title: Godflesh

text: Following a number of tours in support of "A World Lit Only by Fire" and a failed attempt at an "In Dub" remix release with Parsons providing additional drumming, Godflesh returned to the studio in 2016 for a new album. "Post Self", the band's eighth studio album, was released on 17 November 2017, shortly after another performance of "Streetcleaner" in its entirety. Unlike "A World Lit Only by Fire" focus on making a bombastic comeback, "Post Self" proved more introspective and moody. Most of the traditional metal riffs were dropped in favour of atmosphere, noise and experimentation. "Post Self" received similar high praise as its predecessor, and both appeared on several publications' year-end lists. After the release of "Post Self", Broadrick avoided interviews, hoping to give listeners time to form their own opinions on the music and to retain some of the album's "mystique". Godflesh embarked on a few brief tours and played scattered festivals, including the 2018 edition of Roadburn where they performed all of "Selfless" live for the first time. Broadrick spent a month reprogramming the album's percussion from scratch since the original drum parts no longer existed. In an interview with French magazine "New Noise", Broadrick said that "Selfless" was the last Godflesh album he wanted to play in its entirety.


title: Godflesh

text: In July 2021, Godflesh announced a compilation album entitled "Long Live the New Flesh", which featured almost all of the band's studio material released since reformation in 2010. A shortened digital edition, "New Flesh in Dub Vol 1", comprising most of Godflesh's reformation-era remixes alongside two otherwise unreleased tracks from the "Post Self" sessions, was released ahead of the full compilation.


title: Godflesh

text: In January 2022, Broadrick confirmed that a new Godflesh album was being demoed for release later that year and that two live albums documenting the performances of "Pure" and "Selfless" at Roadburn 2013 and 2018 were forthcoming. The former of the pair, titled "Pure : Live", was released on 2 November 2022.


title: Godflesh

text: Drawing inspiration from early industrial and noise groups such as Throbbing Gristle and Whitehouse, as well as from ambient musician Brian Eno, noise rock band Swans, post-punk innovators Killing Joke and also Siouxsie and the Banshees and Public Image Ltd., fellow Birmingham heavy metal band Black Sabbath and a wide range of hip hop artists such as Public Enemy, Eric B. & Rakim and Run-DMC, Godflesh were among the pioneers of both industrial metal and post-metal and are considered a significant experimental metal and extreme metal band. Broadrick and Green have both distanced themselves from the industrial metal title, though they concede that the label is accurate on a literal level. They consider Godflesh to be a continuation of post-punk, specifically in regard to furthering Killing Joke's sound. When asked in 2005 how he felt about being one of industrial metal's founders, Broadrick said, "I think I accidentally formed this genre. I don't even really know what this genre is; I just make music." He expanded upon this statement in 2018 by calling the term industrial metal "limiting".


title: Godflesh

text: Godflesh's sound is characterised by a combination of programmed drum machine beats, percussive bass and distorted heavy metal guitar. Though the band would later employ human drumming for "Songs of Love and Hate" and "Hymns" in 1996 and 2001 respectively (a decision that Broadrick believed compromised the group's musical identity), Godflesh's early sound was dominated by artificial, stiff drum loops and an uncommon focus on bass. On those early influential releases, the rhythms, synths and samples were credited to "Machine" or "Machines" despite being done by Broadrick. Initially, the employment of mechanical percussion was done out of necessity. When Broadrick rejoined Fall of Because with Green to form Godflesh, the beats he desired were too difficult to play acoustically, so he instead used an Alesis HR-16 drum machine; this decision would prove defining for both Godflesh and for industrial metal at large. Godflesh's writing and recording process is guided by Broadrick and generally happens without the aid of a professional studio or producer. According to Broadrick, "50% of the Godflesh material was often born from rhythms and grooves", and he called the hands-on recording process "primitive". About the band's tuning, Green said in a 1997 interview, "We would just tune down as low as we could. We couldn't hear anything! But eventually we had to pick a pitch to tune to, so we chose C-sharp. It's low and heavy, but you can still make out the notes."


title: Godflesh

text: Mike Patton of bands Faith No More and Mr. Bungle was a fan of Godflesh's sound, calling them "ridiculously heavy" and "one of the few bands that can make you wonder whether or not your batteries are running out on your stereo." Patton invited Broadrick to join Faith No More as guitarist after Jim Martin left the band in 1993. He was also asked to join Danzig shortly after Godflesh toured the U.S. with them and Type O Negative in 1994. In both instances, Broadrick declined the offer in favour of continuing to reside in the United Kingdom and work on his own music. Other artists such as Metallica, Fear Factory, Korn, Isis, Neurosis, Pelican, Prurient, Helmet, Prong, Nailbomb, Code Orange, Mortiis, Devin Townsend and Converge were inspired by Godflesh, and in 2014 MetalSucks wrote, "Everyone from Nine Inch Nails to Fear Factory to Batillus probably owes these dudes a couple of checks". Despite acclaim among critics and fellow musicians, Godflesh have only experienced minimal commercial success; in 2002, shortly before the band dissolved, Broadrick said he had no illusions about selling out stadiums. The goal of Godflesh, according to him, was simply to put out good albums.


title: Godflesh

text: Being interested in horror and art house cinema, both Broadrick and Green incorporated many references to such films in Godflesh. The image on the front of 1988's "Godflesh" EP is a still from the 1966 John Frankenheimer film "Seconds". "Streetcleaner" cover is an image from the movie "Altered States", a 1980 horror film by director Ken Russell, and the album's liner notes feature frames from David Lynch's "Eraserhead" (1977). The cover of "Merciless" is derived from the 1943 experimental film "Meshes of the Afternoon", by Maya Deren. Broadrick repeatedly cited another Russell movie, "The Devils" (1971), as an influence of Godflesh's sound. Additionally, Godflesh appeared in the 1995 film "Hideaway"; during one of the movie's club scenes, Broadrick and Green can be seen playing onstage in the background, performing the song "Nihil" from "Cold World".


title: Godflesh

text: Apart from cinema, Christian iconography helped inform Godflesh's visual style. Broadrick, originally anti-religious, found churches and their related imagery intimidating. In a 2006 interview, Broadrick said, "The imagery of religion, the feeling of like when you walk into a cathedral, the huge feeling of intimidation that you get from Christian religion – everything to do with religion I find totally obsessive." Broadrick described the worship setting as "suffocating" and "claustrophobic", saying it played a large role in forming Godflesh's style. The covers of "Streetcleaner", "Songs of Love and Hate", "Love and Hate in Dub" and "A World Lit Only by Fire" showcase such Christian imagery, as do Godflesh's live performances.


title: Godflesh

text: Early Godflesh vocals came in the form of screaming and death growls, and lyrics were scarce. Over time, Broadrick's delivery expanded to include singing, softness and moments of melody, all things that he would further explore with Jesu. "Songs of Love and Hate" and "Hymns" saw Godflesh's greatest profusion of vocals, while "A World Lit Only by Fire" and "Post Self" returned to Broadrick's predominantly succinct style. Broadrick's voice has been compared to Killing Joke singer Jaz Coleman's, a self-proclaimed vocal influence in addition to Kelvin Morris from Discharge and Michael Gira's early work with Swans. Godflesh lyrics are cryptic, bleak and generally sparse. Many of Godflesh's themes deal with inner conflict, violence, destruction, corruption, religion, loss, emotional extremes and fear. In 2012, Broadrick stated that singing was "a necessary evil" to him and that he never felt he could do it properly; the role of vocalist came to him simply because he was bold enough to approach the microphone.


title: Godflesh

text: In a 1990 review of the band's self-titled EP, Simon Reynolds of "Melody Maker" noted that Godflesh's music rebelled against the overt masculinity found in most metal; he wrote, "Rather than feminise themselves, they'd rather their masculinity was defeated, their strong bodies crushed and pulverised". Broadrick echoed this sentiment in the same year, insulting the "celebration of male ego that comes with most metal" and distancing Godflesh from masculine expression; he reinforced his stance in 2012, saying, "Godflesh isn't that all-conquering male thing, on stage with a fucking sword and saying they're going to 'rape and pillage'. Pure comedy." Throughout the group's career, Broadrick continued to emphasise the defensive quality of the music over its offensive quality, citing aggression as a shield against the traumas of the world.


title: Godflesh

text: Broadrick has taken significant lyrical and thematic inspiration from Leonard Cohen. Both artists have an album titled "Songs of Love and Hate", and the Godflesh track "Avalanche Master Song" combines two Cohen song titles. In the song "Mothra" (from "Pure"), Godflesh borrows the lyrics "Your pain is no credential here / It's just the shadow of my wound" from the song "Avalanche" on the aforementioned Cohen album.


title: Godflesh

text: Godflesh typically perform as a duo, with Green playing bass and Broadrick providing both guitar and vocals while the percussion is relayed over the speakers, often at a notably high volume. This lineup, however, has not been constant over the band's career. In concerts supporting "Streetcleaner", Neville occasionally came onstage and played second guitar, and Hampson did the same for "Pure". For the tours in support of "Selfless", "Songs of Love and Hate" and "Hymns", the band played with a live drummer, though Broadrick believed this incorporation to be a misstep. In a 2014 interview, he clarified that the percussive additions of Mantia and Parsons brought "something amazing" to Godflesh, but that the band's name should have changed so as to not dilute the original focus on machine drums. A handful of other musicians (namely, Mick Harris in 1991; Diarmuid Dalton in 1997, 1999 and 2001; Steve Hough in 1997 and 1999 and both Paul Raven and Jaz Coleman of Killing Joke in 2002) have briefly performed with Godflesh.


