title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: In the first season of "NXT" in 2010, The Miz served as the "WWE Pro" of "NXT Rookie" Daniel Bryan. Throughout the season, Miz constantly berated Bryan, claiming he was not WWE material and expressing his displeasure at Bryan being his Rookie. The feeling was mutual as Bryan regularly alluded to the fact that he had been wrestling longer than Miz, stating that he should be the Pro and Miz should be the Rookie. On the May 11 episode of "NXT", Bryan was eliminated from the show. The following week after his elimination, Bryan attacked The Miz and Michael Cole on "NXT". The two would then feud over the United States Championship, which Bryan won from Miz at Night of Champions. Six years later, on the August 23, 2016 episode of "Talking Smack", Bryan (then General Manager of SmackDown) got into a verbal altercation with The Miz, which consisted of Bryan criticizing Miz's wrestling ability and "safe style" of wrestling. The Miz responded by going on a rant about Bryan being unable to return to in-ring competition due to the various injuries he had sustained throughout his WWE career. From this point forward, Bryan and Miz had sporadic interactions for over a year. On March 20, 2018, Bryan was medically cleared to return to in-ring competition by doctors, after which he resumed his feud with The Miz. On the July 31 episode of "SmackDown", Bryan challenged Miz to a match at SummerSlam. Miz initially declined the match, stating that he has always been above Bryan going back to "NXT" season one, and recommended that Bryan return to the independent circuit once his WWE contract expired. However, the following week, The Miz accepted Bryan's SummerSlam challenge.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: On the July 24 episode of "SmackDown", Andrade "Cien" Almas defeated Rusev. The following week, Zelina Vega defeated Lana. A rematch between Vega and Lana was scheduled the following week, with Vega winning again. On August 11, a mixed tag team match between Rusev and Lana and Almas and Vega was scheduled for SummerSlam Kickoff pre-show.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: On the July 24 episode of "205 Live", Drew Gulak earned the right to challenge Cedric Alexander for the WWE Cruiserweight Championship by defeating Mustafa Ali, Hideo Itami, and TJP in a fatal four-way match. On July 30, the match between Alexander and Gulak for the title was scheduled for SummerSlam. Brian Kendrick and Gentleman Jack Gallagher were banned from ringside for the match.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Three matches occurred on the SummerSlam Kickoff pre-show. In the first match, Andrade "Cien" Almas and Zelina Vega faced Rusev and Lana. In the climax, Vega pinned Lana with a roll-up using the ring ropes as leverage to win the match.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Next, Cedric Alexander defended the WWE Cruiserweight Championship against Drew Gulak. In the end, Alexander pinned Gulak with a roll-up to retain the title.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: After that, The B-Team (Bo Dallas and Curtis Axel) defended the Raw Tag Team Championship against The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder). In the end, as Dawson attempted to pin Axel with a small package, Dallas fell onto Axel, reversing the small package and pinning Dawson to retain the title.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: The actual pay-per-view opened with Dolph Ziggler, accompanied by Drew McIntyre, defending the Intercontinental Championship against Seth Rollins, accompanied by Dean Ambrose. McIntyre sent Ambrose into the steel steps at ringside, distracting Rollins and allowing Ziggler to perform a "Zig Zag" on Rollins for a nearfall. In the end, as McIntyre attempted to interfere, Ambrose performed "Dirty Deeds" on McIntyre. Rollins performed a superkick and "The Stomp" on Ziggler to regain the title for a second time.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Next, The Bludgeon Brothers (Harper and Rowan) defended the SmackDown Tag Team Championship against The New Day's Big E and Xavier Woods, accompanied by Kofi Kingston. The match ended when Rowan struck Woods and Big E with a mallet, thus The New Day won by disqualification, however, The Bludgeon Brothers retained the title.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: After that, Braun Strowman defended his Money in the Bank contract against Kevin Owens, with the stipulation that Strowman could lose the contract by any means. In the end, Strowman chokeslammed Owens onto the steel stage ramp. Strowman then rolled Owens back into the ring and performed a running powerslam on Owens to retain the contract and end the feud.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: In the fourth match, Carmella defended the SmackDown Women's Championship against Charlotte Flair and Becky Lynch. The ending saw Lynch apply the "Dis-Arm-Her" on Carmella, only for Flair to attack Lynch with "Natural Selection" for a pinfall to regain the title. After the match, Lynch attacked Flair, turning heel.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Next, AJ Styles defended the WWE Championship against Samoa Joe. In the climax, as Joe continued to taunt Styles' wife and child, who were in attendance at ringside, an irate Styles tackled Joe through the barricade. Styles then attacked security personnel and struck Joe with a chair, causing a disqualification, thus Joe won the match, however, Styles retained the title.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Next, Elias promised a concert. As he was about to start, the guitar broke. He then discarded the guitar pieces and then departed backstage.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Next, Daniel Bryan faced The Miz. In the end, Miz' wife Maryse, who was seated in the front row, handed Miz a pair of brass knuckles that the referee did not see. As Bryan attempted a suicide dive, Miz struck Bryan with the object and tossed the object back to Maryse. Afterwards, Miz rolled Bryan back in the ring and pinned him to win the match.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: After that, "The Demon" Finn Bálor faced Baron Corbin. Bálor performed a clothesline on Corbin sending him over the top rope. Bálor performed a Sling Blade followed by a dropkick on Corbin. In the climax, Bálor performed a "Coup de Grâce" on Corbin to win the match.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Later, Shinsuke Nakamura defended the United States Championship against Jeff Hardy. In the end, Hardy attempted a "Swanton Bomb" on the ring apron onto Nakamura, but Nakamura moved, causing Hardy to land on the edge of the ring canvas. Nakamura then got Hardy back in the ring and performed a "Kinshasa" to retain the title. After the match, Randy Orton appeared, teasing an attack on Hardy, but left immediately afterwards.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: In the penultimate match, Alexa Bliss defended the Raw Women's Championship against Ronda Rousey. Natalya made her entrance first to be in Rousey's corner, and she wore her father Jim Neidhart's jacket to the ring, who had died a few days prior. Rousey dominated the entire match while Bliss mounted almost no offense at all. At the start, Bliss backed into the ropes twice and the referee forced Rousey to step back to the middle of the ring. Bliss left the ring twice but avoided a countout at a 5-count both times. After returning to the ring, Rousey performed Piper's Pit to Bliss. Bliss then rolled out of the ring, leaving it for a third time, until Rousey chased her back in, avoiding another countout at a 6-count. In the end, Rousey forced Bliss to submit to an armbar to win the title, becoming the first woman to win a championship in both the UFC and WWE, as well as the second person overall after Brock Lesnar. After the match, Rousey celebrated with Natalya and The Bella Twins (Nikki Bella and Brie Bella).


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: In the main event, Brock Lesnar accompanied by his advocate Paul Heyman defended the Universal Championship against Roman Reigns. Before the match began, Braun Strowman showed up and stated his intention to cash in his Money in the Bank contract on the winner and remained at ringside. As soon as the match began, Reigns surprised Lesnar with three Superman Punches and three Spears. Lesnar applied a Guillotine Choke twice only for Reigns to counter into a Spinebuster twice. Lesnar avoid a fourth Superman Punch and performed three German Suplexes on Reigns. After a failed attempt from Lesnar of an F-5, Reigns attempted another Spear, but Lesnar avoided it resulting in Reigns accidentally performing a Suicide Dive on Strowman outside the ring. Lesnar then performed an F-5 on Strowman, struck him with the briefcase and threw it up the stage ramp. In the climax, Lesnar attacked Strowman with chair shots preventing him from cashing in after the match, but Reigns took advantage of the distraction and performed another Spear on Lesnar when he returned to the ring with the chair to attack Reigns while still was looking Strowman and won the title ending Lesnar's reign at 504 days.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: On the following episode of "Raw", new Universal Champion Roman Reigns made an open challenge, but announced that he specifically wanted to face Finn Bálor, as he was the inaugural champion who had to relinquish the title due to injury, but never received a rematch. Bálor accepted and Reigns retained the title. After the match, Braun Strowman attacked Reigns and attempted to cash in his Money in the Bank contract, but was intercepted by Reigns' colleagues from The Shield (Seth Rollins and Dean Ambrose). The Shield performed their signature triple powerbomb on Strowman through an announce table. Also that episode, Paul Heyman confronted General Manager Kurt Angle about Brock Lesnar's contractual rematch, wanting it to occur at Hell in a Cell. Angle said that it was himself who decided about the time of the rematch and that Lesnar would not receive his rematch for a long time. According to Dean Ambrose, the original plan was to reunite the Shield at SummerSlam, attacking Lesnar and helping Reigns to win the title, but Lesnar asked Vince McMahon to change the storyline.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Dean Ambrose with new Intercontinental Champion Seth Rollins also had a match against Dolph Ziggler. Rollins took out McIntyre, allowing Ambrose to defeat Ziggler.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: A championship celebration with all of the women of Raw and Raw Commissioner Stephanie McMahon occurred for new Raw Women's Champion Ronda Rousey. Stephanie tried to take credit for Rousey being in WWE and subsequently becoming champion, but Rousey said her win was for all women, not for herself or for Stephanie. Rousey then applied the armbar to Stephanie. Alexa Bliss then invoked her rematch for Hell in a Cell.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Raw Tag Team Champions The B-Team (Curtis Axel and Bo Dallas) took on The Revival (Scott Dawson and Dash Wilder) in back-to-back singles matches, where Dawson defeated Dallas and Wilder defeated Axel.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: WWE Champion AJ Styles was interviewed about his match against Samoa Joe. He explained that he did not regret what he did to Joe, but was upset that he lost the match due to his actions. He warned Joe to never talk about his family again. Joe then attacked Styles from behind. A rematch between the two was scheduled for Hell in a Cell.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: The New Day received a SmackDown Tag Team Championship rematch against The Bludgeon Brothers in a No Disqualification match. Xavier Woods and Kofi Kingston represented The New Day and defeated The Bludgeon Brothers to become three-time SmackDown Tag Team Champions.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: The Miz faked a retirement speech by saying that he was retired from facing Daniel Bryan ever again. Bryan came out and called Miz a coward for having to cheat to win. He then said that General Manager Paige approved a mixed tag team match pitting himself and his wife Brie Bella against The Miz and his wife Maryse at Hell in a Cell.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Becky Lynch explained her reasoning for attacking new SmackDown Women's Champion Charlotte Flair after the triple threat match. She claimed that she realized Charlotte had been holding her back the whole time and was not really her friend. Charlotte came out and the two brawled. Former champion Carmella was granted her rematch for the following week.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Jeff Hardy faced Randy Orton in a singles match, which ended in Orton winning by disqualification. After the match, they brawled into the crowd, where Hardy attacked Orton with steel chairs and a camera, then performed a "Swanton Bomb" on Orton through a table.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Rusev and Lana received a rematch against Andrade Cien Almas and Zelina Vega, where they won after Aiden English prevented Almas from using a steel chair.


