title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The 551st AEWCW inactivated in 1969, while the 552d was reduced by a squadron in 1971. In July 1974, USAF redesignated 552d Airborne Early Warning and Control Wing as 552d Airborne Warning and Control Group when it was downsized to a single squadron. It inactivated in April 1976.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: As the USAF prepared for deploying the E-3 Sentry in the later 1970s, it phased out EC-121 operations by the end of 1975. All remaining EC-121s transferred to Air Force Reserve, which formed the 79th AEWCS at Homestead Air Force Base, Florida, in early 1976. The active duty force continued providing personnel to operate the EC-121s on a 24-hour basis, assigning Detachment 1, 20th Air Defence Squadron to Homestead AFB as associate active duty crews to fly the AFRES-owned aircraft. Besides monitoring Cuban waters, these last Warning Stars also operated from NAS Keflavik. Final EC-121 ops ended in September 1978. Detachment 1 dissolved and 79th AEWCS was redesignated a fighter squadron on 1 October 1978.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: In 1967, five EC-121s became operational with the 193rd Tactical Electronic Warfare Squadron of the Pennsylvania Air National Guard, responsible for psyops missions under project Coronet Solo. From July 1970 to January 1971, they rotated on 30- to 90-day temporary-duty deployments to Korat Royal Thai Air Force Base, Thailand, under the name "Commando Buzz".


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: EC-121s were used extensively in Southeast Asia between 16 April 1965, and 1 June 1974, particularly in support of Operation Rolling Thunder and Operation Linebacker/Linebacker II, providing radar early warning and limited airborne control of USAF fighter forces engaging MiG interceptors. Flying orbits over the Gulf of Tonkin and later over Laos, they were the forerunners of AWACS aircraft. The USN used a variant, the NC-121, in their Blue Eagle unit from 1965–1972. Blue Eagles were television- and radio-broadcasting airplanes. The Blue Eagles were based at NAS Patuxent River and were part of oceanographic squadron VXN-8.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: At the onset of Rolling Thunder, the North Vietnamese had an advantage in that their radar coverage could detect most US strike aircraft flying at or above 5,000 feet virtually anywhere in the country, using a system that was difficult to jam. US forces countered with radar ships ("Crown") in the Gulf of Tonkin and a ground site at Nakhon Phanom RTAFB, Thailand, but both systems were line-of-sight and suffered coverage gaps.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: To increase coverage, the Seventh Air Force (7 AF) requested airborne radar support and the Air Defense Command (redesignated Aerospace Defense Command in 1968) was directed to set up the "Big Eye Task Force". Five EC-121Ds and 100 support personnel of the 552nd AEWCW at McClellan AFB were deployed to Tainan Air Station, Taiwan, with four of the EC-121s sent on to a forward operating location at Tan Son Nhut Air Base, near Saigon, Republic of Vietnam.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The EC-121s were designed for detection of aircraft flying over water, so ground clutter (spurious signal returns off of terrain features such as mountains) caused interference with their radar pictures. The crews, however, were experienced in tracking Soviet aircraft over Cuba and had developed a technique whereby an EC-121 flying at 50 to 300 feet above water could bounce a signal from its bottom-mounted APS-95 Search radar off the surface of the water and detect aircraft at medium altitudes out to 150 miles. Operating in pairs, one Big Eye EC-121 flew a 50-mile race track pattern approximately 30 miles offshore (Alpha orbit), with the orbit's center at . The second one flew a track at 10,000 feet (Bravo orbit) farther from the coast, acting as a spare for the Alpha EC-121.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: This provided a practical detection range of 100 miles, enough to cover the Hanoi urban area and the main MiG base at Phúc Yên. A major disadvantage of this arrangement, however, was that most MiG contacts were beyond the 70-mile range of the Big Eye's APS-45 Height Finder radar, so that they were unable to provide this data to USAF strike forces. Furthermore, technical shortcomings in the EC-121D's systems precluded either controlling a fighter intercept or identifying a specific flight under attack.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The missions from Tan Son Nhut AB began 21 April 1965, using callsigns Ethan Alpha and Ethan Bravo, which became standard. After refueling at Danang Air Base, Ethan Alpha made a wave-top approach to its orbit station, where it remained for 5 hours. Because of the threat of MiG interception, EC-121s were protected by a Lockheed F-104 Starfighter MiGCAP. If, for any reason, the MiGCAP could not rendezvous, the EC-121s cancelled their mission. Airco systems aboard the EC-121 were virtually useless in this profile, and the heat produced by the electronics, combined with the threat of being shot down, made Alpha orbit missions in particular very stressful. On 10 July 1965, in its first airborne-controlled interception, an EC-121 provided warning to a pair of USAF F-4C fighters, resulting in the shooting down of two MiG-17s.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The Big Eye Task Force remained at Tan Son Nhut until February 1967, when the threat of Viet Cong ground attacks prompted a move to Thailand.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: In March 1967, Big Eye was renamed "College Eye Task Force" (CETF) and relocated at Ubon Royal Thai Air Force Base. Because of the complexity of the aircraft and its systems along with the large support group it required, CETF was not welcome at the relatively small Thai bases. It moved to Udon RTAFB in July and to its final station at Korat RTAFB in October 1967. Seven of 26 EC-121s deployed from Otis AFB and arrived at Korat, on the 19th.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: From April 1965 to early 1966 and beginning again in late 1967, the EC-121Ds also controlled a flight of MiGCAP fighters for unarmed support aircraft operating over the Tonkin Gulf. The EC-121Ds also served as an airborne communications relay center for strike aircraft to transmit mission results and position reports to Danang Air Control Center; directed operations of fighter escorts, MiGCAPs, Lockheed C-130 Hercules flare ships, and A-26 strike aircraft along the North Vietnamese-Laotian border; provided radar and navigational assistance for combat search and rescue missions; and assisted fighters in finding tankers for emergency refueling.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The government of China, in May 1966, formally protested an incursion by a Republic F-105 Thunderchief pursuing a North Vietnamese MiG it subsequently shot down 25 miles inside Chinese territory. A US board of inquiry recommended that College Eye also had to monitor the "no-fly zone" inside the North Vietnamese border with China, to provide alerts to US aircraft nearing the buffer zone and to report border crossing violations by US aircraft. This could not be done from the gulf, so a third orbit, Ethan Charlie, was created in Laos. After tests in June and August, regular missions began 24 August. Not enough EC-121s or crews were available to support three orbits twice daily, so the Laotian orbit was only flown every third day, with Ethan Bravo missions cancelled on those days. After 13 October 1966, the Charlie orbit was flown every day and the Bravo orbit suspended altogether. In April 1967, four more EC-121s were deployed, to Thailand on 29 May, making for a total strength of three College Eyes in Taiwan and six in Thailand.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: In April 1967, USAF began fitting its entire EC-121 fleet with QRC-248 IFF transponder interrogators. QRC-248 had been developed to follow Soviet-export aircraft flown by the Cuban Air Force. The SRO-2 transponders installed in Soviet export MiGs enabled Cuban ground-controlled interception (GCI) radars to identify and control their fighters. A testbed EC-121 called "Quick Look" had flown with College Eye in January 1967 to test QRC-248 and found that North Vietnamese MiGs used the same transponder. QRC-248 accurately discriminated MiG radar returns from the myriad returns picked up during a mission and extended the range of low-altitude detection to more than 175 miles, covering virtually all important North Vietnamese target areas.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: By May, all College Eyes had been fitted with QRC-248. Ethan Bravo's mission was changed from that of a backup for Ethan Alpha to being the primary QRC-248 listener, but


