title: Analysis of algorithms

text: Assuming the run-time follows power rule, , the coefficient can be found by taking empirical measurements of run-time } at some problem-size points }, and calculating so that . In other words, this measures the slope of the empirical line on the log–log plot of run-time vs. input size, at some size point. If the order of growth indeed follows the power rule (and so the line on the log–log plot is indeed a straight line), the empirical value of will stay constant at different ranges, and if not, it will change (and the line is a curved line)—but still could serve for comparison of any two given algorithms as to their "empirical local orders of growth" behaviour. Applied to the above table:


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: It is clearly seen that the first algorithm exhibits a linear order of growth indeed following the power rule. The empirical values for the second one are diminishing rapidly, suggesting it follows another rule of growth and in any case has much lower local orders of growth (and improving further still), empirically, than the first one.


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: The run-time complexity for the worst-case scenario of a given algorithm can sometimes be evaluated by examining the structure of the algorithm and making some simplifying assumptions. Consider the following pseudocode:


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: A given computer will take a discrete amount of time to execute each of the instructions involved with carrying out this algorithm. The specific amount of time to carry out a given instruction will vary depending on which instruction is being executed and which computer is executing it, but on a conventional computer, this amount will be deterministic. Say that the actions carried out in step 1 are considered to consume time "T", step 2 uses time "T", and so forth.


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: In the algorithm above, steps 1, 2 and 7 will only be run once. For a worst-case evaluation, it should be assumed that step 3 will be run as well. Thus the total amount of time to run steps 1-3 and step 7 is:


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: The loops in steps 4, 5 and 6 are trickier to evaluate. The outer loop test in step 4 will execute ( "n" + 1 )


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: times (note that an extra step is required to terminate the for loop, hence n + 1 and not n executions), which will consume "T"( "n" + 1 ) time. The inner loop, on the other hand, is governed by the value of j, which iterates from 1 to "i". On the first pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 1: The inner loop makes one pass, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes "T" time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 2"T" time. During the next pass through the outer loop, j iterates from 1 to 2: the inner loop makes two passes, so running the inner loop body (step 6) consumes 2"T" time, and the inner loop test (step 5) consumes 3"T" time.


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: Altogether, the total time required to run the inner loop body can be expressed as an arithmetic progression:


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: As a rule-of-thumb, one can assume that the highest-order term in any given function dominates its rate of growth and thus defines its run-time order. In this example, n is the highest-order term, so one can conclude that . Formally this can be proven as follows:


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: A more elegant approach to analyzing this algorithm would be to declare that ["T".."T"] are all equal to one unit of time, in a system of units chosen so that one unit is greater than or equal to the actual times for these steps. This would mean that the algorithm's run-time breaks down as follows:


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: The methodology of run-time analysis can also be utilized for predicting other growth rates, such as consumption of memory space. As an example, consider the following pseudocode which manages and reallocates memory usage by a program based on the size of a file which that program manages:


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: In this instance, as the file size n increases, memory will be consumed at an exponential growth rate, which is order . This is an extremely rapid and most likely unmanageable growth rate for consumption of memory resources.


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: Algorithm analysis is important in practice because the accidental or unintentional use of an inefficient algorithm can significantly impact system performance. In time-sensitive applications, an algorithm taking too long to run can render its results outdated or useless. An inefficient algorithm can also end up requiring an uneconomical amount of computing power or storage in order to run, again rendering it practically useless.


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: Analysis of algorithms typically focuses on the asymptotic performance, particularly at the elementary level, but in practical applications constant factors are important, and real-world data is in practice always limited in size. The limit is typically the size of addressable memory, so on 32-bit machines 2 = 4 GiB (greater if segmented memory is used) and on 64-bit machines 2 = 16 EiB. Thus given a limited size, an order of growth (time or space) can be replaced by a constant factor, and in this sense all practical algorithms are for a large enough constant, or for small enough data.


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: This interpretation is primarily useful for functions that grow extremely slowly: (binary) iterated logarithm (log) is less than 5 for all practical data (2 bits); (binary) log-log (log log "n") is less than 6 for virtually all practical data (2 bits); and binary log (log "n") is less than 64 for virtually all practical data (2 bits). An algorithm with non-constant complexity may nonetheless be more efficient than an algorithm with constant complexity on practical data if the overhead of the constant time algorithm results in a larger constant factor, e.g., one may have formula_8 so long as formula_9 and formula_10.


title: Analysis of algorithms

text: For large data linear or quadratic factors cannot be ignored, but for small data an asymptotically inefficient algorithm may be more efficient. This is particularly used in hybrid algorithms, like Timsort, which use an asymptotically efficient algorithm (here merge sort, with time complexity formula_11), but switch to an asymptotically inefficient algorithm (here insertion sort, with time complexity formula_12) for small data, as the simpler algorithm is faster on small data.


title: Mikaela Hoover

text: Mikaela was born and raised in Colbert, Washington. She started taking dance classes at the age of two and starred in school plays and appeared in local commercials as a child. She was accepted to Loyola Marymount University's theatre program in Los Angeles and graduated with her bachelor's degree in theatre.


title: Mikaela Hoover

text: Hoover made her acting debut in 2007, in the movie "Frank". She then went on to book a leading role in "Sorority Forever". Shortly after, Hoover got a role in "Humanzee" after auditioning in front of James Gunn and following that she got offered the lead role in the James Gunn and Peter Safran Xbox show "Sparky & Mikaela".


title: Mikaela Hoover

text: During 2010, Hoover began appearing in American productions with a guest role in "How I Met Your Mother". She also got a role in the James Gunn movie "Super".


title: Mikaela Hoover

text: In 2011, she had a recurring role in the television series "Happy Endings" as Jackie and in 2012, she appeared in "Anger Management".


title: Mikaela Hoover

text: In 2013, Hoover had roles in the American television productions "Two and a Half Men" and "The League", followed by a role in "Saint George" in 2014.


title: Mikaela Hoover

text: Hoover continued to work with James Gunn and in 2014 she played Nova Prime's Assistant in the Marvel movie "Guardians of the Galaxy" and Raziya Memarian in "The Belko Experiment".


title: Mikaela Hoover

text: In 2020, she booked a role in DC's "The Suicide Squad", Lionsgate's "Guest House" and Netflix's "Holidate".


title: Seoul Music Awards

text: The Seoul Music Awards (; SMA) is a major South Korean music awards show presented by the newspaper "Sports Seoul". The award winners are selected based on a combination of criteria, including music sales, popular votes, and expert judges' opinions.


title: Seoul Music Awards

text: The annual ceremony was first held in 1990, when the Grand Prize was awarded to singer Byun Jin-sub. Boy groups Exo and BTS are the most-awarded artists at the Seoul Music Awards, with 23 awards each; they both have also won the most Grand Prizes at the ceremony, with four each.


title: Blood Father

text: Blood Father is a 2016 English-language French action crime thriller film directed by Jean-François Richet, written by Peter Craig based on his novel of the same name, and starring Mel Gibson, Erin Moriarty, Diego Luna, Michael Parks, and William H. Macy. The film had its world premiere at the 2016 Cannes Film Festival on 21 May 2016 and was released on 12 August 2016, by Lionsgate Premiere.


title: Blood Father

text: A young woman named Lydia buys ammunition at a megastore for her boyfriend Jonah Pincerna and his gang. After loading up, the gang goes to kill a tenant family who apparently stole money the gang had stashed in the walls of their rented house. After killing a tenant, Jonah ties up another and presses Lydia to kill her. However, Lydia accidentally shoots Jonah in the neck and flees the house, escaping the crime scene and Jonah's gang. She contacts her estranged father, John Link, an ex-convict and recovering alcoholic out on parole after serving seven years in prison. He picks up Lydia, takes her back to his trailer, and learns that she is both a drug addict and an alcoholic. Some days pass by uneventfully, although Lydia receives death threat text messages from the gang members.


title: Blood Father

text: One night, members of Jonah's gang come to John's house. After failing to force their way in, they open fire on the house and ram it with their SUV. Kirby, John's neighbor and sponsor, confronts the attackers with the help of the other nearby residents, and the gang retreats. Reasoning that giving Lydia up to the police will put her in danger, John flees with her. Lydia tells John about her life after running away from home and about Jonah, who turns out to be a well-connected member of a Mexican drug cartel. The two rest at a motel, where Lydia learns they have been linked to the tenants' deaths. They narrowly escape the police and a sicario (hitman) sent by the cartel.


title: Blood Father

text: John attempts to request a favor from his former mentor and friend, Preacher, who makes a living by collecting and selling war memorabilia. Preacher agrees to help but changes his mind after learning of the reward for turning in Lydia. John overpowers Preacher and his wife, and escapes with Lydia on a 1997 Harley Softail motorcycle. They are pursued by two of Preacher's men, who are both killed in the chase.


title: Blood Father

text: John travels to a prison where he meets Arturo, his former cellmate, to ask about Jonah's connections. He learns that Jonah himself stole the money from his cartel, blamed the tenants, and then murdered them to cover his tracks. At the motel alone, Lydia receives a call from Kirby, who says she is in danger and advises her to head to a crowded public place, like a theater. At the cinema, Lydia is confronted by Jonah, who had survived his injury and who, with help from his gang, abducts her. After leaving the prison, John calls Kirby, but Jonah answers the phone, reveals that he has captured Kirby, and kills him. John warns Jonah against harming Lydia, citing his knowledge of Jonah's connections and bad standing with his family. John offers up his life for his daughter, and Jonah arranges to meet at a secluded spot in the desert.


title: Blood Father

text: John goes back to Preacher's place, and picks up a landmine and some grenades and kills Preacher. He arrives at the meeting spot, and improvises a booby trap with his bike and the landmine. Jonah's men tie John up and put him in a car. As they prepare to leave, two of Jonah's men are killed by the trap. John kills the gang member inside the vehicle, but Jonah escapes. The sicario, having taken position at a vantage point, wounds John. Taking cover behind a car, John forces the sicario to get closer, and the two fatally shoot each other.


title: Blood Father

text: John dies after telling his daughter she is a good girl. Jonah is arrested and incarcerated. While sitting down at a table, he's met by a visibly hostile gang led by Arturo, who smiles knowingly, implying that Jonah will be killed. One year later, in a support group, Lydia reveals that she has been sober for a year and expresses gratitude for her father.