title: Godflesh

text: The band's stage show is, like their music, minimal and focused. Godflesh only occasionally employ a smoke machine, and the lights are generally static; Toby Cook of "The Quietus" highlighted this unusual approach in a review of a 2014 concert, writing, "Over-lit and with no dry ice in sight, they look alarmingly exposed". Images of industrial urban sprawls, Christian iconography and apocalyptic landscapes cycle through the projector. The music itself is presented as noisy and overwhelming, with some critics calling the sound even more cacophonous and dissonant than the band's studio work. Gaps between songs are normally filled with feedback, and the band rarely speak to the crowd. In response to a question about Godflesh's laconic stage presence, Broadrick said, "I don't communicate with people. We just make music. We come on stage and I don't say anything to anyone. And that alone made people really mad. I find it really bizarre. I can't believe that people would disown a band because I'm not telling them how much I'm going to kick their asses tonight."


title: Godflesh

text: In a 2011 interview, Broadrick called playing live "a necessary evil" that is "so rarely right and so frequently wrong", but at the same time said that Godflesh "is probably even more so a live band than it is a recorded band" because those imperfections only work to accentuate the grinding chaos of the music (which is something that critics have noticed, too). Broadrick went on to say that it was the "rage" of Godflesh that made it work in a live setting.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The diaphragm is a barrier method of birth control. It is moderately effective, with a one-year failure rate of around 12% with typical use. It is placed over the cervix with spermicide before sex and left in place for at least six hours after sex. Fitting by a healthcare provider is generally required.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Side effects are usually very few. Use may increase the risk of bacterial vaginosis and urinary tract infections. If left in the vagina for more than 24 hours toxic shock syndrome may occur. While use may decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections, it is not very effective at doing so. There are a number of types of diaphragms with different rim and spring designs. They may be made from latex, silicone, or natural rubber. They work by blocking access to and holding spermicide near the cervix.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The diaphragm came into use around 1882. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Before inserting or removing a diaphragm, one's hands should be washed to avoid introducing harmful bacteria into the vaginal canal.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The rim of a diaphragm is squeezed into an oval or arc shape for insertion. A water-based lubricant (usually spermicide) may be applied to the rim of the diaphragm to aid insertion. One teaspoon (5 mL) of spermicide may be placed in the dome of the diaphragm before insertion, or with an applicator after insertion.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The diaphragm must be inserted sometime before sexual intercourse, and remain in the vagina for 6 to 8 hours after a man's last ejaculation. For multiple acts of intercourse, it is recommended that an additional 5 mL of spermicide be inserted into the vagina (not into the dome—the seal of the diaphragm should not be broken) before each act. Upon removal, a diaphragm should be cleansed with mild soap and warm water before storage. The diaphragm must be removed for cleaning at least once every 24 hours and can be re-inserted immediately.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Oil-based products should not be used with latex diaphragms. Lubricants or vaginal medications that contain oil will cause the latex to rapidly degrade and greatly increases the chances of the diaphragm breaking or tearing.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Natural latex rubber will degrade over time. Depending on usage and storage conditions, a latex diaphragm should be replaced every one to three years. Silicone diaphragms may last much longer—up to ten years.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The effectiveness of diaphragms, as of most forms of contraception, can be assessed two ways: "method effectiveness" and "actual effectiveness". The method effectiveness is the proportion of couples correctly and consistently using the method who do not become pregnant. Actual effectiveness is the proportion of couples who intended that method as their sole form of birth control and do not become pregnant; it includes couples who sometimes use the method incorrectly, or sometimes not at all. Rates are generally presented for the first year of use. Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates, but some studies use decrement tables.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: For all forms of contraception, actual effectiveness is lower than method effectiveness, due to several factors:


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: For instance, someone using a diaphragm might be fitted incorrectly by a health care provider, or by mistake remove the diaphragm too soon after intercourse, or simply choose to have intercourse without placing the diaphragm.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: "Contraceptive Technology" reports that the method failure rate of the diaphragm with spermicide is 6% per year.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The actual pregnancy rates among diaphragm users vary depending on the population being studied, with yearly rates of 10% to 39% being reported.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Unlike some other cervical barriers, the effectiveness of the diaphragm is the same for women who have given birth as for those who have not.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The diaphragm does not interfere with a woman's menstrual cycle, therefore, no reversal or wait time is necessary if contraception is no longer wanted or needed.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The diaphragm only has to be used during intercourse. Many women, especially those who have sex less frequently, prefer barrier contraception such as the diaphragm over methods that require some action every day.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Like all cervical barriers, diaphragms may be inserted several hours before use, allowing uninterrupted foreplay and intercourse. Most couples find that neither partner can feel the diaphragm during intercourse.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: There is some evidence that the cells in the cervix are particularly susceptible to certain sexually transmitted infections (STIs). Cervical barriers such as diaphragms may offer some protection against these infections. However, research conducted to test whether the diaphragm offers protection from HIV found that women provided with both male condoms and a diaphragm experienced the same rate of HIV infection as women provided with male condoms alone.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Because pelvic inflammatory disease (PID) is caused by certain STIs, diaphragms may lower the risk of PID. Cervical barriers may also protect against human papillomavirus (HPV), the virus that causes cervical cancer, although the protection appears to be due to the spermicide used with diaphragms and not the barrier itself.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Diaphragms are also considered a good candidate as a delivery method for microbicides (preparations that, used vaginally, protect against STIs) that are currently in development.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Diaphragms are associated with an increased risk of urinary tract infection (UTI) Urinating before inserting the diaphragm, and also after intercourse, may reduce this risk.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Toxic shock syndrome (TSS) occurs at a rate of 2.4 cases per 100,000 women using diaphragms, almost exclusively when the device is left in place longer than 24 hours.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The increase in risk of UTIs may be due to the diaphragm applying pressure to the urethra, especially if the diaphragm is too large, and causing irritation and preventing the bladder from emptying fully. However, the spermicide nonoxynol-9 is itself associated with increased risk of UTI, yeast infection, and bacterial vaginosis. For this reason, some advocate use of lactic acid or lemon juice based spermicides, which might have fewer side effects.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: It has also been suggested that, for women who experience side effects from nonoxynol-9, it may be acceptable to use the diaphragm without any spermicide. One study found an actual pregnancy rate of 24% per year in women using the diaphragm without spermicide; however, all women in this study were given a 60 mm diaphragm rather than being fitted by a clinician. Other studies have been small and given conflicting results. The current recommendation is still for all diaphragm users to use spermicide with the device.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: In the early 1920s, Marie Stopes claimed that when wearing a diaphragm, the vagina is stretched such that certain movements made by the woman for the benefit of the man were restricted by the diaphragm spring. In later years there was some discussion of this, with two authors supporting this concept and one opposed. One of them argued in the later 1920s-1930s that while the muscle movement by women is restricted it does not make all that much difference since most "women (in the 1920s) are not able to operate their pelvic muscles voluntarily to the best advantage" (during sex). However, Stopes anticipated this rebuttal, and in so many words classified it as a lame excuse.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Diaphragms are available in diameters of 50 mm to 105mm (about 2–4 inches). They are available in two different materials: latex and silicone. Diaphragms are also available with different types of springs in the rim.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: An "arcing spring" folds into an arc shape when the sides are compressed. This is the strongest type of rim available in a diaphragm, and may be used by women with any level of vaginal tone. Unlike other spring types, arcing springs may be used by women with mild cystocele, rectocele, or retroversion. Arcing spring diaphragms may be easier to insert correctly than other spring types.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: A "coil spring" flattens into an oval shape when the sides are compressed. This rim is not as strong as the arcing spring, and may only be used by women with average or firm vaginal tone. If an arcing spring diaphragm is uncomfortable for a woman or, during intercourse, her partner, a coil spring may prove more satisfactory. Unlike the arcing spring diaphragms, coil springs may be inserted with a device called an introducer.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: A "flat spring" is much like a coil spring, but thinner. This type of rim may only be used by women with firm vaginal tone. Flat spring diaphragms may also be inserted with an introducer for women uncomfortable using their hands. Ortho used to manufacture a flat-spring diaphragm called the Ortho White. Reflexions also manufactured a flat-spring diaphragm up until 2014.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: There are a number of variations. The SILCS diaphragm is made of silicone, has an arcing spring, and a finger cup is molded on one end for easy removal. The Duet disposable diaphragm is made of dipped polyurethane, pre-filled with BufferGel (BufferGel is currently in clinical trials as a spermicide and microbicide). Both the SILCS and Duet diaphragms come in only one size.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Diaphragms usually come in different sizes and require a fitting appointment with a health care professional to determine which size a woman should wear. Single size diaphragms that do not require fitting also exist.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: A correctly fitting diaphragm will cover the cervix and rest snugly against the pubic bone. A diaphragm that is too small might fit inside the vagina without covering the cervix, or might become dislodged from the cervix during intercourse or bowel movements. It is also more likely that a woman's partner will feel the anterior rim of a diaphragm that is too small during intercourse. A diaphragm that is too large will place pressure on the urethra, preventing the bladder from emptying completely and increasing the risk of urinary tract infection. A diaphragm that is too large may also cause a sore to develop on the vaginal wall.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Diaphragms should be re-fitted after a weight change of 4.5 kg (10 lb) or more. The traditional clinical guideline is that a decrease in weight may cause a woman to need a larger size, although the strength of this relationship has been questioned.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Diaphragms should also be re-fitted after any pregnancy of 14 weeks or longer. Full-term vaginal delivery especially will tend to increase the size diaphragm a woman needs, although the changes to the pelvic floor during pregnancy mean even women who experience second-trimester miscarriage, or deliver by C-section, should be refitted.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: "Vaginal tenting", an increase in the length of the vagina, occurs during arousal. This means that during intercourse, the diaphragm will not fit snugly against the pubic bone because it is carried higher up the vaginal canal by the movement of the cervix. If the diaphragm is inserted after arousal has begun, extra care must be taken to ensure the device is covering the cervix.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: A woman might be fitted with a different size diaphragm depending on where she is in her menstrual cycle. It is common for a woman to wear a larger diaphragm during menstruation. It has been speculated that a woman may be fitted with a larger size diaphragm when she is near ovulation. The correct size for a woman is the largest size that she can wear comfortably throughout her cycle.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: In the United States, diaphragms are available by prescription only. Many other countries do not require prescriptions.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The spring in the rim of the diaphragm forms a seal against the vaginal walls. The diaphragm covers the cervix, and physically prevents sperm from entering the uterus through the os.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Traditionally, the diaphragm has been used with spermicide, and it is widely believed the spermicide significantly increases the effectiveness of the diaphragm. Insufficient studies have been conducted to determine effectiveness without spermicide.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: It is widely taught that additional spermicide must be placed in the vagina if intercourse occurs more than six hours after insertion. However, there has been very little research on how long spermicide remains active within the diaphragm. One study found that spermicidal jelly and creme used in a diaphragm retained its full spermicidal activity for twelve hours after placement of the diaphragm.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: It has long been recommended that the diaphragm be left in place for at least six or eight hours after intercourse. No studies have been done to determine the validity of this recommendation, however, and some medical professionals have suggested intervals of four hours or even two hours are sufficient to ensure efficacy. One manufacturer of contraceptive sponges recommends leaving the sponge in place for only two hours after intercourse. However, such use of the diaphragm (removal before 6 hours post-intercourse) has never been formally studied, and cannot be recommended.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: It has been suggested that diaphragms be dispensed as a one-size-fits-all device, providing all women with the most common size (70 mm). However, only 33% of women fitted for a diaphragm are prescribed a 70 mm size, and correct sizing of the diaphragm is widely considered necessary.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The idea of blocking the cervix to prevent pregnancy is thousands of years old. Various cultures have used cervix-shaped devices such as oiled paper cones or lemon halves, or have made sticky mixtures that include honey or cedar resin to be applied to the cervical opening. However, the diaphragm—which stays in place because of the spring in its rim, rather than hooking over the cervix or being sticky—is of more recent origin.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: An important precursor to the invention of the diaphragm was the rubber vulcanization process, patented by Charles Goodyear in 1844. In the 1880s, a German gynecologist, Wilhelm P. J. Mensinga, published the first description of a rubber contraceptive device with a spring molded into the rim. Mensinga wrote first under the pseudonym C. Hasse, and the Mensinga diaphragm was the only brand available for many decades. In the United States, the physician Edward Bliss Foote designed and sold an early form of occlusive pessary under the name "womb veil" starting in the 1860s.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: American birth control activist Margaret Sanger fled to Europe in 1914 to escape prosecution under the Comstock laws, which prohibited sending contraceptive devices, or information about contraception, through the mail. Sanger learned about the diaphragm in the Netherlands and introduced the product to the United States when she returned in 1916. Sanger and her second husband, Noah Slee, illegally imported large quantities of the devices from Germany and the Netherlands. In 1925, Slee provided funding to Sanger's friend Herbert Simonds, who used the funds to found the first diaphragm manufacturing company in the U.S., the Holland-Rantos Company.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Diaphragms played a role in overturning the federal Comstock Act. In 1932, Sanger arranged for a Japanese manufacturer to mail a package of diaphragms to a New York physician who supported Sanger's activism. U.S. customs confiscated the package, and Sanger helped file a lawsuit. In 1936, in the court case "United States v. One Package of Japanese Pessaries", a federal appellate court ruled that the package could be delivered.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: Although in Europe, the cervical cap was more popular than the diaphragm, the diaphragm became one of the most widely used contraceptives in the United States. In 1940, one-third of all U.S. married couples used a diaphragm for contraception. The number of women using diaphragms dropped dramatically after the 1960s introduction of the intrauterine device and the combined oral contraceptive pill. In 1965, only 10% of U.S. married couples used a diaphragm for contraception. That number has continued to fall, and in 2002 only 0.2% of American women were using a diaphragm as their primary method of contraception.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: In 2014 Janssen Pharmaceuticals announced the discontinuation of the Ortho-All Flex Diaphragm, making it very difficult for women in the US to have that option as a birth-control method.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: The single-sized, silicone diaphragm was developed by PATH during the late 2000s. It was licensed to Kessel Marketing & Vertriebs GmbH of Frankfurt, Germany, which began to market it as the Caya Diaphragm. The diaphragm was approved for contraception in Europe in 2013 and in the United States the following year. Since then, Kessel has also developed a traditionally circular, multi-sized diaphragm made from the same materials that they released in Germany in 2020 under the name Singa.