title: SummerSlam (2018)

text: Drew Gulak claimed that Cedric Alexander got lucky in retaining the WWE Cruiserweight Championship and demanded a rematch, but was denied by 205 Live General Manager Drake Maverick.


title: HMX

text: HMX, also called octogen, is a powerful and relatively insensitive nitroamine high explosive, chemically related to RDX. Like RDX, the compound's name is the subject of much speculation, having been variously listed as High Melting Explosive, Her Majesty's Explosive, High-velocity Military Explosive, or High-Molecular-weight RDX.


title: HMX

text: The molecular structure of HMX consists of an eight-membered ring of alternating carbon and nitrogen atoms, with a nitro group attached to each nitrogen atom. Because of its high molecular weight, it is one of the most potent chemical explosives manufactured, although a number of newer ones, including HNIW and ONC, are more powerful.


title: HMX

text: HMX is more complicated to manufacture than most explosives, and this confines it to specialist applications. It may be produced by nitration of hexamine in the presence of acetic anhydride, paraformaldehyde and ammonium nitrate. RDX produced using the Bachmann Process usually contains 8–10% HMX.


title: HMX

text: Also known as cyclotetramethylene-tetranitramine, tetrahexamine tetranitramine, or octahydro-1,3,5,7-tetranitro-1,3,5,7-tetrazocine, HMX was first made in 1930. In 1949 it was discovered that HMX can be prepared by nitrolysis of RDX. Nitrolysis of RDX is performed by dissolving RDX in a 55% HNO solution, followed by placing the solution on a steambath for about six hours. HMX is used almost exclusively in military applications, including as the detonator in nuclear weapons, in the form of polymer-bonded explosive, and as a solid rocket propellant.


title: HMX

text: HMX is used in melt-castable explosives when mixed with TNT, which as a class are referred to as "octols". Additionally, polymer-bonded explosive compositions containing HMX are used in the manufacture of missile warheads and armor-piercing shaped charges.


title: HMX

text: HMX is also used in the process of perforating the steel casing in oil and gas wells. The HMX is built into a shaped charge that is detonated within the wellbore to punch a hole through the steel casing and surrounding cement out into the hydrocarbon bearing formations. The pathway that is created allows formation fluids to flow into the wellbore and onward to the surface.


title: HMX

text: The "Hayabusa2" space probe used HMX to excavate a hole in an asteroid in order to access material that had not been exposed to the solar wind.


title: HMX

text: HMX enters the environment through air, water, and soil because it is widely used in military and civil applications. At present, reverse-phase HPLC and more sensitive LC-MS methods have been developed to accurately quantify the concentration of HMX in a variety of matrices in environmental assessments.


title: HMX

text: At present, the information needed to determine if HMX causes cancer is insufficient. Due to the lack of information, EPA has determined that HMX is not classifiable as to its human carcinogenicity.


title: HMX

text: The available data on the effects on human health of exposure to HMX are limited. HMX causes CNS effects similar to those of RDX, but at considerably higher doses. In one study, volunteers submitted to patch testing, which produced skin irritation. Another study of a cohort of 93 workers at an ammunition plant found no hematological, hepatic, autoimmune, or renal diseases. However, the study did not quantify the levels of exposure to HMX.


title: HMX

text: HMX exposure has been investigated in several studies on animals. Overall, the toxicity appears to be quite low. HMX is poorly absorbed by ingestion. When applied to the dermis, it induces mild skin irritation but not delayed contact sensitization. Various acute and subchronic neurobehavioral effects have been reported in rabbits and rodents, including ataxia, sedation, hyperkinesia, and convulsions. The chronic effects of HMX that have been documented through animal studies include decreased hemoglobin, increased serum alkaline phosphatase, and decreased albumin. Pathological changes were also observed in the animals' livers and kidneys.


title: HMX

text: Gas exchange rate was used as an indicator of chemical stress in Northern bobwhite quail ("Colinus virginianus") eggs, and no evidence of alterations in metabolic rates associated with HMX exposure was observed. No data are available concerning the possible reproductive, developmental, or carcinogenic effects of HMX. HMX is considered the least toxic amongst TNT and RDX. Remediating HMX contaminated water supplies has proven to be successful.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The cursus honorum (; , or more colloquially 'ladder of offices') was the sequential order of public offices held by aspiring politicians in the Roman Republic and the early Roman Empire. It was designed for men of senatorial rank. The "cursus honorum" comprised a mixture of military and political administration posts; the ultimate prize for winning election to each "rung" in the sequence was to become one of the two "consuls" in a given year. Each office had a minimum age for election; there were also minimum intervals between holding successive offices and laws forbade repeating an office.


title: Cursus honorum

text: These rules were altered and flagrantly ignored in the course of the last century of the Republic. For example, Gaius Marius held consulships for five years in a row between 104 BC and 100 BC. He was consul seven times in all, also serving in 107 and 86. Officially presented as opportunities for public service, the offices often became mere opportunities for self-aggrandizement. The constitutional reforms of Sulla between 82 and 79 BC required a ten-year interval before holding the same office again for another term.


title: Cursus honorum

text: To have held each office at the youngest possible age ("suo anno", 'in his year') was considered a great political success. For instance, to miss out on a praetorship at 39 meant that one could not become consul at 42. Cicero expressed extreme pride not only in being a "novus homo" ('new man'; comparable to a "self-made man") who became consul even though none of his ancestors had ever served as a consul, but also in having become consul "in his year".


title: Cursus honorum

text: Prior to entering political life and the "cursus honorum", a young man of senatorial rank was expected to serve around ten years of military duty. The years of service were intended to be mandatory in order to qualify for political office, but in practice, the rule was not always rigidly applied.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The aspiring politician would serve in the Roman cavalry (the "equites") or in the staff of a general who was a relative or a friend of the family. Advancement and honors would improve his political prospects, and a successful military career might culminate in the office of military tribune, to which 24 men were elected by the Tribal Assembly each year. The rank of military tribune is sometimes described as the first office of the "cursus honorum", but it was not recognized as such in Roman law and did not carry automatic admittance to the Senate.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The first official post was that of "quaestor". Candidates had to be at least 30 years old. However, men of patrician rank could subtract two years from this and other minimum age requirements.


title: Cursus honorum

text: Twenty quaestors served in the financial administration at Rome or as second-in-command to a governor in the provinces. They could also serve as the paymaster for a legion. A young man who obtained this job was expected to become a very important official. An additional task of all quaestors was the supervision of public games. As a quaestor, an official was allowed to wear the "toga praetexta", but was not escorted by lictors, nor did he possess "imperium".


title: Cursus honorum

text: At 36 years of age, a promagistrate could stand for election to one of the aediles (pronounced , from "aedes", "temple edifice") positions. Of these aediles, two were plebeian and two were patrician, with the patrician aediles called "curule aediles". The plebeian aediles were elected by the Plebeian Council and the "curule aediles" were either elected by the Tribal Assembly or appointed by the reigning consul. The aediles had administrative responsibilities in Rome. They had to take care of the temples (whence their title, from the Latin "aedes", "temple"), organize games, and be responsible for the maintenance of the public buildings in Rome. Moreover, they took charge of Rome's water and food supplies; in their capacity as market superintendents, they served sometimes as judges in mercantile affairs.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The aedile was the supervisor of public works; the words "edifice" and "edification" stem from the same root. He oversaw the public works, temples and markets. Therefore, the aediles would have been in some cooperation with the current censors, who had similar or related duties. Also they oversaw the organization of festivals and games ("ludi"), which made this a very sought-after office for a career minded politician of the late Republic, as it was a good means of gaining popularity by staging spectacles.


title: Cursus honorum

text: "Curule aediles" were added at a later date in the 4th century BC, and their duties do not differ substantially from plebeian aediles. However, unlike plebeian aediles, "curule aediles" were allowed certain symbols of rank—the "sella curulis" or 'curule chair,' for example—and only patricians could stand for election to "curule aedile". This later changed, and both Plebeians and Patricians could stand for curule aedileship.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The elections for "curule aedile" were at first alternated between patricians and plebeians, until late in the 2nd century BC, when the practice was abandoned and both classes became free to run during all years.


title: Cursus honorum

text: While part of the "cursus honorum", this step was optional and not required to hold future offices. Though the office was usually held after the quaestorship and before the praetorship, there are some cases with former praetors serving as aediles.