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: College Eye was prohibited by the Joint Chiefs of Staff from actively "interrogating" MiG transponders, following a National Security Agency security policy protecting its "intelligence sources" (of which the QRC-248 was one), thus was restricted to waiting for North Vietnamese GCI to interrogate its aircraft. QRC-248 began regular use in July 1967, but by then North Vietnam's MiG force, which had suffered serious losses in May, had suspended its combat ops.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: In the last week of August, however, after a period of intensive training and revision of tactics, the MiGs began engaging US strike forces again, scoring a number of kills. Then, Seventh Air Force finally obtained permission for the new Ethan Bravo mission EC-121 to actively interrogate with QRC-248 on 6 October. By 4 December, its success outweighed any value in flying the Ethan Alpha orbit, which was discontinued until July 1972.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: On 1 March 1968, College Eye callsigns changed to Ethan 01, 02, 03, and 04 in conformity with USAF SOPs. Ethan 03 (Laotian orbit) began "positive control" (airborne direction) of C-130 flare ship flights and A-26 Invader night interdiction missions along the Ho Chi Minh Trail in Laos on 19 April 1968.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The task force was scaled back in July 1968, to 4four EC-121Ds and the "Rivet Top" testbed aircraft to allow for the basing of another College Eye detachment at Itazuke AB, Japan. The name of the task force was discontinued in October 1968, when it was redesignated a final time as Detachment 1 (Rotational), 552nd AEWCW. EC-121 deployments to Southeast Asia were discontinued in June 1970 in the expectation that they would no longer be used.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: In August 1967, while the College Eye Task Force was still based at Udon RTAFB, another prototype EC-121 variation began operations testing new equipment as Detachment 2 of the Tactical Air Warfare Center. Known as "Rivet Top", this modified EC-121K (later redesignated EC-121M) carried the QRC-248 newly installed in the College Eye aircraft and also had electronic interrogators capable of reading 2 additional Soviet transponders, the SRO-1 and SOD-57. Its electronics were custom built rather than off-the-shelf. Its most important upgrade was the top-secret "Rivet Gym" installation. This consisted of the addition to the crew of Vietnamese-speaking intelligence specialists manning 4 voice comms intercept stations able to monitor all comms between the MiGs and their GCI controllers.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: Despite this advantage, Rivet Top experienced two problems, reducing its effectiveness. Its operators did not have radar scopes to correlate intercepted conversations with specific flights of MiGs, thus could not determine which US aircraft might be under attack. Secondly, like QRC-248, Rivet Gym was an NSA SIGINT asset and subject to even more stringent rules protecting knowledge of its existence. Even when real-time warnings to US aircraft were finally permitted in mid-1972, fighter crews were not made aware of the source of the warnings and because EC-121 radio communications were poor, mandating the use of a radio relay aircraft that often failed, they tended to disregard the credibility of the source.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The Rivet Top prototype moved to Korat RTAFB along with the College Eye Task Force in October 1967. Originally scheduled to return to the USA in February 1968, because of its value, it remained at Korat until 1969. Flying daily missions through its testing period, it began flying every-other-day missions over the Gulf of Tonkin after 31 March 1968, when Rolling Thunder operations were sharply scaled back. Rivet Gym installations were back-fitted to all College Eye EC-121s by the end of May 1968.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: Two EC-121Ds, newly modified with the Southeast Asia Operational Requirement 62 (SEAOR-62) electronics suite, but not yet operational as EC-121Ts, were ordered to Korat RTAFB in October 1970. Under the guise of being field tested, they were accompanied by a C-121G carrying additional crew members, the most experienced 552nd AEWCW technicians, and equipment necessary to maintain the new electronics. The SEAOR-62 package was supported by a digital data receiver ground terminal and by radio relay equipment transshipped by separate classified airlift. The EC-121Ts arrived in Thailand from McClellan AFB on 12 November.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The purpose of the deployment was to provide an integrated tactical data display with real-time inputs (similar to the Navy Airborne Tactical Data System equipping E-1B Tracer platforms of Task Force 77) in support of Operation Kingpin, a mission to rescue US prisoners of war held at Son Tay prison. Once at Korat, some equipment was tested for the first time because of emission restrictions in US airspace and the only available manuals and checklists were notes from early flight tests. Even so, both aircraft were operational by 17 November.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: On 20 November 1970, 2 Warning Stars, using the callsigns Frog 01 and 02, respectively, took off 10 minutes apart at 22:00 from Korat to take station at the low-altitude Alpha orbit over the Gulf of Tonkin, with Frog 02 as a backup. The 17-man crews were advised in the air of the nature of the rescue mission and their role, providing MiG warning and directing USAF F-4 Phantom CAP intercepts. As Frog 01 began its climb to the higher Bravo orbit, it experienced a ruptured oil line forcing shutdown of one engine. As planned, Frog 02 became the primary aircraft when Frog 01 made an emergency landing at Danang.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: The new equipment failed to function properly aboard Frog 02. The ground receivers at the command post in Danang failed to receive data and the APX-83 IFF processors would not display aboard the aircraft, despite repeated repairs. Their own radar monitors experienced excessive electronic noise and the jamming of North Vietnamese radars by nearby EKA-3B Skywarriors hindered efforts of the radar technicians to correct the problems. While unable to provide vectoring information to the F-4s escorting the mission, Frog 02 remained on station and relied on its Rivet Top voice intercept capability to provide supplementary data.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: In October 1971, North Vietnamese MiGs, operating from forward bases opened after the end of Rolling Thunder, began a campaign to intercept Boeing B-52 Stratofortresses missions over southern Laos. On 20 November, a MiG-21 launched air-to-air missiles at a B-52 that evaded by dropping flares. As a result, Warning Stars of Det. 1 returned to Korat RTAFB to provide radar support by flying the Laotian orbit again, using callsign "Disco". Seven EC-121Ts, replacement aircraft for the earlier series, were based in Thailand and contained both QRC-248 and Rivet Top electronic suites.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: When Operation Linebacker began on 10 May 1972, Disco was one of two principal GCI radars used by US forces, although it continued to be handicapped by poor radio communications. In addition, its slow-turning radar limited its value as a controller of fighters during MiG engagements, while the size of USAF raids during Linebacker nearly saturated its capabilities. Improvements made in the systems since 1968 enabled the operators to distinguish MiG types and a color code system for them entered the air operations vernacular: "Red Bandits" (Mig-17s); "White Bandits" (MiG-19s); "Blue Bandits" (MiG-21s), and "Black bandits" (MiGs low on fuel).


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: On 6 July 1972, as the result of seven F-4 Phantoms shot down in a two-week period, a second Disco track was initiated. Flown near the former Alpha orbit over the Gulf of Tonkin, its purpose was to gain better low-altitude coverage in the Hanoi area. At the end of the month, Disco was also integrated into "Teaball" control center, a highly classified system established to collate all signal intelligence on North Vietnamese air activity gathered by all sources, including nonmilitary. Disco was used as a conduit through which warnings and control vectors were given, but the delay in Teaball acquiring the information and relaying it through Disco (often using an unreliable radio relay KC-135A Combat Lightning aircraft operating under callsign Luzon) cancelled out its value for use in "real time", and the fact that its existence was kept from US aircrews damaged its credibility. Teaball received direct comms capability, but experienced transmission failures with frustrating frequency. Disco remained the primary backup controller, but its usefulness remained limited because it directly controlled only MiGCAP missions and could only provide its information to strike, chaff, and escort forces via the "Guard" frequency.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: On 15 August 1973, Disco EC-121s flew their final combat mission and on 1 June 1974, Det.1 was permanently withdrawn from Southeast Asia. Between 1965 and 1973, the EC-121s flew 13,921 combat missions, more than 98,000 accident-free flying hours, assisted in the shoot-down of 25 MiGs, and supported the rescue of 80 downed flyers. No Big Eye, College Eye, or Disco aircraft were lost.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: During the Vietnam War, some 40 EC-121s were modified from USN WV-2 and WV-3 early warning Constellations for use with ground sensors to detect enemy troop movements along the Ho Chi Minh Trail, and 25 were deployed to Korat RTAFB as a part of Operation Igloo White. The resulting EC-121R configuration was nicknamed the Batcat. Two Batcats were lost during the war, with the loss of 22 crewmen, one in a takeoff accident during a thunderstorm in April 1969, the other in September 1969, in a landing accident. Four Thai civilians were also killed in the second crash.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: Batcat EC-121s were camouflaged in standard tree-color Southeast Asia scheme, while the College Eye/Disco early warning aircraft were not. BatCat missions were 18 hours in length, with 8 hours on station at one of 11 color-coded orbits used during their 5-year history, three of which were over South Vietnam, six over Laos, one over Cambodia, and one over the Gulf of Tonkin.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: EC-121Rs were operated by the 553d and 554th Reconnaissance Squadrons of the 553d Reconnaissance Wing, between October 1967 and December 1970, with about 20 Batcats on hand at any time. The wing activated in December 1970 and the 554th RS relocated to Nakhon Phanom RTAFB to fly QU-22 sensor monitors nicknamed "Baby Bats". Initially with 11 aircraft, the 553rd RS continued operations for another year, gradually returning aircraft and crews to the USA. The final Batcat mission was in December 1971. The last remaining administrative and support personnel returned to Otis AFB in January 1972.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: Another EC-121M was destroyed in combat. In 1969, North Korean Air Force MiG-21 fighter-interceptors shot down an EC-121 in international airspace off the country's east coast, killing all of the crew of 31 on board.


title: Lockheed EC-121 Warning Star

text: 3 EC-121Hs from the 551st AEWCW were lost on 11 July 1965, 11 November 1966 and 25 April 1967, respectively, resulting in 50 deaths, including the wing commander of the 551st AEWCW, Col James P. Lyle. The 2 Batcat EC-121R crashes resulted in 22 killed.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In solid state physics, a particle's effective mass (often denoted formula_1) is the mass that it "seems" to have when responding to forces, or the mass that it seems to have when interacting with other identical particles in a thermal distribution. One of the results from the band theory of solids is that the movement of particles in a periodic potential, over long distances larger than the lattice spacing, can be very different from their motion in a vacuum. The effective mass is a quantity that is used to simplify band structures by modeling the behavior of a free particle with that mass. For some purposes and some materials, the effective mass can be considered to be a simple constant of a material. In general, however, the value of effective mass depends on the purpose for which it is used, and can vary depending on a number of factors.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: For electrons or electron holes in a solid, the effective mass is usually stated as a factor multiplying the rest mass of an electron, "m" (9.11 × 10 kg). This factor is usually in the range 0.01 to 10, but can be lower or higher—for example, reaching 1,000 in exotic heavy fermion materials, or anywhere from zero to infinity (depending on definition) in graphene. As it simplifies the more general band theory, the electronic effective mass can be seen as an important basic parameter that influences measurable properties of a solid, including everything from the efficiency of a solar cell to the speed of an integrated circuit.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: At the highest energies of the valence band in many semiconductors (Ge, Si, GaAs, ...), and the lowest energies of the conduction band in some semiconductors (GaAs, ...), the band structure can be locally approximated as


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: where is the energy of an electron at wavevector in that band, is a constant giving the edge of energy of that band, and is a constant (the effective mass).


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: It can be shown that the electrons placed in these bands behave as free electrons except with a different mass, as long as their energy stays within the range of validity of the approximation above. As a result, the electron mass in models such as the Drude model must be replaced with the effective mass.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: One remarkable property is that the effective mass can become "negative", when the band curves downwards away from a maximum. As a result of the negative mass, the electrons respond to electric and magnetic forces by gaining velocity in the opposite direction compared to normal; even though these electrons have negative charge, they move in trajectories as if they had positive charge (and positive mass). This explains the existence of valence-band holes, the positive-charge, positive-mass quasiparticles that can be found in semiconductors.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In any case, if the band structure has the simple parabolic form described above, then the value of effective mass is unambiguous. Unfortunately, this parabolic form is not valid for describing most materials. In such complex materials there is no single definition of "effective mass" but instead multiple definitions, each suited to a particular purpose. The rest of the article describes these effective masses in detail.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In some important semiconductors (notably, silicon) the lowest energies of the conduction band are not symmetrical, as the constant-energy surfaces are now ellipsoids, rather than the spheres in the isotropic case. Each conduction band minimum can be approximated only by


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: where , , and axes are aligned to the principal axes of the ellipsoids, and , and are the inertial effective masses along these different axes. The offsets , , and reflect that the conduction band minimum is no longer centered at zero wavevector. (These effective masses correspond to the principal components of the inertial effective mass tensor, described later.)