title: Blood Father

text: On 28 March 2014, Mel Gibson was in final talks to join the action thriller film "Blood Father" with Jean-François Richet as director. Peter Craig wrote the script based on his own novel of the same name, while Why Not Productions and Chris Briggs would be producing the film. On 24 April, Erin Moriarty was set to co-star in the film as Gibson's character's daughter. On 5 May, it was announced that Wild Bunch had come aboard to distribute the film worldwide. On 6 June, Richard Cabral joined the film to play Joker, a tough enforcer for the Mexican Mafia. On 14 June, William H. Macy tweeted that he would be starring alongside Gibson in the film. On 17 June, Elisabeth Röhm signed on to star in the film as Gibson's estranged wife, but her role was cut from the final film.


title: Blood Father

text: Principal photography began on 5 June 2014, in Albuquerque, New Mexico. After a month of shooting, the production wrapped up on 3 July 2014.


title: Blood Father

text: In December 2014, Lionsgate acquired the U.S. rights to the film. "Blood Father" had its world premiere at the Cannes Film Festival on 21 May 2016. It was released in the United States on 12 August 2016.


title: Blood Father

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 89%, based on reviews from 97 critics, with an average rating of 6.6/10. The site's critical consensus states: ""Blood Father" meets every expectation a film fan could have for a latter-day Mel Gibson action thriller with its title -- and even, in some respects, handily exceeds them." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 66 out of 100, based on reviews from 16 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Blood Father

text: Owen Glierberman of "Variety" wrote: ""Blood Father" is trash, but it does capture what an accomplished and winning actor Mel Gibson can be", and that the film "gives him the chance to show that he's still got it."


title: Blood Father

text: Manohla Dargis of The New York Times wrote: "Mr. Gibson makes a persuasive derelict John Wayne with a loose, energetic performance, finely tuned comic timing and an amused, self-aware “Lethal Weapon” glint."


title: Knout

text: A knout is a heavy scourge-like multiple whip, usually made of a series of rawhide thongs attached to a long handle, sometimes with metal wire or hooks incorporated. The English word stems from a spelling-pronunciation of a French transliteration of the Russian word кнут ("knut"), which simply means "whip".


title: Knout

text: Some claim it was a Tatar invention and was introduced into Russia in the 15th century, perhaps by Grand Duke Ivan III the Great (1462–1505). Others trace the word to Varangians and derive it from the Swedish "knutpiska", a kind of whip with "knots". Still others maintain it is of generic Germanic origin, not necessarily Scandinavian, comparing it with the German "Knute", Dutch "knoet" (both meaning knout) and with Old Norse "knutr", Anglo-Saxon "cnotta" and English "knot".


title: Knout

text: The Russian knout had different forms. One was a lash of rawhide, long, attached to a wooden handle, long. The lash ended in a metal ring, to which was attached a second lash as long, ending also in a ring, to which in turn was attached a few inches of hard leather ending in a beak-like hook. Another kind consisted of many thongs of skin plaited and interwoven with wire, ending in loose wired ends, like the cat-o-nine tails.


title: Knout

text: A variation, known as the "great knout", consisted of a handle about long, to which was fastened a flat leather thong about twice the length of the handle, terminating with a large copper or brass ring to which was affixed a strip of hide about broad at the ring, and terminating at the end of in a point. This was soaked in milk and dried in the sun to make it harder.


title: Knout

text: Knouts were used in Russia for flogging as formal corporal punishment of criminals and political offenders. The victim was tied to a post or on a triangle of wood and stripped, receiving the specified number of strokes on the back. A sentence of 100 or 120 lashes was equivalent to a death sentence. Even twenty lashes could maim, and with the specially extended Great Knout, twenty blows could kill, with death sometimes being attributed to the breaking of the spine.


title: Knout

text: The executioner was usually a criminal who had to pass through a probation and regular training, being let off his own penalties in return for his services. Peter the Great is traditionally accused of knouting his son Alexis to death; the latter was tortured by knouting to extract confessions.


title: Knout

text: Emperor Nicholas I abolished the punishment by knout in 1845, and replaced it with the "pleti", lashes with three thongs which could end in lead balls. They were later abolished throughout Russia and reserved for the penal settlements, mainly in Siberia. Prisoners transported to Siberia in the late 19th century were sometimes branded on their foreheads with irons with the letters VRNK meaning V thief, R robber, and NK punished by the knout. This branding led to the Siberian slang word "varnok", meaning either a settler or deportee.


title: Knout

text: The instrument became synonymous in Western European languages with what was seen as the tyrannical cruelty of the autocratic government of Russia, much as the "sjambok" brought to mind the apartheid government of South Africa or the bullwhip was associated with the period of slavery and Jim Crow laws in America.


title: Knout

text: The expression "under the knout" is used to designate any harsh totalitarianism, and by extension its equivalent in a private context, e.g., a grim patriarch ruling his household "with an iron rod". In Dutch, "onder de knoet houden" is commonly used for strict party discipline, e.g., eliminating actual debate when passing a law (compare the whip function in English).


title: You Got Served

text: You Got Served is a 2004 American dance drama film written and directed by Chris Stokes, who was also the business manager of the performers who were the film's main characters: recording artist Marques Houston and the boy band B2K. The plot follows a group of dancers who take part in a street dancing competition. "You Got Served" was produced by Marcus Morton, Cassius Vernon Weathersby, Billy Pollina, and Kris Cruz Toledo, and filming took place Between May 1, 2003, and June 25, 2003. The Columbia Pictures division Screen Gems released the film on January 30, 2004—the weekend of Super Bowl XXXVIII. It opened at #1 at the box office during its opening weekend, and grossed $16 million in its first week.


title: You Got Served

text: Despite negative reviews from critics, the film was a financial success, grossing over $50 million against its paltry $8 million budget. It was followed by one sequel, "" (2011).


title: You Got Served

text: In Los Angeles, California, Elgin and David lead their promising dance crew in street dancing battles at a warehouse owned by Mr. Rad, where they defeat another crew led by Vick (Raz-B). David and Elgin's crew win the battle and Vick's crew is disappointed. David and Elgin's crew consists of notably: Rico (J-Boog), Rashaan (Lil' Fizz), and Sonny (Young Rome). Rico takes care of a little kid he knows named Teshawn, whom the crew calls "Lil Saint".


title: You Got Served

text: To earn money for the battles, David and Elgin deliver for a drug lord named Emerald. They are challenged by Wade, a rich kid from Orange County, for $5,000. After winning another battle, David and Elgin tell their crew about the challenge they received from Wade. They mention that the 2 of them will put up the whole $5,000, and if their team wins, Elgin and David will split $3,000 and the other members of the crew will split the remaining $2,000. Their crew member Sonny is not fond of this idea and believes that because it is a team performance, the entire team should split the $5,000 evenly. All of the other members disagree with Sonny and understand that because Elgin and David are the ones putting up the money in the first place, it makes sense that they get a bigger cut of the profits.


title: You Got Served

text: Later on while Elgin, David and their crew are playing basketball, Wade and his best friend Max show up to the court and tell Elgin that they're surprised that he accepted their challenge. Elgin declares that the battle will be held a week later, but Wade and Max laugh at him and bait him in, claiming it's pathetic that Elgin and his crew needs an entire week to practice and that the battle should be held that night. Feeling prideful and not wanting to back down, Elgin accepts the challenge to compete that night, even though they only have $3,500 at the moment (the money they saved up from running drugs for Emerald). Thus, Elgin decides to borrow the remaining $1,500 from his grandmother for the battle.


title: You Got Served

text: Due to the amount of money on the line, Mr. Rad announces there will be no fighting during the battle and hires an off duty LAPD officer named Mr. Chuck to stop any potential ruckus. Upon arriving at the venue, David and Elgin realize that Sonny is not there, and he is also not picking up his cell phone. A few minutes later, Sonny arrives but he betrays the team and walks over to Wade and Max's side of the dance floor, revealing that he's now on their team. A fight breaks out after David and Elgin realize their opponent has stolen their dance set and that Sonny taught their opponents the routine, effectively “selling them out.” Crowing over his success, Wade delivers the titular line, "You're just mad... 'cause tonight you suckers got served!"


title: You Got Served

text: David has been getting romantically closer to Liyah, Elgin's sister. While discussing their loss to Wade on the basketball court, Elgin and David decide that they have to pick up some extra shifts for Emerald to recoup their losses. Vick arrives and asks to join their crew and says that his crew disbanded after repeatedly losing battles. David leaves the court and tells Elgin that instead of picking him up so that they can go to Emerald's spot that night, David will meet him up there separately, as he has something to do at the moment. That "something to do" turns out to be going on a date with Liyah. While on a date, David gets excessive calls from his friends, to the annoyance of Liyah. Elgin gets a call from Emerald for a delivery of drugs and says that he and David need to come in earlier. When Elgin tries to call David, Liyah turns off David's phone before David can see who's calling, leaving Elgin to do the job himself. Elgin is ambushed by local thugs who take Emerald's money, leaving Elgin hospitalized, in trouble with Emerald, and furious at David for not showing up on time.


title: You Got Served

text: The friends split up and form their own crews. Elgin forbids Liyah to see David, ignoring her and David's desire to help him. Rico tells David and Elgin about the "Big Bounce", a $50,000 dance competition purportedly sponsored by MTV, which will provide the winning crew the opportunity to perform in a Lil' Kim video. Elgin sees this as a way to pay back Emerald and his grandmother. Attempts to bring Elgin and David together, particularly by Liyah and Rico, are unsuccessful.


title: You Got Served

text: Later on, Emerald and his guards approach Elgin at his grandmother's home and throw Elgin inside the car. Emerald fires Elgin from ever working for him again and gives Elgin a few weeks to return his money to him, warning Elgin that if he doesn't pay him back, he “won't walk, let alone dance again”. Emerald reveals that he usually gives people only 24 hours to return any stolen money from him, but he decided to give Elgin a few weeks because David called Emerald and begged him not to hurt Elgin.


title: You Got Served

text: At the Big Bounce Competition, many crews impress the judges in the qualifying rounds, including Wade's crew. Liyah talks with Mr. Rad about David and Elgin's problems, and Mr. Rad reveals that he has already taken care of the situation with Emerald (it is not revealed what he did exactly to fix it, he only mentions that he and his LAPD friend Mr. Chuck "took care of that already"). David's crew is eliminated after two slip-ups, while Elgin's crew makes it to the finals.