title: Diaphragm (birth control)

text: In the United Kingdom they cost the National Health Service less than £10 each. In the United States they cost about US$15 to $75 and are the birth control method of 0.3% of women. These costs do not include that of spermicide.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The Scaled Composites Model 339 SpaceShipTwo (SS2) is an air-launched suborbital spaceplane type designed for space tourism. It is manufactured by The Spaceship Company, a California-based company owned by Virgin Galactic.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: SpaceShipTwo is carried to its launch altitude by a Scaled Composites White Knight Two, before being released to fly on into the upper atmosphere powered by its rocket engine. It then glides back to Earth and performs a conventional runway landing. The spaceship was officially unveiled to the public on 7 December 2009 at the Mojave Air and Space Port in California. On 29 April 2013, after nearly three years of unpowered testing, the first one constructed successfully performed its first powered test flight.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: Virgin Galactic plans to operate a fleet of five SpaceShipTwo spaceplanes in a private passenger-carrying service and has been taking bookings for some time, with a suborbital flight carrying an updated ticket price of US$250,000. The spaceplane could also be used to carry scientific payloads for NASA and other organizations.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: On 31 October 2014, during a test flight, the first SpaceShipTwo VSS "Enterprise" broke up in flight and crashed in the Mojave desert. A preliminary investigation suggested that the craft's descent device deployed too early. One pilot, Michael Alsbury, was killed; the other was treated for a serious shoulder injury after parachuting from the stricken spacecraft.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The second SpaceShipTwo spacecraft, VSS "Unity", was unveiled on 19 February 2016. The vehicle is undergoing flight testing. Its first flight to space (above 50 miles altitude), VSS "Unity" VP03, took place on 13 December 2018.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The SpaceShipTwo project is based in part on technology developed for the first-generation SpaceShipOne, which was part of the Scaled Composites Tier One program, funded by Paul Allen. The Spaceship Company licenses this technology from Mojave Aerospace Ventures, a joint venture of Paul Allen and Burt Rutan, the designer of the predecessor technology.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: SpaceShipTwo is a low-aspect-ratio passenger spaceplane. Its capacity will be eight people — six passengers and two pilots. The apogee of the new craft was designed to be approximately in the lower thermosphere, higher than the Kármán line but as of July 2021, the maximum height reached was 89.9 km. The predecessor craft, SpaceShipOne's target was also 100 km but the last flight reached an altitude of . SpaceShipTwo was designed to reach , using a single hybrid rocket engine — the RocketMotorTwo. It launches from its mother ship, White Knight Two, at an altitude of , and reaches supersonic speed within 8 seconds. After 70 seconds, the rocket engine cuts out and the spacecraft will coast to its peak altitude. SpaceShipTwo's crew cabin is long and in diameter. The wing span is , the length is and the tail height is .


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: SpaceShipTwo uses a feathered reentry system, feasible due to the low speed of reentry. In contrast, orbital spacecraft re-enter at orbital speeds, close to , using heat shields. SpaceShipTwo is furthermore designed to re-enter the atmosphere at any angle. It will decelerate through the atmosphere, switching to a gliding position at an altitude of , and will take 25 minutes to glide back to the spaceport.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: SpaceShipTwo and White Knight Two are, respectively, roughly twice the size of the first-generation SpaceShipOne and mothership White Knight, which won the Ansari X Prize in 2004. SpaceShipTwo has -diameter windows for the passengers' viewing pleasure, and all seats will recline back during landing to decrease the discomfort of G-forces. In 2008, Burt Rutan remarked on the safety of the vehicle:


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: In September 2011, the safety of SpaceShipTwo's feathered reentry system was tested when the crew briefly lost control of the craft during a gliding test flight. Control was reestablished after the spaceplane entered its feathered configuration, and it landed safely after a 7-minute flight.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: SpaceShipTwo (and the WhiteKnightTwo launcher aircraft) are built by The Spaceship Company, originally formed as a joint venture between Scaled Composites and Virgin Galactic. Virgin Galactic bought out Scaled Composites' interest in TSC in 2012, and TSC is now a wholly owned subsidiary of Virgin Galactic.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The launch customer of SpaceShipTwo is Virgin Galactic, who had publicly announced they had ordered five vehicles, but only three had been ordered by 2015. The first SS2 was named VSS "Enterprise". The "VSS" prefix stands for "Virgin Space Ship". VSS "Enterprise" was the first to fly; it was destroyed in a crash on 31 October 2014. The build of VSS "Unity" was about 65% complete in early November 2014, and Virgin Galactic expected it to be complete in 2015. It was unveiled in February 2016 and performed its first powered flight in April 2018. The third SpaceShipTwo was expected to commence construction by the end of 2015.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: SpaceShipTwo is launched from the WhiteKnightTwo launcher aircraft, which takes off from the Mojave Air and Space Port in California during testing. Spaceport America (formerly Southwest Regional Spaceport), a US$212 million spaceport in New Mexico, partly funded by the state government, will become the permanent launch site when commercial launches begin.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: Two further ships were under construction by 2016. It is unclear whether these are now designated to be SpaceShip III class vehicles.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: On 28 September 2006, Virgin Group founder Sir Richard Branson unveiled a mock-up of the SpaceShipTwo passenger cabin at the NextFest exposition at the Jacob K. Javits Convention Center in New York. The design of the vehicle was revealed to the press in January 2008, with the statement that the vehicle itself was around 60% complete. On 7 December 2009, the official unveiling and rollout of SpaceShipTwo took place. The event involved the first SpaceShipTwo being christened by then - Governor of California Arnold Schwarzenegger as the VSS "Enterprise".