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In this case, the electron motion is no longer directly comparable to a free electron; the speed of an electron will depend on its direction, and it will accelerate to a different degree depending on the direction of the force. Still, in crystals such as silicon the overall properties such as conductivity appear to be isotropic. This is because there are multiple valleys (conduction-band minima), each with effective masses rearranged along different axes. The valleys collectively act together to give an isotropic conductivity. It is possible to average the different axes' effective masses together in some way, to regain the free electron picture. However, the averaging method turns out to depend on the purpose:


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In general the dispersion relation cannot be approximated as parabolic, and in such cases the effective mass should be precisely defined if it is to be used at all.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: Here a commonly stated definition of effective mass is the "inertial" effective mass tensor defined below; however, in general it is a matrix-valued function of the wavevector, and even more complex than the band structure.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: A classical particle under the influence of a force accelerates according to Newton's second law, , or alternatively, the momentum changes according to . This intuitive principle appears identically in semiclassical approximations derived from band structure.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: where is the del operator in reciprocal space. The last step follows from using the chain rule for a total derivative for a quantity with indirect dependencies, because the direct result of the force is the change in given above, which indirectly results in a change in .


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: using the dot product rule with a uniform force (). formula_7 is the Hessian matrix of in reciprocal space. We see that the equivalent of the Newtonian reciprocal inertial mass for a free particle defined by has become a tensor quantity


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: This tensor allows the acceleration and force to be in different directions, and for the magnitude of the acceleration to depend on the direction of the force.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: For bands with linear dispersion formula_10 such as with photons or electrons in graphene, the group velocity is fixed, i.e. electrons travelling with parallel with to the force direction cannot be accelerated and the diagonal elements of are obviously zero. However, electrons travelling with a component perpendicular to the force can be accelerated in the direction of the force, and the off-diagonal elements of are non-zero. In fact the off-diagonal elements scale inversely with , i.e. they diverge (become infinite) for small . This is why the electrons in graphene are sometimes said to have infinite mass (due to the zeros on the diagonal of ) and sometimes said to be massless (due to the divergence on the off-diagonals).


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: Classically, a charged particle in a magnetic field moves in a helix along the magnetic field axis. The period "T" of its motion depends on its mass "m" and charge "e",


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: For particles in asymmetrical band structures, the particle no longer moves exactly in a helix, however its motion transverse to the magnetic field still moves in a closed loop (not necessarily a circle). Moreover, the time to complete one of these loops still varies inversely with magnetic field, and so it is possible to define a "cyclotron effective mass" from the measured period, using the above equation.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: The semiclassical motion of the particle can be described by a closed loop in k-space. Throughout this loop, the particle maintains a constant energy, as well as a constant momentum along the magnetic field axis. By defining to be the area enclosed by this loop (this area depends on the energy , the direction of the magnetic field, and the on-axis wavevector ), then it can be shown that the cyclotron effective mass depends on the band structure via the derivative of this area in energy:


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: Typically, experiments that measure cyclotron motion (cyclotron resonance, De Haas–Van Alphen effect, etc.) are restricted to only probe motion for energies near the Fermi level.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In two-dimensional electron gases, the cyclotron effective mass is defined only for one magnetic field direction (perpendicular) and the out-of-plane wavevector drops out. The cyclotron effective mass therefore is only a function of energy, and it turns out to be exactly related to the density of states at that energy via the relation formula_13, where is the valley degeneracy. Such a simple relationship does not apply in three-dimensional materials.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In semiconductors with low levels of doping, the electron concentration in the conduction band is in general given by


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: where is the Fermi level, is the minimum energy of the conduction band, and is a concentration coefficient that depends on temperature. The above relationship for can be shown to apply for any conduction band shape (including non-parabolic, asymmetric bands), provided the doping is weak (); this is a consequence of Fermi–Dirac statistics limiting towards Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: The concept of effective mass is useful to model the temperature dependence of , thereby allowing the above relationship to be used over a range of temperatures. In an idealized three-dimensional material with a parabolic band, the concentration coefficient is given by


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In semiconductors with non-simple band structures, this relationship is used to define an effective mass, known as the density of states effective mass of electrons. The name "density of states effective mass" is used since the above expression for is derived via the density of states for a parabolic band.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In practice, the effective mass extracted in this way is not quite constant in temperature ( does not exactly vary as ). In silicon, for example, this effective mass varies by a few percent between absolute zero and room temperature because the band structure itself slightly changes in shape. These band structure distortions are a result of changes in electron–phonon interaction energies, with the lattice's thermal expansion playing a minor role.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: Similarly, the number of holes in the valence band, and the density of states effective mass of holes are defined by:


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: where is the maximum energy of the valence band. Practically, this effective mass tends to vary greatly between absolute zero and room temperature in many materials (e.g., a factor of two in silicon), as there are multiple valence bands with distinct and significantly non-parabolic character, all peaking near the same energy.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: Traditionally effective masses were measured using cyclotron resonance, a method in which microwave absorption of a semiconductor immersed in a magnetic field goes through a sharp peak when the microwave frequency equals the cyclotron frequency formula_17. In recent years effective masses have more commonly been determined through measurement of band structures using techniques such as angle-resolved photo emission (ARPES) or, most directly, the de Haas–van Alphen effect. Effective masses can also be estimated using the coefficient γ of the linear term in the low-temperature electronic specific heat at constant volume formula_18. The specific heat depends on the effective mass through the density of states at the Fermi level and as such is a measure of degeneracy as well as band curvature. Very large estimates of carrier mass from specific heat measurements have given rise to the concept of heavy fermion materials. Since carrier mobility depends on the ratio of carrier collision lifetime formula_19 to effective mass, masses can in principle be determined from transport measurements, but this method is not practical since carrier collision probabilities are typically not known a priori. The optical Hall effect is an emerging technique for measuring the free charge carrier density, effective mass and mobility parameters in semiconductors. The optical Hall effect measures the analogue of the quasi-static electric-field-induced electrical Hall effect at optical frequencies in conductive and complex layered materials. The optical Hall effect also permits characterization of the anisotropy (tensor character) of the effective mass and mobility parameters.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: A variety of theoretical methods including density functional theory, k·p perturbation theory, and others are used to supplement and support the various experimental measurements described in the previous section, including interpreting, fitting, and extrapolating these measurements. Some of these theoretical methods can also be used for predictions of effective mass in the absence of any experimental data, for example to study materials that have not yet been created in the laboratory.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: The effective mass is used in transport calculations, such as transport of electrons under the influence of fields or carrier gradients, but it also is used to calculate the carrier density and density of states in semiconductors. These masses are related but, as explained in the previous sections, are not the same because the weightings of various directions and wavevectors are different. These differences are important, for example in thermoelectric materials, where high conductivity, generally associated with light mass, is desired at the same time as high Seebeck coefficient, generally associated with heavy mass. Methods for assessing the electronic structures of different materials in this context have been developed.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: Certain group III–V compounds such as gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium antimonide (InSb) have far smaller effective masses than tetrahedral group IV materials like silicon and germanium. In the simplest Drude picture of electronic transport, the maximum obtainable charge carrier velocity is inversely proportional to the effective mass: formula_20, where formula_21 with formula_22 being the electronic charge. The ultimate speed of integrated circuits depends on the carrier velocity, so the low effective mass is the fundamental reason that GaAs and its derivatives are used instead of Si in high-bandwidth applications like cellular telephony.


title: Effective mass (solid-state physics)

text: In April 2017, researchers at Washington State University claimed to have created a fluid with negative effective mass inside a Bose–Einstein condensate, by engineering the dispersion relation.


title: Hamida al-Attas

text: Hamida al-Attas (; born A'liyya Ghanim; ; , is the mother of the deceased al-Qaeda leader, Osama bin Laden.


title: Hamida al-Attas

text: Hamida al-Attas came from a Syrian family of citrus farmers, with two brothers and another sister, living in two small coastal villages, Omraneya and Babryon, outside the port of Latakia. She grew up in a family of Alawites, an offshoot of Shia Islam. At age 14, she married Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden in Latakia in 1956 and moved to Saudi Arabia with her husband. She was the tenth wife of Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden. Her husband had many wives and he divorced most of them, as having only four wives at once was in accordance with Muslim law. It has been reported that she was a concubine rather than wife of Mohammed bin Awad bin Laden. She was more cosmopolitan than Mohammed's first three Saudi wives.


title: Hamida al-Attas

text: Osama bin Laden was her only child with Mohammad bin Laden, and they divorced soon after his birth in 1957; Osama was somewhere between the 17th and the 22nd of the 24 sons which Mohammad would sire. She often spent summers at her brother Naji's home in Latakia and Osama went with her until he was 17. In 1974, when Osama was 17, he married her brother's daughter, 14-year-old Najwa Ghanem, who had been promised to him.


title: Hamida al-Attas

text: Hamida later married Mohammed al-Attas, a Hadhrami administrator in the fledgling Bin Laden empire, when Osama was four or five; they had three sons and a daughter including Ahmad Mohammed. Osama took an active part in raising his half siblings.


title: Hamida al-Attas

text: It has been reported that, in the spring or summer of 2001, Osama bin Laden placed a phone call to his mother and in a "very brief conversation" told her "that he [will] not be able to call again for a long time," adding that "great events are about to take place." Following the September 11 attacks, Hamida has said "I disapprove of the ambitions the press ascribe to him, but I am satisfied with Osama, and I pray to God that He will guide him along the right path." She later stated "My life was very difficult because he was so far away from me. [Osama] was a very good kid and he loved me so much." She continued "He was a very good child until he met some people who pretty much brainwashed him in his early 20s. You can call it a cult. They got money for their cause. I would always tell him to stay away from them, and he would never admit to me what he was doing, because he loved me so much." The person Osama met in college was Abdullah Azzam.