title: You Got Served

text: David and Liyah are then in a diner talking about David being eliminated from the competition. Rashann runs in to tell them that Lil Saint has been shot and they need to find Rico to tell him the news and head to the hospital. At the hospital, the crew finds out that Lil Saint has died after being shot in a drive-by. The next day, Rico tells Elgin that they should reunite the crew in honor of Lil' Saint. David arrives a few minutes later, asked by Liyah to try to end the feud, but explains that by the rules of the competition, they must compete with their initial crews and are not allowed to add members. David and Elgin still refuse to forgive each other.


title: You Got Served

text: Elgin's crew, renamed "The Lil' Saints", compete at the Big Bounce finals, hosted by Wade Robson and Lil' Kim. After multiple crews perform their routine, the winner is revealed to be a tie between "The Lil' Saints" and "Wade's Crew". Both crews refuse a tie, and Lil' Kim (advised by Mr. Rad), declares a head-to-head battle competition, with no rules. The no-rules effect allows other people to join the battling crews. David asks to join Elgin's crew, and although Elgin initially refuses, Rico responds by saying "Look, it's either David and all of us, or it's none of us". Elgin then forgives and allows David on his team.


title: You Got Served

text: They battle Wade's crew, dedicating the battle to Lil' Saint, and win after receiving the crowd's loudest approval. Elgin gives his blessing for David and Liyah to be together. Wade and Max confront the winners saying that David and Elgin got lucky by winning. David replies, "Y'all just mad, 'cause today, YOU suckas got served." As the crowd chants 'served', Wade and Max leave in shame, David and Elgin celebrate their victory with their friends and family while holding their $50,000 check.


title: You Got Served

text: "You Got Served" Soundtrack features mainly music by B2K, but also Marques Houston, and many others. There were some profanities in the soundtrack such as "Streets Is Callin'" but did not receive a PA label. The soundtrack was released on December 23, 2003. Also, there was a release of a music video for B2K's single "Badaboom" featuring Fabolous and Marques Houston was the guest appearance.


title: You Got Served

text: The film was released on DVD by Sony Pictures on May 18, 2004. The film debuted for the first time on the Blu-ray format on October 4, 2016, in a triple feature release by Mill Creek Entertainment. The other two films in the bundle include "Gridiron Gang" (2006) and "Stomp the Yard" (2007).


title: You Got Served

text: "You Got Served" opened at the #1 spot in the United States and grossed $40.3 million; the total worldwide gross was $48.6 million.


title: You Got Served

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, it has an approval rating of 14% based on 71 reviews, with an average score of 4/10. Its critical consensus reads, "The dance sequences are exhilarating, but everything else about this movie is sloppy and generic." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 37 out of 100, indicating “generally unfavorable reviews”. Audiences polled by CinemaScore assigned the film an average grade of "A-" on its A+ to F scale.


title: You Got Served

text: The official dance tutorials from the film were released shortly after the movie's release in 2004 on a tutorial DVD entitled "You Got Served, Take It To The Streets".


title: You Got Served

text: "Beat the World" is a film written and directed by Robert Adetuyi (writer of "Stomp the Yard") released in 2011, by InnerCity Films. It was distributed in the United States on DVD by Sony Home Entertainment under the name "". The film stars Tyrone Brown, Mishael Morgan, Nikki Grant and Parkour artist Chase Armitage.


title: You Got Served

text: The original soundtrack was produced by Frank Fitzpatrick and released on Hip Hop Connect. It features KRS-One, K’naan, Ziggy Marley, Nneka, Les Nubians, MV Bill, Talib Kweli, Sway and Lina.


title: Paul Soros

text: Paul Soros (; born Pál Schwartz; June 5, 1926 – June 15, 2013) was a Hungarian-born American mechanical engineer, inventor, businessman and philanthropist. Soros founded Soros Associates, which designs and develops bulk handling and port facilities. Soros Associates currently operates in ninety-one countries worldwide, as of 2013. Paul Soros, often called "the invisible Soros", was the older brother of George Soros, a businessman and financier.


title: Paul Soros

text: Soros was born Pál Schwartz on June 5, 1926, in Budapest, Hungary, to Tivadar Schwartz, a lawyer and author, and Erzsébet Szűcs, the daughter of the owner of a fabric store. His father had been captured by the Russians during World War I and held in a detention camp in Siberia. Soros was also a native speaker of Esperanto, a constructed language.


title: Paul Soros

text: Tivadar Soros changed the family's surname from Schwartz to Soros in 1936 to escape antisemitism and the expansion of Nazism in Europe. Tivadar Soros forged paperwork, giving the family alias and Christian names, as the Germans occupied Hungary in 1944. The family fled to safe houses for nearly a year, until Soviet forces invaded the country. However, the Soviets mistakenly believed that Paul Soros was a wanted SS officer and arrested him. He was marched east, towards the Soviet Union with other prisoners. He managed to escape the prisoner march by ducking behind a bridge and hiding in an abandoned farm house. He then walked back to Budapest.


title: Paul Soros

text: Paul Soros survived the war and emigrated to the United States in 1948. He arrived in Manhattan after defecting from Hungary, then under Communist control, while traveling in Switzerland with the Hungarian Olympic ski team.


title: Paul Soros

text: Soros arrived in New York City with very little money. He enrolled at Brooklyn Collegiate and Polytechnic Institute (present-day New York University Tandon School of Engineering), where he earned his master's degree, as he could not afford the higher priced Ivy League universities. He resided in a cheap apartment near Prospect Park as a student, but still struggled to pay for rent and food.


title: Paul Soros

text: Soros founded Soros Associates, which designs and develops bulk handling and port facilities. The Brazilian multinational, Tubarão, used designs created by Soros' company to quadruple Brazil's iron ore output and become the world's largest corporate iron ore producer. Soros Associates now operates in 91 countries around the world.


title: Paul Soros

text: Paul Soros and his wife, Daisy Soros, founded The Paul & Daisy Soros Fellowships for New Americans, which provides funding for graduate degrees for immigrants and the children of immigrants. Each year, thirty students are awarded a fellowship of up to $90,000 to cover two years of graduate tuition, as well as living and other expenses. The fellows may study any subject they wish at any American university. In order to be awarded the fellowship, students must demonstrate a unique "idea or talent," have accomplished something concrete through long term effort, and have been involved with the government or other organization dedicated to the ideals of the U.S. Bill of Rights.


title: Paul Soros

text: Paul and Daisy Soros founded the Paul and Daisy Soros Fellowship in 1998 with $50 million. By 2010, they had awarded more than $30 million to nearly 400 students. They dedicated an additional $25 million to the Fellowship in 2010. Paul Soros served as Chairman of the Fellowship, and his son, Jeffrey Soros, became president in 2010.


title: Paul Soros

text: Paul Soros and Daisy Schlenger met in 1950 in New York, where they were both college students living at the International House. They began dating, and married in 1951. They had four children, Peter, Steven Paul, Linda and Jeffrey. Both Peter and Jeffrey serve on the Board of the Paul and Daisy Soros Fellowship Program, Jeffrey as its President. Steven Paul and Linda died in separate accidents in early childhood.


title: Paul Soros

text: Soros died at his Fifth Avenue home on the Upper East Side of Manhattan on June 15, 2013, at the age of 87. He had suffered from Parkinson's disease, diabetes, jaw cancer and tongue cancer during his later life. Soros was survived by his wife, Daisy Soros (née Schlenger), who, like her husband, was a Hungarian Jewish immigrant.


title: Quark star

text: A quark star is a hypothetical type of compact, exotic star, where extremely high core temperature and pressure has forced nuclear particles to form quark matter, a continuous state of matter consisting of free quarks.


title: Quark star

text: Some massive stars collapse to form neutron stars at the end of their life cycle, as has been both observed and explained theoretically. Under the extreme temperatures and pressures inside neutron stars, the neutrons are normally kept apart by a degeneracy pressure, stabilizing the star and hindering further gravitational collapse. However, it is hypothesized that under even more extreme temperature and pressure, the degeneracy pressure of the neutrons is overcome, and the neutrons are forced to merge and dissolve into their constituent quarks, creating an ultra-dense phase of quark matter based on densely packed quarks. In this state, a new equilibrium is supposed to emerge, as a new degeneracy pressure between the quarks, as well as repulsive electromagnetic forces, will occur and hinder total gravitational collapse.


title: Quark star

text: If these ideas are correct, quark stars might occur, and be observable, somewhere in the universe. Theoretically, such a scenario is seen as scientifically plausible, but it has been impossible to prove both observationally and experimentally, because the very extreme conditions needed for stabilizing quark matter cannot be created in any laboratory nor observed directly in nature. The stability of quark matter, and hence the existence of quark stars, is for these reasons among the unsolved problems in physics.


title: Quark star

text: If quark stars can form, then the most likely place to find quark star matter would be inside neutron stars that exceed the internal pressure needed for quark degeneracy – the point at which neutrons break down into a form of dense quark matter. They could also form if a massive star collapses at the end of its life, provided that it is possible for a star to be large enough to collapse beyond a neutron star but not large enough to form a black hole.


title: Quark star

text: If they exist, quark stars would resemble and be easily mistaken for neutron stars: they would form in the death of a massive star in a Type II supernova, be extremely dense and small, and possess a very high gravitational field. They would also lack some features of neutron stars, unless they also contained a shell of neutron matter, because free quarks are not expected to have properties matching degenerate neutron matter. For example, they might be radio-silent, or have atypical sizes, electromagnetic fields, or surface temperatures, compared to neutron stars.


title: Quark star

text: The analysis about quark stars was first proposed in 1965 by Soviet physicists D. D. Ivanenko and D. F. Kurdgelaidze. Their existence has not been confirmed.


title: Quark star

text: The equation of state of quark matter is uncertain, as is the transition point between neutron-degenerate matter and quark matter. Theoretical uncertainties have precluded making predictions from first principles. Experimentally, the behaviour of quark matter is being actively studied with particle colliders, but this can only produce very hot (above 10 K) quark–gluon plasma blobs the size of atomic nuclei, which decay immediately after formation. The conditions inside compact stars with extremely high densities and temperatures well below 10 K cannot be recreated artificially, as there are no known methods to produce, store or study "cold" quark matter directly as it would be found inside quark stars. The theory predicts quark matter to possess some peculiar characteristics under these conditions.