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: On 26 July 2007, an explosion occurred during an oxidizer flow test at the Mojave Air and Space Port, where early-stage tests were being conducted on SpaceShipTwo's systems. The oxidizer test included filling the oxidizer tank with of nitrous oxide, followed by a 15-second cold-flow injector test. Although the tests did not ignite the gas, three employees were killed and three injured by flying shrapnel.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The hybrid rocket engine design for SpaceShipTwo has been problematic and caused extensive delays to the flight test program. The original rocket engine design was based on hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB) fuel and nitrous oxide oxidizer, sometimes referred to as an NO/HTPB engine. It was developed by Scaled Composites subcontractor Sierra Nevada Corporation (SNC) from 2009 to early 2014. In May 2014, Virgin Galactic announced a change to the hybrid engine to be used in SpaceShipTwo, and took the development effort in-house to Virgin Galactic, terminating the contract with Sierra Nevada and halting all development work on the first-generation rocket engine. Virgin then modified the engine design to include a change of the hybrid rocket fuel from a HTPB to a polyamide fuel formulation. In October 2015, Virgin announced that it was considering changing back to the original HTPB fuel.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: Rather than the rubber-based HTPB-fuel engine—engines that had experienced serious engine stability issues on firings longer than approximately 20 seconds — the engine would now be based on a solid fuel composed of a type of plastic called thermoplastic polyamide. The plastic fuel was projected to have better performance (by several unspecified measures) and was projected to allow SpaceShipTwo to make flights to a higher altitude.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: Following a series of rocket engine tests, Virgin announced in October 2015 that they would be changing the rocket motor back to hydroxyl-terminated polybutadiene (HTPB), with a similar formulation as they used earlier in the development program before switching to a nylon-based fuel grain. They will use HTPB to power the SpaceShipTwo when it resumes flight following the loss of the initial SS2 test vehicle in October 2014. Full qualification tests remain to be completed.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The second-generation RocketMotorTwo engine is a variant of the earlier SNC basic design, but is fueled by polyamide plastic fuel, while continuing to use the same nitrous oxide oxidizer. The second-generation engine is now made in-house by Virgin Galactic rather than by SNC. By December 2012, 15 full-scale tests had been successfully conducted, and additional ground tests continued into March 2013. In June 2012, the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) issued a rocket testing permit to Scaled Composites, allowing it to begin SS2 test flights powered by RocketMotorTwo; the first such powered flight took place on 29 April 2013. The engine produces of thrust.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: In September 2012, Virgin Galactic announced that the unpowered subsonic glide flight test program was essentially complete. In October 2012, Scaled Composites installed key components of the rocket engine, and SpaceShipTwo performed its first glide flight with the engine installed in December 2012.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The spacecraft's first powered test flight took place on 29 April 2013. SpaceshipTwo reached supersonic speeds in this first powered flight. On 5 September 2013, the second powered flight was made by SpaceShipTwo. The first powered test flight of 2014 — and third overall — occurred 10 January 2014. The spacecraft reached an altitude of and a speed of . The WhiteKnightTwo carrier aircraft released SpaceShipTwo (VSS "Enterprise") at an altitude of .


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: On 31 October 2014, SpaceShipTwo VSS "Enterprise" suffered an in-flight breakup during a powered flight test, resulting in a crash killing one pilot, Michael Alsbury, and injuring the other. It was coincidentally the first flight to use the new type of fuel, based on nylon plastic grains. The crash was caused by a premature deployment of the feathering mechanism, which is normally used to aid in a safe descent. SpaceShipTwo was still in powered ascent when the feathering mechanism deployed. Disintegration was observed two seconds later.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: , SpaceShipTwo had conducted 54 test flights. The spacecraft had used its "feathered" wing configuration during ten of these test flights.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The National Transportation Safety Board conducted an independent investigation into the accident. In July 2015, the NTSB released a report which cited inadequate design safeguards, poor pilot training, lack of rigorous federal oversight and a potentially anxious co-pilot as important factors in the 2014 crash. While the co-pilot was faulted for prematurely deploying the ship's feathering mechanism, the Federal Aviation Administration, Federal Aviation Administration Office of Commercial Space Transportation, and the ship's designers were also faulted for not creating a fail-safe system that could have guarded against such premature deployment.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: A phase of testing called "Integrated Vehicle Ground Testing" began on VSS "Unity" in February 2016. Between 8 September and 30 November 2016, Virgin Galactic conducted a series of captive-carry flights of "Unity," including planned glide flights (1 and 3 November 2016) for which the glide portion of the flight was cancelled because of wind speed. Glide flights of "Unity" began on 3 December 2016.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: After several glide flights over the preceding months, in July 2017, Richard Branson suggested that the craft was to begin powered tests at three-week intervals. In September 2017, CEO George Whitesides suggested that engine testing was complete, and that only a "small number of glide flights" remained before VSS "Unity" would begin powered tests flights. In October 2017, Branson suggested that SpaceShipTwo could reach space within three months, and that he could travel to space aboard a SpaceShipTwo within six months. A seventh high speed glide test was completed in January 2018. On 13 December 2018, SpaceShipTwo VSS "Unity" reached its highest altitude of . This surpassed the U.S. Government definition of space at but not the standard used elsewhere at . Despite the debate on where outer space begins, Mark Stucky would receive his astronaut wings, while Frederick W. Sturckow would not as he has already flown on the Space Shuttle four times.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: Following a February 2019 spaceflight, VSS "Unity" began to undergo modifications in preparation for commercial service; this includes an upgrading the flight deck and installing a passenger cabin. It was later revealed in 2021 that VSS "Unity" had actually suffered a large crack in its structure during its 2019 spaceflight, requiring repair work to the vehicle. Following its return to service VSS "Unity" made a test flight that included Richard Branson as a passenger on July 11, 2021. During this flight, the vehicle deviated from its planned flight course triggering a Federal Aviation Administration investigation into the issue. While in ascent the vehicle triggered a red warning light which indicated it had deviated from its safe flight path. On 2 September 2021, it was publicly announced that further SpaceShipTwo flight tests would be grounded by FAA mandate until the investigation was completed. The FAA cleared SpaceShipTwo flights to resume later in September, after deciding to expand the restricted aerospace around the vehicle's flight range.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: SpaceShipTwo's total development costs were estimated at around US$400 million in May 2011, a significant increase over the 2007 estimate of US$108 million.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: The duration of the flights will be approximately 2.5 hours, though only a few minutes of that will be in space. The price will initially be US$200,000. More than 65,000 would-be space tourists applied for the first batch of 100 tickets. By December 2007, Virgin Galactic had 200 paid-up customers on its books for the early flights, and 95% were passing the 6-8 g centrifuge tests. That number had increased to 575 by early 2013. In April 2013, Virgin Galactic announced that the price for a seat would increase 25% to $250,000 before the middle of May 2013, and would remain at US$250,000 "until the first 1,000 people have traveled, so that it matches up with inflation since [Virgin Galactic] started".


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: Following 50–100 test flights, the first paying customers were expected to fly aboard the craft in 2014. Refining the projected schedule in late 2009, Virgin Galactic declined to announce a firm timetable for commercial flights, but did reiterate that initial flights would take place from Spaceport America. Operational roll-out will be based on a "safety-driven schedule". In addition to making suborbital passenger launches, Virgin Galactic will market SpaceShipTwo for suborbital space science missions.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: By March 2011, Virgin Galactic had submitted SpaceShipTwo as a reusable launch vehicle for carrying research payloads in response to NASA's suborbital reusable launch vehicle (sRLV) solicitation, which is a part of the agency's Flight Opportunities Program. Virgin projected research flights might reach a peak altitude of . These flights will provide approximately four minutes of microgravity for research payloads. Payload mass and microgravity levels have not yet been specified. Since May 2021, NASA-supported technology and systems have been tested on SpaceShipTwo.


title: SpaceShipTwo

text: In August 2005, the president of Virgin Galactic stated that if the suborbital service with SpaceShipTwo is successful, the follow-up SpaceShipThree would be an orbital craft. In 2008, Virgin Galactic suggested that it may develop a high-speed passenger vehicle to offer transport through point-to-point suborbital spaceflight.


title: Semi-detached

text: A semi-detached house (often abbreviated to semi) is a single family duplex dwelling house that shares one common wall with the next house. The name distinguishes this style of house from detached houses, with no shared walls, and terraced houses, with a shared wall on both sides. Often, semi-detached houses are built in pairs in which each house's layout is a mirror image of the other's.


title: Semi-detached

text: Semi-detached houses are the most common property type in the United Kingdom (UK). They accounted for 32% of UK housing transactions and 32% of the English housing stock in 2008. Between 1945 and 1964, 41% of all properties built were semis. After 1980, the proportion of semis built fell to 15%.


title: Semi-detached

text: Housing for the farm labourer in 1815 typically had one downstairs room with an extension for a scullery and pantry, and two bedrooms upstairs. The house would be of brick, stone if it occurred locally, or cob on a wooden frame. These houses were unsanitary, but the biggest problem was that there were simply too few of them. Population was increasing rapidly (see table), and after the Enclosure Acts labourers could not find spare land to build their own homes. Homebuilding was thus the responsibility of a landowner or speculative builder.


title: Semi-detached

text: In the late 18th century, estate villages followed local architectural styles. This later changed as landowners adopted model designs from pattern books. By the early 19th century, landowners were typically using a "picturesque" style, and building double cottages as a way to reduce cost. In 1834 Smith wrote "this species of cottage can be built cheaper than two single ones, and, in general, these double cottages are found to be warmer and fully as comfortable as single ones".


