title: Sweepstake

text: In Australia, a sweepstake is known as a competition, however the technical name for a consumer competition is a trade promotion lottery.


title: Sweepstake

text: A trade promotion lottery is a free entry lottery conducted to promote goods or services supplied by a business. Unlike in the U.S., entrants may be required to purchase a product in order to enter a trade promotion in Australia.


title: Sweepstake

text: Companies or promoters may require a trade promotion lottery permit if the winner(s) are to be chosen via an element of chance, i.e. a competition draw.


title: Sweepstake

text: No permits are required for competitions that do not involve an element of chance in determining the winner or winners. Common examples include competitions where entrants are required to submit a photo or an answer to a question in 25 words or less.


title: Sweepstake

text: Many compers (those who enjoy entering competitions) attend annual national conventions. In 2012 over 100 people from the online competitions website lottos.com.au met on the Gold Coast, Queensland to discuss competitions.


title: Sweepstake

text: Most sweepstakes in the UK are small-scale. They are classed as "work lotteries", "residents' lotteries", or "private society" lotteries, and do not require a licence, provided that all the money staked is paid out as prize money.


title: Sweepstake

text: The popularity of the term "sweepstakes" may derive from the Irish Sweepstakes, which were very popular from the 1930s to the 1980s.


title: Sweepstake

text: There is a tradition of office sweepstakes (known as office pools in the U.S.), which are usually based on major sporting events such as the Grand National and the World Cup. Entrants pay an equal stake for each horse/team they draw out of the hat before the event. The winner then takes the pot. For horse racing events, the pot may be split between the horses that win, place, and show.


title: Sweepstake

text: What an American would call a "sweepstakes" — a random prize draw promoting a commercial product — is likely to be labelled as a "prize draw" or "competition" in the UK.


title: Sweepstake

text: In the UK, prize competitions and prize draws are free of statutory control under the Gambling Act 2005, but should follow the CAP Code.


title: Sweepstake

text: In the United States, sweepstake sponsors are very careful to disassociate themselves from any suggestion that players must pay to enter, or pay to win, since this would constitute gambling. Sweepstakes typically involve enticements to enter a consumer promotion with prizes that range from substantial wins such as cars or large sums of money to smaller prizes that are currently popular with consumers. There should be no monetary cost to the entrant (although some sweepstakes require entrants to subscribe to a promotional mailing list, potentially exposing the entrant to an increase in junk mail, spam email, or telemarketing calls) and sweepstakes winners should also not be required to pay any kind of fee to receive their prizes.


title: Sweepstake

text: As an example of a state policy on sweepstakes promotions, Tennessee residents are prohibited by a policy of the Tennessee Alcoholic Beverage Commission (and not a state law) from entering sweepstakes online sponsored by manufacturers of wines and liquors; however, Tennessee residents may enter many of these same sweepstakes promotions by entries delivered by the US Postal Service. Another example is that Tennessee state law prohibits sweepstakes agencies and sponsors from requiring sweepstakes prize winners to submit to "in perpetuity" publicity releases.


title: Sweepstake

text: Most corporate-sponsored sweepstakes promoted in the United States limit entry to US citizens, although some allow entry by legal residents of both the United States and Canada.


title: Sweepstake

text: Among the most popularly known sweepstakes in the United States were the American Family Publishers Sweepstakes (now defunct), Publishers Clearing House sweepstakes, and Reader's Digest Sweepstakes, each of which strongly persuaded entrants to purchase magazine subscriptions by placing stickers on contest entry cardstock while promising multimillion-dollar (annuity) winners who will be "announced on TV". The American Family Publishers sweepstakes used paid advertisements during NBC's "The Tonight Show" to announce its grand prize winners (for many years, its celebrity spokesman was Ed McMahon). All three companies eventually paid fines and penalties to a variety of states who initiated legal actions against them. Of those three companies, only Publishers Clearing House continues to use sweepstakes as a promotional device and as recently as 2010 paid $3.5 million to settle charges that it had violated the terms of a 2001 multi-state agreement for which it was fined $34 million.


