant pastor of St. Paul's Evangelical Lutheran Church.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Hegner served as the institutions' head, although due to illness, her son, Herman Hofer Hegner served as acting president of the institutions from 1930 until 1936. By 1934, college curriculum also focused on the growing field of radio broadcasting. Herman Hofer Hegner hired Norman Alexandroff, a radio programmer, in 1934 to develop a radio curriculum for the colleges as both institutions were suffering financially. When Bertha Hofer Hegner retired in 1936 due to health reasons, she was made president emeritus of the institutions and Herman Hofer Hegner became the institutions' official president.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: During Herman Hofner Hegner's presidency, the Columbia College of Expression was advertised under different names including, Columbia College of Speech and Drama, the Radio Institute of Columbia School of Speech and Drama, and Columbia College of Speech, Drama, and Radio. However, the college was never incorporated under any of these names by the state of Illinois. As the radio program gained prominence, Alexandroff was named as the vice president of the Columbia College of Expression and became a member on the board of directors at both institutions by 1937.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: The college left its partnership with the Pestalozzi-Froebel Teachers College, named Norman Alexandroff as its president, and filed the Columbia College of Expression as a not for profit corporation on December 3, 1943. On February 5, 1944, the college re-filed as a not for profit corporation and changed its name to Columbia College. During the late 1940s and early 1950s, the college broadened its educational base to include television, journalism, marketing, and other mass-communication areas. Alexandroff also oversaw the development of the extension campuses of the school, Columbia College Pan-Americano in Mexico City, Mexico, and Columbia Los Angeles in Los Angeles, California. Both of these campuses became independent of their parent in the late 1950s. Prosperity was short lived, however, and by 1961, the college had fewer than 200 students and a part-time faculty of 25.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Norman Alexandroff remained the president of the college until his death on May 26, 1960, and his son, Mirron (Mike) Alexandroff, assumed the role of president by 1961. Mike Alexandroff had worked at the college since 1947 and as president, he created a liberal arts college with a "hands-on minds-on" approach to arts and media education with a progressive social agenda. He established a generous admissions policy so that qualified high school graduates could attend college courses taught by some of the most influential and creative professionals in Chicago. For the next thirty years, Alexandroff worked to build the college into an urban institution that helped to change the face of higher education.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: With this renewed focus on building its academic program, the institution was awarded full accreditation in 1974 from the North Central Association of Colleges and Schools and in 1984, received accreditation for its graduate programs. In 1975, when the college's enrollment exceeded 2,000, it purchased its first real estate, the building at 600 South Michigan Avenue (the building is now known as the Alexandroff Campus Center). At the time of Alexandroff's retirement in 1992, the college served 6,791 students and owned or rented more than of instructional, performance, and administrative space.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: From 1992 until 2000, John B. Duff, former commissioner of the Chicago Public Library and former chancellor of the Massachusetts Board of Regents of Higher Education, served as the college's president. On October 28, 1997, the college changed its name to Columbia College Chicago, and the institution continued to expand its educational programs and add to its physical campus by purchasing available buildings in the South Loop. This played a significant part in its presence in the South Loop and downtown Chicago. Today, the college's campus occupies almost two dozen buildings and utilizes over 2.5 million square feet.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: In 2000, Dr. Warrick L. Carter became the college's president. An educator, jazz composer, and performing artist, Carter joined the college from The Walt Disney Company, where he spent four years as director of entertainment arts. Previously, he had spent 12 years at Berklee College of Music in Boston, one of the world's-largest independent schools of music, where he served as dean of faculty and then provost and vice president of academic affairs.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Through 2010, under his leadership, the college created new student-based initiatives such as Manifest, the annual urban arts festival celebrating Columbia's graduating students, and ShopColumbia, a store where students can showcase and sell their work on campus; partnered with local universities to construct the University Center; purchased new campus buildings; added new curricula; and oversaw the college's first newly constructed building, the Media Production Center.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Recently, the college has a growing program of international exchanges, including associations with Dublin Institute of Technology, the University of East London, and the Lorenzo de' Medici Italian International Institute. Through the vast diversity of students and graduates, the school brings a rich vision and a multiplicity of voices to American culture, encouraging students to "author the culture of their times".