title: Quark star

text: It is theorized that when the neutron-degenerate matter, which makes up neutron stars, is put under sufficient pressure from the star's own gravity or the initial supernova creating it, the individual neutrons break down into their constituent quarks (up quarks and down quarks), forming what is known as quark matter. This conversion might be confined to the neutron star's center or it might transform the entire star, depending on the physical circumstances. Such a star is known as a quark star.


title: Quark star

text: Ordinary quark matter consisting of up and down quarks has a very high Fermi energy compared to ordinary atomic matter and is stable only under extreme temperatures and/or pressures. This suggests that the only stable quark stars will be neutron stars with a quark matter core, while quark stars consisting entirely of ordinary quark matter will be highly unstable and re-arrange spontaneously.


title: Quark star

text: It has been shown that the high Fermi energy making ordinary quark matter unstable at low temperatures and pressures can be lowered substantially by the transformation of a sufficient number of up and down quarks into strange quarks, as strange quarks are, relatively speaking, a very heavy type of quark particle. This kind of quark matter is known specifically as strange quark matter and it is speculated and subject to current scientific investigation whether it might in fact be stable under the conditions of interstellar space (i.e. near zero external pressure and temperature). If this is the case (known as the Bodmer–Witten assumption), quark stars made entirely of quark matter would be stable if they quickly transform into strange quark matter.


title: Quark star

text: Quark stars made of strange quark matter are known as strange stars, and they form a subgroup under the quark star category.


title: Quark star

text: Theoretical investigations have revealed that quark stars might not only be produced from neutron stars and powerful supernovas, they could also be created in the early cosmic phase separations following the Big Bang. If these primordial quark stars transform into strange quark matter before the external temperature and pressure conditions of the early Universe makes them unstable, they might turn out stable, if the Bodmer–Witten assumption holds true. Such primordial strange stars could survive to this day.


title: Quark star

text: Under the physical conditions found inside neutron stars, with extremely high densities but temperatures well below 10 K, quark matter is predicted to exhibit some peculiar characteristics. It is expected to behave as a Fermi liquid and enter a so-called color-flavor-locked (CFL) phase of color superconductivity, where "color" refers to the six "charges" exhibited in the strong interaction, instead of the two charges (positive and negative) in electromagnetism. At slightly lower densities, corresponding to higher layers closer to the surface of the compact star, the quark matter will behave as a non-CFL quark liquid, a phase that is even more mysterious than CFL and might include color conductivity and/or several additional yet undiscovered phases. None of these extreme conditions can currently be recreated in laboratories so nothing can be inferred about these phases from direct experiments.


title: Quark star

text: If the conversion of neutron-degenerate matter to (strange) quark matter is total, a quark star can to some extent be imagined as a single gigantic hadron. But this "hadron" will be bound by gravity, rather than by the strong force that binds ordinary hadrons.


title: Quark star

text: At least under the assumptions mentioned above, the probability of a given neutron star being a quark star is low, so in the Milky Way there would only be a small population of quark stars. If it is correct, however, that overdense neutron stars can turn into quark stars, that makes the possible number of quark stars higher than was originally thought, as observers would be looking for the wrong type of star.


title: Quark star

text: A neutron star without deconfinement to quarks and higher densities cannot have a rotational period shorter than a millisecond; even with the unimaginable gravity of such a condensed object the centripetal force of faster rotation would eject matter from the surface, so detection of a pulsar of millisecond or less period would be strong evidence of a quark star.


title: Quark star

text: Observations released by the Chandra X-ray Observatory on April 10, 2002 detected two possible quark stars, designated RX J1856.5-3754 and 3C 58, which had previously been thought to be neutron stars. Based on the known laws of physics, the former appeared much smaller and the latter much colder than it should be, suggesting that they are composed of material denser than neutron-degenerate matter. However, these observations are met with skepticism by researchers who say the results were not conclusive; and since the late 2000s, the possibility that RX J1856 is a quark star has been excluded.


title: Quark star

text: Another star, XTE J1739-285, has been observed by a team led by Philip Kaaret of the University of Iowa and reported as a possible quark star candidate.


title: Quark star

text: In 2006, You-Ling Yue et al., from Peking University, suggested that PSR B0943+10 may in fact be a low-mass quark star.


title: Quark star

text: It was reported in 2008 that observations of supernovae SN 2006gy, SN 2005gj and SN 2005ap also suggest the existence of quark stars. It has been suggested that the collapsed core of supernova SN 1987A may be a quark star.


title: Quark star

text: In 2015, Zi-Gao Dai et al. from Nanjing University suggested that Supernova ASASSN-15lh is a newborn strange quark star.


title: Quark star

text: In 2022 it was suggested that GW190425, which likely formed as a merger between two neutron stars giving off gravitational waves in the process, could be a quark star.


title: Quark star

text: Apart from ordinary quark matter and strange quark matter, other types of quark-gluon plasma might theoretically occur or be formed inside neutron stars and quark stars. This includes the following, some of which has been observed and studied in laboratories:


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The 1953 North Sea flood was a major flood caused by a heavy storm surge that struck the Netherlands, north-west Belgium, England and Scotland. Most sea defences facing the surge were overwhelmed, causing extensive flooding.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The storm and flooding occurred at the end of Saturday, 31 January 1953 and morning of the next day. A combination of a high spring tide and a severe European windstorm over the North Sea caused a storm tide. The combination of wind, high tide, and low pressure caused the sea to flood land up to above mean sea level.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: In the Netherlands 20% of the land was below mean sea level (subsequently with the expansion of Flevoland this proportion has increased); the next-highest 30% sat at less than above sea level. Such land relies heavily on sea defences and was worst affected, recording 1,836 deaths and widespread damage. Most of the casualties occurred in the southern province of Zeeland.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: More than 230 deaths occurred on seacraft along Northern European coasts as well as on ships in deeper waters of the North Sea. The ferry MV "Princess Victoria" sank in the North Channel east of Belfast with 133 fatalities, and many fishing trawlers sank. Nine small vessels foundered in the seas around the British Isles with the loss of all hands; these included the Swedish steamer "Aspo" (22 crew lost), the British steamer "Yewvalley" (12 crew lost), the British trawlers "Sheldon" (14 crew lost), "Michael Griffith" (13 crew lost) and "Guava" (eleven crew lost), the Dutch motor vessels "Salland" (nine crew lost) and "Westland" (eight crew lost), the Dutch trawler "Catharina Duyvis" (16 crew lost), and the Belgian trawler "Leopold Nera" (five crew lost).