title: Semi-detached

text: At the same time as the huge increase in the population of the rural counties there was an even greater shift in population from the impoverished land to the large towns and to cities. Society was restructuring, with the labouring classes dividing into artisans and labourers. In the cities, labourers were housed in overcrowded tenement blocks, rookeries and lodging houses, and philanthropic societies aimed to improve conditions. The rural Labourers' Friend Society expanded in 1844 and was reconstituted as the Society for Improving the Condition of the Labouring Classes. In their 1850 publication "The Dwellings of the Labouring Classes", written by Henry Roberts, the society laid out plans for model 'semi-detached' cottages for workers in towns and the city. However, the first properties they built were tenements and lodging houses.


title: Semi-detached

text: In 1866 the Metropolitan Association for Improving the Dwellings of the Industrious Classes built Alexander Cottages at Beckenham in Kent, on land provided by the Duke of Westminster. The development initially comprised 16 pairs of semis. By 1868, they had built 164 semis.


title: Semi-detached

text: In Birmingham, Wolverhampton and the Potteries there was a tradition dating from the 1790s of artisans saving through mutual funds and Friendly Societies. In the 1840s, the permanent building society model was adopted. The Woolwich Equitable was founded in 1847, the Leeds Permanent in 1848 and Bradford Equitable in 1851. Artisans could invest and then borrow a sum for a mortgage on their own property.


title: Semi-detached

text: In the wool towns of Yorkshire three families built villages for their workers. In each, there was a hierarchy of houses: long terraces for the workers, larger houses in shorter terraces for the overlookers, semi-detached houses for the junior managers, and detached houses for the elite. The first such village was built by Colonel Edward Ackroyd, at Copley, West Yorkshire, between 1849 and 1853, the second by Sir Titus Salt at Saltaire (1851–1861), and the third was the West Hill Park Estate in Halifax built by John Crossley. Model villages in Lancashire followed, with developments like Houldsworth Village. Semi-detached housing in colliery villages was rare; status here was determined by the length of the terrace.


title: Semi-detached

text: The development of Port Sunlight and Bournville was important. The Port Sunlight model village was begun in 1887. William Lever used architects William Owen and his son Segar Owen and stated in 1888 that:


title: Semi-detached

text: It is my and my brother's hope, some day, to build houses in which our work-people will be able to live and be comfortable – semi-detached houses with gardens back and front, in which they will be able to know more about the science of life than they can in a back-to-back slum.


title: Semi-detached

text: At Bournville in 1879 the Cadbury development started with a detached house for the manager and six pairs of semis with large gardens for key workers. By 1895 the village was made up of semis and short terraces, showing that a low density layout could be a practical possibility even for the working classes. The examples of Bournville and Port Sunlight were seized on by Ebenezer Howard, and they became key models for the Garden City movement.


title: Semi-detached

text: The middle class became an important and expanding group in the 19th century. With industrialisation came material gain to the capitalist entrepreneur. New professions came into existence to serve their needs: insurers, engineers, designers. The growth in the population required more architects, lawyers, teachers, doctors, dentists and shopkeepers. Hierarchical tiers emerged within the middle class, each watching each other's status. According to "A New system of Practical Domestic Economy" (1820–1840), being middle class required an income of £150 p.a. or more. In 1851, 3 million out of a total population of 18 million in the UK would have been considered to be middle class.


title: Semi-detached

text: Semi-detached houses for the middle class began to be planned systematically in late 18th-century Georgian architecture, as a suburban compromise between the terraced houses close to the city centre, and the detached "villas" further out, where land was cheaper. There are occasional examples of such houses in town centres going back to medieval times. Most early examples are in areas such as Blackheath, Chalk Farm and St John's Wood, now the outer fringes of Central London. Sir John Summerson considered the origin of the semi-detached house to be the Eyre Estate of St John's Wood. He commented that in a plan for the estate dated 1794 "the whole development consists of "pairs of semi-detached houses". So far as I know, this is the first recorded scheme of the kind." The estate was not built at that time due to the French Revolutionary Wars, but when it was finally built it retained the semi-detached form, "a revolution of striking significance and far-reaching effect".


title: Semi-detached

text: In these early years a common style was a row of houses in which several pairs of semi-detached houses are linked by a wall along the frontage. An example is The Paragon in Blackheath, where a blank colonnade runs between the houses. Most early examples were relatively large houses with access at the rear.


title: Semi-detached

text: During the 19th century, a father and son architectural partnership, John Shaw Sr. and John Shaw Jr., drew up designs for semi-detached housing in London. Examples of their work can be seen in Chalk Farm, North London. John Nash, better known for his Regency terraces, built some semi-detached villas either side of the Regent's Canal. These were styled to appear as substantial single detached villas with the entrances to the side. Similarly, the landscape gardener John Claudius Loudon built a pair of semi-detached villas fashioned to appear as a single house in Porchester Terrace in 1825. In his 1838 book "The" "Suburban Gardener and Villa Companion" he gives advice on how to disguise the join between the houses by using false windows.


title: Semi-detached

text: The Public Health Act 1875 described the structure and required minimum size of terraced houses and the street pattern that towns had to adopt. This made it difficult to place a semi in a large garden. The law stated that the building lines should be 11m apart, and that there should be rear access to allow the removal of nightsoil. In 1875, it was thought that having a privy inside the house was unhealthy. Cold water came from a stand pipe in the yard, and lighting was by candle or by gas mantles. Heating and cooking was done by coal, and hot water was boiled in kettles on the living room range. Kitchens were rare – the wet activities were done outside or in the scullery. Later, water was piped to the house, and some living room fires had a back boiler for heating.


title: Semi-detached

text: During the First World War the Tudor Walters Report was published, setting standards for the accommodations needed for returning soldiers, dubbed "homes fit for heroes". The Housing, Town Planning, &c. Act 1919 (Addison Act) incorporated those recommendations including one that allowed for housing based on the Radburn design. In this design, small clusters of up to 15 houses would circle small cul-de-sacs of a district feeder road. This tipped the balance away from short terraces towards pairs of semi-detached houses. The housing density was initially generous, but was reduced in 1923 after a change of government from the Liberal Party to the Conservative Party.


title: Semi-detached

text: After the Second World War, there was a chronic shortage of houses. In the short term this was relieved by the construction of prefabricated houses with a ten-year life. The successor was the pre-cast reinforced concrete semi-detached house. Although the frame was concrete the exterior panels were often traditional brick, so the final building was visually indistinguishable from a traditionally built house.


title: Semi-detached

text: The recommendations of the Parker Morris Committee became mandatory for all public housing from 1967 till 1980. Initially the private sector adopted them too, but gradually lowered their standards.


title: Semi-detached

text: Although semi-detached housing is built throughout the world, it is generally seen as particularly symbolic of the suburbanisation of the United Kingdom and Ireland, or post-war homes in Canada. In Toronto, the semi-detached house was a major building type during both the pre and post-war periods. In New England, some other parts of the United States, and occasionally in Canada, this style is colloquially called a "duplex""". Elsewhere, however, "duplex" refers to a building comprising two flats/apartments, one above the other; this is also referred to as a "two-flat'. Semi-detached houses are typically referred to as 'twins' in the Mid-Atlantic region (particularly in Pennsylvania).


title: Semi-detached

text: In Australia, a semi-detached house is also known as a "duplex". Townhouses may be apparently similar to semi-detached houses, but a semi-detached house sits on a single property, owned in its entirety by the owner of the semi-detached house, whereas townhouses sit on a shared property. The type of real property title held is therefore different: a semi-detached home is generally held as a Torrens titled property, while a townhouse is a Strata titled unit. Semi-detached houses come only in pairs, whereas there may be more than two townhouses attached together. In Sydney, semi-detached houses were briefly popular at the beginning of the 20th century and many examples may be found in inner suburbs such as Drummoyne. However, this style quickly gave way to the 'modern' style of detached housing which allowed better motor vehicle access, amongst other benefits.


title: Semi-detached

text: The semi-detached house was seen as a good fit for downtown Toronto's narrow lots early in the city's history. In the late 19th century semis were built in areas such as The Annex and Cabbagetown in assorted styles: Gothic Revival, Queen Anne, Second Empire, bay-and-gable.


title: Semi-detached

text: Semi-detached homes continued to be built in the post-war period, often alongside detached types such as the bungalow. They remain popular with developers as they are cheaper to build than detached houses. According to the 2006 census, Toronto had more than 139,000 semis, more than any other Canadian city by a wide margin. Red-brick semis are a common sight throughout downtown and older suburbs.


title: The Westing Game

text: The Westing Game is a mystery book written by Ellen Raskin and published by Dutton on May 1, 1978. It won the Newbery Medal recognizing the year's most distinguished contribution to American children's literature.


title: The Westing Game

text: "The Westing Game" was ranked number nine all-time among children's novels in a survey published by "School Library Journal" in 2012. It has been adapted as the 1997 feature film "Get a Clue" (also distributed as "The Westing Game").


title: The Westing Game

text: Sunset Towers is a new apartment building on Lake Michigan, north of Milwaukee and just down the shore from the mansion owned by reclusive self-made millionaire Samuel W. Westing. (Despite its name, Sunset Towers faces east – into the sunrise.) Sam Westing was a wealthy businessman who made his fortune in paper products. He was very patriotic and never smoked, drank, or gambled.


title: The Westing Game

text: As the story opens, Barney Northrup is selling apartments to a carefully selected group of tenants. After Sam Westing dies, at the beginning of the book, it emerges that most of the tenants are named as heirs in Westing's will. The will is structured like a puzzle, with the 16 heirs challenged to find the solution. In the will it states that one of his heirs has taken his life. Each of the eight pairs, assigned seemingly at random, is given $10,000 cash and a different set of baffling clues. The pair that solves the mystery of his death will inherit Westing's entire $200 million fortune and control of his company.


title: The Westing Game

text: The epilogue of the story is told in the book's last three chapters, which depict what happened to the heirs after the game ended, and how it affected them.


title: The Westing Game

text: "The Westing Game", adapted to a stage play by Darian Lindle and directed by Terry Brino-Dean, was first produced at Prime Stage Theatre in Pittsburgh in 2009. The script is published by Dramatic Publishing.


title: The Westing Game

text: "Get a Clue", adapted by Dylan Kelsey Hadley and directed by Terence H. Winkless, was produced for television in 1997.


title: The Westing Game

text: It was announced on September 9, 2020 that HBO Max has placed a script-to-series order based on the book.


title: The Westing Game

text: At the time of the book's publication, "Kirkus Reviews" called it "A supersharp mystery, more a puzzle than a novel, but endowed with a vivid and extensive cast... If Raskin's crazy ingenuity has threatened to run away with her on previous occasions, here the complicated game is always perfectly meshed with character and story. Confoundingly clever, and very funny." In a retrospective essay about the Newbery Medal-winning books from 1976 to 1985, literary critic Zena Sutherland wrote of "The Westing Game", "Still a popular book with the group of readers who are mystery or puzzle fans, in retrospect this seems more entertaining than distinguished. Its choice as a Medal book underscores the problematic question: Can a distinguished book also be a popular book?"