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: However, Columbia has not been exempt from internal and external criticism in recent years. During the 2011–12 school year, the college administration attempted to implement a set of sweeping changes to the college's curriculum, staffing policies, and overall institutional structure, through an initiative dubbed Blueprint | Prioritization. As the specifics of the changes and cutbacks came to light over the course of the school year, students and faculty from affected departments and majors vocalized their opposition to the cutbacks by staging protests during administrative meetings, mic-checking Interim Provost Louise Love during an open hearing about the proposed cutbacks, and circulating petitions calling for certain decisions, and even the entire process, to be reversed, citing "union busting" practices, consistent tuition hikes, and frequent, unexplained personnel changes across the college.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Press coverage and local awareness of the college's troubles surrounding Prioritization increased rapidly after Deanna Issacs, a reporter for the Chicago Reader, was shut out of President Warrick Carter's annual State of the College Address to the student body, which had been advertised as "open to the public." During the meeting, at which the president had been questioned extensively by students about cutbacks and tuition hikes, Carter appeared to lose his temper at one point, aggressively telling a student to "shut up," in his response to a question about his salary, which exceeds $400,000 per year. In addition to the reader, the grievances voiced over the Blueprint | Prioritization cutbacks received coverage in the "Chicago Tribune", the "Chronicle of Higher Education", and "Time Out Chicago".


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: As of September 2012, most of the proposed changes from Prioritization had yet to be implemented. Programs and departments that were at one point or another slated for cuts include the Center for Black Music Research, the Chicago Jazz Ensemble, the Ellen Stone Belic Institute for the Study of Women and Gender in the Arts and Media, the Fiction Writing Department (whose Chair was let go without explanation after 20+ years of service in April 2011, only to be reinstated just months later after a student uproar over the firing), the college's recycling program, which employed student workers to collect refuse, and the top-10 ranked Cultural Studies program, one of the few standalone undergraduate programs of its kind in the nation.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: On May 9, 2012, President Warrick Carter announced he would retire a year earlier than expected, stepping down at the end of the 2012–13 academic year.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: On July 1, 2013, Dr. Kwang-Wu Kim became Columbia College's 10th president. Dr. Kim holds a Doctorate of Musical Arts and an Artist Diploma from the Peabody Institute of Johns Hopkins University, where he studied with the legendary pianist and conductor Leon Fleisher and served as Fleisher's teaching associate.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: In 2013, Columbia College Chicago was ranked 13th best Film School in the country by The Hollywood Reporter.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Columbia College Chicago is consistently ranked in The Hollywood Reporter's top 25 schools for music composition. In 2018, Hollywood reporter ranked Columbia College Chicago at number 13.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Columbia has a nontraditional campus located in the South Loop and Near South Side of Chicago. The college owns sixteen academic, gallery/performance, administrative, and student residential buildings, and leases additional office and student residential space in four buildings. Most of the campus is contained in an area bounded by Ida B. Wells Drive, State Street, Roosevelt Road, and Michigan Avenue. Many of Columbia's buildings were built in the early 20th century and were acquired by the school as it expanded.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: The college also operates an intensive five-week Semester in Los Angeles program on the premises of Raleigh Studios in Hollywood, California, for upper-level (80+ credit hours completed, 3.0 GPA) Cinema Art & Science, Television, Communication and Media Innovation, Music, and Business & Entrepreneurship students.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Located at 600 S. Michigan Avenue, Columbia College's Main Building was built in 1906–07 by Christian A. Eckstorm, an architect popular for his industrial and warehouse designs, to serve as the headquarters of the International Harvester Company. 600 S. Michigan was a modern skyscraper of its era, built with a steel skeleton, high-speed elevators, electric light, the most advanced mechanical systems available and a floor plan designed to maximize natural light for all of its interior office spaces. The 15-story brick-clad building with classical stone detailing has an Art Deco lobby that retains much of its original marble. In 1937 the building was purchased by the Fairbanks-Morse Company, makers of railroad locomotives, farm equipment and hydraulic systems. It was acquired by Columbia College in 1975. In its early years as the home of Columbia, it was adaptively reused to house classrooms, the library, darkrooms, studios, and an auditorium. When the campus expanded through the acquisition of other buildings, especially after 1990, some of these functions, such as the greatly expanded library, were moved to other locations, and the spaces were again adapted for new uses. The building continues to serve as the administrative center of the college, and houses the Museum of Contemporary Photography on its first two floors, along with the 180-seat Ferguson Memorial Theater, photography darkrooms, three professional television studios, film/video editing facilities, and classrooms.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: The 33 East Ida B Wells Drive (formerly 33 East Congress) Building was built in 1925–26 by noted Chicago architect Alfred S. Alschuler, who designed the 1927 Chicago Mercantile Exchange. The seven-story brick and terra cotta "Congress-Wabash Building" was commissioned by Ferdinand W. Peck, Jr., a real estate developer, and initially housed a bank, offices, and recreation rooms that included dozens of pool tables. A national billiards championship was held here in 1938. By the 1940s, the building was known by the name of its major tenant, the Congress Bank. In the 1980s, it became the home of MacCormac College. Columbia leased space in the building starting in 1997 and purchased the structure in 1999. It currently houses administrative offices, classroom space and the college's radio station (WCRX 88.1 FM). The building is home to Columbia's American Sign Language-English Interpretation, Audio Arts & Acoustics, Journalism and Radio departments.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: 623 South Wabash Avenue was built in 1895, designed by Solon S. Beman, architect of the industrial town of Pullman, one of the 19th century's largest, most complex, and globally famous planned industrial communities for the Pullman Palace Car Company. The ten-story 623 South Wabash building was originally built for the Studebaker Brothers Carriage Company of South Bend, Indiana as its Chicago regional office and warehouse facility. It was later owned by the Brunswick Corporation, makers of wood furnishings and built-in furniture for libraries, universities and a variety of public commercial and governmental facilities. By the late 19th century Brunswick became specialists in designing such entertainment furnishings as bars, billiards tables, and bowling alleys for drinking establishments nationwide. Subsequent owners are unknown. The building was acquired by Columbia in 1983 and now houses classrooms, academic offices, a computerized newsroom, sciences laboratories, art studios and two public gallery spaces. The building is also home to Anchor Graphics and ShopColumbia, a retail venue that sells the work of Columbia students and alumni artists, musicians, filmmakers etc. exclusively.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: 624 South Michigan Avenue was built by Christian A. Eckstorm in 1908 as an eight-story building to house the Chicago Musical College, a concern headed by Florenz Ziegfeld Sr., father of Ziegfeld Follies producer Florenz Ziegfeld, Jr. A seven-story addition was designed and built in 1922 by Alfred Alschuler. The building was renamed the Blum Building and housed the studios of a dance school and boutique women's clothiers. Tenants in the building in the 1920s included Augustus Eugene Bournique's dancing schools and two select women's clothiers, Stanley Korshak's Blackstone Shop and Blum's Vogue. Brick clad with classical detailing, this 15-story building retains its period marble and brass lobby. Columbia College acquired the building in 1990 and it now houses the college's five-story library, classrooms, departmental offices, student and faculty lounges and the college's bookstore