title: Cursus honorum

text: After serving either as quaestor or as aedile, a man of 39 years could run for "praetor". The number of praetors elected varied through history, generally increasing with time. During the republic, six or eight were generally elected each year to serve judicial functions throughout Rome and other governmental responsibilities. In the absence of the consuls, a praetor would be given command of the garrison in Rome or in Italy. Also, a praetor could exercise the functions of the consuls throughout Rome, but their main function was that of a judge. They would preside over trials involving criminal acts, grant court orders and validate "illegal" acts as acts of administering justice. A praetor was escorted by six lictors, and wielded "imperium". After a term as praetor, the magistrate would serve as a provincial governor with the title of propraetor, wielding propraetor imperium, commanding the province's legions, and possessing ultimate authority within his province(s).


title: Cursus honorum

text: Two of the praetors were more prestigious than the others. The first was the Praetor Peregrinus, who was the chief judge in trials involving one or more foreigners. The other was the Praetor Urbanus, the chief judicial office in Rome. He had the power to overturn any verdict by any other courts, and served as judge in cases involving criminal charges against provincial governors. The Praetor Urbanus was not allowed to leave the city for more than ten days. If one of these two Praetors was absent from Rome, the other would perform the duties of both.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The office of "consul" was the most prestigious of all of the offices on the cursus honorum, and represented the summit of a successful career. The minimum age was 42. Years were identified by the names of the two consuls elected for a particular year; for instance, "M. Messalla et M. Pisone consulibus", "in the consulship of Messalla and Piso," dates an event to 61 BC. Consuls were responsible for the city's political agenda, commanded large-scale armies and controlled important provinces. The consuls served for only a year (a restriction intended to limit the amassing of power by individuals) and could only rule when they agreed, because each consul could veto the other's decision.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The consuls would alternate monthly as the chairman of the Senate. They also were the supreme commanders in the Roman army, with each being granted two legions during their consular year. Consuls also exercised the highest juridical power in the Republic, being the only office with the power to override the decisions of the Praetor Urbanus. Only laws and the decrees of the Senate or the People's assembly limited their powers, and only the veto of a fellow consul or a tribune of the plebs could supersede their decisions.


title: Cursus honorum

text: A consul was escorted by twelve lictors, held imperium and wore the toga praetexta. Because the consul was the highest executive office within the Republic, they had the power to veto any action or proposal by any other magistrate, save that of the Tribune of the Plebs. After a consulship, a consul was assigned one of the more important provinces and acted as the governor in the same way that a Propraetor did, only owning Proconsular imperium. A second consulship could only be attempted after an interval of 10 years to prevent one man holding too much power.


title: Cursus honorum

text: Although not part of the Cursus Honorum, upon completing a term as either Praetor or Consul, an officer was required to serve a term as Propraetor and Proconsul, respectively, in one of Rome's many provinces. These Propraetors and Proconsuls held near autocratic authority within their selected province or provinces. Because each governor held equal imperium to the equivalent magistrate, they were escorted by the same number of lictors (12) and could only be vetoed by a reigning Consul or Praetor. Their abilities to govern were only limited by the decrees of the Senate or the people's assemblies, and the Tribune of the Plebs was unable to veto their acts as long as the governor remained at least a mile outside of Rome.


title: Cursus honorum

text: After a term as consul, the final step in the Cursus Honorum was the office of "censor". This was the only office in the Roman Republic whose term was a period of eighteen months instead of the usual twelve. Censors were elected every five years and although the office held no military imperium, it was considered a great honour. The censors took a regular census of the people and then apportioned the citizens into voting classes on the basis of income and tribal affiliation. The censors enrolled new citizens in tribes and voting classes as well. The censors were also in charge of the membership roll of the Senate, every five years adding new senators who had been elected to the requisite offices. Censors could also remove unworthy members from the Senate. This ability was lost during the dictatorship of Sulla. Censors were also responsible for construction of public buildings and the moral status of the city.


title: Cursus honorum

text: Censors also had financial duties, in that they had to put out to tender projects that were to be financed by the state. Also, the censors were in charge of the leasing out of conquered land for public use and auction. Though this office owned no imperium, meaning no lictors for protection, they were allowed to wear the "toga praetexta".


title: Cursus honorum

text: The office of Tribune of the Plebs was an important step in the political career of plebeians. Patricians could not hold the office. The Tribune was an office first created to protect the right of the common man in Roman politics and served as the head of the Plebeian Council. In the mid-to-late Republic, however, plebeians were often just as, and sometimes more, wealthy and powerful than patricians. Those who held the office were granted sacrosanctity (the right to be legally protected from any physical harm), the power to rescue any plebeian from the hands of a patrician magistrate, and the right to veto any act or proposal of any magistrate, including another tribune of the people and the consuls. The tribune also had the power to exercise capital punishment against any person who interfered in the performance of his duties. The tribunes could even convene a Senate meeting and lay legislation before it and arrest magistrates. Their houses had to remain open for visitors even during the night, and they were not allowed to be more than a day's journey from Rome. Due to their unique power of sacrosanctity, the Tribune had no need for lictors for protection and owned no imperium, nor could they wear the toga praetexta. For a period after Sulla's reforms, a person who had held the office of Tribune of the Plebs could no longer qualify for any other office, and the powers of the tribunes were more limited, but these restrictions were subsequently lifted.


title: Cursus honorum

text: Another office not officially a step in the "cursus honorum" was the "princeps senatus", an extremely prestigious office for a patrician. The "princeps senatus" served as the leader of the Senate and was chosen to serve a five-year term by each pair of Censors every five years. Censors could, however, confirm a "princeps senatus" for a period of another five years. The "princeps senatus" was chosen from all Patricians who had served as a Consul, with former Censors usually holding the office. The office originally granted the holder the ability to speak first at session on the topic presented by the presiding magistrate, but eventually gained the power to open and close the senate sessions, decide the agenda, decide where the session should take place, impose order and other rules of the session, meet in the name of the senate with embassies of foreign countries, and write in the name of the senate letters and dispatches. This office, like the Tribune, did not own "imperium", was not escorted by lictors, and could not wear the "toga praetexta".


title: Cursus honorum

text: Of all the offices within the Roman Republic, none granted as much power and authority as the position of "dictator", known as the Master of the People. In times of emergency, the Senate would declare that a dictator was required, and the current consuls would appoint a dictator. This was the only decision that could not be vetoed by the Tribune of the Plebs. The dictator was the sole exception to the Roman legal principles of having multiple magistrates in the same office and being legally able to be held to answer for actions in office. Essentially by definition, only one dictator could serve at a time, and no dictator could ever be held legally responsible for any action during his time in office for any reason.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The dictator was the highest magistrate in degree of imperium and was attended by twenty-four lictors (as were the former Kings of Rome). Although his term lasted only six months instead of twelve (except for the Dictatorships of Sulla and Caesar), all other magistrates reported to the dictator (except for the tribunes of the plebs - although they could not veto any of the dictator's acts), granting the dictator absolute authority in both civil and military matters throughout the Republic. The Dictator was free from the control of the Senate in all that he did, could execute anyone without a trial for any reason, and could ignore any law in the performance of his duties. The Dictator was the sole magistrate under the Republic that was truly independent in discharging his duties. All of the other offices were extensions of the Senate's executive authority and thus answerable to the Senate. Since the Dictator exercised his own authority, he did not suffer this limitation, which was the cornerstone of the office's power.


title: Cursus honorum

text: When a Dictator entered office, he appointed to serve as his second-in-command a "magister equitum", the Master of the Horse, whose office ceased to exist once the Dictator left office. The magister equitum held Praetorian imperium, was attended by six lictors, and was charged with assisting the Dictator in managing the State. When the Dictator was away from Rome, the magister equitum usually remained behind to administer the city. The magister equitum, like the Dictator, had unchallengeable authority in all civil and military affairs, with his decisions only being overturned by the Dictator himself.


title: Cursus honorum

text: The Dictatorship was definitively abolished in 44 BC after the assassination of Gaius Julius Caesar (Lex Antonia).