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: Realising that such infrequent events could reoccur, the Netherlands and the UK carried out large studies on strengthening of coastal defences. The Netherlands developed the Delta Works, an extensive system of dams and storm surge barriers. The UK constructed storm surge barriers on the Thames Estuary and on the Hull where it meets the Humber Estuary.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: On the night of 31 January – 1 February 1953, many dykes in the province of Zeeland, the southern parts of the province of South Holland and the northwestern parts of the province of North Brabant proved unable to resist the combination of spring tide and a northwesterly storm. On both the islands and the mainland, large areas of the country were flooded. Many people still commemorate the dead on 1 February.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The Rijkswaterstaat had warned about the risk of a flood. At the time of the flood, none of the local radio stations broadcast at night, and many of the smaller weather stations operated only during the day. As a result, the warnings of the Royal Netherlands Meteorological Institute (KNMI) did not penetrate the flood-threatened area in time. People were unable to prepare for the impending flood. The disaster struck on a Saturday night, and hence many government and emergency offices in the affected area were not staffed.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: As telephone and telegraph networks were disrupted by flood damage, amateur radio operators went into the affected areas with their equipment to form a voluntary emergency radio network. These radio amateurs provided radio communications for 10 days and nights, and were the only people able to maintain contact from affected areas with the outside world.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The Zeeland dykes were breached in 67 locations. Large parts of South Holland, Zeeland and North Brabant were inundated. In North Holland only one polder was flooded. The most extensive flooding occurred on the islands of Schouwen-Duiveland, Tholen, Sint Philipsland, Goeree-Overflakkee, the Hoeksche Waard, Voorne-Putten and Alblasserwaard. Parts of the islands of Zuid-Beveland, Noord-Beveland, IJsselmonde, Pernis, Rozenburg, Walcheren and Land van Altena were flooded, as well as parts of the areas around Willemstad, Nieuw-Vossemeer and parts of Zeelandic Flanders.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: Afterward, the government formed the Delta Commission to study the causes and effects of the floods. They estimated that flooding killed 1,835 people and forced the emergency evacuation of 70,000 more. Floods covered 9% of Dutch farmland, and sea water flooded of land. An estimated 30,000 animals drowned, and 47,300 buildings were damaged, of which 10,000 had to be taken down (or were swept away). The total damage is estimated at 1 billion Dutch guilders.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The Schielands Hoge Zeedijk (Schielands High Seadyke) along the river Hollandse IJssel was all that protected three million people in the provinces of North and South Holland from flooding. A section of this dyke, known as the Groenendijk, was not reinforced with stone revetments. The water level was just below the crest and the seaward slope was weak.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: Volunteers worked to reinforce this stretch. However, the Groenendijk began to collapse under the pressure around 5:30 am on 1 February. Seawater flooded into the deep polder. In desperation, the mayor of Nieuwerkerk commandeered the river ship "de Twee Gebroeders" ("The Two Brothers") and ordered the owner to plug the hole in the dyke by navigating the ship into it. Fearing that the ship might break through into the polder, Captain Arie Evegroen took a row boat with him. The mayor's plan was successful, as the ship was lodged firmly into the dyke, reinforcing it against failure and saving many lives.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The Afsluitdijk across the entrance of the Zuiderzee was said to have paid for its construction cost in that one night, by preventing destructive flooding around the three great meers that used to be the Zuiderzee.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: Several neighbouring countries sent soldiers to assist in searching for bodies and rescuing people. The U.S. Army sent helicopters from Germany to rescue people from rooftops. Queen Juliana and Princess Beatrix visited the flooded area only a few days after. A large aid program, the National Relief Fund, was launched, and soldiers raised funds by selling pea-soup door to door. Internationally, 100,000 commemorative postcards, featuring an illustration by Eppo Doeve, were sold. A national donation program was started and there was a large amount of international aid. The Red Cross was overwhelmed by contributions, and diverted some of the funds to assist residents of Third World countries.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: It was found that the flooding could have been higher; the Rijkswaterstaat's plan concerning the protection and strengthening of the dikes was accepted. As a result, the Delta Works were authorized, an elaborate project to enable emergency closing of the mouths of most estuaries, to prevent flood surges upriver.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The North Sea flood of 1953 was the worst flood in England and Scotland of the 20th century. Over of coastline was damaged, and sea walls were breached in 1,200 places, inundating . Flooding forced over 30,000 people from their homes, and 24,000 properties were greatly damaged. The damage is estimated as £50 million at 1953 prices, approximately £1.2 billion at 2013 prices.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: Probably the most devastating storm to affect Scotland for 500 years, the surge crossed between Orkney and Shetland. The storm generated coastal and inland hazards, including flooding, erosion, destruction of coastal defences, and widespread wind damage. Damage was throughout the country, with 19 fatalities reported. The fishing village of Crovie (then in Banffshire, now Aberdeenshire), built on a narrow strip of land along the Moray Firth coast, was abandoned by many, as large structures were swept into the sea.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The surge raced down the east coast into the mid-to-southern North Sea, where it was amplified by shallower waters.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: On the north side of the Thames Estuary Canvey Island in Essex was inundated, with the loss of 58 lives. Some 41 people died at Felixstowe in Suffolk when wooden prefabricated homes in the West End of the town were flooded. Another 37 died when the seafront village of Jaywick near Clacton was flooded.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: In Lincolnshire, flooding occurred from Mablethorpe to Skegness, reaching as far as inland. Police Officers Charles Lewis and Leonard Deptford received George Medals for their part in rescue work. Lewis leapt from a police station upper window to save an elderly couple being swept away in floodwater, carrying them to a house across the road to safety, then continuing rescue work for hours until he found a working telephone to call for help. Deptford was off-duty at his son's party when the wall of water hit. He realised the elderly were vulnerable as the Roman bank was breached and he dragged and carried many to safety. At one house he found a bedridden elderly couple with their middle-aged daughter; in the waist-high floodwater, he lashed together oil cans to make a raft, to which he tied the couple and pulled them to safety. He carried on into day, his last rescue being a dog.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: Reis Leming, a US airman, and USAF Staff Sergeant Freeman A Kilpatrick were also awarded the George Medal for rescuing respectively 27 and 18 people at South Beach, Hunstanton. At Salthouse the Victorian Randall's Folly was badly damaged, resulting in its subsequent demolition.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: In south-west Essex, water overspilled the Royal Docks into Silvertown, where it drained into the sewers but flooded back in Canning Town and Tidal Basin. William Hayward, a night watchman at William Ritchie & Son, died of exposure to gas from a damaged pipe – the only fatality in London. Almost 200 people were homeless and took refuge at Canning Town Public Hall. The village of Creekmouth on Barking Creek, the mouth of the Roding, was wholly flooded by the sea surge and later demolished. Residents were relocated elsewhere in Barking.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The total death toll on land in Britain is estimated at 307. The total death toll at sea for the UK, including the , is estimated at 224.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: The coastal defence of Flanders was severely damaged. Near Ostend, Knokke and Antwerp, heavy damage was done to the sea defence with local breaches. Twenty-eight people died, including musician Robert Dubois.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: After the 1953 flood, governments realised that similar infrequent but devastating events were possible in the future. In the Netherlands the government conceived and constructed an ambitious flood defence system beginning in the 1960s. Called the Delta Works (), it is designed to protect the estuaries of the rivers Rhine, Meuse and Scheldt. The system was completed in 1998, with completion of the storm surge barrier Maeslantkering in the Nieuwe Waterweg, near Rotterdam.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: In the UK, the Permanent Secretary to the Home Office, Sir Frank Newsam, coordinated the immediate efforts to defend homes, save lives and recover after the floods. After the flooding, the government made major investments in new sea defences. The Thames Barrier programme was started to secure Central London against a future storm surge; the Barrier was officially opened on 8 May 1984. A range of flood defence measures were initiated around the UK coast.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: In 2013 a service was held at Chelmsford Cathedral to mark the 60th anniversary of the Great Flood, attended by Anne, Princess Royal. Acts of remembrance were also held in Lincolnshire, Norfolk, Suffolk and Essex.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: A blue plaque marking the level of the flood water was installed by the Leigh Society on the wall of the Heritage Centre in Leigh-on-Sea to commemorate the flooding there.


title: North Sea flood of 1953

text: In 2011 58 years after the flood, a service remembrance was held outside the library on Canvey Island in Essex to unveil a plaque commemorating the 58 people who lost their lives on the island.


title: Movie camera

text: A movie camera (also known as a film camera and cine-camera) is a type of photographic camera that rapidly takes a sequence of photographs, either on an image sensor or onto film stock, in order to produce a moving image to project onto a movie screen. In contrast to the still camera, which captures a single image at a time, by way of an intermittent mechanism, the movie camera takes a series of images; each image is a "frame" of film. The strips of frames are projected through a movie projector at a specific frame rate (number of frames per second) to show a moving picture. When projected at a given frame rate, the persistence of vision allows the eyes and brain of the viewer to merge the separate frames into a continuous moving picture.


title: Movie camera

text: An interesting forerunner to the movie camera was the machine invented by Francis Ronalds at the Kew Observatory in 1845. A photosensitive surface was drawn slowly past the aperture diaphragm of the camera by a clockwork mechanism to enable continuous recording over a 12- or 24-hour period. Ronalds applied his cameras to trace the ongoing variations of scientific instruments and they were used in observatories around the world for over a century.


title: Movie camera

text: The chronophotographic gun was invented in 1882 by Étienne-Jules Marey, a French scientist and chronophotographer. It could shoot 12 images per second and was the first invention to capture moving images on the same chronomatographic plate using a metal shutter.


title: Movie camera

text: In 1876, Wordsworth Donisthorpe proposed a camera to take a series of pictures on glass plates, to be printed on a roll of paper film. In 1889, he would patent a moving picture camera in which the film moved continuously. Another film camera was designed in England by Frenchman Louis Le Prince in 1888. He had built a 16 lens camera in 1887 at his workshop in Leeds. The first 8 lenses would be triggered in rapid succession by an electromagnetic shutter on the sensitive film; the film would then be moved forward allowing the other 8 lenses to operate on the film. After much trial and error, he was finally able to develop a single-lens camera in 1888, which he used to shoot sequences of moving pictures on paper film, including the "Roundhay Garden Scene" and "Leeds Bridge".


title: Movie camera

text: Another early pioneer was the British inventor William Friese-Greene. In 1887, he began to experiment with the use of paper film, made transparent through oiling, to record motion pictures. He also said he attempted using experimental celluloid, made with the help of Alexander Parkes. In 1889, Friese-Greene took out a patent for a moving picture camera that was capable of taking up to ten photographs per second. Another model, built in 1890, used rolls of the new Eastman celluloid film, which he had perforated. A full report on the patented camera was published in the British "Photographic News" on February 28, 1890. He showed his cameras and film shot with them on many occasions, but never projected his films in public. He also sent details of his invention to Edison in February 1890, which was also seen by Dickson (see below).


title: Movie camera

text: William Kennedy Laurie Dickson, a Scottish inventor and employee of Thomas Edison, designed the Kinetograph Camera in 1891. The camera was powered by an electric motor and was capable of shooting with the new sprocketed film. To govern the intermittent movement of the film in the camera, allowing the strip to stop long enough so each frame could be fully exposed and then advancing it quickly (in about 1/460 of a second) to the next frame, the sprocket wheel that engaged the strip was driven by an escapement disc mechanism—the first practical system for the high-speed stop-and-go film movement that would be the foundation for the next century of cinematography.


title: Movie camera

text: The Lumière Domitor camera, owned by brothers Auguste and Louis Lumière, was created by Charles Moisson, the chief mechanic at the Lumière works in Lyon in 1894. The camera used paper film 35 millimeters wide, but in 1895, the Lumière brothers shifted to celluloid film, which they bought from New-York’s Celluloid Manufacturing Co. This they covered with their own Etiquette-bleue emulsion, had it cut into strips and perforated.


title: Movie camera

text: In 1894, the Polish inventor Kazimierz Prószyński constructed a projector and camera in one, an invention he called the Pleograph.


title: Movie camera

text: Due to the work of Le Prince, Friese-Greene, Edison, and the Lumière brothers, the movie camera had become a practical reality by the mid-1890s. The first firms were soon established for the manufacture of movie camera, including Birt Acres, Eugene Augustin Lauste, Dickson, Pathé frères, Prestwich, Newman & Guardia, de Bedts, Gaumont-Démény, Schneider, Schimpf, Akeley, Debrie, Bell & Howell, Leonard-Mitchell, Ertel, Ernemann, Eclair, Stachow, Universal, Institute, Wall, Lytax, and many others.


title: Movie camera

text: The Aeroscope was built and patented in England in the period 1909–1911 by Polish inventor Kazimierz Prószyński. Aeroscope was the first successful hand-held operated film camera. The cameraman did not have to turn the crank to advance the film, as in all cameras of that time, so he could operate the camera with both hands, holding the camera and controlling the focus. This made it possible to film with the Aeroscope in difficult circumstances including from the air and for military purposes.


title: Movie camera

text: The first all-metal cine camera was the Bell & Howell Standard of 1911-12. One of the most complicated models was the Mitchell-Technicolor Beam Splitting Three-Strip Camera of 1932. With it, three colour separation originals are obtained behind a purple, a green, and a red light filter, the latter being part of one of the three different raw materials in use.


title: Movie camera

text: In 1923, Eastman Kodak introduced a 16mm film stock, principally as a lower-cost alternative to 35 mm and several camera makers launched models to take advantage of the new market of amateur movie-makers. Thought initially to be of inferior quality to 35 mm, 16 mm cameras continued to be manufactured until the 2000s by the likes of Bolex, Arri, and Aaton.