title: Hardness comparison

text: A variety of hardness-testing methods are available, including the Vickers, Brinell, Rockwell, Meyer and Leeb tests. Although it is impossible in many cases to give an exact conversion, it is possible to give an approximate material-specific comparison table for steels.


title: Erica Luttrell

text: Luttrell was born in Toronto, Ontario to a Tanzanian mother and an American father. Luttrell is the youngest of four sisters. She can speak some French and Swahili. In August 2019, Luttrell married her girlfriend Jessica Mallers.


title: Erica Luttrell

text: She began her acting career at age 2 in several Pampers and Cadillac commercials. At age 9, she had her first starring role in a television series. Her older sister Rachel Luttrell is also an actress who is best known for her role as Teyla Emmagan in the science fiction television series "Stargate Atlantis".


title: Erica Luttrell

text: Luttrell is best known for her role as Kara Cupper on the children's television series "Shining Time Station", and the voice of Keesha Franklin on "The Magic School Bus". In 1997, she starred as Emelie Robeson on "The New Ghostwriter Mysteries". After several seasons of those and other TV series, she moved south to Los Angeles, California. In 2004, Luttrell was the voice of Candy on the short-lived Disney Channel animated series "Dave the Barbarian". She also voices Sapphire in the Cartoon Network series "Steven Universe", Glori in "Mighty Magiswords" and Emily Kaldwin in the 2016 video game "Dishonored 2", Cheetah in the 2017 fighting video game "Injustice 2", as well as Bangalore in "Apex Legends". She also starred in the CBS sci-fi drama "Salvation".


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Caitlin Marie Doughty (born August 19, 1984) is an American mortician, author, blogger, YouTube personality, and advocate for death acceptance and the reform of Western funeral industry practices. She is the owner of Clarity Funerals and Cremation of Los Angeles, creator of the Web series "Ask a Mortician", founder of The Order of the Good Death, and author of three bestselling books, "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes & Other Lessons from the Crematory" (2014), "From Here to Eternity; Traveling the World to Find the Good Death" (2017), and "Will My Cat Eat My Eyeballs?: Big Questions from Tiny Mortals About Death" (2019).


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty grew up in Kaneohe, Oahu, Hawaii, where she had no exposure to death until, at age 8, she witnessed another child fall to her death from a balcony at a shopping mall. She was quickly taken from the scene of the accident and it was never spoken of again. For several years, she became obsessed with fears of her own or her family's deaths. Doughty says she could have recovered better from the incident if she had been given the opportunity to face the reality of the child's death.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty attended St. Andrew's Priory School, a private Episcopal all-girls college prep school in Honolulu. In college she majored in medieval history at the University of Chicago, focusing on death and culture, graduating in 2006. She studied the European witch trials in the early modern period, and directed a play she had written based on the works of Edgar Allan Poe and the Christina Rossetti poem "Goblin Market".


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: After graduation and moving to San Francisco in 2006, at age 22, she sought hands-on exposure to modern death practices in funeral homes, and after seeking employment for six months, was hired in the crematory of Pacific Interment (called Westwind Cremation & Burial in her book) despite her lack of any experience in the funeral industry. Pacific Interment could be called "the anti-Forest Lawn", referring to what Doughty sees as the theme-park-like, kitschy corporate funeral behemoth that much of modern American funeral practice is modeled on.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: She picked up corpses from homes and hospitals in a van, prepared them for viewings, cremated them, and delivered the cremains to the families. Dealing with bureaucracy, such as acquiring death certificates or obtaining the release of a body from the coroner, occupied much of her work. Her boss and coworkers at Pacific Interment often tested her with hands-on assignments, as on her first day at work she had to shave a corpse, and Doughty accepted any task.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty knew almost from the beginning of her work in the death industry that she wanted to change attitudes about death and find a way to offer alternative funeral arrangements. After one year at the crematory, Doughty attended Cypress College's Mortuary Science program and graduated as a certified mortician, though in California there are paths to becoming licensed without attending mortuary college. She founded The Order of the Good Death, an association of like-minded death professionals, along with artists, writers, and academics who shared her goals of reforming Western attitudes about death, funerals, and mourning.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty's main inspiration for her advocacy work was the frequent absence of the decedents' families in the process, which she attributed to the Western death anxiety and death phobia. She wanted to encourage death acceptance, and a return to such practices as "memento mori", reminders of one's own mortality, resulting in healthier grieving, mourning, and closure after the inevitable deaths of people around us, as well as starting a movement to broaden the funeral industry to offer more funeral options, such as natural burial, sky burial, and alkaline hydrolysis (liquid cremation). Embalming began to dominate in the US after the Civil War. A century later, in the 1960s, Americans began to turn away from embalming and burial, as cremation became increasingly popular, so that today it is used in almost half of deaths in urban areas. Cremation is seen as a threat to the traditional funeral industry, but has a reputation as the more environmentally friendly option. This change can be traced to the lifting of the ban on cremation by Pope Paul VI in 1963, and to the publication in the same year of "The American Way of Death" by Jessica Mitford, documenting abuses in the funeral industry and criticizing the excessive cost of funerals. Mitford's book, and the movement it started, was one of Doughty's inspirations, but Doughty feels that while Mitford had the right target, the profit-driven funeral industry, Mitford erred in sharing the industry's, and the public's, unhealthy desire to push out of sight and avoid thinking about the corpse itself. Doughty seeks to build on Mitford's reforms but in a direction that embraces the reality of death and returns to funeral and mourning practices that include spending time with and having contact with the dead body itself.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty advocates reappropriating pejoratives like 'morbid', and wants to reverse the attitude that "talking about death is deviant". She says, "Death is not deviant, it's actually the most normal and universal act there is." She is working to overcome the belief that dead bodies are dangerous and can only be handled by trained professionals using technical equipment and specialized facilities. She says the most important thing she wants the public to know is that the corpse is the family's legal quasi-property, and that, "you have the power over what happens to that body. Don't let anyone, funeral home, hospital, coroner, etc., pressure you into making a quick decision you might regret. Take the time to do your research and understand your options. The dead person will still be dead in 24 hours; you have time to make the right decision for you."


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: While a body is not commercial property, which can be transferred or held for a debt, for purposes of burial the body is treated as the next of kin's property. Her highest priority changes that she would like to see in US law would be the repeal of the laws in eight states that require a funeral home for at least some part of the process, and to make alkaline hydrolysis available in more than the current eight states.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: One funeral industry professional of 40 years experience lauded the goal of greater family involvement in funerals, but said it was "virtually impossible" for many families today to return to preparing bodies themselves or hosting wakes in their own homes, citing the challenges of moving a body themselves, or dealing with a body that had been autopsied, or, especially, the innate fear of contact with the dead, which he did not think would "ever change". Doughty says her "dream funeral is one where the family is involved, washing and dressing the body and keeping it at home. When they've taken the time they need with the dead person, transporting the person to a natural burial cemetery and putting them straight into the ground, no heavy sealed casket or vault. Just food for worms."


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: NPR interviewer Terry Gross said to Doughty that if she spent time at home with a loved one's body in a natural state, she feared she would be left with her last memory of them as a corpse, growing cold and showing subtle changes that indicate the permanence of the end of life, the very things Doughty said are the goal of closer involvement in the death process. Doughty said she has never heard regrets from anyone who has done it; rather, they said it was a positive experience where they felt empowered and that they were "giving something back to this person that you loved." Conversely, Doughty has heard from many who only briefly saw the body in a hospital, and later in an artificial, embalmed state, and they regret not having more time to grieve close to the corpse.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Gross asked Doughty if people seeking out and witnessing death in beheading videos is comparable to the comfortability with death that she advocates, and Doughty said they were in no way similar, one "a form of psychological terror" and the other "a dead body in its natural state." But, Doughty said, terrorists know how strong the modern fear and denial of death is, and they are exploiting that to heighten the force of the terror they cause.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty's YouTube series "Ask a Mortician" began in 2011, humorously explores morbid and sometimes taboo death topics such as decomposition and necrophilia. By 2012, after 12 episodes, "Ask a Mortician" had 434,000 views, and by January 2022 the channel had 258 clips with a total of 215,000,000 views. Doughty uses an irreverent, offbeat and surreal tone to attract the largest possible audience for a subject that is otherwise off-putting and depressing to many potential viewers. Doughty said, "I take my job and this whole movement incredibly seriously. I do [the videos] with a sense of humor, but it's my life, and it's really important to me that a positive death message gets across."


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Fans of "Ask a Mortician" have told Doughty they were shamed for wanting to view the corpse of someone they lost, which Doughty says is the result of the death industry "whitewashing death". Doughty instead advocates spending time with the body, not just hours, but around two days, to fully accept the death. She also encourages rituals and personal participation in the preparation of the corpse, including washing or dressing it.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: On 14 October 2022, Doughty published a video talking about how YouTube deemed her recent video on the SS Eastland a violation of YouTube’s Community Guidelines. In the video she also announced that her funeral home business “Clarity” would be gradually handed over to a different owner, meanwhile she stated that she will be moving to the East Coast of the United States.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: In September 2014, Doughty's first book, "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes & Other Lessons from the Crematory" was published by W. W. Norton & Company. It is a memoir of her experiences that serves as a manifesto of her goals. The book is named for the 20th-century pop song "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes", in reference to both the literal smoke of cremation and the associated emotions. W. W. Norton's Tom Mayer outbid seven other publishers for the worldwide rights to "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes" in 2012. The book debuted at No. 14 on "The New York Times" and at No. 10 on the "Los Angeles Times" bestseller lists of hardcover nonfiction for the week ending October 5, 2014.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty's intention with the book was to combine "memoir, science, and manifesto" in an entertaining way that would attract a wide readership to the unpleasant topics of death, decay, and corpse handling, to challenge the reader to confront their own mortality. Doughty says readers have told her that they themselves are fascinated by the graphic descriptions of such things as "stomach-content removal" or the "bubblating" of human fat during a cremation, yet they are "not sure other people will be able to handle it." Doughty said, "I think we need to admit that, as a group, as humans, we are all drawn to the gory details. When reality is hidden from us, we crave it."