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The Imperial Roman army was the military land force of the Roman Empire from about 30 BC to 476 AD, and the final incarnation in the long history of the Roman army. This period is sometimes split into the Principate (30 BC – 284 AD) and the Dominate (285–476) periods.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Under Augustus (), the army consisted of "legions", eventually "auxilia" and also "numeri". By the end of Augustus' reign, the imperial army numbered some 250,000 men, equally split between 25 legions and 250 units of auxiliaries. The numbers grew to a peak of about 450,000 by 211, in 33 legions and about 400 auxiliary units. By then, auxiliaries outnumbered legionaries substantially. From this peak, numbers probably underwent a steep decline by 270 due to plague and losses during multiple major barbarian invasions. Numbers were restored to their early 2nd-century level of c. 400,000 (but probably not to their 211 peak) under Diocletian (r. 284–305).


title: Imperial Roman army

text: After the Empire's borders became settled (on the Rhine-Danube line in Europe) by AD 68, virtually all military units (except the Praetorian Guard) were stationed on or near the borders, in roughly 17 of the 42 provinces of the empire in the reign of Hadrian (r. 117–138).


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The army of the late Republic that Augustus took over on becoming sole ruler of the Empire in 27 BC consisted of a number of large (5,000-strong) formations called legions, which were composed exclusively of heavy infantry. The legion's light infantry ("velites") which had been deployed in earlier times (see Roman army of the mid-Republic), had been phased out as had its contingent of cavalry. Legions were recruited from Roman citizens only (i.e., from Italians and inhabitants of Roman colonies outside Italy), by regular conscription, although by 88 BC, a substantial proportion of recruits were volunteers.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: To remedy the deficiencies in capability of the legions (heavy and light cavalry, light infantry, archers and other specialists), the Romans relied on a motley array of irregular units of allied troops, both composed of subject natives of the empire's provinces (called the "peregrini" by the Romans) and of bands supplied, often on a mercenary basis, by Rome's allied kings beyond the Empire's borders. Led by their own aristocrats and equipped in their own traditional fashion, these native units varied widely in size, quality and reliability. Most would only be available for particular campaigns before returning home or disbanding.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: On gaining undisputed mastery over the Roman empire in 27 BC, Augustus (sole rule 27 BC – AD 14) was left with an army which was bloated by extraordinary recruitment for the Roman civil wars and at the same time lacking a suitable organisation for the defence and expansion of a vast empire. Even after disbanding most of his defeated adversary Mark Anthony's legions, Augustus had 50 legions under his command, composed exclusively of Roman citizens i.e., by that time, of Italians and inhabitants of Roman colonies outside Italy. Alongside these were a mass of irregular non-Italian allied units whose command, size and equipment varied greatly. Some allied units came from provinces within the empire, others from beyond the imperial borders.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The first priority was to reduce the number of legions to a sustainable level. Fifty legions implied too high a recruitment burden for a male citizen-body only about two-million strong, especially as Augustus intended to create a long-term career force. The Emperor retained just over half his legions, disbanding the rest and settling their veterans in no less than 28 new Roman colonies. The number of legions remained close to that level throughout the Principate (varying between 25 and 33 in number).


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Unlike the Republican legions, which were, in theory at least, temporary citizen-levies for the duration of particular wars, Augustus and his right-hand man Agrippa clearly envisioned their legions as permanent units composed of career professionals. Under the late Republic, a Roman citizen "iunior" (i.e. male of military age: 16–46 years) could legally be required to serve a maximum of sixteen years in the legions and a maximum of six years consecutively. The average number of years served was about ten. In 13 BC, Augustus decreed sixteen years as the "standard" term of service for legionary recruits, with a further four years as reservists ("evocati"). In AD 5, the standard term was increased to twenty years plus five years in the reserves. In the period following its introduction, the new term was deeply unpopular with the troops. On Augustus' death in AD 14, the legions stationed on the rivers Rhine and Danube staged major mutinies, and demanded, among other things, reinstatement of a sixteen-year term. Augustus prohibited serving legionaries from marrying, a decree that remained in force for two centuries. This measure was probably prudent in the early imperial period, when most legionaries were from Italy or the Roman colonies on the Mediterranean, and were required to serve long years far from home. This could lead to disaffection if they left families behind. But from about AD 100 onwards, when most legions were based long-term in the same frontier-province and recruitment was primarily local, the prohibition of marriage became a legal encumbrance that was largely ignored. Many legionaries formed stable relationships and brought up families. Their sons, although illegitimate in Roman law and thus unable to inherit their fathers' citizenship, were nevertheless frequently admitted to legions.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: At the same time, the traditional grant of land to retiring veterans was made replaceable by a cash discharge bonus, as there was no longer sufficient state-owned land ("ager publicus") in Italy to distribute. Unlike the Republic, which had relied primarily on conscription (i.e. compulsory levy), Augustus and Agrippa preferred volunteers for their professional legions. Given the onerous new term of service, it was necessary to offer a substantial bonus to attract sufficient citizen-recruits. In AD 5, the discharge bonus was set at 3,000 "denarii". This was a generous sum equivalent to about 13 years' gross salary for a legionary of the time. To finance this major outlay, Augustus decreed a 5% tax on inheritances and 1% on auction-sales, to be paid into a dedicated "aerarium militare" (military treasury). However, veterans continued to be offered land instead of cash in Roman colonies established in the newly annexed frontier provinces, where public land was plentiful (as a result of confiscations from defeated indigenous tribes). This was another grievance behind the mutinies of 14 AD, as it effectively forced Italian veterans to settle far from their own country (or lose their bonus). The imperial authorities could not compromise on this issue, as the planting of colonies of Roman veterans was a crucial mechanism for controlling and Romanising a new province, and the foundation of veterans' colonies did not cease until the end of Trajan's rule (117). But as legionary recruitment became more localised (by AD 60, over half of recruits were not Italian-born), the issue became less relevant.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Augustus modified the command structure of the legion to reflect its new permanent, professional nature. In Republican tradition (but ever less in practice), each legion was under six equestrian military tribunes who took turns to command it in pairs. But in the late Republic, military tribunes were eclipsed by higher-ranking officers of senatorial rank called "legati" ("literally "envoys"). A proconsul (Republican governor) might ask the senate to appoint a number of "legati" to serve under him e.g., Julius Caesar, Augustus' grand-uncle and adoptive father, had five, and later ten, "legati" attached to his staff when he was governor of Cisalpine Gaul (58–51 BC). These commanded detachments of one or more legions at the governor's behest and played a critical role in the conquest of Gaul. But legions still lacked a single, permanent commander. This was provided by Augustus, who appointed a "legatus" to command each legion with a term of office of several years. The ranking senatorial military tribune ("tribunus militum laticlavius") was designated deputy commander, while the remaining five equestrian tribunes served as the legatus' staff officers. In addition, Augustus established a new post of "praefectus castrorum" (literally "prefect of the camp"), to be filled by a Roman knight (often an outgoing "centurio primus pilus", a legion's chief centurion, who was usually elevated to equestrian rank on completion of his single-year term of office). Technically, this officer ranked below the senatorial tribune, but his long operational experience made him the legion commander's "de facto" executive officer. The prefect's primary role was as the legion's quartermaster, in charge of legionary camps and supplies.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: It has been suggested that Augustus was responsible for establishing the small cavalry contingent of 120 horse attached to each legion. The existence of this unit is attested in Josephus' "Bellum Iudaicum" written after AD 70, and on a number of tombstones. The attribution to Augustus is based on the (unproven) assumption that legionary cavalry had completely disappeared in the Caesarian army. The Augustan era also saw the introduction of some items of more sophisticated and protective equipment for legionaries, primarily to improve their survival rate. The "lorica segmentata" (normally called simply "the "lorica"" by the Romans), was a special laminated-strip body-armour, was probably developed under Augustus. Its earliest depiction is on the Arch of Augustus at Susa (Western Alps), dating from 6 BC. The oval shield of the Republic was replaced by the convex rectangular shield ("scutum") of the imperial era.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Augustus' ambitious expansion plans for the Empire (which included advancing the European border to the lines of the Elbe and Danube rivers) soon proved that 28 legions were not sufficient. Starting with the Cantabrian Wars, which aimed to annex the mineral-rich mountains of north-western Spain, Augustus' 41-year sole rule saw an almost uninterrupted series of major wars that frequently stretched the army's manpower to the limit.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Augustus retained the services of numerous units of irregular allied native troops. But there was an urgent need for extra regular troops, organised, if not yet equipped, in the same way as the legions. These could only be drawn from the Empire's vast pool of non-citizen subjects, known as "peregrini". These outnumbered Roman citizens by around nine to one in the early 1st century. The "peregrini" were now recruited into regular units of cohort-strength (c. 500 men), to form a non-citizen corps called the "auxilia" (literally: "supports"). By AD 23, Tacitus reports that the "auxilia" numbered roughly as many as the legionaries (i.e., c. 175,000 men). The roughly 250 regiments of "auxilia" this implies were divided into three types: an all-infantry "cohors" (plural: "cohortes") (cohort) (c. 120 regiments); an infantry unit with a cavalry contingent attached, the "cohors equitata" (plural: "cohortes equitatae") (80 units); and an all-cavalry "ala" (plural: "alae", literal meaning: "wing"), of which c. 50 were originally established.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: It appears that at this early stage, auxiliary recruitment was ethnically based, with most men originating from the same tribe or province. Hence regiments carried an ethnic name e.g., "cohors V Raetorum" ("5th Cohort of Raeti"), recruited from the Raeti, a group of Alpine tribes that inhabited modern Switzerland. It has been suggested that the equipment of auxiliary regiments was not standardised until after AD 50, and that until then, auxiliaries were armed with the traditional weaponry of their tribe. But it is possible that at least some regiments had standardised equipment from Augustan times.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Auxiliary regiments were designed to operate as a complement to the legions. That is, they performed exactly the same role as the Republic's "alae" of Italian allies ("socii") before the Social War (91–88 BC), an equal number of which always accompanied legions on campaign.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Under the late Republic, a proconsul on campaign often formed a small personal guard, selected from the troops under his command, known as a "cohors praetoria" ("commander's cohort"), from "praetorium" meaning the commander's tent at the centre of a Roman marching-camp (or commander's residence in a legionary fortress). At the Battle of Actium (31 BC), Augustus had five such cohorts around him. After the battle, he retained them in being as a permanent brigade in and around Rome, known as the "praetoriani" ("soldiers of the imperial palace"). Inscription evidence suggests that Augustus increased the Praetorian establishment to nine cohorts, each under the command of a "tribunus militum" (military tribune). With all the legions deployed in far-off provinces under the command of powerful senators, Augustus evidently considered that he needed a least one legion-sized force with him in Rome to deter potential usurpers. Augustus stationed three cohorts in the City itself, each housed in separate barracks, and the rest in neighbouring cities of Latium. Originally, each cohort was independent, but in 2 BC, Augustus appointed two overall commanders ("praefecti praetorio") of equestrian rank, one for the cohorts based in the City, the other for those outside.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Augustus envisaged the Praetorians as an elite force, whose duties included guarding the imperial palace on the Palatine hill, protecting the Emperor's person and those of his family, defending the imperial government, and accompanying the emperor when he left the City on long journeys or to lead military campaigns in person. They also served as ceremonial troops on state occasions. Recruits to the ranks were, during the Julio-Claudian era, exclusively Italian-born. They were accorded much better pay and conditions than ordinary legionaries. In AD 5, the standard term of service for Praetorians was set at 16 years (compared to 25 years in the legions), and their pay was set at triple the rate of ordinary legionaries. In deference to Republican tradition, which banned armed men within the boundaries of the City of Rome, Augustus laid down a rule that Praetorians on duty within the City must not wear armour and must keep their weapons out of sight. Those Praetorians on important official duties, such as the Emperor's bodyguard-detail, wore the formal dress of Roman citizens, the toga, under which they concealed their swords and daggers. The rest wore the soldier's standard non-combat dress of tunic and cloak ("paludamentum").