title: Movie camera

text: Digital movie cameras do not use analog film stock to capture images, as had been the standard since the 1890s. Rather, an electronic image sensor is employed and the images are typically recorded on hard drives or flash memoryusing a variety of acquisition formats. Digital SLR cameras (DSLR) designed for consumer use have also been used for some low-budget independent productions.


title: Movie camera

text: Since the 2010s, digital movie cameras have become the dominant type of camera in the motion picture industry, being employed in film, television productions and even (to a lesser extent) video games. In response to this, movie director Martin Scorsese started the non-profit organisation The Film Foundation to preserve the use of film in movie makingas many filmmakers feel DSLR cameras do not convey the depth or emotion that motion-picture film does. Other major directors involved in the organisation include Quentin Tarantino, Christopher Nolan and many more.


title: Movie camera

text: Most of the optical and mechanical elements of a movie camera are also present in the movie projector. The requirements for film tensioning, take-up, intermittent motion, loops, and rack positioning are almost identical. The camera will not have an illumination source and will maintain its film stock in a light-tight enclosure. A camera will also have exposure control via an iris aperture located on the lens. The righthand side of the camera is often referred to by camera assistants as "the dumb side" because it usually lacks indicators or readouts and access to the film threading, as well as lens markings on many lens models. Later equipment often had done much to minimize these shortcomings, although access to the film movement block by both sides is precluded by basic motor and electronic design necessities. Advent of digital cameras reduced the above mechanism to a minimum removing much of the shortcomings.


title: Movie camera

text: The standardized frame rate for commercial sound film is 24 frames per second. The standard commercial (i.e., movie-theater film) width is 35 millimeters, while many other film formats exist. The standard aspect ratios are 1.66, 1.85, and 2.39 (anamorphic). NTSC video (common in North America and Japan) plays at 29.97 frame/s; PAL (common in most other countries) plays at 25 frames. These two television and video systems also have different resolutions and color encodings. Many of the technical difficulties involving film and video concern translation between the different formats. Video aspect ratios are 4:3 (1.33) for full screen and 16:9 (1.78) for widescreen.


title: Movie camera

text: Multiple cameras may be placed side-by-side to record a single angle of a scene and repeated throughout the runtime. The film is then later projected simultaneously, either on a single three-image screen (Cinerama) or upon multiple screens forming a complete circle, with gaps between screens through which the projectors illuminate an opposite screen. (See Circle-Vision 360°) Convex and concave mirrors are used in cameras as well as mirrors.


title: Movie camera

text: One of the problems in film is synchronizing a sound recording with the film. Most film cameras do not record sound internally; instead, the sound is captured separately by a precision audio device (see double-system recording). The exceptions to this are the single-system news film cameras, which had either an optical—or later—magnetic recording head inside the camera. For optical recording, the film only had a single perforation and the area where the other set of perforations would have been was exposed to a controlled bright light that would burn a waveform image that would later regulate the passage of light and playback the sound. For magnetic recording, that same area of the single perf 16 mm film that was prestriped with a magnetic stripe. A smaller balance stripe existed between the perforations and the edge to compensate the thickness of the recording stripe to keep the film wound evenly.


title: Movie camera

text: Double-system cameras are generally categorized as either "sync" or "non-sync." Sync cameras use crystal-controlled motors that ensure that film is advanced through the camera at a precise speed. In addition, they're designed to be quiet enough to not hamper sound recording of the scene being shot. Non-sync or "MOS" cameras do not offer these features; any attempt to match location sound to these cameras' footage will eventually result in "sync drift", and the noise they emit typically renders location sound recording useless.


title: Movie camera

text: To synchronize double-system footage, the clapper board which typically starts a take is used as a reference point for the editor to match the picture to the sound (provided the scene and take are also called out so that the editor knows which picture take goes with any given sound take). It also permits scene and take numbers and other essential information to be seen on the film itself. Aaton cameras have a system called AatonCode that can "jam sync" with a timecode-based audio recorder and prints a digital timecode directly on the edge of the film itself. However, the most commonly used system at the moment is unique identifier numbers exposed on the edge of the film by the film stock manufacturer (KeyKode is the name for Kodak's system). These are then logged (usually by a computer editing system, but sometimes by hand) and recorded along with audio timecode during editing. In the case of no better alternative, a handclap can work if done clearly and properly, but often a quick tap on the microphone (provided it is in the frame for this gesture) is preferred.


title: Movie camera

text: One of the most common uses of non-sync cameras is the spring-wound cameras used in hazardous special effects, known as "crash cams". Scenes shot with these have to be kept short or resynchronized manually with the sound. MOS cameras are also often used for second unit work or anything involving slow or fast-motion filming.


title: Movie camera

text: With the advent of digital cameras, synchronization became a redundant term, as both visual and audio is simultaneously captured electronically.


title: Movie camera

text: Movie cameras were available before World War II often using the 9.5 mm film format or 16 mm format. The use of movie cameras had an upsurge in popularity in the immediate post-war period giving rise to the creation of home movies. Compared to the pre-war models, these cameras were small, light, fairly sophisticated and affordable.


title: Movie camera

text: An extremely compact 35 mm movie camera "Kinamo" was designed by Emanuel Goldberg for amateur and semi-professional movies in 1921. A spring motor attachment was added in 1923 to allow flexible handheld filming. The Kinamo was used by Joris Ivens and other avant-garde and documentary filmmakers in the late 1920s and early 1930s.


title: Movie camera

text: While a basic model might have a single fixed aperture/focus lens, a better version might have three or four lenses of differing apertures and focal lengths on a rotating turret. A good quality camera might come with a variety of interchangeable, focusable lenses or possibly a single zoom lens. The viewfinder was normally a parallel sight within or on top of the camera body. In the 1950s and for much of the 1960s these cameras were powered by clockwork motors, again with variations of quality. A simple mechanism might only power the camera for some 30 seconds, while a geared drive camera might work for as long as 75 – 90 seconds (at standard speeds).


title: Movie camera

text: The common film used for these cameras was termed Standard 8, which was a strip of 16-millimetre wide film which was only exposed down one half during shooting. The film had twice the number of perforations as film for 16 mm cameras and so the frames were half as high and half as wide as 16 mm frames. The film was removed and placed back in the camera to expose the frames on the other side once the first half had been exposed. Once the film was developed it was sliced down the middle and the ends attached, giving of Standard 8 film from a spool of of 16 mm film. 16 mm cameras, mechanically similar to the smaller format models, were also used in home movie making but were more usually the tools of semi professional film and news film makers.


title: Movie camera

text: In the 1960s a new film format, Super8, coincided with the advent of battery-operated electric movie cameras. The new film, with a larger frame print on the same width of film stock, came in a cassette that simplified changeover and developing. Another advantage of the new system is that they had the capacity to record sound, albeit of indifferent quality. Camera bodies, and sometimes lenses, were increasingly made in plastic rather than the metals of the earlier types. As the costs of mass production came down, so did the price and these cameras became very popular.


title: Movie camera

text: This type of format and camera was more quickly superseded for amateurs by the advent of digital video cameras in the 2000s. Since the 2010s, amateurs increasingly started preferring smartphone cameras.


title: Rani Chatterjee

text: Sabiha Shaikh (born 3 November 1989), known professionally as Rani Chatterjee, is an Indian actress who predominantly works in Bhojpuri-language films. She is known for her roles in films like "Sasura Bada Paisawala", "Sita", "Devra Bada Satawela" and "Rani No. 786". She also worked in the 2020 webseries "Mastram".


title: Rani Chatterjee

text: Chatterjee was born as Sabiha Shaikh in a Muslim family on 3 November 1989. She was born and brought up in Mumbai. Chatterjee did her schooling from Tungareshwar Academy High school, Vasai. Rani, who is originally Sabiha Shaikh on her documents, shares an interesting reason behind it. Talking to a section of media recently Rani said, "In 2004 I was shooting for a Bhojpuri film titled "Sasura Bada Paisawala" and one day we were shooting a sequence in a temple where I have to bang my head on the floor. And while the shoot was on a few media people had come to interview me also there was a lot of crowd was also watching the shoot. So my director thought revealing my original name might create a scene as I am a Muslim. So when someone people asked my name he said Rani and when they asked about my surname so he couldn't think of anything and said Chatterjee as Rani Mukerji was very famous at that point of time. And she also became famous with this name".


title: Rani Chatterjee

text: Rani also adds, "My family was definitely angry on me for keeping that name as my identity but she convinced them as she really found that name lucky. Manoj Tiwari was opposite me in the film and it became a huge hit on box office. In fact, made many records. Due to which I was offered a lot of work and I became the highest-paid actress in Bhojpuri industry".


title: Rani Chatterjee

text: Chatterjee made her film debut in the 2003 Bhojpuri family drama "Sasura Bada Paisawala" featuring Manoj Tiwari. The film released in 2004 and was a success and won several awards. She followed it up with major hits like "Bandhan Tute Na" (2005), "Damaad Ji" (2006) and "Munna Pandey Berozgar" (2007). She earned a lot of critical acclaim for her titular role in "Munnibai Nautanki Wali" (2009). She won her first Best Actress Award for "Devra Bada Satawela" (2010).


title: Rani Chatterjee

text: The sixth Bhojpuri Awards in 2013 declared Chatterjee as the Best Actress of the year for her performance in "Nagin". Rani has acted in a Punjabi film Aasra. In 2020, Chatterjee acted in MX player web series "Mastram". She later acted in Kooku App web series "Rani Ka Raja".


title: Ish-bosheth

text: Ish-bosheth (, "man of shame"), also called Eshbaal (, ; alternatively spelled Ishbaal, "fire of Baal") was, according to the Hebrew Bible, the second monarch of the Kingdom of Israel who succeeded his father, Saul. He reigned for two years, during which he was at war with David. He was killed by two of his own army captains.


title: Ish-bosheth

text: In the biblical account, Abner, the captain of Saul's army, proclaimed Ish-bosheth king over Israel at Mahanaim in Transjordan (), after the slaying of Ish-bosheth's father and brothers in the battle of Gilboa (). Ish-bosheth was 40 years old at this time and reigned for two years ().


title: Ish-bosheth

text: However, after the death of King Saul, the tribe of Judah seceded from the rule of the House of Saul by proclaiming David as its king (), and war ensued (). David's faction eventually prevailed against Ish-bosheth's (), but the war did not come to a close until Abner joined David ().