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: "The Washington Post" noted that while Doughty's "endearingly anxious inner workings take up a large part" of the book, there are also portraits of her three eccentric coworkers at Pacific Interment, who each teach lessons she carries after leaving to attend mortuary school. "What holds "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes" together," the "Post" said, is Doughty's overarching goal to increase the reader's awareness of their own mortality and face their fear of death, and the book's effective use of humor keeps it from being too sorrowful or gruesome, in spite of its graphic descriptions. "The Boston Globe"s review of "Smoke Gets in Your Eyes" said that, "If at times Doughty's voice is a bit too breezy ... her observations are solid." The Fredericksburg, Virginia "Free Lance-Star" said the book was engrossing and "fulfills all its pre-pub hype, jacket blurbs and positive advance reviews". Natalie Kusz wrote in "The New York Times Book Review" that, "the book is more consequential than its spin potential, [...] more cultural critique than exposé," using Doughty's personal narrative to lead the public to a new relationship with death.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Since writing the book, Doughty began working to launch Undertaking LA, a funeral service alternative to the mainstream funeral options. It started as a seminar series meant to educate the public on their death options under California law. As of 2014, the service consisted of "two licensed morticians telling the public, 'you don't need us!'", instead advocating DIY funerals.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty's second book, "From Here to Eternity: Traveling the World to Find the Good Death", illustrated by Landis Blair, was published in October 2017. It chronicles Doughty's travels to see first-hand death customs in Mexico, Indonesia, Japan, Spain, and Bolivia, as well as at home in the US, at an open air funeral pyre and a body farm. In the book's introduction, Doughty said Americans too often spend more than they need to funerals for things they do not really want or need, and have a less healthy grieving process because of a culture of avoiding conversations about death, avoiding the subject as taboo. She said the establishment funeral industry benefits from public's ignorance of the options and rights they have in how to handle the death, having no incentive to correct the perception that handing the body over to a funeral home for a traditional funeral is the best or only option. The book's goal is to change that culture by, "witnessing firsthand how death is handled in other cultures" in the hope that she can "demonstrate that there is no one prescribed way to 'do' or understand death." The book reached No. 7 on the "Los Angeles Times" Bestseller list and No. 9 on "The New York Times" list.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty's third book, "Will My Cat Eat My Eyeballs?: Big Questions from Tiny Mortals About Death", answers 35 questions sourced from children. The book originated from Doughty's observation that most adults she encountered had not received adequate death education.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: An excerpt, read by Doughty, will appear on the new Lit Hub/Podglomerate "Storybound" podcast, accompanied by an original score from singer-songwriter Stephanie Strange.


title: Caitlin Doughty

text: Doughty is the founder of "The Order of the Good Death" an inclusive community of funeral industry professionals, academics, as well as artists who advocate for and make possible, a more death informed society. "The Order of the Good Death" is presented to the public as a website that shares articles and information by prominent figures in the death industry that make individuals more informed about the inevitable conclusion of one's life. In previous years the public had an engagement with the cemetery as a community place, which people do not have anymore. The Order of the Good Death is Doughty's way of creating a community while teaching individuals to accept death. Doughty's work has a strong focus on ways of "making death a part of one's life". "If Doughty and the Order's death-care revolution is successful, Americans will be more comfortable contemplating mortality and dying— thus preparing for it, seriously considering alternatives such as green burial, composting, and using crematoria that have carbon-offset policies".


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: The Renault 5 Turbo or R5 Turbo is a sport hatchback automobile launched by the French manufacturer Renault at the Brussels Motor Show in January 1980. The car was primarily designed for rallying, but was also sold in a street version.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: A total of 4,987 (1,820 Turbo 1 and 3,167 Turbo 2) R5 Turbos were manufactured during the six-year production run.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: In response to Lancia's rallying success with the mid-engined Stratos, Renault's Jean Terramorsi, vice-president of production came up with the idea of creating a new sports version of the Renault 5 Alpine supermini. The distinctive new rear bodywork was styled by Marc Deschamps at Bertone, headed by Chief Designer Marcello Gandini. A Renault 5 Alpine was sent to Bertone in October 1977 to be used as a "mannequin." The car's code name was "Projet 822".


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: Although the standard Renault 5 has a front-mounted engine, the 5 Turbo featured a mid-mounted Cléon-Fonte with fuel fed by Bosch K-Jetronic fuel injection and a Garrett AiResearch T3 turbocharger OHV 2 valves per cylinder Inline-four engine placed behind the driver in mid-body in a modified Renault 5 chassis. In standard form, the engine developed at 6000 rpm and maximum torque of at 3250 rpm.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: Though it used a modified body from a standard Renault 5 and was badged a Renault 5, the mechanicals were radically different. The most obvious difference was the rear-wheel drive and rear-mid-engined instead of the normal version's front-wheel drive and front-mounted engine. The engineers creating the Turbo dug deep in the Renault parts bin in order to meet their goals: the rear suspension was derived from that of the rear-engined Renault Alpine A310 V6 while the five-speed manual transmission was the unit from the Renault 30 TX, rotated through 180 degrees. At the time of its launch, it was the most powerful production French car.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: The first 400 production 5 Turbos were made to comply with Group 4 homologation to allow the car to compete in international rallies, and were manufactured at the Alpine factory in Dieppe. Many parts later transferred to the Alpine A310, such as the suspension or alloy wheel set.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: Once the homologation models were produced, a second version named Turbo 2 was introduced using more stock Renault 5 parts replacing many of the light-alloy components in the original 5 Turbo version, and dropping the specific Bertone seats and dashboard for the interior of the R5 Alpine. Many parts also became dark grey rather than the iconic red or blue. The Turbo 2 was less expensive, but had nearly the same levels of performance, with a top speed of and 0–100 km/h (62 mph) in 6.9 seconds. To differentiate it from the Turbo 2, the original 5 Turbo is often referred as "Turbo 1".


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: The concept of a mid-engined small Renault returned with the 1998 announcement of the Renault Clio V6.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: The original plan called for 1,000 Renault 5 Turbo cars to be built to meet the requirements for Group 3 homologation, with an eye to building an additional 3,000 factory U.S. Models for sale in the United States. This did not actually happen.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: Instead the vehicle was available to Americans via the burgeoning grey market (1976-1988), in which European street legal cars were converted to U.S. specifications.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: In 2004, "Sports Car International" named the R5 Turbo number nine on the list of Top Sports Cars of the 1980s.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: The R5 Turbo was conceived with dual intent, promoting the sales of the common R5 and being homologated in the FIA group 3 and 4 categories of the rally championship (today WRC). All the motorsport derivatives were based on the Turbo 1.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: The factory pushed the engine output up to for the Critérium des Cévennes, for the Tour de Corse, and by 1984 as much as in the R5 Maxi Turbo. The final Renault 5 Maxi Turbo Superproduction reached and won the French Supertouring Championship that year.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: The Renault 5 Turbo competed in the sub-2000 cc category, thanks to the multiplication factor of 1.4 which was applied to turbocharged engines. FISA restricted tire and wheel sizes based on engine size, so for the Maxi Turbo, Renault enlarged to engine to 1527 cc which brought it up to 2138 cc in the eyes of the regulatory agencies - placing it in the 2000–2500 cc category and allowing for the fitment of wider wheels at the expense of a higher minimum weight.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: Driven by Jean Ragnotti in 1981, the 5 Turbo won the Monte Carlo Rally on its first outing in the World Rally Championship.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: There are several victories throughout the early 1980s in the national championships in France, Portugal, Switzerland, Hungary, and Spain, as well as victories in international rallies throughout Europe, with wins in iconic rallies such as Monte Carlo.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: After the factory ceased support, it underwent development by many teams and enthusiasts to compete in regional championships and local races in which it was ubiquitous and successful for almost 20 years.


title: Renault 5 Turbo

text: Later, the newly created historical categories allowed these celebrated cars to return to international events and competitions.


title: Jamie Luner

text: Jamie Michelle Luner (born May 12, 1971) is an American actress who first came to prominence as Cindy Lubbock on the ABC sitcom "Just the Ten of Us", but is perhaps better known as Peyton Richards on "Savannah", Lexi Sterling on "Melrose Place" and Rachel Burke on "Profiler". More recently, Luner portrayed Liza Colby on the ABC soap opera "All My Children" and Cassie Siletti on "Murder in the First". Luner is also well known for her lead roles in many Lifetime movies.


title: Jamie Luner

text: Luner was born in Palo Alto, California, an affluent suburb in the San Francisco Bay Area, the daughter of Susan, an actress, and Stuart Luner, a sales representative. She was raised in a Jewish family and has an older brother, David.


title: Jamie Luner

text: After guest starring in several episodes of the sitcom "Growing Pains", Luner went on to star as Cindy Lubbock in the "Growing Pains" spinoff, "Just the Ten of Us" (1988–1990), which also starred Heather Langenkamp, Brooke Theiss and JoAnn Willette as Luner's fictional sisters. At one point in the show, the foursome comprised a fictional singing group, "The Lubbock Babes". To date, Luner is the only one of the four who has not appeared in a "Nightmare On Elm Street" movie. Luner also guest starred in a Halloween-themed episode of "Growing Pains", in which she portrayed a vanishing hitchhiker. After "Just the Ten of Us" ended, Luner took a break from acting and attended the Epicurian Cooking School, eventually becoming a chef at a popular Los Angeles, California restaurant.