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: The Khobar Towers bombing was a terrorist attack on part of a housing complex in the city of Khobar, Saudi Arabia, near the national oil company (Saudi Aramco) headquarters of Dhahran and nearby King Abdulaziz Air Base on 25 June 1996. At that time, Khobar Towers was being used as living quarters for coalition forces who were assigned to Operation Southern Watch, a no-fly zone operation in southern Iraq, as part of the Iraqi no-fly zones.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: A truck bomb was detonated adjacent to Building #131, an eight-story structure housing members of the United States Air Force's 4404th Wing (Provisional), primarily from a deployed rescue squadron and deployed fighter squadron. In all, 19 U.S. Air Force personnel were killed and 498 of many nationalities were wounded. The official 25 June 1996, statement by the United States named members of Hezbollah Al-Hejaz () as responsible. In 2006, a U.S. court found Iran and Hezbollah guilty of orchestrating the attack. In July 2020, a US court ordered Iran to pay $879m to the Khobar bombing survivors.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: A 13 November 1995, car bombing in Riyadh led the U.S. forces stationed at Khobar Towers to raise the threat condition to THREATCON DELTA. Days after this car bombing, military commanders briefed soldiers and airmen at Khobar that the U.S. had received anonymous communications from an organization claiming to have carried out the Riyadh attack. The attackers claimed their goal was to get the United States Armed Forces to leave the country, and that Khobar Towers would be attacked next if troop withdrawal did not begin immediately. It was at this time that surveillance and other suspicious activity near the perimeter fences of Khobar Towers was noted by United States Air Force Security Forces; however, the forces were forbidden by the Saudi government to act in any capacity outside the perimeter of the compound, and the surveillance continued with near impunity.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: The attackers were reported to have smuggled explosives into Saudi Arabia from Lebanon. Al-Mughassil, Al-Houri, Al-Sayegh, Al-Qassab, and the unidentified Lebanese man bought a large latrine service tanker truck in early June 1996 in Saudi Arabia. Over a two-week period they converted it into a truck bomb. The group now had about of plastic explosives, enough to produce a shaped charge that detonated with the force of at least of TNT, according to a later assessment of the Defense Special Weapons Agency. The power of the blast was magnified several ways. The truck itself shaped the charge by directing the blast toward the building. Moreover, the relatively high clearance between the truck and the ground gave it the more lethal characteristics of an air burst.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: It was originally estimated by U.S. authorities to have contained of explosives. Later the General Downing report on the incident suggested that the explosion contained the equivalent of of TNT. The attackers prepared for the attack by hiding large amounts of explosive materials and timing devices in paint cans and bags underground in Qatif, a city near Khobar. The bomb was a mixture of petrol and explosive powder placed in the tank of a sewage tanker truck.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: Initially, the attackers attempted to enter the compound at the main checkpoint. When they were denied access by U.S. military personnel, at around 9:43 p.m. local time, they drove a Datsun scout vehicle, another car and the bomb truck, to a parking lot adjacent to building #131. A chain link security fence and a line of small trees separated the car park, used for a local mosque and park, from the housing compound. The perimeter of Building #131 was approximately from the fence line, with a perimeter road between the fence and building which was often used by military personnel for jogging. The first car entered the car park and signaled the others by flashing headlights. The bomb truck and a getaway vehicle followed shortly after. The men parked the truck next to the fence and left in the third vehicle. The bomb exploded three to four minutes later at approximately 10:20 p.m. local time. The blast was so powerful that it was felt away in the Persian Gulf state of Bahrain.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: A U.S. Air Force security policeman, Staff Sergeant Alfredo R. Guerrero, was stationed atop Building #131 when he witnessed the men, recognized the vehicles as a threat, reported it to security, and began a floor-by-floor evacuation of the building. His actions are credited with saving dozens of lives. Many of the evacuees were in the stairwell when the bomb went off. The stairwell was constructed of heavy marble and was located on the side of the building away from the truck bomb, perhaps the safest location in the building. For his actions, Guerrero was awarded the Airman's Medal.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: Another security measure is thought to have minimized damage; along the security fence were Jersey barriers, concrete barriers commonly used along roadways. These deflected the blast energy upward, and away from the lower floors of the building, perhaps even preventing a total collapse of the structure.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: The force of the explosion was enormous. The size of the explosion created an intense dust storm as the forces of the high pressure blast wave and the subsequent vacuum forces caused considerable damage in their own right. Several military vehicles parked to the left side of building #131 suffered no direct impact from debris, but were heavily damaged by the sheer intensity of the shock wave.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: The explosion heavily damaged or destroyed six high rise apartment buildings in the complex. Windows were shattered in virtually every other building in the compound and in surrounding buildings up to a mile (1.6 km) away. A very large crater, wide and deep, was left where the truck had been. Within a few hours of the blast, the crater began to fill with salt-water from the Persian Gulf. In the minutes following the blast, the residents of the complex evacuated severely injured U.S. military personnel from the area. With power out in many of the buildings near #131, the scene was chaotic and tense as little was known about the safety of the area from further attacks. Many residents later gathered in the local dining facility, set up as a triage center, and saw breaking news of the event on large projection televisions intended to bring news of events back home to the troops.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: After the blast, an assessment crew consisting of the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI), Diplomatic Security Service (DSS), and United States Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) was sent to assess the risk to other security compounds in Saudi Arabia, and to offer suggestions for the Khobar Towers complex. It was suggested that Mylar tape be used to coat the windows for a barrier, but the cost, about US$4.5 million, was considered prohibitive. It was also suggested that the perimeter be expanded to at least 500 feet to protect servicemen from flying glass.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: After the bombing of Khobar Towers, the U.S. military and intelligence community came under heavy criticism for their lack of preparation and foresight for what was considered an intelligence failure. According to the "New York Times", "significant shortcomings in planning, intelligence, and basic security left American forces in Saudi Arabia vulnerable."


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: Numerous warnings had been made available to the intelligence community and military command, and up to "ten incidents [were] reported suggesting that the Khobar Towers are under surveillance" from April to June 1996. These warnings came both before and after the beheadings of four Saudi nationals after their publicly confessed role in the November 1995 attacks in Riyadh. Clinton Administration officials admit that they "received a wave of threats against Americans and American installations in Saudi Arabia" in the weeks leading up to the attack, "but failed to prepare adequately for a bomb of the power that killed 19 American military personnel." Threats were also downplayed by the Saudis when Defense Minister Prince Sultan bin Abd al-Aziz al-Saud characterized acts carried out by Saudi Islamic jihadists in 1995 as "boyish", and stated that the Saudi "Kingdom is not influenced by threats". Senator Arlen Specter (R-PA) commented during a Senate intelligence committee meeting by saying "there was no intelligence failure ... there had been more than 100 intelligence reports on alerts of a general nature, and very specific reports" of an extant and present threat to the Khobar Towers complex.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: The CIA was blamed for misjudging the bomb-making capabilities of Saudi militants, arbitrarily deciding that no bomb could exceed the size of that used in the November 1995 bombings in Riyadh (200 lbs). According to official U.S. government estimates, the Khobar bomb weighed in at approximately 5,000 pounds. American commanders were also blamed, as they had not taken every precaution advised by the Pentagon; specifically, because "the project was deemed too costly", they had failed to implement a recommendation to coat Khobar's windows with plastic to prevent flying glass.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: The main security concern at the Khobar Towers compound before the bombing had been the prevention of an attack similar to the 1983 Beirut barracks bombings, when a vehicle-bomb entered the compound itself. Yet the Pentagon's report from that incident suggested, as did the Khobar report, that a Beirut-sized bomb would still have caused significant damage from as far as 300 feet away. Officials concluded with the observation that bomb size was less important to the production of catastrophic results than that same bomb's effective proximity (blast radius).


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: As a result of the terrorist attack, U.S. and coalition military operations at Khobar and Dhahran were subsequently relocated to Prince Sultan Air Base, a remote and highly secure Royal Saudi Air Force installation near Al-Kharj in central Saudi Arabia, approximately 70 miles from Riyadh. American, British, and French military operations would continue at Prince Sultan until late-2003, when French forces withdrew and American and British operations shifted to Al Udeid Air Base in Qatar.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: The bombing of Khobar Towers, according to the Saudi government, was carried out by "Saudi Islamic militants, including many veterans of the Afghan War." One U.S. official claimed that "it now seems it was not an isolated case. There is an organization of violent opponents whose members are loosely connected, organized in semi-independent cells like other violent fundamentalist movements in the Arab World."


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: The three-year investigation had led the FBI to conclude that Iran was involved in the attack. At that time, the Clinton administration hoped to open a dialogue with reformist president Khatami, which would be impossible after accusing Iranians of supporting terrorist action. A secret letter, delivered directly to Khatami by Sultan Qaboos of Oman, stated that the United States had evidence of direct Iranian involvement in the act, and demanded that those involved be held responsible for their actions. Khatami refused to begin an investigation and Iranian officials stated that al-Qaeda was responsible for the attack.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: In April 1997, the Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Gen. John Shalikashvili, said that the Pentagon did not have sufficient evidence about the bombers to consider retaliation against foreign countries that may have played a role.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: In June 2001, an indictment was issued in United States District Court for the Eastern District of Virginia in Alexandria, Virginia charging the following people with murder, conspiracy, and other charges related to the bombing:


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: In July 2001, Saudi Arabia said that eleven of the people indicted in the US were in custody in Saudi prisons, and were to be tried in Saudi court, as the country refused to extradite any of them to the United States to stand trial. The government has not since made public the outcome of the trial or the whereabouts of the prisoners.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: In August 2015, Arab newspaper "Asharq Al-Awsat" reported that Ahmed Ibrahim Al-Mughassil, a leader of the gulf shia group Hezbollah Al-Hejaz found to be responsible for the bombing, had been arrested in Beirut and transferred to Saudi Arabian custody; an anonymous American intelligence officer told "The New York Times" that the Saudi government had not confirmed the arrest, but U.S. intelligence believed the report was accurate.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: In 2004, the 9/11 Commission noted that Osama Bin Laden was seen being congratulated on the day of the Khobar attack, and stated there were reports in the months preceding the attack that Bin Laden was seeking to facilitate a shipment of explosives to Saudi Arabia. According to the United States, classified evidence suggests that the government of Iran was the key sponsor of the incident, and several high-ranking members of their military may have been involved. A U.S. federal court speculated that the Khobar Towers bombing was authorized by Ali Khamenei, the Supreme Leader of Iran.


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: William Perry, who was the United States Secretary of Defense at the time that this bombing happened, said in an interview in June 2007 that "he now believes al-Qaida rather than Iran was behind a 1996 truck bombing at an American military base."


title: Khobar Towers bombing

text: On 22 December 2006, high court judge Royce C. Lamberth ruled that Iran and Hezbollah were directly and personally responsible for the attack, stating that the leading experts on Hezbollah presented "overwhelming" evidence of the group's involvement and that six captured Hezbollah agents detailed the role of Iranian intelligence and military officials in providing money, explosives, arms and weapons, plans, and maps. This decision was reached as a default judgment, however, in which the Iranian government was not represented in court, because they chose not to challenge the allegations in a U.S. courtroom.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: Dead Island: Riptide is a 2013 action role-playing game developed by Techland and published by Deep Silver. Released in April 2013 for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360, "Riptide" serves as a continuation of the story to 2011's "Dead Island", with the original four survivors, plus a new survivor, arriving on another island in the Banoi archipelago, which has also been overrun by zombies.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: "Dead Island: Riptide" received a mixed reception from critics, who cited that the game did not fix any of its predecessor's problems, nor add anything new to the gameplay. A third title and first official sequel for the series, "Dead Island 2", was revealed at E3 2014. It was originally set for a 2016 release; however, the game entered development hell after the project was moved over from Yager Development to Sumo Digital in 2016. The development of Dead Island 2 changed hands again in 2019, this time to an internal studio of Deep Silver, Dambuster Studios. The game is now scheduled for release on April 28, 2023. Along with the first game, "Riptide" was released for PlayStation 4, Xbox One, Windows, and SteamOS under the title "Dead Island: Definitive Edition".