title: Sweepstake

text: Sweepstakes are frequently used by fast-food restaurants to boost business. One of the most popular has been the McDonald's Monopoly "instant-win" game-piece promotion (To satisfy the "no purchase necessary" requirement, free game pieces are made available on request through the US mail). Soft drink companies also sponsor many sweepstakes, such as the Pepsi Billion Dollar Sweepstakes game and the Pepsi Stuff loyalty rewards program that allowed Pepsi drinkers to accumulate points from packages and cups and redeem them for merchandise. Pepsi Stuff was Pepsi's largest and most successful long-term promotion ever and it ran for many years in the US and in many countries around the world. Other sponsors may require the submission of a UPC of a company product (with provision for receiving a "free" UPC) for entry into the sweepstakes drawing.


title: Sweepstake

text: Sweepstakes parlors, which began to appear in the US around 2005, are establishments that offer chances to win cash prizes as a promotion for a product, usually either a telephone card or Internet access.


title: Sweepstake

text: Sweepstakes must be carefully planned to comply with local laws and curtail forms of entrant fraud and abuse. Before home computers were popular, a common method of entry was a mailed, plain 3" × 5" index card with the entrant's name and address. Massive computer-printed entries resulted in a new requirement that entries must be "hand-printed". Laser printers that can mimic ink pen writing are also a problem for sponsors. In most sweepstakes, entrants and their relatives must not be related to the sponsor or promoter.


title: Sweepstake

text: Many state lotteries also run second-chance sweepstakes in conjunction with the retail sale of state lottery scratch cards in an effort to increase consumer demand for scratch cards and help control the litter caused by the improper disposal of non-winning lottery tickets. Since lottery tickets are considered to be bearer instruments under the Uniform Commercial Code, these lottery scratch card promotions can be entered with non-winning tickets that are picked up as litter.


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: The Notorious Bettie Page is a 2005 American biographical drama film directed by Mary Harron. The screenplay by Harron and Guinevere Turner focuses on 1950s pinup and bondage model Bettie Page, portrayed by Gretchen Mol.


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Bettie Page is an ambitious, naïve, and devout young Christian woman who longs to leave Nashville, Tennessee, following a childhood of sexual abuse, a failed wartime marriage, and a gang rape. In 1949, she departs for New York City, where she enrolls in an acting class. Amateur photographer Jerry Tibbs discovers her walking on the beach at Coney Island and she agrees to model for him. He suggests she restyle her hair with the bangs that would become her trademark.


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Bettie becomes a favorite of nature photographers (including Bunny Yeager, who films her posing with two leopards), and she has no hesitation about removing her clothes for the photographers when asked. Before long images of the shapely brunette reach brother-and-sister entrepreneurs Paula and Irving Klaw, who run a respectable business selling movie stills and memorabilia, but also deal with fetish photos, magazines, and 8- and 16-millimeter films for additional income. Their top model Maxie takes Bettie under her wing, and she soon finds herself wearing leather corsets and thigh-high boots while wielding whips and chains for photographer John Willie, frequently at the request of Little John, a mild-mannered attorney with unusual tastes. Bettie is innocently unaware of the sexual nature of the images that rapidly are making her a star in the underground world of bondage aficionados.


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: In 1955, Bettie is called to testify before a hearing, headed by Senator Estes Kefauver, investigating the effects of pornography on American youth. Though she waits patiently for 12 hours to answer the committee's questions, Kefauver, for reasons unknown, decides to not bring her before the committee and dismisses her without an explanation. When it becomes apparent that casting directors are more interested in her notoriety than in any acting talent she might possess, Bettie heads to Miami Beach. Drifting along with limited career prospects and a virtually nonexistent social life, she stumbles upon a small evangelical church, walks inside and rushes forward to embrace Jesus Christ during the altar call. Although she insists she is not ashamed of anything she has done in her life, she appears happy to leave her past behind and return to her spiritual roots by preaching the word of the Lord on street corners.


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: In New York, Irving is highly stressed and suffering from poor health. He decides that he and his sister must burn their vast collection of erotic photos and movie footage to avoid potential prosecution. Paula reluctantly complies with her brother's request, but secretly saves the negatives of many of Bettie's pictures and movies from the bonfire, thereby ensuring that Bettie's work will survive for future generations.