title: Jamie Luner

text: In 1993, Luner returned to television, playing a teenager in the TV movie "", starring opposite Linda Gray. Luner followed this up with a succession of television films, most notably "Confessions of a Sorority Girl" (1994), which began her extended professional association with producer Aaron Spelling.


title: Jamie Luner

text: Luner's next big break came in 1996, when she was cast as Peyton Richards in Spelling's prime-time soap opera, "Savannah" (1996–1997). Later in 1997, Luner was cast in Spelling's "Melrose Place", playing the role of Lexi Sterling until the series' conclusion in 1999.


title: Jamie Luner

text: In 1999, immediately following the cancellation of "Melrose Place", Luner was cast as Rachel Burke, Ally Walker's replacement in NBC's "Profiler". She played the role until the show was cancelled at the end of its fourth season in 2000. Following the cancellation of "Profiler", Luner continued to work steadily, with guest appearances on several television series including "The Outer Limits", "" and a three-episode arc on "That's Life". In 2000, Luner also starred in the independent feature "Sacrifice", along with Michael Madsen.


title: Jamie Luner

text: In 2003, Luner joined the cast of another Spelling drama, playing the role of Senior Deputy Ryan Layne in "" (2003–2004). The series was cancelled after Luner had appeared in just five episodes. Also in 2003, Luner starred opposite Nicholas Lea in the Sci-Fi Channel original movie "Threshold", and in 2004 guest-starred in an episode of "NCIS", "Dead Man Talking".


title: Jamie Luner

text: In 2005, Luner appeared in four TV movies for the cable network Lifetime Television: "The Suspect" (2005), "Blind Injustice" (2005), "Stranger in My Bed" (2005) and "The Perfect Marriage" (2006).


title: Jamie Luner

text: In 2007, Luner appeared as Susan in the comedy "Black and Bluestein" at the Santa Monica Playhouse. Also that year, Luner starred in "Nuclear Hurricane", a Sci-Fi Channel original movie, and made a guest appearance on "".


title: Jamie Luner

text: In April 2009, Luner joined the cast of "All My Children" as Liza Colby. (Marcy Walker, who originally played Liza, had retired from show business several years earlier.) The soap was cancelled in 2011, after which Luner starred in the Lifetime movies "Walking the Halls", "Stalked at 17" and "The Perfect Boss". She then guest-starred in both "Supernatural" and "Criminal Minds" in 2013. In 2014, Luner was cast in the Investigation Discovery series "Heartbreakers", opposite Jack Wagner and Rob Estes. The following year, she appeared in two more Lifetime movies, "The Wrong Girl" and "The Bride He Bought Online". She also had a recurring role in the second and third seasons of TNT crime drama, "Murder in the First", from 2015 to 2016, and guest-starred on "Better Call Saul" and "Code Black". In the following years, she starred in more than ten Lifetime movies, most recently "The Christmas High Note" (2020), alongside Johnny Messner.


title: Jamie Luner

text: In February 2018, Luner was accused of drugging and filming a sexual encounter with Anthony Oliver, who had been 16 years old at the time of the alleged incident in 1998. The lawsuit alleged that Luner had offered him whiskey and methamphetamines. However, according to a April 4, 2018 "New York Post" article, Oliver was registered in California as a vexatious litigator after having burdened the legal system by previously filing 27 frivolous federal lawsuits in an eight-year period. As such, he could not proceed with any court filings without a judge's approval.


title: Jamie Luner

text: On August 6, 2018, the Anthony Oliver lawsuit was dismissed based on the statute of limitations. The judge highlighted the fact that the plaintiff had waited 20 years to file the suit, well after the window had passed on any legal basis for the suit. Luner's team alleged that not only had the legal requirements not been met, but that the plaintiff's claims were actually part of an extortion attempt, and consistent with a history of baseless lawsuits. Nevertheless, the dismissal was appealed on February 2, 2019. In October 2019, Oliver, a one-time mayoral candidate in Savannah, Georgia, was sentenced to 20 years in prison on stalking charges, following 17 years of stalking the victim.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: The North Carolina Tar Heels football team represents the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill in the sport of American football or Gridiron Football. The Tar Heels play in the Football Bowl Subdivision (FBS) of the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) and the Coastal Division of the Atlantic Coast Conference (ACC).


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: North Carolina has played in 37 bowl games in its history and won three Southern Conference championships and five Atlantic Coast Conference titles. Thirty Tar Heel players have been honored as first-team All-Americas on 38 occasions. Carolina had 32 All-Southern Conference selections when it played in that league until 1952 and since joining the ACC in 1953, has had 174 first-team All-ACC choices. Since joining the Atlantic Coast Conference in 1953, the team has won five conference championships, with the most recent title coming in 1980.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: One very important contribution to the game of football by Carolina is the modern use of the forward pass; they were the first college team to use the play in 1895. Bob Quincy notes in his 1973 book "They Made the Bell Tower Chime" John Heisman, a noted historian, wrote 30 years later that, indeed, the Tar Heels had given birth to the forward pass against the Bulldogs (UGA). It was conceived to break a scoreless deadlock and give UNC a 6–0 win. The Tar Heels were in a punting situation and a Georgia rush seemed destined to block the ball. The punter, with an impromptu dash to his right, tossed the ball and it was caught by George Stephens, who ran 70 yards for a touchdown."


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: The program has long been overshadowed by the school's powerhouse men's basketball team and the "academic-athletic" scandal in which paper classes yielded inflated grades to maintain athlete eligibility. While not a consistent football powerhouse, the Carolina football program has had intermittent success and has featured a number of players who have gone on to play in the National Football League, including Lawrence Taylor, Charlie Justice, Chris Hanburger, Ken Willard, Don McCauley, William Fuller, Harris Barton, Jeff Saturday, Alge Crumpler, Willie Parker, Greg Ellis, Dré Bly, Julius Peppers, Hakeem Nicks, T.J. Yates,