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: "Riptide" takes place immediately after the ending of "Dead Island", with the four immune survivors: ex-American football player Logan Carter, rapper Sam B, undercover Chinese spy Xian Mei, and former Australian police officer Purna Jackson. Along with international terrorist Charon and native Yerema, asymptomatic patient zero of the Banoi outbreak, the survivors land on a military ship after escaping from the prison island. They are immediately taken into custody by the Australian Defence Force Colonel Sam Hardy and Frank Serpo, a civilian VIP. Yerema and Charon are taken away separately; Yerema bites one of the ADF soldiers as she is taken away. In the ship's brig, the remaining four meet another immune survivor, ADF Sergeant John Morgan, who claims he was part of a humanitarian effort on a nearby island until Serpo showed up and halted the mission.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: Passing out from sedatives applied when they were examined, the player's character wakes up to find the ship overrun with zombies. Serpo flees via helicopter shortly before the out of control ship crashes into a rock. The immune regain consciousness on the shore of the island of Palanai and are found by Harlow, a WHO researcher, who tells them the zombie infection has spread there as well. After saving a holdout of survivors, they meet Colonel Hardy again; he tells the irate immune that Serpo's organization is interested in weaponizing the Kuru strain that caused the zombie outbreak and, as with Banoi, a nuclear strike against Palanai is planned to purge the infection and cover up the evidence.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: At Hardy's suggestion, the immune and several other survivors decide to travel to the city of Henderson, in hopes the nearby army base can offer help. With no intact bridges or working boats, the survivors instead investigate a tunnel to reach a pier. A researcher based in the jungle, Dr. Kessler, tells the immune that he believes the zombie-creating virus mutation was created by exposure to chemical weapons. He warns the player these were stored in the tunnels, and that they could act as a mutagen to turn the virus in the immune's bodies into something they can no longer suppress.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: As the immune clear the tunnels, Harlow exposes a secretly-infected survivor, Wayne, to the chemicals to see the results; Wayne turns into a giant monster, who the immune kill. Shortly afterwards, when attacked by a holdout of escaped prisoners who have seized the pier, the survivors go into an involuntary, prolonged fury. Kessler explains on the phone that this was probably the result of fumes from the chemical weapons acting as a mutagen, but tells them they should be fine if they avoid further exposure. The survivors subsequently reach Henderson, but as they take shelter in a movie theater, Harlow abandons them and the other survivors begin to turn against the immune.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: The immune find the military base was overrun and contact Serpo; he tells them there is no nuclear strike planned, that Banoi is fine, that Hardy is not to be trusted, and agrees to send a helicopter to evacuate the survivors. Hardy freely admits he made up the nuclear strike to stir the survivors to action, and in turn insists Serpo is untrustworthy and only intends to evacuate the immune to continue his research. When Serpo's helicopter arrives, Hardy attempts to board it first to prove this. Serpo warns him to let the immune on first, then has him shot and killed. The survivors proceed to shoot the helicopter down.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: Finding Serpo alive near the crash site, the immune are told that Harlow is not only immune, but also a terrorist looking to seize data and a vaccine from a quarantine zone. When the survivors storm the lab in the quarantine zone, they find Harlow; she tells them the outbreaks were started deliberately to test the virus, and there is no vaccine. Harlow, however, is in a violent rage, having had the mutagen tested on herself by the lab's staff. Convinced the immune are too dangerous to live, she takes the mutagen again and attacks them, prompting the other immune to inject themselves with it as well to kill her.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: When the immune find a boat, they are greeted by Serpo again; he freely admits to orchestrating the outbreaks, but offers the immune medical help if they come with him. The immune instead leave him to the zombies and evacuate the island with the five other survivors in their party. Six days later, their boat washes up on another island, apparently abandoned. As the game ends, growling is heard from the inside of the boat, and the doorknob to the hold is turned open from the inside before the game abruptly ends. The fates of the immune and the other five survivors are left unclear.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: The game was first announced in June 2012, and in September 2012, the first teaser trailer was released. A music video for a song called "No Room in Hell" was released in November 2012 by rapper Josef "J7" Lord (who in the song is named Sam B as the main character from "Dead Island"), for promotion and featured Chamillionaire. A new trailer released in March 2013 titled "They Thought Wrong" showed new gameplay, characters, and enemies.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: In January 2013, Deep Silver announced that "Dead Island: Riptide" would be available in a "Zombie Bait Edition", which would include a statuette of the bloodily dismembered torso of a bikini-clad woman. Marketing materials described it as the game's "take on an iconic Roman marble torso sculpture" and "a striking conversation piece". The American market version of the statuette has the "Stars and Stripes" patterned bikini, while the European counterpart has a Union Jack pattern.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: The statuette caused an overwhelmingly negative reaction from the video game press and from activists. Journalists described the statuette as "gross", as something not even a sociopath would want, or as a "text book example of the most extreme ends of misogynist fantasy, a woman reduced to nothing but her tits, her wounds hideously depicted in gore, jutting bones, and of course barely a mark covering her globular breasts". Within hours of the announcement, Deep Silver's UK branch issued a statement that they "apologize for any offense caused" and that they "sincerely regret this choice", reiterating "how deeply sorry we are, and that we are committed to making sure this will never happen again". Deep Silver's US branch disavowed any part in the promotion. In April 2013, video game media reported that the "Zombie Bait Edition" did not seem to have been withdrawn from sale, and that Deep Silver's parent company had made an "extremely limited quantity" of the mutilated torso statuettes available to retailers in Europe and Australia.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: "Dead Island: Riptide" has been released in a variety of different editions. Available versions include the standard version, limited edition, special edition, 'survivor' edition, 'Rigor Mortis Collector's' edition, and 'Zombie Bait' edition, with a variety of extra physical (notebooks, bobble figurines, and bottle openers) and in-game (character skins and weapons) content provided.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: "Dead Island: Riptide" received mixed reviews, with most critics praising the gameplay and new setting, but criticizing the many unfixed issues found in the original, as well as the lack of new content. Aggregating review website Metacritic gave the PlayStation 3 version 62/100, the PC version 61/100, and the Xbox 360 version 57/100.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: "IGN" Greg Miller stated that although he found it to be 'great gory fun', it still contained bugs and glitches that were found in the first game. He also stated that 'it was tempting to simply paste the original Dead Island review on the page and call it a day'. He praised the gameplay, co-op and the ability to import your save from the original, noting that the enemies you face are at scale with your level, so that the game gives you an appropriate challenge, but criticized the storyline and overall look of the game. He went on to say that it didn't do much to improve itself from its predecessor in terms of overall performance. However, he did state that the lackluster graphics and performance could be overlooked by how much fun it is to play. Miller gave the game a 7.2 out of 10.


title: Dead Island: Riptide

text: "GameSpot" Mark Walton heavily criticized the game, saying: ""Dead Island: Riptide" might look like an idyllic zombie-fest, but it's little more than a frustrating mess of half-baked ideas and repetitive combat.". Walton gave the game a 4 out of 10.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Konrad Zacharias Lorenz (; 7 November 1903 – 27 February 1989) was an Austrian zoologist, ethologist, and ornithologist. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine with Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. He is often regarded as one of the founders of modern ethology, the study of animal behavior. He developed an approach that began with an earlier generation, including his teacher Oskar Heinroth.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz studied instinctive behavior in animals, especially in greylag geese and jackdaws. Working with geese, he investigated the principle of imprinting, the process by which some nidifugous birds (i.e. birds that leave their nest early) bond instinctively with the first moving object that they see within the first hours of hatching. Although Lorenz did not discover the topic, he became widely known for his descriptions of imprinting as an instinctive bond. In 1936 he met Tinbergen, and the two collaborated in developing ethology as a separate sub-discipline of biology. A "Review of General Psychology" survey, published in 2002, ranked Lorenz the 65th most cited scholar of the 20th century in the technical psychology journals, introductory psychology textbooks, and survey responses.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz's work was interrupted by the onset of World War II and in 1941 he was recruited into the German Army as a medic. In 1944, he was sent to the Eastern Front where he was captured by the Soviet Red Army and spent four years as a German prisoner of war in Soviet Armenia. After the war, he regretted his membership in the Nazi Party.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz wrote numerous books, some of which, such as "King Solomon's Ring", "On Aggression", and "Man Meets Dog", became popular reading. His last work "Here I Am – Where Are You?" is a summary of his life's work and focuses on his famous studies of greylag geese.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz was the son of Adolf Lorenz, a wealthy and distinguished surgeon, and his wife Emma (née Lecher), a physician who had been her husband's assistant. The family lived on a large estate at Altenberg, and had a city apartment in Vienna. He was educated at the Public Schottengymnasium of the Benedictine monks in Vienna.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: In his autobiographical essay, published in 1973 in "Les Prix Nobel" (winners of the prizes are requested to provide such essays), Lorenz credits his career to his parents, who "were supremely tolerant of my inordinate love for animals", and to his childhood encounter with Selma Lagerlöf's "The Wonderful Adventures of Nils", which filled him with a great enthusiasm about wild geese."


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: At the request of his father, Adolf Lorenz, he began a premedical curriculum in 1922 at Columbia University, but he returned to Vienna in 1923 to continue his studies at the University of Vienna. He graduated as Doctor of Medicine (MD) in 1928 and became an assistant professor at the Institute of Anatomy until 1935. He finished his zoological studies in 1933 and received his second doctorate (PhD).