title: Imperial Roman army

text: In addition to the Praetorians, Augustus established a second armed force in Rome, the "cohortes urbanae" ("urban cohorts"), of which three were based in the City and one in "Lugdunum" (Lyon) in Gaul, to protect the major imperial mint there. These battalions were tasked with maintaining public order in the City, including crowd-control at major events such as chariot-races and gladiatorial combats, and the suppression of the popular unrest that periodically shook the City, e.g., the riots caused by high grain prices in AD 19. Their command was given to the "praefectus urbi", a senator who acted as Rome's "mayor". Unlike the praetorians, the urban cohorts were not deployed for military operations outside Italy.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The "Vigiles" or more properly the "Vigiles Urbani" ("watchmen of the City") or "Cohortes Vigilum" ("cohorts of the watchmen") were the firefighters and police of ancient Rome. The "Vigiles" also acted as a night watch, keeping an eye out for burglars and hunting down runaway slaves, and were on occasion used to maintain order in the streets. The "Vigiles" were considered a para-military unit and their organisation into cohorts and centuries reflects this.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: To double-insure his own personal safety and that of imperial family members, Augustus established a small personal guard called the "Germani corporis custodes" (literally: "German bodyguards"). Probably of cohort-strength, these were crack horsemen recruited from native peoples on the lower Rhine, mainly from the Batavi. Their leader, probably a Batavi aristocrat, reported to the Emperor directly. The Germans shared the task of guarding the imperial family and the Palace with the Praetorians. In AD 68, the Emperor Galba disbanded the German Bodyguards because of their loyalty to Nero (), whom he had overthrown. The decision caused deep offence to the Batavi, and contributed to the outbreak of the Revolt of the Batavi in the following year.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The dual-structure configuration of legions/auxilia established by Augustus remained essentially intact until the late 3rd century, with only minor modifications made during that long period. The senior officers of the army were, until the 3rd century, mainly from the Italian aristocracy. This was divided into two orders, the senatorial order ("ordo senatorius"), consisting of the c. 600 sitting members of the Roman Senate (plus their sons and grandsons), and the more numerous (several thousand-strong) "equites" "equo publico" or "knights granted a public horse", i.e., knights hereditary or appointed by the Emperor. Hereditary senators and knights combined military service with civilian posts, a career-path known as the "cursus honorum", typically starting with a period of junior administrative posts in Rome, followed by five to ten years in the military and a final period of senior positions in either the provinces or at Rome. This tiny, tightly knit ruling oligarchy of under 10,000 men monopolised political, military and economic power in an empire of c. 60 million inhabitants and achieved a remarkable degree of political stability. During the first 200 years of its existence (30 BC – AD 180), the empire suffered only one major episode of civil strife (the Civil War of 68–9). Otherwise, attempts at usurpation by provincial governors were few and swiftly suppressed.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Under the emperor Claudius (), a minimum term of 25 years' service was established for auxiliary service (although many served for longer). On completion of the term, auxiliary soldiers, and their children, were from this time routinely granted Roman citizenship as a reward for service. (This is deduced from the fact that the first known Roman military diplomas date from the time of Claudius. This was a folding bronze tablet engraved with the details of the soldier's service record, which he could use to prove his citizenship). Claudius also decreed that prefects of auxiliary regiments must all be of knightly rank, thus excluding serving centurions from such commands. The fact that auxiliary commanders were now all of the same social rank as all but one of a legion's military tribunes, probably indicates that "auxilia" now enjoyed greater prestige. Indigenous chiefs continued to command some auxiliary regiments, and were normally granted the rank of Roman knight for the purpose. It is also likely that auxiliary pay was standardised at this time, but pay scales during the Julio-Claudian period are uncertain. Estimates range from 33 to 50% of legionary pay, well below the 75-80% in force in the time of the emperor Domitian (ruled 81–96). Auxiliary uniform, armour, weapons and equipment were probably standardised by the end of the Julio-Claudian period (AD 68). Auxiliary equipment was broadly similar to that of the legions. By AD 68, there was little difference between most auxiliary infantry and their legionary counterparts in equipment, training and fighting capability.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: After about AD 80, the "centuriae" of the First Cohort of each legion were doubled in size to 160 men, but the number of "centuriae" apparently reduced to five, thus reducing the legion's centurions from 60 to 59. The legion's effectives were thus increased to c. 5,240 men plus officers. In the same period, some auxiliary regiments, both "alae" and "cohortes", were also doubled to so-called "milliaria" size (literally "1,000-strong", actually only 720 in milliary "alae" and 800 in "cohortes"). But only a minority of auxiliary regiments, about one in seven, were so enlarged.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: During the 2nd century some units with the new names "numerus" ("group") and "vexillatio" ("detachment") appear in the diploma record. Their size is uncertain, but was likely smaller than the regular "alae" and "cohortes", as originally they were probably detachments from the latter, acquiring independent status after long-term separation. As these units are mentioned in diplomas, they were presumably part of the regular auxiliary organisation. But "numeri" was also a generic term used for barbarian units outside the regular "auxilia". (see section 2.4 Irregular units, below).


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The traditional alternation between senior civilian and military posts fell into disuse in the late 2nd and 3rd centuries, as the Italian hereditary aristocracy was progressively replaced in the senior echelons of the army by the "primipilares" (former chief centurions). In the 3rd century, only 10% of auxiliary prefects whose origins are known were Italian equestrians, compared to the majority in the previous two centuries. At the same time, equestrians increasingly replaced the senatorial order in the top commands. Septimius Severus () placed equestrian "primipilares" in command of the three new legions he raised and Gallienus () did the same for all the other legions, giving them the title "praefectus pro legato" ("prefect acting as legate"). The rise of the "primipilares" may have provided the army with more professional leadership, but it increased military rebellions by ambitious generals. The 3rd century saw numerous "coups d'état" and civil wars. Few 3rd-century emperors enjoyed long reigns or died of natural causes.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Emperors responded to the increased insecurity with a steady build-up of the forces at their immediate disposal. These became known as the "comitatus" ("escort", from which derives the English word "committee"). To the Praetorian Guard's 10,000 men, Septimius Severus added the legion "II Parthica". Based at Albano Laziale near Rome, it was the first legion to be stationed in Italy since Augustus. He doubled the size of the imperial escort cavalry, the "equites singulares Augusti", to 2,000 by drawing select detachments from "alae" on the borders. His "comitatus" thus numbered some 17,000 men. The rule of Gallienus saw the appointment of a senior officer, with the title of "dux equitum" ("cavalry leader"), to command all the cavalry of the emperor's "comitatus". This included "equites promoti" (cavalry contingents detached from the legions), plus Illyrian light cavalry ("equites Dalmatarum") and allied barbarian cavalry ("equites foederati"). But the "dux equitum" did not command an independent "cavalry army", as was suggested by some more dated scholars. The cavalry remained integral to the mixed infantry- and cavalry-"comitatus", with the infantry remaining the predominant element.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The seminal development for the army in the early 3rd century was the "Constitutio Antoniniana" (Antonine Decree) of 212, issued by Emperor Caracalla (). This granted Roman citizenship to all free inhabitants of the empire, ending the second-class status of the "peregrini". This had the effect of breaking down the distinction between the citizen legions and the auxiliary regiments. In the 1st and 2nd centuries, the legions were the symbol (and guarantors) of the dominance of the Italian "master nation" over its subject peoples. In the 3rd century, they were no longer socially superior to their auxiliary counterparts (although they may have retained their elite status in military terms).