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: The University of North Carolina fielded its first football team in 1888. The Tar Heels played four games with a final record of 1–3. The team captains for the 1888 season were Bob Bingham and Steve Bragaw. The game against Wake Forest was the first in the state, and the first against Trinity the first "scientific" game in the state. Ergo, one or the other is the first intercollegiate game in North Carolina. Between the first two games played in 1888 and next two games played in 1889 Princeton star Hector Cowan traveled south and trained the team. At the beginning of 1889, UNC played two games with a final record of 1–1. The team captains for the 1889 season were Lacy Little and Steve Bragaw.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: William A. Reynolds coached the Tar Heels for four seasons. In 1897, Carolina played ten games with a final record of 7–3. The team captain for the 1897 season was Arthur Belden. In 1898, the Tar Heels played nine games with a final record of 9–0. The team captain for the 1898 season was Frank O. Rogers. The team claimed a Southern championship. The season opened with an 18–0 defeat of the Guilford Quakers. Charles Baskerville was umpire. The starting lineup was Tate (left end), Shull (left tackle), Miller (left guard), Cunningham (center), Cromartie (right guard), Bennett (Right tackle), Klotz (right end), Rogers (quarterback), Howell (left halfback), Gregory (right halfback), Graves (fullback). In the second week of play, the Tar Heels defeated the in-state rival North Carolina A&M 34–0. Against the Greensboro Athletic Association, UNC won 11–0 which was followed by a victory over Oak Ridge by a score of 11–0. Touchdowns were made by Bennett, Gregory, Copeland, Shull, and Howell in a 28–6 win over V. P. I.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: After beating Davidson 11–0, UNC traveled to Macon, Georgia to take on Georgia. the Tar Heels blew out the Georgia Bulldogs 53–0. Tick Tichenor wrote "Such a crush defeat as Georgia sustained at the hands of North Carolina today is almost unparalleled in football". The starting lineup was Klotz (left end), Shull (left tackle), Cromartie (left guard), Cunningham (center), Phifer (right guard), Bennett (Right tackle), Gregoy (right end), Rodgers (quarterback), Austin (left halfback), McRae (right halfback), Graves (fullback). After defeating John Heisman's Auburn Tigers 29–0, UNC beat rival Virginia 6–2, its first win since the first year of the South's Oldest Rivalry. The safety was made just as time called, and Howell scored for UNC. In 1899, UNC played eleven games with a final record of 7–3–1. The team captain for the 1899 season was Samuel Shull. In 1900, Carolina played eight games with a final record of 4–1–3. The team captain for the 1900 season was Frank M. Osborne. From 1897 to 1900, Reynolds posted a 27–7–4 record before departing the Tar Heels to coach Georgia.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Herman Olcott was the head coach for the Tar Heels for two seasons, 1902 and 1903. He compiled an 11–4–3 record. In 1895 and from 1913 to 1915, the Tar Heels were coached by Thomas Trenchard, who posted a 26–9–2 record in those four seasons. His best season was a 10–1 1914 season. Brothers Bob and Bill Fetzer served as co-head coaches for the Tar Heels from 1921 to 1925, posting a 30–12–4 overall record. Bob would go on to serve as Carolina's first athletics director from 1923 to 1952. Chuck Collins served as head coach for the Tar Heels for eight seasons, the longest of any coach to that time in Tar Heel history. His record in Chapel Hill was 38–31–9, his best season being a 9–1 record in 1929, during which Carolina defeated Wake Forest, Maryland, Georgia Tech, VPI, NC State, South Carolina, Davidson, Virginia and Duke.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Carl Snavely, nicknamed "The Grey Fox" for his grey suits he would wear on game day, served two stints as the Tar Heels head football coach. He first came to Chapel Hill from Bucknell. He departed after the 1935 season to accept the head football coach position at Cornell but returned in 1945. Snavely then departed again after the 1952 season to accept the head football coach position at Washington University. His final record at UNC was 59–35–5 and he was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1965. A proponent of the single wing offense, Snavely's teams were known as some of the quickest in the south. His 1946 and 1948 teams reached the Sugar Bowl but lost, finishing ranked No. 9 and No. 3, respectively. Those teams posted 8–2–1 and 9–1 records, respectively. Snavely's 1949 team finished 7–4, lost the Cotton Bowl and ranked No. 16 in the final polls.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Raymond Wolf came to Carolina from his post as TCU defensive line coach. In 1936, the Tar Heels finished with an 8–2 record. Wolf's 1937 Tar Heels finished 7–1–1. The next year saw UNC finish 6–2–1. The Tar Heels would enjoy their best season under Wolf's tutelage in 1939, finishing 8–1–1. In 1940, the Tar Heels finished 6–4. The 1941 season saw Carolina finish 3–7, which would result in Wolf's dismissal. Wolf's overall record in the six seasons he was head coach was 38–17–3, with most of his success coming with players that Snavely recruited.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Jim Tatum served two stints as head football coach at his alma mater. He enlisted in the Navy for World War II and left the team but returned in 1956. His overall record at UNC is 19–17–3. George T. Barclay, another UNC alum, was promoted from assistant coach to head coach following Snavely's second departure. Barclay struggled as UNC's head football coach, posting an 11–18–1 record in his three seasons before resigning. The most notable part of Barclay's tenure is that the Tar Heels helped charter the Atlantic Coast Conference in all sports in 1953. Tatum was inducted into the College Football Hall of Fame as a coach in 1984, primarily for his tenure as head football coach at Maryland. Tatum died unexpectedly in the summer of 1958 from a rickettsial disease.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Jim Hickey was promoted from assistant coach to head coach after Tatum's death. In Hickey's first season, the Tar Heels finished with a 5–5 record. The season began with a close loss to No. 18 Clemson and another loss to Notre Dame before Carolina defeated NC State and No. 19 South Carolina. After a loss to Maryland and Wake Forest, the Tar Heels lost to No. 20 Tennessee by a score of 29–7. Carolina then lost to Miami before shutting out both Virginia and Duke. In 1960, Carolina finished 3–7. The Tar Heels defeated Notre Dame, No. 6 Duke and Virginia and lost to NC State, Miami, Wake Forest, South Carolina, No. 11 Tennessee, Clemson and Maryland. Hickey's third season saw Carolina improve to 5–5. That year, Carolina faced two ranked teams, defeating No. 10 Maryland and losing to No. 4 LSU. In 1962, the Tar Heels finished 3–7.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Hickey's best season was a 9–2 1963 season in which the Tar Heels won the 1963 Gator Bowl and finished the season ranked No. 19 in the Coaches' Poll. They began the season with an 11–7 win over rival Virginia on September 21. After losing a shutout to Michigan State by a score of 31–0, Carolina won their next five; defeating Wake Forest in a shutout 21–0, Maryland 14–7, NC State by a score of 31–10, South Carolina in a shutout by a score of 7-0 and Georgia by a score of 28–7. After their five-game winning streak was snapped on November 9 with an 11–7 loss to Clemson, the Tar Heels closed the season with three straight wins, defeating Miami by a score of 27–16, archrival Duke by a score of 16-14 and Air Force in the 1963 Gator Bowl in a shutout, prevailing 35–0. In 1964, Carolina slipped to 5–5, which was followed by a 4–6 campaign in 1965 and a campaign in 1966. Hickey left UNC to accept the position of athletics director at the University of Connecticut after the 1966 season. He spent eight seasons as the Tar Heels head football coach and compiled a 36–45 record during his time in Chapel Hill.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Bill Dooley, brother of former Georgia head football coach Vince Dooley and uncle of former Louisiana Tech and Tennessee head football coach Derek Dooley, came to North Carolina from his post as an assistant coach at Georgia. Dooley enjoyed success at UNC, compiling a 69–53–2 record in 11 seasons. Six of those seasons were bowl appearances, five losses and one win.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In 1967, the Tar Heels struggled to a 2–8 record, with wins over Maryland and Duke. In 1968, Carolina showed a little improvement, finishing 3–7 with wins over Vanderbilt, No 7 Florida and Duke. In 1969, Carolina finished 5–5, their best season in five years.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Dooley's 1970 team went 8–4, finishing with a Peach Bowl loss to Arizona State. The next season, 1971, was a 9–3 season that was capped with a Gator Bowl loss to Georgia and a No. 18 ranking in the Coaches' Poll. Dooley became the first Tar Heels coach to win 11 games in a single season in 1972, going 11–1 with a victory over Texas Tech in the Sun Bowl, and rankings of No. 14 and No. 12 in the Coaches' and AP Polls. In 1973, Dooley's Tar Heels finished 4–7 with wins over William & Mary, Kentucky and Wake Forest. The 1974 Tar Heels finished 7–5 and lost to Mississippi State in the Sun Bowl. In 1975, North Carolina finished 3–7–1.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Dooley's 1976 team finished 9–3 with a loss to Kentucky in the Peach Bowl and the 1977 team finished 8–3–1 with a loss to Nebraska in the Liberty Bowl. Those teams finished with rankings of No. 14 and No. 17 in the Coaches' and AP Polls, respectively. Dooley departed after the 1977 season to accept a unique opportunity as both the athletics director and head football coach at Virginia Tech. Dooley was the winningest head coach in Carolina football history until he was surpassed by Dick Crum in 1987.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Dick Crum was hired away from Miami (OH) to replace Dooley. Crum brought with him a tough, rigid philosophy of an aggressive offense powered by a strong running game and a defensive scheme that emphasized ball control and fundamentals.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In his first season, Crum led the 1978 Tar Heels to a 5–6 record, which included losses to No. 18 Maryland, No. 9 Pittsburgh and No. 15 Clemson. In 1979, the Tar Heels finished 8–3–1 with a win over Michigan in the Gator Bowl to finish the season. Crum enjoyed his best season at Carolina in 1980, leading the Heels to a record of 11–1, a Bluebonnet Bowl win over Texas and an ACC Championship, Carolina's last to date.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In 1981, the Heels compiled a 10–2 record and finished the season by beating Arkansas in the Gator Bowl. That would be Carolina's last season of double digit wins for 13 years. The next two seasons saw Carolina finish 8–4. After the 1982 season, Carolina upset Texas in the Sun Bowl. The 1979-1982 Carolina teams were the first in the ACC to go to 4 consecutive bowl games, winning all 4. In 1983, they would lose to Florida State in the Peach Bowl.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In 1984, Carolina would finish 5–5–1. They would post another five-win campaign the next year, along with six losses. Carolina would go 7–4–1 with an Aloha Bowl loss to Arizona to end the season in 1986, but Carolina would finish 5–6 in 1987, increasing the unhappiness fans and administration had slowly built over the past few years of mediocrity and inconsistency.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Crum resigned under pressure as Tar Heels head coach after ten seasons. Crum led the Tar Heels to four bowl victories in six bowl appearances. Crum departed as the winningest head coach in Carolina football history, with a 72–41–3 record. Notable players coached by Crum at UNC include Lawrence Taylor, Harris Barton, Kelvin Bryant, Amos Lawrence, Donnell Thompson, Darrell Nicholson, Buddy Curry, Steve Streater, and Reuben Davis.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Mack Brown was hired away from Tulane as Crum's replacement. He was the Tar Heel head coach for ten seasons. Brown's first two teams finished with identical 1–10 records, the worst two seasons that the Tar Heels have suffered on the field in modern times. However, the next two years saw a relatively quick return to respectability. In 1990, the Tar Heels finished 6–4–1. By comparison, the Tar Heels had won only seven games in the previous three years. Included in the 1990 total was a tie of Georgia Tech that proved to be the Yellow Jackets' only non-win that season en route to a share of the national championship. In 1991, the Tar Heels finished 7–4, narrowly missing a bowl bid.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Everything came together for the Tar Heels in 1992. They finished 8–3 in the regular season, good enough for second in the Atlantic Coast Conference, and capped the season with a victory over Mississippi State in the Peach Bowl, they finished the season at 9–3. The Peach Bowl was the program's first bowl appearance since 1986, first bowl win since 1982, and first appearance in a final Top 25 poll since 1982. That season was the start of UNC's most successful period since the Charlie Justice era in the late 1940s. Brown coached the Tar Heels to five consecutive bowl games, including UNC's only two New Year's Day bowl games in more than half a century (or three, if one counts the 1992–93 Peach Bowl, which was played the day after New Year's to avoid a conflict with the Sugar Bowl). The Tar Heels were ranked in the AP Top 25 every week from October 1992 through the start of the 1995 season. They finished in the final rankings in four out of five years, including two straight appearances in the top 10. Carolina won 10 regular-season games in 1993, only the third time the Tar Heels accomplished the feat, with the only losses coming to No. 1 Florida State, No. 21 Virginia in the regular season and No. 18 Alabama in the Gator Bowl.