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: While still a student, Lorenz began developing what would become a large menagerie, ranging from domestic to exotic animals. In his popular book "King Solomon's Ring", Lorenz recounts that while studying at the University of Vienna he kept a variety of animals at his parents' apartment, ranging from fish to a capuchin monkey named Gloria.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: In 1936, at an international scientific symposium on instinct, Lorenz met his great friend and colleague Nikolaas Tinbergen. Together they studied geese—wild, domestic, and hybrid. One result of these studies was that Lorenz "realized that an overpowering increase in the drives of feeding as well as of copulation and a waning of more differentiated social instincts is characteristic of very many domestic animals". Lorenz began to suspect and fear "that analogous processes of deterioration may be at work with civilized humanity." This observation of bird hybrids caused Lorenz to believe that domestication resulting from urbanisation in humans might also cause dysgenic effects, and to argue in two papers that the Nazi eugenics policies against this were therefore scientifically justified.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: In 1940 he became a professor of psychology at the University of Königsberg. He was drafted into the Wehrmacht in 1941. He sought to be a motorcycle mechanic, but instead he was assigned as a military psychologist, conducting racial studies on humans in occupied Poznań under Rudolf Hippius. The objective was to study the biological characteristics of "German-Polish half-breeds" to determine whether they 'benefitted' from the same work ethics as 'pure' Germans. The degree to which Lorenz participated in the project is unknown, but the project director Hippius referred a couple of times to Lorenz as an "examining psychologist".


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz later described that he once saw transports of concentration camp inmates at Fort VII near Poznań, which made him "fully realize the complete inhumanity of the Nazis".


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: He was sent to the Russian front in 1944 where he quickly became a prisoner of war in the Soviet Union from 1944 to 1948. In captivity in Soviet Armenia, he continued to work as a medic and "became tolerably fluent in Russian and got quite friendly with some Russians, mostly doctors." When he was repatriated, he was allowed to keep the manuscript of a book he had been writing, and his pet starling. He arrived back in Altenberg (his family home, near Vienna) both "with manuscript and bird intact." The manuscript became his 1973 book "".


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: The Max Planck Society established the Lorenz Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Buldern, Germany, in 1950. In his memoirs Lorenz described the chronology of his war years differently from what historians have been able to document after his death. He himself claimed that he was captured in 1942, where in reality he was only sent to the front and captured in 1944, leaving out entirely his involvement with the Poznań project.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: In 1958, Lorenz transferred to the Max Planck Institute for Behavioral Physiology in Seewiesen. He shared the 1973 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine "for discoveries in individual and social behavior patterns" with two other important early ethologists, Nikolaas Tinbergen and Karl von Frisch. In 1969, he became the first recipient of the Prix mondial Cino Del Duca.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: He was a friend and student of renowned biologist Sir Julian Huxley (grandson of "Darwin's bulldog", Thomas Henry Huxley). Famed psychoanalyst Ralph Greenson and Sir Peter Scott were good friends. Lorenz and Karl Popper were childhood friends; many years after they met, during the celebration of Popper's 80 years, they wrote together a book entitled "Die Zukunft ist offen".


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: He retired from the Max Planck Institute in 1973 but continued to research and publish from Altenberg and Grünau im Almtal in Austria. He died on 27 February 1989 in Altenberg.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz married his childhood friend, Margarethe Gebhardt, a gynaecologist, daughter of a market gardener who lived near the Lorenz family; they had a son and two daughters. He lived at the Lorenz family estate, which included a "fantastical neo-baroque mansion", previously owned by his father.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz is recognized as one of the founding fathers of the field of ethology, the study of animal behavior. He is best known for his research of the principle of attachment, or imprinting, through which in some species a bond is formed between a newborn animal and its caregiver. This principle had been discovered by Douglas Spalding in the 19th century, and Lorenz's mentor Oskar Heinroth had also worked on the topic, but Lorenz's description of "Prägung", imprinting, in nidifugous birds such as greylag geese in his 1935 book "Der Kumpan in der Umwelt des Vogels" ("The Companion in the Environment of Birds") became the foundational description of the phenomenon.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Here, Lorenz used Jakob von Uexküll's concept of Umwelt to understand how the limited perception of animals filtered out certain phenomena with which they interacted instinctively. For example, a young goose instinctively bonds with the first moving stimulus it perceives, whether it be its mother, or a person. Lorenz showed that this behavior of imprinting is what allows the goose to learn to recognize members of its own species, enabling them to be the object of subsequent behavior patterns such as mating. He developed a theory of instinctive behavior that saw behavior patterns as largely innate but triggered through environmental stimuli, for example the hawk/goose effect. He argued that animals have an inner drive to carry out instinctive behaviors, and that if they do not encounter the right stimulus they will eventually engage in the behavior with an inappropriate stimulus.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz's approach to ethology derived from a skepticism towards the studies of animal behavior done in laboratory settings. He considered that in order to understand the mechanisms of animal behavior, it was necessary to observe their full range of behaviors in their natural context. Lorenz did not carry out much traditional fieldwork but observed animals near his home. His method involved empathizing with animals, often using anthropomorphization to imagine their mental states. He believed that animals were capable of experiencing many of the same emotions as humans.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Tinbergen, Lorenz's friend with whom he conjointly received the Nobel prize, summarized Lorenz's major contribution to ethology as making behavior a topic of biological inquiry, considering behavior a part of an animal's evolutionary equipment. Tinbergen and Lorenz contributed to making Ethology a recognized sub-discipline within Biology and founded the first specialized journal of the field "Ethology" (originally "Zeitschift für Tierpsychologie")


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz joined the Nazi Party in 1938 and accepted a university chair under the Nazi regime. In his application for party membership he wrote, "I'm able to say that my whole scientific work is devoted to the ideas of the National Socialists." His publications during that time led in later years to allegations that his scientific work had been contaminated by Nazi sympathies. His published writing during the Nazi period included support for Nazi ideas of "racial hygiene" couched in pseudoscientific metaphors.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: The same individual geese on which we conducted these experiments, first aroused my interest in the process of domestication. They were F1 hybrids of wild Greylags and domestic geese and they showed surprising deviations from the normal social and sexual behaviour of the wild birds. I realised that an overpowering increase in the drives of feeding as well as of copulation and a waning of more differentiated social instincts is characteristic of very many domestic animals. I was frightened – as I still am – by the thought that analogous genetical processes of deterioration may be at work with civilized humanity. Moved by this fear, I did a very ill-advised thing soon after the Germans had invaded Austria: I wrote about the dangers of domestication and, in order to be understood, I couched my writing in the worst of nazi-terminology. I do not want to extenuate this action. I did, indeed, believe that some good might come of the new rulers. The precedent narrow-minded catholic regime in Austria induced better and more intelligent men than I was to cherish this naive hope. Practically all my friends and teachers did so, including my own father who certainly was a kindly and humane man. None of us as much as suspected that the word “selection”, when used by these rulers, meant murder. I regret those writings not so much for the undeniable discredit they reflect on my person as for their effect of hampering the future recognition of the dangers of domestication.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: After the war, Lorenz denied having been a party member, until his membership application was made public; and he denied having known the extent of the genocide, despite his position as a psychologist in the Office of Racial Policy. He was also shown to have made anti-Semitic jokes on 'Jewish characteristics' in letters to his mentor Heinroth. In 2015, the University of Salzburg posthumously rescinded an honorary doctorate awarded to Lorenz in 1983, citing his party membership and his assertions in his application that he was "always a National Socialist", and that his work "stands to serve National Socialist thought". The university also accused him of using his work to spread "basic elements of the racist ideology of National Socialism".


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: During the final years of his life, Lorenz supported the fledgling Austrian Green Party and in 1984 became the figurehead of the Konrad Lorenz Volksbegehren, a grass-roots movement that was formed to prevent the building of a power plant at the Danube near Hainburg an der Donau and thus the destruction of the surrounding woodland.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz has been called 'The father of ethology', by Niko Tinbergen. Perhaps Lorenz's most important contribution to ethology was his idea that behavior patterns can be studied as anatomical organs. This concept forms the foundation of ethological research. However, Richard Dawkins called Lorenz a "'good of the species' man", stating that the idea of group selection was "so deeply ingrained" in Lorenz's thinking that he "evidently did not realize that his statements contravened orthodox Darwinian theory."


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Together with Nikolaas Tinbergen, Lorenz developed the idea of an innate releasing mechanism to explain instinctive behaviors (fixed action patterns). They experimented with "supernormal stimuli" such as giant eggs or dummy bird beaks which they found could release the fixed action patterns more powerfully than the natural objects for which the behaviors were adapted. Influenced by the ideas of William McDougall, Lorenz developed this into a "psychohydraulic" model of the motivation of behavior, which tended towards group selectionist ideas, which were influential in the 1960s. Another of his contributions to ethology is his work on imprinting. His influence on a younger generation of ethologists; and his popular works, were important in bringing ethology to the attention of the general public.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz claimed that there was widespread contempt for the descriptive sciences. He attributed this to the denial of perception as the source of all scientific knowledge: "a denial that has been elevated to the status of religion." He wrote that in comparative behavioral research, "it is necessary to describe various patterns of movement, record them, and above all, render them unmistakably recognizable."