title: Ish-bosheth

text: Before the death of Saul, David had been married to Saul's daughter Michal, Ish-bosheth's sister, until Saul and David had a falling out and Saul gave her to another man (). Later, at the conclusion of the war with Ish-bosheth, David's terms for peace required returning Michal to him, and Ish-bosheth complied (). After Abner's death, Ish-bosheth seems to have given up hope of retaining power ().


title: Ish-bosheth

text: Two of Ish-bosheth's own army-captains, Rechab and Baanah, assassinated the deposed king, () expecting a reward from David for this. David, however, refused to give any commendation for high treason; he had both killers executed and their hands and feet cut off. David's supporters buried the head of Ish-bosheth in Abner's grave at Hebron ().


title: Ish-bosheth

text: The names "Ish-bosheth" and "Eshbaal" have ambiguous meanings in the original Hebrew. In Hebrew, "Ish-bosheth" means "Man of shame". He is also called "Eshbaal", in Hebrew meaning "Baal exists", or "fire of Baal".


title: Ish-bosheth

text: Critical scholarship suggests that "Bosheth" was a substitute for "Baʿal", beginning when Baʿal became an unspeakable word; as (in the opposite direction) Adonai became substituted for the ineffable Tetragrammaton (see taboo deformation).


title: Ish-bosheth

text: In 2012, according to the Israel Antiquities Authority, archaeologists had discovered a 3,000-year-old inscription on a reconstructed large ceramic jar found in Khirbet Qeiyafa, containing the name "Eshbaal ben Beda". Though this Eshbaal is a different person than the Eshbaal/Ish-bosheth of the Bible, it was the first time the name was discovered in an ancient inscription. It is one of only four Hebrew inscriptions ever discovered dating to the 10th century BC.


title: Alex Michaelides

text: Alex Michaelides (born 1977) is a bestselling British Cypriot author and screenwriter. His debut novel, the psychological thriller "The Silent Patient," is a "New York Times" and "Sunday Times" bestseller, with over three million copies sold.


title: Alex Michaelides

text: Michaelides was born in Cyprus to a Cypriot father and English mother. He studied English literature at Trinity College, Cambridge University.


title: Alex Michaelides

text: He studied psychotherapy for three years, and worked for two years at a secure unit for young adults. This work provided material and inspiration for his debut novel "The Silent Patient".


title: Alex Michaelides

text: Michaelides' debut novel, "The Silent Patient", was the No. 1 "New York Times" Bestseller of Hardcover Fiction in its first week and was the bestselling hardback debut in the US for 2019. It was a Sunday Times top 10 bestseller for seven weeks. On Amazon.com, it was the No. 2 most sold for 2019 in their list of Most Sold Books in fiction and named as their number one thriller of 2019. It also won the Goodreads Choice Award for Best Mystery & Thriller of 2019, was chosen as a Richard & Judy Book Club pick and as a Book of the Month in The Times. It was shortlisted for a Barry for best debut and Barnes and Noble's Book of the Year. Brad Pitt's production company, Plan B, is developing "The Silent Patient" as a film.


title: Alex Michaelides

text: Michaelides' second novel, "The Maidens", was published on 10 June 2021 by Orion Publishing (UK) and on 15 June 2021 by Celadon Books (US). It is a psychological detective story about a series of murders at a Cambridge college. The novel debuted at number two on "The New York Times" fiction best-seller list for the week ending 19 June 2021.


title: Alex Michaelides

text: Michaelides also wrote the film "The Devil You Know", starring Lena Olin, Rosamund Pike, and Jennifer Lawrence, and co-wrote "The Con Is On", starring Uma Thurman, Tim Roth, Parker Posey, and Sofia Vergara.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 (short for RMC 136a1) is one of the most massive and luminous stars known, at and nearly 4.7 million , and is also one of the hottest, at around . It is a Wolf–Rayet star at the center of R136, the central concentration of stars of the large NGC 2070 open cluster in the Tarantula Nebula (30 Doradus) in the Large Magellanic Cloud. The cluster can be seen in the far southern celestial hemisphere with binoculars or a small telescope, at magnitude 7.25. R136a1 itself is 100 times fainter and can only be resolved using speckle interferometry.


title: R136a1

text: In 1960, a group of astronomers working at the Radcliffe Observatory in Pretoria made systematic measurements of the brightness and spectra of bright stars in the Large Magellanic Cloud. Among the objects cataloged was RMC 136 (Radcliffe observatory Magellanic Cloud catalog number 136), the central "star" of the Tarantula Nebula, which the observers concluded was probably a multiple star system. Subsequent observations showed that R136 was located in the middle of a giant region of ionized interstellar hydrogen, known as an H II region, which was a center of intense star formation in the immediate vicinity of the observed stars.


title: R136a1

text: In 1979, ESO's 3.6 m telescope was used to resolve R136 into three components; R136a, R136b, and R136c. The exact nature of R136a was unclear and a subject of intense discussion. Estimates that the brightness of the central region would require as many as 100 hot O class stars within half a parsec at the centre of the cluster led to speculation that a star 3,000 times the mass of the Sun was the more likely explanation.


title: R136a1

text: The first demonstration that R136a was a star cluster was provided by Weigelt and Beier in 1985. Using the speckle interferometry technique, R136a was shown to be made up of 8 stars within 1 arcsecond at the centre of the cluster, with R136a1 being the brightest.


title: R136a1

text: Final confirmation of the nature of R136a came after the launch of the Hubble Space Telescope. Its Wide Field and Planetary Camera (WFPC) resolved R136a into at least 12 components and showed that R136 contained over 200 highly luminous stars. The more advanced WFPC2 allowed the study of 46 massive luminous stars within half a parsec of R136a and over 3,000 stars within a 4.7 parsec radius.


title: R136a1

text: In the night sky, R136 appears as a 10th magnitude object at the core of the NGC 2070 cluster embedded in the Tarantula Nebula in the Large Magellanic Cloud. It required a 3.6 metre telescope to detect R136a as a component of R136 in 1979, and resolving R136a to detect R136a1 requires a space telescope or sophisticated techniques such as adaptive optics or speckle interferometry.


title: R136a1

text: South of about the 20th parallel south, the LMC is circumpolar, meaning that it can be seen (at least in part) all night every night of the year, weather and light pollution permitting. In the Northern Hemisphere, it can be visible south of the 20th parallel north. This excludes North America (except southern Mexico), Europe, northern Africa and northern Asia.


title: R136a1

text: The R136a system at the core of R136 is a dense luminous knot of stars containing at least 12 stars, the most prominent being R136a1, R136a2, and R136a3, all of which are extremely luminous and massive WN5h stars. R136a1 is separated from R136a2, the second brightest star in the cluster, by 5,000 AU.


title: R136a1

text: R136 is located approximately 157,000 light-years from Earth in the Large Magellanic Cloud, positioned on the south-east corner of the galaxy at the centre of the Tarantula Nebula, also known as 30 Doradus. R136 itself is just the central condensation of the much larger NGC 2070 open cluster.


title: R136a1

text: For such a distant star, R136a1 is relatively unobscured by interstellar dust. The reddening causes the visual brightness to be reduced by about 1.8 magnitudes, but only around 0.22 magnitudes in the near infrared.


title: R136a1

text: The distance to R136a1 cannot be determined directly, but is assumed to be at the same distance as the Large Magellanic Cloud at around 50 kiloparsecs or 163,000 light years.


title: R136a1

text: A possible binary companion to R136a1 has been resolved, although there is a 25% possibility that it is a change alignment.


title: R136a1

text: X-ray emission was detected from R136 using the Chandra X-ray Observatory. R136a and R136c were both clearly detected, but R136a could not be resolved. Another study separated the R136a1/2 pair from R136a3. R136a1/2 showed relatively soft x-rays not thought to indicate a colliding winds binary.


title: R136a1

text: Rapid Doppler radial velocity variations would be expected from a pair of equal mass stars in a close orbit, but this has not been seen in the R136a1 spectrum. A high orbital inclination, a more distant binary, or a chance alignment of two distant stars cannot be completely ruled out but is thought to be unlikely. Highly unequal binary components are possible, but would not affect the modelling of R136a1's properties.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 is a high-luminosity WN5h star, placing it on the extreme top left corner of the Hertzsprung–Russell diagram. A Wolf–Rayet star is distinguished by the strong, broad emission lines in its spectrum. This includes ionized nitrogen, helium, carbon, oxygen and occasionally silicon, but with hydrogen lines usually weak or absent. A WN5 star is classified on the basis of ionised helium emission being considerably stronger than the neutral helium lines, and having roughly equal emission strength from N, N, and N. The "h" in the spectral type indicates significant hydrogen emission in the spectrum, and hydrogen is calculated to make up 40% of the surface abundance by mass.


title: R136a1

text: WNh stars as a class are massive luminous stars still burning hydrogen at their cores. The emission spectrum is produced in a powerful dense stellar wind, and the enhanced levels of helium and nitrogen arise from convectional mixing of CNO cycle products to the surface.


title: R136a1

text: An evolutionary mass of is found from HST visual spectra using a non-LTE line-blanketed CMFGEN model atmosphere. R136a1 closely matches the expected properties for an initially rapidly rotating star with LMC metallicity after shining for about a million years.


title: R136a1

text: A current mass of is found in similar analysis using PoWR (Potsdam Wolf–Rayet) atmospheric models with optical and ultraviolet spectra and a mass–luminosity relation, assuming a single star.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 is undergoing extreme mass loss through a stellar wind reaching a velocity of . This is caused by intense electromagnetic radiation from the very hot photosphere accelerating material away from the surface more strongly than gravity can retain it. Mass loss is largest for high-luminosity stars with low surface gravity and enhanced levels of heavy elements in the photosphere. R136a1 loses () per year, over a billion times more than the Sun loses, and is expected to have shed about since its formation.


title: R136a1

text: It was from 2010 to 2020 that the star was recognised as the most massive and luminous star known. Previous estimates had placed the luminosity as low as .