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: 1104 South Wabash Avenue, built in 1891, is on the City of Chicago Landmarks (1996) and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places (1980). Built by William LeBaron Jenney, acknowledged as the inventor of the skyscraper for his fire-proofed metal skeleton-frame designs, the Ludington Building, as it was historically known, represents his continuing experimentation as the first entirely terra cotta-clad skyscraper. The structure is also a rare survivor, being one of only two extant loft buildings in Chicago built by Jenney.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: This eight-story, steel-frame building, boasting one of the finest examples of a terra-cotta clad façade, was commissioned by Mary Ludington Barnes for the American Book Company (1890), which was owned by her husband, Charles Barnes. At the time, Chicago was a national center for the publishing industry, as demonstrated by this building and many others, particularly those on Chicago's Printers Row, and including the former Lakeside Press Building owned by Columbia College. The American Book Company built the building to house its offices, printing presses, packaging and shipping operations. Its frame was built to withstand the weight and vibrations of the presses, which were originally located on the fourth through sixth floors, and to accommodate the anticipated eight-story addition that was never built. Its status as a manufacturing facility determined its form as a loft building, with a practical and efficient interior that had few elegant original elements. Its location, between the Baltimore and Ohio Railroad's Grand Central Station at Harrison and Wells Streets and the Illinois Central Railroad's Central Station at Michigan Avenue and Roosevelt Road, made it ideal for the distribution of the company's products.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: The Ludington Building was owned by descendants of its original owners until 1960, although it was occupied by many different tenants, including the Pepsodent toothpaste company in the 1910s and 1920s. In 1960, it was sold to Warshawsky and Company, an autoparts firm, for use as a storage facility. The college purchased the building from Warshawsky in 1999. The Ludington currently houses the school's Center for Book and Paper Arts, a portion of the Film and Video Department, the Glass Curtain Gallery and the Conaway Multicultural Center.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: 1014–16 South Michigan Avenue was built in 1912 by Christian A. Eckstorm A red brick 4-story building with terra cotta detailing, this structure was erected by a developer as a speculative commercial building. During its first 30 years, it housed offices for a shingle distributor, a lumber company and an electrical parts manufacturer. In 1941, the building was rehabilitated for the Sherwood Conservatory of Music, founded in 1895 by William Hall Sherwood, a piano virtuoso, teacher and composer. The school's most famous alumna may be the comedian Phyllis Diller, who was a piano student at the Sherwood School in the 1930s but did not graduate. The building was acquired by Columbia College Chicago in 2007 and now houses the school's music department. The artistic, cultural and performance education tradition of this building, as it was adaptively reused since the 1940s, is continued today in the programs of the Music Center of Columbia College.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: 72 East 11th Street was built in 1929 by Holabird & Root, architects of notable Chicago skyscrapers such as the Chicago Board of Trade, the Palmolive Building and the 333 North Michigan Avenue Building. 72 East 11th Street, a six- story, limestone-clad Art Deco building, was originally owned by the Chicago Women's Club and housed the organization's meeting rooms, offices and a theater. Rich in history, it was the site for rallies in support of women's voting rights, efforts on behalf of compulsory education laws and fund raising for scholarships at the School of the Art Institute of Chicago and a women's dormitory at the University of Chicago. Subsequent owners and uses are unknown. Acquired by Columbia in 1980 as the school's Theater Center, it currently houses a renovated 400-seat theater, classrooms, and space for film and photography studios.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: 1306 S. Michigan Avenue, the Dance Center Building, was built in 1930 by architect Anker S. Graven. This sleek four-story Art Deco building, clad in limestone, was erected as the Paramount Publix Corporation as a film exchange, a venue for the presentation of films to the independent cinema operators throughout the Midwest who could rent them for exhibition at their theaters. The studio occupied the building up to about 1950, when it was taken over by the Equitable Life Assurance Company. In the 1970s it was known as the Seafarers International Union Building. The City of Chicago took possession of it in a tax sale in 1984, and used it for the Health Department's Environmental Health Clinic. The building was acquired by Columbia College in 1999 for use as the school's Dance Center. After extensive interior renovation and adaptation, the Dance Center opened its state-of-the-art educational and public performance facilities in the fall of 2000.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Prior to the relocation to Michigan Avenue, the Dance Center was located at 4730 North Sheridan Road in a former movie theater in the Uptown neighborhood of Chicago. The first floor housed the department office, lobby, dressing rooms, and the "main space", the primary dance studio. The second floor, accessed via a metal staircase in the back of the main space, held the ballet studio, the T'Chi room and music recording rooms.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Located at 1600 South State Street, the Media Production Center (MPC) was completed in 2010 and was the college's first new-construction building in its history. Designed by Studio Gang Architects, the 35,500-square-foot facility serves students in the Cinema Art + Science, Interactive Arts & Media, and Television programs. It contains two film production soundstages, a motion-capture studio, digital labs, animating suites, a fabrication shop, and classrooms. It received a 2010 Citation of Merit in the Distinguished Building category from the Chicago chapter of the American Institute of Architects. It has also received LEED Gold certification from the U.S. Green Building Council.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Columbia College Chicago signed onto the American College & University Presidents' Climate Commitment in 2010. The college has met ACUPCC reporting deadlines that included submitting a formal Climate Action Plan and updating their Greenhouse Gas Inventory. The college has yet to set a climate neutrality date with the ACUPCC.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: A Greenhouse Gas (GHG) Inventory was completed in June 2011. The results show total equivalent emissions of 19,381.1 metric tonnes for the baseline year of 2010.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: The GHG Inventory was updated in May 2013. The total e emissions were 9,399 metric tonnes for the 2012 fiscal year. This reduction was due in part to the inclusion of purchased Renewable Energy Credits to offset emissions generated from purchased electricity. In conducting the GHG update, new methodologies were employed, emissions from purchased paper were used, and commuting data was collected from a streamlined transit survey.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: In 2011, the college hired the company Sustainametrics to complete the college's Sustainability Roadmap.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: In 2012, the college decided to consolidate the Recycling Program into a sustainability-based program. The position of Recycling Manager became Sustainability Manager. Other part-time staff from the Recycling Program moved under the Sustainability Manager's direction into this new sustainability program. These part-time positions are responsible for maintaining the campus green spaces and managing diversion efforts such as compost and atypical recycling (batteries, technotrash).