title: Imperial Roman army

text: In tandem, the legions' special armour and equipment (e.g., the "lorica segmentata") was phased out during the early 3rd century. There was also a progressive reduction in the size of the legions. Legions were broken up into smaller units, as evidenced by the shrinkage and eventual abandonment of their traditional large bases, documented for example in Britain. In addition, from the 2nd century onwards, the separation of some detachments from their parent units became permanent in some cases, establishing new unit types, "e.g." the "vexillatio equitum Illyricorum" based in Dacia in the early 2nd century and the "equites promoti" (legionary cavalry detached from their unit) and "numerus Hnaufridi" in Britain.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Augustus' successor Tiberius (), appointed only single commanders for the Praetorian Guard: Sejanus (14–31) and, after ordering the latter's execution for treason, Macro. Under the influence of Sejanus, who also acted as his chief political advisor, Tiberius decided to concentrate the accommodation of all the Praetorian cohorts into a single, purpose-built fortress of massive size on the outskirts of Rome, beyond the Servian Wall. Known as the "castra praetoria" ("praetorian camp"), its construction was complete by AD 23. After Tiberius, the number of prefects in office simultaneously was normally two, but occasionally only one or even three.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: By AD 23, there were nine Praetorian cohorts in existence. These were probably the same size as legionary cohorts (480 men each), for a total of 4,320 effectives. Each cohort was under the command of a military tribune, normally a former chief centurion of a legion. It appears that each cohort contained some ninety cavalrymen who, like legionary cavalry were members of infantry "centuriae", but operated in the field as three "turmae" of thirty men each. The number of Praetorian cohorts were increased to twelve by the time of Claudius. During the 68-9 civil war, Vitellius disbanded the existing cohorts because he did not trust their loyalty and recruited 16 new ones, all double-strength (i.e., containing 800 men each). However, Vespasian () reduced the number of cohorts back to the original nine (but still 800-strong), later increased to ten by his son, Domitian (). By this time, therefore, the Guard consisted of c. 8,000 men.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: It was probably Trajan () who established a separate cavalry arm of the Guard, the "equites singulares Augusti" ("personal cavalry of the emperor", or imperial horseguards). An elite troop recruited from members of the finest auxiliary "alae" (originally from Batavi "alae" only), the "singulares" were tasked with escorting the emperor on campaign. The unit was organised as a milliary "ala", probably containing 720 horsemen. It was under the command of a military tribune, who probably reported to one of the Praetorian prefects. It was the only praetorian regiment that admitted persons who were not natural-born citizens, although recruits appear to have been granted citizenship on enlistment and not on completion of 25 years' service as for other auxiliaries. The unit was housed in its own barracks on the Caelian hill, separate from the main "castra praetoria". By the time of Hadrian (), the "singulares" appear to have numbered 1,000 men. They were further expanded to 2,000 horse in the early 3rd century by Septimius Severus, who constructed a new, larger base for them in Rome, the "castra nova equitum singularium". By AD 100, therefore, the Guard consisted of c. 9,000 effectives, rising to c. 10,000 under Severus.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Some historians have dismissed the Praetorian Guard as a parade-ground army of little military value. The Praetorians were certainly taunted as such by the soldiers of the Danubian legions during the civil war of 68–9. But Rankov argues that the Praetorians boasted a distinguished campaign-record that shows that their training and military effectiveness was far more impressive than those of merely ceremonial troops and amply justified their elite status. During the Julio-Claudian era (to 68), the Praetorians saw relatively little action in the field, as emperors only rarely led their armies in person. After that date, emperors led armies, and therefore deployed the Praetorians on campaign, much more frequently. The Praetorians were in the thick of the Emperor Domitian's wars, firstly in Germany and then on the Dacian front, where their prefect, Cornelius Fuscus was killed in action (87). Other examples include the Praetorians' prominent role in Trajan's Dacian Wars (101-6), as acknowledged on the friezes of Trajan's Column and the Adamklissi Tropaeum. Equally celebrated, on the Column of Marcus Aurelius, was the Praetorians' role in the Marcomannic Wars (166-80), in which two Guard prefects lost their lives. Even their final hour was wreathed in military glory: at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge (312), the Praetorians fought fiercely for their emperor Maxentius, trying to prevent the army of rival emperor Constantine I from crossing the river Tiber and entering Rome. Many perished fighting and others drowned when the makeshift pontoon-bridge they were using collapsed. Subsequently, the Praetorians paid the price of supporting the losing side: they were definitively disbanded, and their fortress demolished, by Constantine.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The legion consisted almost entirely of heavy infantry, i.e., infantry equipped with metal armour (helmets and cuirasses). Although it was almost unbeatable by non-Roman infantry on the battlefield, it was a large, inflexible unit that could not campaign independently due to the lack of cavalry cover and other specialist forces. It was dependent on the support of auxiliary regiments.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The legion's basic sub-unit was the "centuria" (plural: "centuriae"), which literally means "a hundred men", but in practice numbered 80 men in the Principate, equivalent in numbers to half of a modern company. The legion's main tactical sub-unit was the "cohors" (plural: "cohortes", or cohort), which contained six "centuriae" for a total of 480 men, roughly the same size as a modern battalion. There were 10 cohorts to each legion, or 4,800 men (c. 5,000 including the small legionary cavalry of 120 horse and officers). Thus, a legion was equivalent in numbers to a modern brigade. By AD 100, however, the legion's First Cohort was divided into only five "centuriae", but double-strength at 160 men each, for a total of 800 men. At this point, therefore, a legion would have numbered c. 5,300 effectives.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: In addition, each legion contained a small cavalry contingent of 120 men. Unlike auxiliary cavalry, however, they do not appear to have been organised in separate cavalry squadrons ("turmae") as were auxiliary cavalry, but to have been divided among specific "centuriae". Legionary cavalry probably performed a non-combat role as messengers, scouts and escorts for senior officers.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The following table sets out the official, or establishment, strength of auxiliary units in the 2nd century. The real strength of a unit would fluctuate continually, but would likely have been somewhat less than the establishment most of the time.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: Unless the regiment name, was qualified by a specialist function e.g. "cohors sagittariorum" ("cohort of archers"), its infantry and cavalry were heavily equipped in the same way as the legionaries.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: These all-infantry units were modeled on the cohorts of the legions, with the same officers and sub-units. It is a common misconception that auxiliary "cohortes" contained light infantry: this only applies to specialist units such as archers. Their defensive equipment of regular auxiliary infantry was very similar to that of legionaries, consisting of metal helmet and metal cuirass (chain-mail or scale). There is no evidence that auxiliaries were equipped with the "lorica segmentata", the elaborate and expensive laminated-strip body-armour that was issued to legionaries. However, legionaries often wore chain-mail and scalar cuirasses also. In addition, it appears that auxiliaries carried a round shield ("clipeus") instead of the curved rectangular shield ("scutum") of legionaries. As regards weapons, auxiliaries were equipped in the same way as legionaries: a javelin (although not the sophisticated "pilum" type provided to legionaries), a "gladius" (short stabbing-sword) and "pugio" (dagger). It has been estimated that the total weight of auxiliary


title: Imperial Roman army

text: infantry equipment was similar to that of legionaries', so that non-specialist "cohortes" may also be classified as heavy infantry, which fought in the battle-line alongside legionaries.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: There is no evidence that auxiliary infantry fought in a looser order than legionaries. It appears that in a set-piece battle-line, auxiliary infantry would normally be stationed on the flanks, with legionary infantry holding the centre, e.g., as in the Battle of Watling Street (AD 60), the final defeat of the rebel Britons under queen Boudicca. This was a tradition inherited from the Republic, when the precursors of auxiliary "cohortes", the Latin "alae", occupied the same position in the line. The flanks of the line required equal, if not greater, skill to hold as the centre.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: The all-mounted "alae" contained the elite cavalry of the Roman army. They were specially trained in elaborate manoeuvres, such as those displayed to the emperor Hadrian during a documented inspection. They were best-suited for large-scale operations and battle, during which they acted as the primary cavalry escort for the legions, which had almost no cavalry of their own. They were heavily protected, with chain-mail or scale body armour, a cavalry version of the infantry helmet (with more protective features) and oval shield. Their offensive weapons included a spear ("hasta"), a cavalry sword ("spatha"), which was much longer than the infantry "gladius" to provide greater reach and a long dagger. The elite status of an "alaris" is shown by the fact that he received 20% greater pay than his counterpart in a cohort, and than a legionary infantryman.


title: Imperial Roman army

text: These were "cohortes" with a cavalry contingent attached. There is evidence that their numbers expanded with the passage of time. Only about 40% of attested "cohortes" are specifically attested as "equitatae" in inscriptions, which is probably the original Augustan proportion. A study of units stationed in Syria in the mid 2nd century found that many units which did not carry the "equitata" title did in fact contain cavalrymen e.g. by discovery of a tombstone of a cavalryman attached to the cohort. This implies that by that time, at least 70% of "cohortes" were probably "equitatae". The addition of cavalry to a cohort obviously enabled it to carry out a wider range of independent operations. A "cohors equitata" was in effect a self-contained mini-army.