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: There are three research institutions named after Lorenz in Austria: the Konrad Lorenz Institute for Evolution and Cognition Research (KLI) was housed in Lorenz' family mansion at Altenberg before moving to Klosterneuburg in 2013 Discover the KLI; the Konrad Lorenz Forschungsstelle (KLF) at his former field station in Grünau; and the Konrad Lorenz Institute of Ethology, an external research facility of the University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz predicted the relationship between market economics and the threat of ecological catastrophe. In his 1973 book, "Civilized Man's Eight Deadly Sins", Lorenz addresses the following paradox:


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: All the advantages that man has gained from his ever-deepening understanding of the natural world that surrounds him, his technological, chemical and medical progress, all of which should seem to alleviate human suffering... tends instead to favor humanity's destruction


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz adopts an ecological model to attempt to grasp the mechanisms behind this contradiction. Thus "all species... are adapted to their environment... including not only inorganic components... but all the other living beings that inhabit the locality." p31.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Fundamental to Lorenz's theory of ecology is the function of negative feedback mechanisms, which, in hierarchical fashion, dampen impulses that occur beneath a certain threshold. The thresholds themselves are the product of the interaction of contrasting mechanisms. Thus pain and pleasure act as checks on each other:


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: To gain a desired prey, a dog or wolf will do things that, in other contexts, they would shy away from: run through thorn bushes, jump into cold water and expose themselves to risks which would normally frighten them. All these inhibitory mechanisms... act as a counterweight to the effects of learning mechanisms... The organism cannot allow itself to pay a price which is not worth paying. p53.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: A closer examination shows that these beings... not only do not damage each other, but often constitute a community of interests. It is obvious that the predator is strongly interested in the survival of that species, animal or vegetable, which constitutes its prey. ... It is not uncommon that the prey species derives specific benefits from its interaction with the predator species... pp31–33.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz states that humanity is the one species not bound by these mechanisms, being the only one that has defined its own environment:


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: [The pace of human ecology] is determined by the progress of man's technology (p35)... human ecology (economy) is governed by mechanisms of POSITIVE feedback, defined as a mechanism which tends to encourage behavior rather than to attenuate it (p43). Positive feedback always involves the danger of an 'avalanche' effect... One particular kind of positive feedback occurs when individuals OF THE SAME SPECIES enter into competition among themselves... For many animal species, environmental factors keep... intraspecies selection from [leading to] disaster... But there is no force which exercises this type of healthy regulatory effect on humanity's cultural development; unfortunately for itself, humanity has learned to overcome all those environmental forces which are external to itself p44.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Let us imagine that an absolutely unbiased investigator on another planet, perhaps on Mars, is examining human behavior on earth, with the aid of a telescope whose magnification is too small to enable him to discern individuals and follow their separate behavior, but large enough for him to observe occurrences such as migrations of peoples, wars, and similar great historical events. He would never gain the impression that human behavior was dictated by intelligence, still less by responsible morality. If we suppose our extraneous observer to be a being of pure reason, devoid of instincts himself and unaware of the way in which all instincts in general and aggression in particular can miscarry, he would be at a complete loss how to explain history at all. The ever-recurrent phenomena of history do not have reasonable causes. It is a mere commonplace to say that they are caused by what common parlance so aptly terms "human nature." Unreasoning and unreasonable human nature causes two nations to compete, though no economic necessity compels them to do so; it induces two political parties or religions with amazingly similar programs of salvation to fight each other bitterly, and it impels an Alexander or a Napoleon to sacrifice millions of lives in his attempt to unite the world under his scepter. We have been taught to regard some of the persons who have committed these and similar absurdities with respect, even as "great" men, we are wont to yield to the political wisdom of those in charge, and we are all so accustomed to these phenomena that most of us fail to realize how abjectly stupid and undesirable the historical mass behavior of humanity actually is


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz does not see human independence from natural ecological processes as necessarily bad. Indeed, he states that:


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: A completely new [ecology] which corresponds in every way to [humanity's] desires... could, theoretically, prove as durable as that which would have existed without his intervention (36).


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: The competition between human beings destroys with cold and diabolic brutality... Under the pressure of this competitive fury we have not only forgotten what is useful to humanity as a whole, but even that which is good and advantageous to the individual. [...] One asks, which is more damaging to modern humanity: the thirst for money or consuming haste... in either case, fear plays a very important role: the fear of being overtaken by one's competitors, the fear of becoming poor, the fear of making wrong decisions or the fear of not being up to snuff... pp45–47.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: In this book, Lorenz proposes that the best hope for mankind lies in our looking for mates based on the kindness of their hearts rather than good looks or wealth. He illustrates this with a Jewish story, explicitly described as such.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz was one of the early scientists who argue that human overpopulation could cause environmental degradation.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: In his 1973 book "", Lorenz considers the old philosophical question of whether our senses correctly inform us about the world as it is, or provide us only with an illusion. His answer comes from evolutionary biology. Only traits that help us survive and reproduce are transmitted. If our senses gave us wrong information about our environment, we would soon be extinct. Therefore, we can be sure that our senses give us correct information, for otherwise we would not be here to be deceived.


title: Konrad Lorenz

text: Lorenz's best-known books are "King Solomon's Ring" and "On Aggression", both written for a popular audience. His scientific work appeared mainly in journal articles, written in German; it became widely known to English-speaking scientists through its description in Tinbergen's 1951 book "The Study of Instinct", though many of his papers were later published in English translation in the two volumes titled "Studies in Animal and Human Behavior".


title: Toonie

text: The toonie (also spelled twonie or twoonie), formally the Canadian two-dollar coin (, nicknamed or ), was introduced on February 19, 1996, by Minister of Public Works Diane Marleau. , it possesses the highest monetary value of any circulating Canadian coin. The toonie is a bi-metallic coin which on the reverse side bears an image of a polar bear by artist Brent Townsend. The obverse, like all other current Canadian circulation coins, has a portrait of Queen Elizabeth II. It has the words in a typeface different from any other Canadian coin.


title: Toonie

text: The coin is manufactured using a patented distinctive bi-metallic coin-locking mechanism. The coins are estimated to last 20 years. The discontinued two-dollar bill was less expensive to manufacture but lasted only one year on average.


title: Toonie

text: On April 10, 2012, the Royal Canadian Mint (RCM) announced design changes to the loonie and toonie, which include new security features.


title: Toonie

text: Coins minted prior to 2012 consist of an aluminum bronze inner core with a pure nickel outer ring; but in March–May 2012, the composition of the inner core switched to aluminum bronze coated with multi-ply plated brass, and the outer ring switched to steel coated with multi-ply plated nickel. The weight dropped from 7.30 to 6.92g, and the thickness changed from 1.8 to 1.75 mm. The Mint said that multi-ply plated steel technology, already used in Canada's smaller coinage, produces an electromagnetic signature that is harder to counterfeit than that of regular alloy coins; also, using steel provides cost savings and avoids fluctuations in the price or supply of nickel.


title: Toonie

text: "Toonie" is a portmanteau word combining the number "two" with the name of the loonie, Canada's one-dollar coin. It is occasionally spelled "twonie" or "twoonie", but Canadian newspapers and the Royal Canadian Mint use the "toonie" spelling.


title: Toonie

text: Jack Iyerak Anawak, member of Parliament from Nunatsiaq (the electoral district representing what is now the territory of Nunavut), suggested the name "Nanuq" [nanook, polar bear] in honour of the Inuit and their northern culture; however, this proposal went largely unnoticed beside the popular "toonie".


title: Toonie

text: The name "toonie" became so widely accepted that in 2006, the RCM secured the rights to it. A competition to name the bear resulted in the name "Churchill", a reference both to Winston Churchill and to the common polar bear sightings in Churchill, Manitoba.


title: Toonie

text: Finance Minister Paul Martin announced the replacement of the $2 banknote with a coin in the 1995 Canadian federal budget speech. The RCM spent to canvass 2,000 Canadian households regarding which of the 10 theme options they preferred.


title: Toonie

text: Under the direction of Hieu C. Truong, the RCM engineering division designed the two-dollar coin to be made from two different metals. The metals for the bimetallic coin would be lighter and thinner than those produced anywhere in the world. To join the two parts, the engineering division selected a bimechanical locking mechanism. By the end of 1996, the Winnipeg facility had struck 375 million of these coins. The coin was officially launched at Ben's Deli in Montreal on February 19, 1996.


title: Toonie

text: The community of Campbellford, Ontario, home to the coin's designer, constructed an toonie monument, similar to the "Big Loonie" in Echo Bay and the Big Nickel in Sudbury.


title: Toonie

text: Unlike the loonie before it, the toonie and the $2 bill were not produced concurrently with each other, as the $2 bill was withdrawn from circulation on February 16, 1996, three days prior to the toonie's introduction.


title: Toonie

text: From 2010 to 2015, the Royal Canadian Mint issued a two-dollar coin that depicts a different and unique image of a young animal on the coin's reverse. These special toonies have limited mintages and are available only in the six-coin specimen sets.