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Columbia College has at least $8 million invested in the oil, gas and coal industry. Ken Gotsch, the former CFO of Columbia, reported that these companies include oil and gas companies Murphy Oil Corporation and Apache Corporation.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: "The Columbia Chronicle" is the college's award-winning weekly newspaper. Frequency TV is the college's television station. WCRX (88.1 FM) is the college's radio station. These outlets are run by students for class credit in their respective departments. However, students working at "The Chronicle" and Frequency TV can get paid for their work. The newspaper has won numerous awards, the most recent in 2009–10 as Best Weekly College Newspaper in the state, midwest and nation.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Broadcast journalism students produce two television news shows that are broadcast each week on Frequency TV: "Newsbeat" and "Metro Minutes". The student-produced "Out on a Limb" comedy television show has been nominated for a local Emmy Award. Radio students work on WCRX producing live mixes by local DJs, their own imaging, PSAs, and carrying select sport games. In 1998–1999, WCRX produced and broadcast "Entertainment Primetime Weekly", a show that is produced in newsradio style. It has also broadcast the Emmy Awards.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Journalism students, and others, report and write articles that are published on Chicagotalks.org, a community and citizen journalism website sponsored by the Journalism Department. Journalism Department students in the Magazine Workshop class produce a magazine each semester called "Echo".