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: In "An Inside Look at the Pin-Up Queen of the Universe", a bonus feature on the DVD release of the film, producer Pamela Koffler and screenwriter/director Mary Harron discuss their decision to film most of the movie in black-and-white, which they felt not only perfectly captured the nostalgic mood of the period but also had a psychological impact on the audience. While writing the script, Harron knew she wanted to film the Miami scenes in color in order to provide a sharp contrast between Bettie's professional life and the escape she ultimately made from it. Cinematographer W. Mott Hupfel III used old color stock to approximate the cheerfully vivid hues of Technicolor common in 1950s films.


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Actress/screenwriter Guinevere Turner, who co-wrote the film with Mary Harron, was originally slated to star as Bettie Page but the role was given to Gretchen Mol when producers had difficulty raising money. Harron said from Mol's first audition, she was her first choice for the role. Harron said, "Emotionally she was so right. She has a natural sort of decorum. So many people made the mistake of being very vampy. At that point, I said, 'Well, you know, it's more important to get the inner Bettie than the outer Bettie.'"


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: The film premiered at the 2005 Toronto International Film Festival and was shown at the Berlin International Film Festival and the South by Southwest Film Festival before going into limited release in the United States on April 14, 2006. Opening on twenty screens, it grossed $143,131 in its opening weekend. It eventually earned $1,415,082 in the United States and $362,924 in foreign markets for a total worldwide box office of $1,778,006.


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: On the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 57% based on 134 reviews, with an average rating of 6/10. The website's critics consensus reads, "This biopic only skims the surface of Bettie Page's life, leaving her as a cipher, and additionally fails to place her iconic status in historical context."


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Manohla Dargis of "The New York Times" observed, "Until now, Ms. Mol has been best known for her premature designation several years ago as Hollywood's newest It girl. The label seemed to plague her, and she all but faded from view despite promising turns in little-seen films. Maybe because she felt protected by her female director and female producers (six out of seven), or emboldened by the material, or maybe because she knows how beautiful her gently padded silhouette looks in the raw, Ms. Mol takes to this tricky role with the carefree expressivity you tend to see only in young children who have learned the joys of nudity, usually when their parents are throwing a dinner party. When she strips, Bettie soars".


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" said "The tone of the movie is subdued and reflective. It does not defend pornography, but regards it (in its 1950s incarnation) with subdued nostalgia for a more innocent time. There is a kind of sadness in the movie as we reflect that most of these women and the men they inflamed are now dead; their lust is like an old forgotten song".


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Mick LaSalle of the "San Francisco Chronicle" stated the film "floats on the charm and the labors of its lead actress, Gretchen Mol, who single-handedly makes the picture worth seeing. She takes a character that is next door to a cipher and infuses her with innocence and mischief, wit and feeling, despite limited help from the script. Perhaps through intuition or through some careful study of Page's pinups, Mol has discovered a human being to play, and in the process has found her best screen showcase to date". Of Harron and Turner he said "They tell Page's story in a curiously uninflected way, revealing little, if any, point of view, and imposing no meaning or particular importance on this woman's life. This approach is far from a recipe for high drama, but it has the integrity of accuracy. The audience is introduced to Bettie because the audience is perhaps interested in Bettie or her career or her era. But there's no pretending that her life was all that fascinating, or that her contribution to culture was significant, or that her story contains a lesson worth receiving... There's enough here for a good after-movie argument, and that's more than can be said for most pictures".


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Peter Travers of "Rolling Stone" rated the film three out of four stars and commented "Any old sleaze could turn Bettie's life into a kinky S&M wallow, a cinematic stroke book. Not that there's anything wrong with that. It's just that director Mary Harron, who co-wrote the scrappy script with Guinevere Turner, doesn't do the expected. She's too sly for that, too subversively funny... [She] needed just the right actress to play Bettie. And she lucked out big time. Gretchen Mol is hot stuff in every sense of the term. She delivers the first performance by an actress this year that deserves serious Oscar consideration".