title: R136a1

text: At around , R136a1 is one of the most luminous stars known, radiating more energy in four seconds than the Sun does in a year. If it replaced the Sun in the Solar System, it would outshine the Sun by 164,000 times (M = −8.2) and would appear from Earth at magnitude −40. Its brightness at a distance of 10 parsecs, the absolute visual magnitude, would be −8.18, three magnitudes brighter than Venus ever appears from Earth. Its brightness at the distance of the nearest star to Earth, Proxima Centauri (just over a parsec), would be about the same as the full moon.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 supplies c. 7% of the ionizing flux of the entire 30 Doradus region, as much as 70 O7 main-sequence stars. Along with R136a2, a3, and c, it produces 43–46% of the Lyman continuum radiation of the whole R136 cluster.


title: R136a1

text: Massive stars lie close to the Eddington limit, the luminosity at which the radiation pressure acting outwards at the surface of the star equals the force of the star's gravity pulling it inward. Above the Eddington limit, a star generates so much energy that its outer layers are rapidly thrown off. This effectively restricts stars from shining at higher luminosities for long periods. The classical Eddington luminosity limit is not applicable to stars such as R136a1 that are not in hydrostatic equilibrium, and its calculation is extremely complex for real stars. The empirical Humphrey-Davidson limit has been identified as a luminosity limit for observed stars, but recent models have attempted to calculate useful theoretical Eddington limits applicable to massive stars. R136a1 is currently around 70% of its Eddington luminosity.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 has a surface temperature of around , eight times as hot as the Sun, and with peak radiation in the extreme ultraviolet.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 has a B–V index of about 0.03, which is a typical colour for an F-type star. The "U–V" colour from the HST WFPC2 and filters is −1.28, more indicative of an extremely hot star. This variation of different colour indices relative to a blackbody is the result of interstellar dust causing reddening and extinction. The reddening (E) can be used to estimate the level of visual extinction (A). E values of 0.29–0.37 have been measured, with considerable uncertainty due to contamination from close neighbours such as R136a2 0.1" away, leading to A around 1.80 and a de-reddened B–V (B–V) of −0.30.


title: R136a1

text: The effective temperature of a star can be approximated from the colour, but this is not very accurate and spectral fitting to an atmospheric model is necessary to derive the temperature. Temperatures of 53,000–56,000 K are found for R136a1 using different atmospheric models. Older models had produced temperatures around and hence dramatically lower luminosities. The extreme temperature of the star causes its peak radiation to be around and nearly 99% of the radiation to be emitted outside the visual range (a bolometric correction around −5).


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 is over forty times the radius of the Sun () which corresponds to a volume nearly 80,000 times larger than the Sun.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 does not have a well-defined visible surface like the Earth or the Sun. The hydrostatic main body of the star is surrounded by a dense atmosphere being accelerated outwards into the stellar wind. An arbitrary point within this wind is defined as the surface for measuring the radius, and different authors may use different definitions. For example, a Rosseland optical depth of 2/3 corresponds approximately to a visible surface while a Rosseland depth of 20 or 100 corresponds more closely to a physical photosphere. Stellar temperatures are typically quoted at the same depth so that the radius and temperature correspond to the luminosity.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1's dimensions are far smaller than the largest stars: red supergiants are , tens of times larger than R136a1. Despite the large mass and modest dimensions, R136a1 has an average density less than 1% of the Sun's. At about 5 kg/m, it is around 4 times denser than Earth's atmosphere at sea level; alternately, less than an hundredth the density of water.


title: R136a1

text: The rotation rate of R136a1 cannot be measured directly since the photosphere is hidden by the dense stellar wind and the photospheric absorption lines used to measure rotational doppler broadening are not present in the spectrum. A N emission line at 2.1 µm is produced relatively deep in the wind and can be used to estimate rotation. In R136a1 it has a FWHM of about 15 Å, indicating a slow or non rotating star, although it could be aligned with its pole facing Earth. R136a2 and a3 are rotating rapidly and the closest evolutionary models for R136a1 match a star still rotating with an equatorial speed of c. 200 km/s after c. 1.75 Myr.


title: R136a1

text: R136a1 is currently fusing hydrogen to helium, predominantly by the CNO cycle due to the high temperatures at the core. Despite the Wolf–Rayet spectral appearance, it is a young star. The emission spectrum is created by a dense stellar wind caused by the extreme luminosity, with the enhanced levels of helium and nitrogen being mixed from the core to the surface by strong convection. It is effectively a main sequence star. Over 90% of the star is convective, with a small non-convective layer at the surface.


title: R136a1

text: Models of star formation by accretion from molecular clouds predict an upper limit to the mass a star can achieve before its radiation prevents further accretion. The most simplistic accretion models at population I metallicities predict a limit as low as , but more complex theories allow masses several times higher. An empirical limit of around has become widely accepted. R136a1 clearly exceeds all these limits, leading to development of new single star accretion models potentially removing the upper limit, and the potential for massive star formation by stellar mergers.


title: R136a1

text: As a single star formed from accretion, the properties of such a massive star are still uncertain. Synthetic spectra indicate that it would never have a main sequence luminosity class (V), or even a normal O type spectrum. The high luminosity, proximity to the Eddington limit, and strong stellar wind, would be likely to create an If* or WNh spectrum as soon as R136a1 became visible as a star. Helium and nitrogen are rapidly mixed to the surface due to the large convective core and high mass loss, and their presence in the stellar wind creates the characteristic Wolf–Rayet emission spectrum. The ZAMS at very high masses curves back to cooler temperatures, and at LMC metallicities the maximum temperature predicted to be around 56,000 K for stars, so R136a1 would have been slightly cooler than some less massive main sequence stars.


title: R136a1

text: During core hydrogen burning, the helium fraction in the core increases and according to the virial theorem the core pressure and temperature will increase. This leads to an increase in luminosity so that R136a1 is somewhat more luminous now than when it first formed. The temperature decreases slightly, but the outer layers of the star have inflated, driving even higher mass loss.


title: R136a1

text: The future development of R136a1 is uncertain, and there are no comparable stars to confirm predictions. The evolution of massive stars depends critically on the amount of mass they can lose, and various models give different results, none of which entirely match observations. It is thought that WNh stars develop into LBVs as hydrogen at the core starts to become depleted. This is an important phase of extreme mass loss which enables a star, at near solar metallicity, to transition to a hydrogen-free Wolf–Rayet star. Stars with sufficiently strong mixing from the core to the surface, due to the very large convective core, high metallicity, or additional rotational mixing, may skip the LBV phase and evolve directly from the hydrogen-rich WNh phase to the hydrogen-poor WN phase. Hydrogen fusion lasts for a little over two million years, and the star's mass at the end is expected to be . A single star with LMC metallicity, even if it starts out rotating very rapidly, will be braked to near zero rotation by the end of hydrogen burning.


title: R136a1

text: After core helium fusion starts, the remaining hydrogen in the atmosphere is rapidly lost and R136a1 will quickly contract to a hydrogen-free WNE star and the luminosity will decrease. Wolf–Rayet stars at this point are mostly helium and they lie on the Zero Age Helium Main Sequence (He-ZAMS), analogous to and parallel to the hydrogen-burning main sequence but at hotter temperatures.


title: R136a1

text: During helium burning, carbon and oxygen will accumulate in the core and heavy mass loss continues. This eventually leads to the development of a WC spectrum, although at LMC metallicity a star is expected to spend most of the helium burning phase with a WN spectrum. Towards the end of helium burning, core temperature increase and mass loss cause an increase in both luminosity and temperature, with the spectral type becoming WO. Several hundred thousand years will be spent fusing helium, but the final stages of heavier element burning take no more than a few thousand years. R136a1 will eventually shrink to a little over , with just of helium left surrounding the core.


title: R136a1

text: Any star which produces a carbon–oxygen (C–O) core more massive than the maximum for a white dwarf (c. ) will inevitably suffer core collapse. This usually happens when an iron core has been produced and fusion can no longer produce the energy required to prevent core collapse, although it can happen in other circumstances.


title: R136a1

text: A C–O core between about and will become so hot that the gamma radiation will spontaneously produce electron–positron pairs and the sudden loss of energy in the core will cause it to collapse as a pair-instability supernova (PISN), sometimes called a pair-creation supernova (PCSN). A PISN is usually only produced in very low metallicity stars that do not lose sufficient mass to keep their C–O core sizes below . This can also occur at LMC metallicity for very massive stars, but the predicted C–O core size for R136a1 is below so a PISN is unlikely.


title: R136a1

text: Iron core collapse may produce a supernova explosion, and sometimes a gamma-ray burst (GRB). The type of any supernova explosion will be a type I since the star has no hydrogen; type Ic since it has almost no helium. Particularly massive iron cores may collapse the entire star into a black hole with no visible explosion, or a sub-luminous supernova as radioactive Ni falls back onto the black hole.


title: R136a1

text: A type Ic supernova can produce a GRB if the star is rotating and has an appropriate mass. R136a1 is expected to lose almost all its spin long before core collapse so a GRB is unlikely.


title: R136a1

text: The remnant from a type Ic core collapse supernova is either a neutron star or black hole, depending on the mass of the progenitor core. For a star as massive as R136a1, the remnant will very likely be a black hole instead of a neutron star.


title: Whit Bissell

text: Born in New York City, Bissell was the son of surgeon Dr. J. Dougal Bissell and Helen Nutting Bissell. He was educated at the Allen-Stevenson School and the Dalton School in New York City. He was related to Daniel Bissell, who was awarded the Badge of Military Merit, the predecessor of the Purple Heart, by George Washington.


title: Whit Bissell

text: He trained with the Carolina Playmakers, a theatrical organization associated with the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, where he majored in drama and English.


title: Whit Bissell

text: Bissell had a number of roles in Broadway theatre, including the Air Force show "Winged Victory", when he was an airman serving in the United States Army Air Forces.


title: Whit Bissell

text: In a film career that began with "Holy Matrimony" (1943), Bissell appeared in hundreds of films and television episodes as a prominent character actor. Regularly cast in low-budget science fiction and horror films, his roles include a mad scientist in the film "I Was a Teenage Werewolf" (1957) and Professor Frankenstein in "I Was a Teenage Frankenstein" (also 1957).


title: Whit Bissell

text: He played the attending psychiatrist who treats the protagonist, Dr. Miles Bennell, played by Kevin McCarthy, in "Invasion of the Body Snatchers" (1956) and appeared in "Creature from the Black Lagoon" (1954).