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: AEMMP Records is the student-run record label. The staff develops an artist, produces an album, and markets the product throughout the course of an academic year.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: Other Columbia College Chicago publications include: "Hair Trigger", "Columbia Poetry Review", "South Loop Review", "Center for Black Music Research Journal", "DEMO", and"@LAS"


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: In addition to the academic programs offered at the college, students engage in many extracurricular activities. There are several major organizations on campus run by students. They include XC3ND: Columbia College Show Choir, Producer's Guild of Columbia (PGC), the Student Government Association, the Student Organization Council, the Student Alumni Association, the Student Athletics Association (Renegades), Columbia Urban Music Association, ReachOut, Senior Class, the Student Programming Board, the Asian Student Organization, Students Supporting Israel, Hillel, the International Student Organization, the Columbia College Association of Black Journalists (CCABJ), Hispanic Journalists of Columbia (HJC) and Columbia Pride, the on-campus LGBT student group. Other notable organizations are the Latino Alliance and Black Student Union, two of the oldest student groups on campus. These student organizations work together to provide leadership training and experience to Columbia students so they will be ready to take on leadership roles in their future places of employment.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: The Student Government Association (SGA) consists of an executive board, the Senate, and committees. The executive board, or E-Board, consists of the president, executive vice president, vice president of communications, vice president of finance, and the student representative to the college board of trustees.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: The Senate consists of student representatives from each of the colleges academic departments, eight senators "at-large" who represent the college community as a whole, two senators who represent the college's vast commuter population, one senators from the Student Organization Council, one senator from the Student Athletics Association, and two senators from the Residence Hall Association.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: SGA Senate meetings are open to the public and are held on Tuesdays at 5 p.m. during the academic year.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: In 2013, Animation Career Review ranked Columbia College Chicago as the Midwest's Top Animation and Game Design School. Nationally, Columbia College Chicago is ranked #8.


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: In 2010, Columbia Journalism students won an Emmy Award in the Student News Feature category for the piece "Youth Programs Aim to Combat Chicago Violence"