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In 1994, Brown led the Tar Heels to an 8–4 record with a loss to Texas in the Sun Bowl to cap the year. UNC lost to No. 3 Florida State, No. 25 Virginia, and No. 24 Clemson. Brown's seventh season in 1995 saw the Tar Heels finish 7–5 with a victory over Arkansas in the Carquest Bowl to finish the season. In 1996 and 1997, the Tar Heels finished with 10 and 11 wins, respectively. Brown would leave North Carolina in 1997 for the head coaching position at Texas. Largely due to Florida State joining the league in 1992 and their dominance over the college landscape in the 1990's, Brown was unable to win an ACC title in his first tenure despite leading the team during one of its most prolonged stretches of football success.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Brown's tenure was also known for the rise in popularity in the Tar Heel football program that, while respectable in its own right, was overshadowed by the Tar Heel's national powerhouse men's basketball program. Games at Kenan Memorial Stadium were almost always sold out, highlighted by the 62,000 that showed to watch the Tar Heels' "Judgement Day" game against Florida State in 1997, the largest crowd at a regular season college football game in the history of the state of North Carolina. Brown also led an effort that resulted in the upgrading of UNC's football facilities and the expansion of Kenan Memorial Stadium. Notable players who played for Brown in his first stint at North Carolina include Jeff Saturday, Greg Ellis and Dré Bly.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Carl Torbush was promoted from defensive coordinator to head coach of the UNC Tar Heels football program following Brown's departure. Torbush's hiring was praised by many UNC fans and alums, who felt Torbush's performance as defensive coordinator was superb and that an in-program hire was the best way to maintain the momentum generated by Mack Brown.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Despite the loss of most of the team's defensive stars of the last three years, the Tar Heels were expected to pick up right where they left off in 1998. However, they never really recovered from an unexpected loss to Miami (Ohio) to open the 1998 season, during which Carolina went 6-5 and barely managed to qualify for a bowl appearance. Torbush led the Tar Heels to the Las Vegas Bowl, where they defeated San Diego State by a score of 20–13. The next year was an unmitigated disaster. The team was riddled with injuries, the most devastating one occurring when quarterback Ronald Curry tore his Achilles tendon. The Tar Heels were so thin at quarterback that they were forced to convert safety Antwon Black to quarterback, but he was lost after two games to mononucleosis. After starting the season 1–1, the Tar Heels didn't win another game until beating North Carolina State in November. They finished 3–8, UNC's first losing season since Mack Brown's two consecutive 1–10 seasons in 1988 and 1989. School officials actually planned to fire him after the season, but an outpouring of support from players and fans led to a change of heart. He was, however, forced to fire several members of his staff, including offensive coordinator Steve Marshall, who had been criticized for being too conservative in his play calling.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: The Tar Heels rebounded to finish 6–5 in 2000, but it wasn't enough to save Torbush's job; he was fired at the end of the season. Torbush left Carolina with a record of 17–18. Notable players who played for Torbush at UNC are Julius Peppers, Alge Crumpler and Jeff Reed.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: John Bunting was hired by his alma mater as the Tar Heels head coach after the firing of Torbush despite no FBS coaching experience of any kind, assistant coaching or head coaching.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In his first season, Bunting led the Tar Heels to an 8–5 record, which included a win over Florida State 41–9. It was the Tar Heels' first win over a team ranked in the top 10 of a major media poll; the Seminoles were ranked sixth in the AP Poll at the time. They closed the season with a victory over Auburn in the 2001 Peach Bowl. However, his teams since were highly inconsistent. In 2002, Bunting's Tar Heels finished 3–9. That was followed by a 2–10 campaign in 2003. In 2004, the Tar Heels finished 6–6. UNC defeated Miami 31–28 on a last-second field goal by Connor Barth during the 2004 season; the Hurricanes were ranked fourth at the time in the AP poll. The Tar Heels capped the 2004 season with a loss in the Continental Tire Bowl to Boston College by a score of 37–24.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In 2005, North Carolina finished 5–6. The team was routed during the 2005 season 69-14 by Louisville, one of the worst losses in modern Tar Heel history. During his final season (2006), his team had a record of 3–9, while averaging over 23 fewer points per game than their opponents.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Bunting was fired by UNC athletics director Dick Baddour on October 22, 2006. He was allowed to finish out the 2006 season. Bunting's last home victory on November 18, 2006, against NC State, broke a seven-game losing streak, and he was able to close out his career one week later with a 45–44 win over Duke. Bunting compiled an overall record of 27–45 over six seasons.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Former Cleveland Browns and Miami head football coach Butch Davis was hired as the Tar Heels 32nd head football coach in late 2006. Davis was a big-name coach whose hiring was praised nationwide. Davis originally signed a seven-year deal worth approximately $1.86 million per season, with a base salary of $286,000. Additionally, he received $25,000 a year in expenses and a supplement from the Educational Foundation (Ram's Club) that ranged from $1 million in 2007 to $1.3 million in 2013. Davis took over a program that had seen three winning seasons in the past eight years and had won more than six games in a season two other times.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: During his first season as head coach, the 2007 Tar Heels finished 4–8, with six of those losses coming by a touchdown or less and two coming against teams ranked in the top 15 at the time. Despite a losing record in 2007, North Carolina fans averaged over 57,000 fans in Kenan Stadium during the season, the highest average attendance since the Mack Brown era. The 2007 match-up against South Carolina saw a crowd of 61,000, the second-largest in school history. During the season, suspicion mounted that Davis would leave UNC after his first year if the head coaching job at his alma mater, Arkansas, opened up. The rumors grew louder when Houston Nutt was forced to resign at Arkansas, but Davis denied he was leaving. On November 21, 2007, Davis agreed to a one-year contract extension, along with a raise of about $291,000 annually. Davis said in a statement that one year at UNC convinced him that this was where he wanted to be, and that he intended to have "a long and successful career in Chapel Hill." Athletics director Dick Baddour said he could not release all the details of the contract until it was approved by the school's board of trustees, but did say the base salary would rise $29,000, the expenses would go up $5,000, and Davis’ supplemental income would go up $100,000.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: 2008 North Carolina Tar Heels football team were expected to be much improved from the previous year, with most outlets picking them to finish second in the Coastal Division. In their second game of the season they routed the Rutgers Scarlet Knights on the road 44–12. This was their first victory outside the state of North Carolina since 2002. On October 4, the Heels defeated the then 24th-ranked Connecticut Huskies 38–12 for their first victory over a ranked non-conference opponent in 11 years. As a result, the Tar Heels were ranked 22nd in the weekly Associated Press rankings, their first appearance in a major poll in seven years. The following Saturday, the Tar Heels defeated the Notre Dame Fighting Irish, their first regular-season win as a ranked team in 11 years. A crowd of 60,500, third-largest in school history, watched the Tar Heels play the Fighting Irish. A 16–13 overtime loss at Virginia on October 18 briefly knocked the Heels out of the rankings, but after a 45–24 victory over Boston College on October 25, the team became bowl-eligible for the first time since 2004. The win also resulted in the team being ranked in the Bowl Championship Series rankings for the first time since the BCS began in 1998. A week later, they defeated Georgia Tech to clinch their first winning season since 2001, and only their fourth since Brown left the school after the 1997 season. The Tar Heels lost three of their last four games, including a loss in the Meineke Car Care Bowl to West Virginia.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Davis led the 2009 Tar Heels to another 8–4 regular season record and a second straight bowl appearance, the first time since the 1997–1998 seasons that UNC had made consecutive bowl appearances. A loss to North Carolina State in the final game of the season sent them back to the Meineke Car Care Bowl. UNC faced the Pittsburgh Panthers on December 26, 2009, and lost for the second straight year, giving UNC another 8–5 final record. Additionally, Davis led Carolina football to its 6th consecutive year of graduating more than 75% of its football players. The America Football Coaches Association recognized fewer than 30 public universities for superior graduation rates that year, with UNC the only such institution in the state of North Carolina and the Atlantic Coast Conference.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In July 2010, the NCAA began investigating violations involving improper benefits provided by agents to current players at UNC. In September 2010, the NCAA opened a second prong of its investigation, this time involving possible improper tutor involvement with UNC student-athletes. In response to the investigation, local and national sports columnists called for Davis' termination, but some North Carolina fans still supported the coach. A survey of UNC fans reflected strong support for Coach Davis despite the ongoing investigation.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Thirteen UNC football players were suspended for the team's season opener in Atlanta against LSU, and the Tar Heels lost the game 30–24. The Tar Heels later lost to ACC rivals Miami, Georgia Tech, Virginia Tech, and NC State, but won their first game since 1981 in Virginia's Scott Stadium and gained their first win ever in FSU's Doak Campbell Stadium. In October 2010, wide receiver Greg Little, defensive tackle Marvin Austin, and defensive end Robert Quinn were ruled permanently ineligible after it was discovered they improperly accepted gifts from sports agents. Five other players were found guilty of accepting improper benefits and/or inappropriate academic assistance.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: On July 27, 2011, Davis was fired by UNC chancellor Holden Thorp amid an NCAA investigation of academic misconduct and allegations players receiving improper benefits from agents. Davis left Carolina after compiling a 28–23 record. Thorp said the move was necessary to restore confidence in UNC's integrity. On September 19, 2011, in response to an NCAA notice of allegations, Davis was never mentioned in the NCAA inquiry and had no involvement in the investigation. North Carolina subsequently vacated all of its wins from the 2008 and 2009 seasons after retroactively declaring Austin, Quinn and Little ineligible. As a result, these are "officially" North Carolina's only winless seasons in the modern era.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In 2013, Davis told CBS Sports' Bruce Feldman that he believed his firing was an "overreaction" by Thorp, in the belief that "if he released me, maybe the investigation of the football program would go in a different direction." Around the same time, Baddour told Feldman that firing Davis "was not my recommendation." Baddour added that Thorp was well aware that he wanted Davis to remain as coach.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: In July 2010, it was reported that the program was being investigated by the NCAA due to possible connections with sport agents. The football program was also under investigation for academic fraud and a failure to properly monitor players, which the NCAA found to be true. Seven players from the UNC football program, including starters and once top recruits Greg Little and Marvin Austin, were reported to have accepted more than $27,000 in impermissible benefits in 2009 and 2010. Following an NCAA investigation into misconduct, in July 2011, head coach Butch Davis was fired and replaced by interim coach Everett Withers. Also, in September 2011, the program decided to vacate all its wins from the 2008 and 2009 seasons, reduce its scholarship athletes by 3, begin serving two years of probation, and pay a $50,000 fine. The NCAA later increased the penalties to a reduction of athletic scholarships by 15, three years of probation, and a post-season ban of one year.


title: North Carolina Tar Heels football

text: Everett Withers was promoted from defensive coordinator to 33rd head coach of the Tar Heels football program for the 2011 season following Butch Davis' dismissal. Withers was the first African American head coach in Tar Heels football history.