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Todd McCarthy of "Variety" called the film "a superficial look at the '50s sex icon [that] feels like it was researched via press clippings rather than attempting a fresh rethinking of its era and provocative subject". He added "Mary Harron's work here seems curiously uninvolved. There's no sense of any particular commitment to the leading character... [The] result is a strangely placid, unchallenging picture with no blood in its veins... Gretchen Mol is splendid to behold in every stage of dress or undress, but Harron and co-scenarist Guinevere Turner offer no clues as to what might be going on inside the dark-haired beauty's head and heart... Mol's Bettie is compliant, almost always open to any request and never disagreeable. But her lack of spine and inner turmoil make her a central figure of limited interest, that rare dramatic heroine with no ambition or goal".


title: The Notorious Bettie Page

text: Mol was nominated for the Satellite Award for Best Actress - Motion Picture Drama, but lost to Helen Mirren in "The Queen".


title: Lennard Pearce

text: Lennard Pearce (9 February 1915 – 15 December 1984) was an English actor who worked in theatre and television. He was perhaps best known as Grandad in the BBC television series "Only Fools and Horses", in which he starred from 1981 until his death in December 1984.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: Pearce was born on February 9, 1915, in Paddington. He trained as an actor at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: As a young actor in the 1930s, Pearce joined a performance tour in Germany. According to Nicholas Lyndhurst, one theatrical performance was attended by senior members of the Nazi Party. At the end of the show, party officials came backstage to congratulate the cast, and Pearce shook hands with Adolf Hitler. Lyndhurst claimed that Pearce said that he regretted not taking the opportunity to kill Hitler.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: During World War II, Pearce performed for the Entertainments National Service Association. In the early 1960s, he understudied for Stanley Holloway as Alfred P. Doolittle in the original West End production of "My Fair Lady". After 1965, he appeared in many plays at the National Theatre, including "Much Ado About Nothing" and "Rosencrantz and Guildenstern Are Dead". He worked with both Laurence Olivier and Anthony Hopkins on stage. In 1966, Pearce starred in Richard Brinsley Sheridan's "The Rivals" alongside David Jason, but Pearce and Jason did not meet again until 15 years later.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: In 1975, Pearce played Owl in a theatre adaptation of "Winnie the Pooh" at the Phoenix Theatre in London, and two years later, Mr. Witherspoon in "Arsenic and Old Lace" at the Westminster Theatre. He was also a member of the Royal Shakespeare Company.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: Pearce's television work includes "Dixon of Dock Green" (1965), "Dr. Finlay's Casebook" (1967), "Sykes" (1972) and "Coronation Street" in May 1969 and April 1977, along with "The Wednesday Play" ("Cathy Come Home", 1966). Pearce also appeared in a "Crown Court" broadcast in February 1984.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: In 1981, Pearce began his role as Grandad in the first three series of the BBC sitcom "Only Fools and Horses." He appeared in a 1984 episode of "Minder" named "The Balance of Power" and played Mr. Coles in three episodes of "Shroud for a Nightingale" in March 1984. Pearce's last television appearance was on "Children in Need", broadcast on BBC1 on 23 November 1984.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: In 1980, while Pearce was a cast member of a play running at the Bristol Old Vic, he began to lose his balance and would frequently fall asleep. He was diagnosed with critical hypertension and was prescribed medication. A heavy smoker for many years, Pearce was in poor health while filming the first episode of Series 4 of "Only Fools and Horses". On 12 December 1984, he suffered a heart attack and was rushed to the Whittington Hospital, where his condition improved. Two days later, "Only Fools and Horses" scriptwriter John Sullivan visited Pearce and assured him that his place in the programme would be left open for him when he recovered. However, following his discharge, Pearce suffered a second heart attack on 15 December at his flat in Archway and died instantly at the age of 69.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: Sullivan heard the news the following morning and informed Pearce's "Only Fools and Horses" costars David Jason and Nicholas Lyndhurst, who were devastated by Pearce's sudden death, as were the entire crew.


title: Lennard Pearce

text: When Pearce died, production had begun for the "Only Fools and Horses" episode "Hole in One." The episode was rewritten around Grandad's death, and scenes that had been filmed on location with Pearce were reshot with Buster Merryfield as the replacement character Uncle Albert. The episode "Strained Relations" begins in the wake of the death of the Grandad character.


title: Jocko Sims

text: Jocko Sims (born February 20, 1981) is an American actor, known for playing Anthony Adams in "Crash" and later playing Carlton Burk in the series "The Last Ship". On the NBC TV show "New Amsterdam", he portrays Dr. Floyd Reynolds.