title: Columbia College Chicago

text: In 2011, YouTube chose Columbia College Chicago and the University of Southern California School of Cinematic Arts to launch the first YouTube Creator Institute programs.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: Thomas Francis Gambino (; born August 23, 1929) is an Italian-American New York City mobster and a longtime caporegime of the Gambino crime family who successfully controlled lucrative trucking rackets in the New York City Garment District. He is the son of Carlo Gambino and nephew of Paul Castellano.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: Gambino was born on August 23, 1929, to Carlo and Catherine (née Castellano) Gambino. He had four siblings, Joseph, Carl and Phyllis Gambino Sinatra. His father joined the original Mangano crime family during the 1930s, rose to capo and later to underboss. In 1957, Carlo Gambino became boss of what is now called the Gambino crime family. Carlo Gambino became one of the most powerful mobsters in Cosa Nostra history.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: Thomas Gambino graduated from Manhattan College in the Bronx and then started working for the Gambino family. In 1962 Gambino married Tommy Lucchese's daughter Frances. Over 1,000 guests attended the wedding, at which Carlo Gambino presented Lucchese with a $30,000 gift. In return, Lucchese gave Gambino a part of his rackets at Idlewild Airport (now called John F. Kennedy Airport). Lucchese exercised control over airport management security and all the airport unions. As a team, Lucchese and Gambino now controlled the airport, the Commission, and most organized crime in New York City. When Tommy Lucchese died in 1967, his interests in the garment industry were passed to Thomas Gambino, forming the basis of Gambino's wealth.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: By the 1990s, Thomas Gambino owned three homes; one in Florida, another in Lido Beach, New York, and a third on Manhattan's exclusive Upper East Side. Thomas Gambino also headed the Gambino Medical and Science Foundation, which in 1991 financed a $2 million pediatric bone marrow transplant unit at Long Island Jewish Medical Center. Thomas Gambino's personal wealth was estimated to be around $75 million in 1992.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: After Carlo Gambino died in 1976, his designated successor, Paul Castellano, became the new family boss. Many family members were angered by Castellano's ascension, preferring underboss Aniello "Mr. Neil" Dellacroce instead. However, Dellacroce insisted that his supporters support Castellano for the good of the family. This move temporarily quieted the dissension in the Gambino ranks.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: In contrast, Thomas Gambino, who was Castellano's nephew, enjoyed a strong relationship with the new boss. Gambino epitomized the low-profile, well buffered, successful businessman image common among second-generation members of the Cosa Nostra. Given his college education, Castellano gave him responsibility for the family finances and running the trucking at the Garment District in Manhattan. Gambino and his allies in the Lucchese family were successful at infiltrating several legitimate businesses, especially the garment industry. This was due to Gambino's strong influence on the garment trucking business in New York and New Jersey. In 1981, the garment industry honored Gambino as its Man of the Year. Castellano quickly rewarded Gambino by making him a full family member, or "made man" and later a capo of his own crew.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: In December 1985, the death of underboss Dellacroce brought the simmering dissension in the Gambino family to a head. Instead of selecting an established and respected capo to be the new underboss, Castellano instead chose his driver, Thomas Bilotti. At this point, capo John Gotti and Frank DeCicco saw the opportunity to capitalize on this discontent to kill Castellano and take over the family leadership. On December 16, 1985, both Castellano and Bilotti were murdered by Gotti gunmen in a restaurant ambush. Gambino, who was not part of the conspiracy, arrived at the restaurant moments after the killing, to be turned away by DeCicco. Gotti was then elected the new boss of the Gambino family.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: Although Gambino had been a Castellano loyalist, he quickly paid loyalty to Gotti and was able to preserve his position within the family. Since Gambino was such a strong earner for the family, Gotti did not want to replace him. In a conversation with Gambino mobster George Remini, Gotti had this comment about Gambino:


title: Thomas Gambino

text: I mean it sounds crazy, Georgie, but I was telling Frankie and Angelo, I'm gonna suggest to Tommy, we're gonna beef up his regime, Tommy Gambino, but we're not giving him no (expletive deleted) hotheads.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: In April 1989, Gambino was indicted for obstruction of justice by lying to a grand jury about Gambino racketeering activities, but was acquitted later that year. On October 18, 1990, Gambino was indicted again on charges of extorting the garment industry. Through their ownership of four trucking companies, the Gambinos were able to charge shipping rates 40% higher than smaller non-mob shipping companies. Some of the strongest evidence in this case came from wiretapped conversations six years earlier between Gambino and Castellano at Castellano's Staten Island home. The conversations proved that the Gambinos and two other crime families exercised strong control over the Garment District. The government also set up a small garment factory in the Chinatown section of Manhattan, with New York State Police troopers posing as supervisors, to gain evidence against Gambino's trucking monopoly.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: The government offered Gambino a plea bargain that included a guilty admission, a $12 million restitution payment, and a promise to leave the garment trucking business. In February 1992, Gambino accepted the plea bargain and avoided prison. Prosecutors would remark that a "terrifying fear of prison" helped motivate Gambino to accept the government deal.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: In 1991, Gambino, Gotti, Salvatore "Sammy the Bull" Gravano and Frank LoCascio were indicted on charges of racketeering, loansharking, extortion, illegal gambling and 11 counts of murder. Soon after the indictment, Gravano decided to become a government witness and testified against his former colleagues, including Gambino. In April 1992, Gotti and LoCascio were convicted to life.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: On May 11, 1993, Gambino was convicted of two counts of racketeering and racketeering conspiracy. Prosecutors claimed that Gambino had been supervising illegal gambling and loansharking activities in Connecticut since 1985. In January 1996, Gambino started serving a five-year prison sentence.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: In May 1999, the U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filed fraud charges against Gambino's stockbroker, Mohammed Ali Khan. While still in prison, Gambino had sued Khan for defrauding him out of approximately $2 million.