title: Toonie

text: A failure in the bimetallic locking mechanism in the first batch of toonies caused some coins to separate if struck hard or frozen. Despite media reports of defective toonies, the RCM responded that the odds of a toonie falling apart were about one in 60 million. Deliberately attempting to separate a toonie is considered to be "defacing coin currency", a summary offence under section 456 of the Canadian Criminal Code.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: Shithouse (bowdlerized in marketing material as S#!%house and released in some territories as Freshman Year) is a 2020 American coming of age comedy-drama film, written, directed, and produced by Cooper Raiff, in his directorial debut. It stars Raiff, Dylan Gelula, Amy Landecker and Logan Miller.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: The film was set to have its world premiere at South by Southwest in March 2020, but the festival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The South by Southwest film competition nevertheless went ahead, and "Shithouse" won the Grand Jury Prize for Best Narrative Feature. It was released in the United States on October 16, 2020, by IFC Films.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: Alex is a lonely college freshman struggling to adjust to college life, lying to his mother by inventing a best friend and girlfriend to conceal his lack of social life. One night, desperate to get out of his dorm, he attends a party at the "Shithouse" fraternity with his roommate, Sam, who he has a distant relationship with. At the party, he bonds with Maggie, the sophomore residential advisor of his dorm. Though Maggie briefly leaves for an unfulfilling hookup with another student, she and Alex reconnect later that night and hang out after Alex fails to perform during their attempted hookup. The two genuinely bond, with Alex revealing his difficulties in connecting with other students, insecurity at living away from his family, and the death of his father. In turn, Maggie opens up about her estrangement with her own father, the unexpected grief over a recent loss of her pet turtle, and her secret dreams of acting. After spontaneously joining an impromptu baseball game with a group of other students, they return to the dorms to drink and have sex.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: The next morning, however, Maggie is aloof and irritated by Alex's presence, which leaves him hurt and confused. He tries to reconnect with her in overbearing ways, such as sending her long messages on Instagram and liking all of her photos. In turn, Maggie ignores him when encountering him in front of her friends. Alex decides to make a sincere effort in bonding with Sam, and they crash another party that night, one which Maggie is also attending. Maggie treats Alex in a friendly way again, which he misinterprets as an invitation to reconnect, but when he later finds her hooking up with another student, they devolve into fighting; Alex accuses Maggie of toying with his feelings and pretending that they did not share a connection, while Maggie blames him for being clingy and placing too much weight on their encounter. They walk away believing the other is immature: Maggie thinks Alex is naïve and entitled, while Alex believes Maggie uses sex as a crutch to cover up for her unhappy childhood and fear of real intimacy.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: Alex takes the time to open himself up to socializing, taking care of Sam, connecting with strangers, and hanging out with the students he met at the baseball game. Later, he calls his mother and tearfully reveals that he has been lying to her, and says that while he does love her and his sister back home, he needs to try harder to put an effort into enjoying his college years instead of leaning on them. His mother agrees, but assures him that his family will always be there when he needs them. That night, he encounters Maggie throwing her old terrarium away, and he assists her before they part ways. Maggie, having thought hard about Alex's earlier words, returns to her dorm and likes some of Alex's Instagram photos.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: Two and a half years later, Alex has many friends, including Sam and Maggie, and is fully involved in college life. Maggie, now taking a chance by appearing in plays, meets up with Alex after a performance and asks to be his girlfriend. Alex agrees on the condition that they both be good partners to each other. She accepts, and they go outside for an impromptu game of baseball.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: "Shithouse" began as a fifty-minute YouTube video, shot over five days during spring break at Occidental College in March 2018, performed by Cooper Raiff and his then-girlfriend, Madeline Hill, with Will Youmans as camera operator. Raiff then tweeted a link to the video to filmmaker and actor Jay Duplass, who suggested using it as the basis for a feature-length project. Duplass expressed interest in directing the film, but was unable to due to scheduling issues.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: Raiff dropped out of Occidental in early 2019 to devote more effort into making the film, which was shot over two weeks in Los Angeles in August 2019. For cost reasons, the production could not secure official clearance to shoot on Occidental's campus, so principal photography took place without permits, with Raiff claiming he was making "a student short with no money" when asked.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: The film was scheduled to have its world premiere at South by Southwest on March 14, 2020, but the festival was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic. On June 10, 2020, IFC Films acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released on October 16, 2020.


title: Shithouse (film)

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The critical consensus reads, "A disarmingly tender look at young adult ennui, this "Shithouse" don't stink." According to Metacritic, which sampled 18 critics and calculated a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, the film received "generally favorable reviews".


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: Gail Ann Dorsey (born November 20, 1962) is an American musician. With a long career as a session musician mainly on bass guitar, she is perhaps best known for her lengthy residency in David Bowie's band, from 1995 to Bowie's death in 2016. Aside from playing bass, she sang lead vocals on live versions of "Under Pressure" (taking the part originally sung by Queen frontman Freddie Mercury) and dueted with Bowie on other songs, including "The London Boys", "Aladdin Sane (1913–1938–197?)", "I Dig Everything", accompanying Bowie on clarinet, and a cover of Laurie Anderson's "O Superman".


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: From 1993 to 1996, Dorsey also recorded and toured with Tears for Fears, and collaborated on songwriting with the band. She appeared in several of the band's promo videos throughout this period.


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: Her diverse range of work includes performances and recordings with, among others, The National, Lenny Kravitz, Bryan Ferry, Boy George, the Indigo Girls, Khaled, Jane Siberry, The The, Skin, Gwen Stefani, Charlie Watts, Seal, Gang of Four, Susan Werner, Ani DiFranco and Dar Williams.


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: In addition, Dorsey has released three solo albums: "The Corporate World" (1988), "Rude Blue" (1992), and "I Used To Be..." (2003).


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: Dorsey grew up in the 1970s in West Philadelphia. She played guitar from the age of nine and cites Mark Farner of Grand Funk Railroad, Terry Kath of Chicago, Jimi Hendrix, and Nancy Wilson of Heart as early influences. She acquired a bass guitar shortly after her 14th birthday but did not consider herself a bass player until she was 20. She also wrote feature-length screenplays to accompany some of her musical compositions.


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: Dorsey attended the California Institute of the Arts in the School of Film and Video. Her screenplays and short Super 8 films earned her a full scholarship. Dorsey was the only woman in her freshman class and the youngest woman to be admitted to the Live Action department up to that point. After completing three semesters she felt unsuited for the film industry and once again turned to a career in music.


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: At the age of 22, Dorsey moved to London to pursue her musical career, where she was in a musical collaboration/band 20To with keyboard player/composer Pete Stern. Their first demos were engineered and produced by Paul "Doc" Stewart at Village Way Studio in London. Stewart was responsible for their introduction to CBS Records, which led to her first recording deal. She also composed the music for the Theatre of Black Women play "Chiaroscuro" in 1985, and was in the band for the show. She then established herself through collaborations with artists such as Boy George, Ann Pigalle, and Donny Osmond. Dorsey's first high-profile job was as a guest vocalist in the original line up of The Charlie Watts Big Band and its 1985 premiere at London's famous West End jazz club, Ronnie Scott's. An important point in Dorsey's solo career was her appearance on "The Tube", a weekly music television hosted by Jools Holland and Paula Yates. She sang on the 1986 world jazz album "The Song of Many Tongues" by Grand Union Orchestra, written by Tony Haynes.


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: In December 1987, Dorsey signed with Warner Music Group and in 1988 released her first solo album, "The Corporate World". The album was produced by bassist Nathan East of the jazz quartet Fourplay and included appearances by artists such as Eric Clapton. It received a five-star review and was voted one of the Top 50 Albums of the Year by London's "Q" magazine.


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: She moved to Island Records in 1991, signed by founder Chris Blackwell. In 1992, she released her second solo album entitled "Rude Blue", which featured trumpeter Mark Pender and trombonist Richie "La Bamba" (from Conan O'Brien's house band), Carla Azar on drums (from Wendy & Lisa), Carol Steele on percussion, and the famous James Brown horn section of Maceo Parker, Fred Wesley, and Alfred "Pee Wee" Ellis. After almost 12 years in England, Dorsey relocated to the artist community of Woodstock in upstate New York in 1994.


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: When her relationship with Island became strained, Dorsey began to concentrate on session work and in 1995 was recruited for David Bowie's Outside Tour. Throughout the remainder of the 1990s and into the 21st century she performed and recorded with artists such as Gang of Four, Louise Goffin, world music stars Rachid Taha, Faudel, and Khaled (on their live album "1, 2, 3 Soleils"), Sophie B. Hawkins, Tears For Fears, The The, The Indigo Girls, Canadian artist Jane Siberry, Jeffrey Gaines, Italian blues man Zucchero, Dar Williams, Catie Curtis, Toshi Reagon, Joan Osborne, The B-52s, and Michael Hutchence of INXS.


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: Dorsey is perhaps best known for her contribution to the David Bowie band. After the Outside Tour she provided vocals and bass for "Earthling" (1997), "Heathen" (2002), "Reality" (2003) and "The Next Day" (2013). She recorded "Planet of Dreams", a duet with Bowie on the 1997 EMI UK benefit CD release," Long Live Tibet", as well as several other live recordings and videos. She was on board for the last six tours


title: Gail Ann Dorsey

text: Dorsey's musical style has a broad span and incorporates rock, funk, country, and pop influences. She describes her current sound as a present-day version of the AM/FM radio tunes that left a mark on her music such as The Fifth Dimension, Olivia Newton-John, Bread and Heart. When asked to describe her sound in one word she says "Black-arach...but that's maybe how I feel most days. Sometimes you can never tell what vehicle is required to deliver the message until it tells you. I don't want to limit myself to anything. I just want to maintain honesty and substance in the work. That is my responsibility to the music and the audience." Gail uses a Music Man Stingray bass guitar and a Fender Jazz Bass mostly, during her touring and studio efforts.


title: Horrid Henry (TV series)

text: Horrid Henry is an animated children's television series based on the British children's book series of the same name by Francesca Simon. Produced by Novel Entertainment (in association with Nelvana Limited for series 1 only), it was broadcast from 31 October 2006 until 17 May 2019 on CITV. The show is currently airing on Nicktoons and available to stream on Netflix in the UK since 28 May 2018. 250 episodes were produced.


title: Horrid Henry (TV series)

text: The series was first confirmed to be in development as early as March 2004. At Cartoon Forum 2004, 26 episodes would be produced, although no release window was announced at the time.


title: Horrid Henry (TV series)

text: The series producer is Lucinda Whiteley and the animation director is Dave Unwin. The animation style differs from the Tony Ross illustrations in the books. The series has broadcast in more than 90 countries, including France, United States, Germany, South Africa, India, Pakistan, South Korea, Russia, the Philippines and Australia.


title: Horrid Henry (TV series)

text: The incidental music is composed by Lester Barnes, and additional songs are composed by Lockdown Media. Three series were aired, with 52 episodes each. The fourth series started on 11 October 2014 with another 52 episodes making it 208 in total.