title: Jocko Sims

text: In 2014, He also appeared in the film "Dawn of the Planet of the Apes", where he played Werner, the radio operator of the colony.


title: Jocko Sims

text: In 2004, he appeared as a guest in an episode of "Cold Case" as Lionel Royce, the leader of the "Black Liberation Front" section in Philadelphia in 1969.


title: Jocko Sims

text: In 2008, he joined the main cast of "Crash", in which he played Anthony Adams, the music prodigy to Dennis Hopper's character Ben Cenders, until the end of the series in 2009. His portrayal of Anthony Adams, a chauffeur and aspiring hip-hop artist, led to the iTunes release of "Head Up," a song that is performed by Sims in the third episode of the series.


title: Jocko Sims

text: In 2010, he appeared as a guest on "Criminal Minds", where he played Tony Torrell, the former landlord and victim of serial killer Kaman Scott (Leonard Roberts).


title: Jocko Sims

text: In 2012, he played Michael Thomas, the brother-in-law of NCIS director Leon Vance, in the series "NCIS".


title: Jocko Sims

text: In 2014, he joined the recurring cast of the second season of the series "Masters of Sex" where he played Robert Franklin, brother of Coral (Keke Palmer) and a civil rights activist. That same year he joined the recurring cast of "The Last Ship", where he plays Lieutenant Carlton Burk, the head of Team VBSS of the USS "Nathan James". During the second season, he became a main character.


title: Jocko Sims

text: In 2016, Sims joined the cast of "I'm Dying Up Here", a dark comedy produced by Jim Carrey. He also shot for the seasons 4 and 5 of "The Last Ship".


title: Jocko Sims

text: In March 2018, Sims was cast in the role of Dr. Floyd Reynolds on the NBC medical drama "New Amsterdam". The same year, he also appeared as Dr. Ben Wilmot in the Fox medical drama "The Resident".


title: Kevin Reynolds (director)

text: Kevin Hal Reynolds (born January 17, 1952) is an American film director and screenwriter. He directed "", "Waterworld", "The Count of Monte Cristo", the cult classic "Fandango", and the 2016 film "Risen". He was nominated for a Primetime Emmy Award for the History miniseries "Hatfields & McCoys".


title: Kevin Reynolds (director)

text: Reynolds was born in San Antonio, Texas, the son of former Baylor University President Herbert H. Reynolds.


title: Kevin Reynolds (director)

text: Reynolds enjoyed initial successes co-writing the Cold War hit "Red Dawn" in 1984 and writing and directing the Steven Spielberg-produced "Fandango" in 1985.


title: Kevin Reynolds (director)

text: He began a long friendship with Kevin Costner after hiring him for "Fandango", when Costner was a little-known actor. Reynolds later advised Costner behind the scenes for the epic western "Dances with Wolves" (1990), in particular with the buffalo hunting scenes, on which Reynolds was also an uncredited second unit director. Costner would again be his leading man in "" (1991). Costner then produced Reynolds' 1994 film "Rapa-Nui".


title: Kevin Reynolds (director)

text: Costner brought on Reynolds to direct the post-apocalyptic film "Waterworld" (1995). Mid-way through filming, production problems led to conflict between them. It was reported Reynolds walked away near the end of post-production, leaving star/producer Costner to supervise the completion of editing. The two friends stopped speaking; Reynolds was later quoted as having said of Costner: "Kevin should only star in movies he directs. That way he can work with his favorite actor and director". Later, Reynolds and Costner reunited to record a commentary track for the extended special edition DVD of "Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves".


title: Kevin Reynolds (director)

text: Reynolds next directed the dramatic thriller "One Eight Seven" (1997), which gave Samuel L. Jackson his first top-billed leading role. More recent directorial efforts were two classical adaptations: "The Count of Monte Cristo" in 2002 and "Tristan & Isolde" in 2006.


title: Kevin Reynolds (director)

text: Reynolds directed Costner again in the History miniseries "Hatfields & McCoys" in 2012. The miniseries was nominated for 16 Primetime Emmy Awards, including one for Reynolds for directing.