title: Thomas Gambino

text: Thomas Gambino is portrayed by Tony Sirico in the 1998 made-for-television movie "Witness to the Mob" about Gravano and John Gotti.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: The Night Watchman is a novel by Louise Erdrich first published on March 3, 2020 by HarperCollins. The novel is set in the 1950s. This is Erdrich's 6th standalone novel following "Future Home of the Living God". The novel was inspired by the life of Erdrich's grandfather who motivated and inspired other members of the Turtle Mountain Reservation to resist the Indian termination policies of the 1940s-1960s. "The Night Watchman" is the first novel that Erdrich has written that is set on the Turtle Mountain Reservation.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: In the letters written by her grandfather detailing his resistance against termination bills meant to assimilate Ojibwe people into broader American society through a variety of means, including the end of federal recognition of the sovereignty of indigenous tribes. Erdrich has referred to the letters as "[...] beautiful, full of humor and storytelling." She based "The Night Watchman" on his loving personality and commitment to his tribe.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: This historical fiction provides detailed descriptions of surroundings and relationships between characters. Alongside the political storyline, readers follow a variety of other characters through daily life on the reservation, family tragedy, boxing matches, and romance. It is written in third person and follows a number of characters, and in some instances, animals. The story switches narrators between other characters in the book to give a different perspective.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: Thomas Wazhashk, a night watchman at a jewel bearing plant and an Councilor, works to comprehend the consequences of a new termination bill drafted by Arthur Vivian Watkins heading to the floor of the United States Congress. In 1953, Thomas and other people begin to fear the implications of this bill. As Thomas tries to save his tribe from termination, his niece Patrice embarks on a journey to Minneapolis in order to find her sister, Vera. Patrice Paranteau, a young woman and a former high school valedictorian, balances the demands of both modern and traditional life. She works at the jewel bearing plant and earns just enough to help her mother Zhanaat and her brother Pokey. Patrice's alcoholic father comes home sporadically to threaten her family for cash. Patrice uses her saved money to look for her sister Vera, who vanished after moving to Minneapolis with her husband. During her journey, Patrice encounters abuse and danger. The lives of the young boxer, Wood Mountain and his mother, Juggie Blue intersect with those of many others living on the reservation as they each make the best out of their respective circumstances.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: "Thomas Wazhask" – Thomas is a kindhearted man, a husband, and a father who spends his nights as a Watchmen in a jewel bearing plant in Turtle Mountain. He becomes politically involved when he reads the Indian Termination Bill and begins to organize against it. Wazhask translates to "muskrat" in Ojibwe and is pronounced "Wa-shush-k". While unfortunately locked outside of his place of work during a snowstorm in the night, Thomas experiences a vision where he describes seeing Jesus Christ and others.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: "Patrice Paranteau -" Patrice (also known as Pixie) is a strong, willful 19 year old who is determined to find her missing older sister, Vera. She ventures to the city and takes up a job performing at a bar while pursuing various leads towards her sister's whereabouts.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: "Zhanaat Paranteau" - Mother of Pokey, Vera, and Patrice Paranteau, Zhanaat lives on the reservation and taught Patrice of traditional ways of living.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: "Lloyd Barnes" - A local math teacher at the reservation school. He is referred to as "Hay Stack" by members of the community because of his blonde hair. It is well known among the community that he desires a romantic relationship with Patrice Paranteau.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: "Wood Mountain -" A young boxer under the tutelage of Lloyd Barnes and the son of Juggie Blue. He has a crush on Patrice, but he focuses on helping Patrice find her missing sister Vera. He does not pursue Patrice in the same way Barnes does. He fights against Joe Wobleszynski at the Battle Royale to raise money for Thomas and the other members of the community council to travel to Washington D.C"."


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: "Millie Cloud -" The daughter of Louis Pipestone and half-sister of Grace Pipestone. Millie is a college student studying Economics at the University of Minnesota. She later changes her major to Anthropology after spending time around her family and other Turtle Mountain Ojibwe. She becomes involved in the resistance effort against the passing of House Concurrent Resolution 108 bill when asked by Thomas Wazhashk and her father to present her research findings on the Turtle Mountain Reservation's resources in court.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: "Arthur V. Watkins -" A Republican senator from Utah. Erdrich's fictional version of Arthur V. Watkins' is heavily based on the real person.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: Aspects of this fictional novel are inspired by historical events. The jewel-bearing plant is based on a real factory in Turtle Mountain where mostly women were employed. While an attempt in 1955 to unionize failed, the workers succeeded in their demand for higher pay and better working conditions.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: The fictional dialog written in the book about Turtle Mountain's testimony to Congress closely follows the real transcripts of the testimony given there.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: Animals and animal intelligence are a recurring subject in "The Night Watchman". One chapter is entirely from the perspective of two escaped horses. At another point, Patrice perceives a dog as speaking to her, giving her information on the fate of her sister.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: Another animal that provides symbolism is the owl. Thomas and the owl have a connection because similar to the owl Thomas stays up guarding the factory and tries to persuade people in power to support them against termination. “The owl shares Thomas' solitude and symbolizes the mental and psychic loneliness of his battle”.


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: There are several instances in the novel seemingly caused by magical or supernatural means. The partial facial paralysis of a classmate occurs after he tried to sexually assault Patrice was supposedly an instance of magic. Erdrich leaves the reality of these scenes intentionally ambiguous. When asked why this was, she stated "So many things happen to us that we immediately explain away, and so I'm just not explaining away what's happening."


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: In a review for "The New York Times", Luis Alberto Urrea praised the novel, referring to it as "[...] a magisterial epic that brings [Erdrich's] power of witness to every page." Love, rage, political resistance, and courage saturate the lives of the memorable characters in "The Night Watchman." Ron Charles of "The Washington Post" says that Erdrich "rediscovers her genius" with this novel. A review for "USA Today" praised the relatability of the novel. "The Boston Globe" recognizes faults some may find with the novel, but ultimately views it as among "...the best of her remarkable fiction." Other critics have noted the beauty of the "family feeling" of the novel, the endurance of the characters, and called Erdrich a "master storyteller."


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: The gradual way that the poverty of certain characters is presented in the novel has also received praise with Erdrich remarking on the ways this mirrored real life. Erdrich has also addressed in interviews the importance of Patrice's role in the novel and how she functions as a second protagonist, saying that her daughter even made a separate cover for the novel with the title "Pixie." While this novel is set in the past, Erdrich comments on the issues that still persist within Indigenous communities today, stating "It's true that the policies that start with dispossession do not stop there."


title: The Night Watchman (novel)

text: The novel won the 2021 Pulitzer Prize. The committee awarding the prize referred to the novel as "[...] a majestic, polyphonic novel about a community's efforts to halt the proposed displacement and elimination of several Native American tribes in the 1950s, rendered with dexterity and imagination."


title: Angela Montenegro

text: Angela Pearly-Gates Montenegro-Hodgins (born Pookie Noodlin Pearly-Gates Gibbons) is a fictional character in the television series "Bones" (2005–2017), portrayed by Michaela Conlin. She is a classically trained artist who creates forensic reconstructions for the police.


title: Angela Montenegro

text: Angela Montenegro is the daughter of a fictional representation of Billy Gibbons from ZZ Top (played by the musician himself). Angela was born in Baltimore, Maryland on April 16, she is half-Chinese, and she once mentioned having taken French in school, in "The Body in the Bag", in season 6. Her middle name is meant to be an allusion to her father's guitar ""Miss Pearly Gates"". According to Angela, in "Mother and Child in the Bay", in season 2, Angela is 5'8 and weighs 135 pounds. In Season 10, Angela's real name is discovered to be Pookie Noodlin. Prior to the revelation, it was well known that she was so embarrassed by her birth name that she never told anyone, even her husband and closest friends.


title: Angela Montenegro

text: Angela is a specialist in forensic facial reconstruction at the fictional Jeffersonian Institution, who frequently works with Dr. Temperance Brennan, her best friend. Angela received her undergraduate degree at the University of Texas at Austin in Visual Arts, with a minor in computer science. She also studied biomedical illustration at American University. She uses her skills as an artist to develop, maintain, and improve the lab's three-dimensional graphics and computer simulation systems. She is credited with the innovation of the "Angelator", which is later superseded by the "Angelatron". In "The Brain in the Bot", in season 12, Angela wins a MacArthur Foundation "genius grant" for which she was nominated by Dr. Temperance Brennan for her "groundbreaking" work with the "Angelatron".


title: Angela Montenegro

text: Throughout the series, Angela Montenegro is described as a "free spirit", "good-time girl" and "wild child". She is shown to be more socially "normal" than her coworkers at the Jeffersonian, and seems to not consider herself a scientist like the other "squints", instead on multiple occasions referencing facial reconstruction as an "art". In one episode, the character Jack Hodgins calls Angela "the heart of the operation." Angela's more typical social skills are often used by the writers as a balancing point and audience surrogate; she demonstrates a need to interact with other people in a way her more awkward colleagues do not. Plotlines have alluded that Angela has extensive romantic experience, once telling Zack Addy to "reap the benefits of my sexual wisdom." She also told Brennan, "I don't know how to talk to crazy people unless I'm dating them." When Brennan and Booth become a couple, she is often the one to explain his behavior to Brennan and gives her advice on how to get along with him.


title: Angela Montenegro

text: Angela contemplates leaving the Jeffersonian at one point, under the assumption that her work does not contribute to cases in a meaningful way. She was also unsure of her ability to handle the graphic violence she was exposed to regularly at the lab. However, Dr. Goodman, the director of the Jeffersonian, spoke of the vital importance of her work in adding an element of humanity to the victims, returning their identity. This line of reasoning persuades her to remain at the lab.