title: Kevin Reynolds (director)

text: In 2013, Reynolds was brought aboard as director for the planned project "The Resurrection of Jesus Christ", a film intended as a mystery/thriller and "unofficial sequel" to "The Passion of the Christ", depicting the days following Christ's resurrection, with a script written by Paul Aiello. The film is told from the viewpoint of a Roman Tribune, ordered by Pontius Pilate to investigate growing rumors of a risen Jewish messiah, and to locate the missing body of Jesus of Nazareth in order to quell an imminent uprising in Jerusalem. Eventually titled "Risen", the film was released in 2016.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Knightsbridge is a residential and retail district in central London, south of Hyde Park. It is identified in the London Plan as one of two international retail centres in London, alongside the West End.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Knightsbridge is an ancient name, spelt in a variety of ways in Saxon and Old English, such as "Cnihtebricge" (c. 1050); "Knichtebrig" (1235); "Cnichtebrugge" (13th century); and "Knyghtesbrugg" (1364). The meaning is "bridge of the young men or retainers," from the Old English "cniht" (genitive case plural –a) and "brycg". "Cniht", in pre-Norman days, did not have the later meaning of a warrior on horseback, but simply meant a youth. The allusion may be to a place where "cnihtas" congregated: bridges and wells seem always to have been favourite gathering places of young people, and the original bridge was where one of the old roads to the west crossed the River Westbourne. However, there is possibly a more specific reference to the important "cnihtengild" ('guild of "cnihtas"‘) in 11th-century London and to the limits of its jurisdiction (certainly Knightsbridge was one of the limits of the commercial jurisdiction of the City of London in the 12th century).


title: Knightsbridge

text: Knightsbridge was a hamlet located primarily in the parish of St Margaret (detached) and partly in St Martin in the Fields (the part that later became St George Hanover Square). It also extended into the parishes of Kensington and Chelsea. It was therefore divided between local authorities from a very early time.


title: Knightsbridge

text: In the time of Edward I, the manor of Knightsbridge appertained to the abbey of Westminster. It was named after a crossing of the River Westbourne, which is now an underground river. It is recorded that the citizens of London met Matilda of England at the Knight's Bridge in 1141.


title: Knightsbridge

text: From 1885 to 1887, as a result of the opening of trade between Britain and the Far East, Humphreys' Hall in Knightsbridge hosted an exhibition of Japanese culture in a setting built to resemble a traditional Japanese village. The exhibition was very popular, with over 250,000 visitors during its early months. Japanese artisans illustrated "the manners, customs and art-industries of their country, attired in their national and picturesque costumes. Magnificently decorated and illuminated Buddhist temple. Five o'clock tea in the Japanese tea-house. Japanese Musical and other Entertainments. Every-day Life as in Japan". W. S. Gilbert and his wife attended the exhibition, which is said to have inspired him to write "The Mikado". When the Mikado requests of Ko-Ko the address of his son (Nanki-Poo) after Ko-Ko tells the Mikado that Nanki-Poo has "gone abroad", Ko-Ko replies that Nanki-Poo has gone to Knightsbridge.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Knightsbridge is east of Exhibition Road and west of Sloane Street. Brompton Road, Beauchamp Place and the western section of Pont Street serve roughly as its southern border together with their adjacent gardens and squares such as Ovington Square, Lennox Gardens and Cadogan Square. South of this area, the district fades into Chelsea while Belgravia lies to the east and South Kensington to the west.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Knightsbridge is home to many expensive shops, including the department stores Harrods and Harvey Nichols, and flagship stores of many British and international fashion houses, including those of London-based shoe designers Jimmy Choo and Manolo Blahnik, and two Prada stores. The district also has banks that cater to wealthy individuals. Some of London's most renowned restaurants are here, as well as many exclusive hair and beauty salons, antiques and antiquities dealers, and chic bars and clubs. Bonhams auction house is located in Knightsbridge.


title: Knightsbridge

text: The district and the road itself, which is the only definitive place within it, is small, which assists its cachet: more than half of the zone closest to its tube station (and nearer to no others) is Knightsbridge Underground station. Knightsbridge had in its park side, east and west gold-coloured blocks of exceptional wealth in philanthropist Charles Booth's late Victorian Poverty Map, formerly excluding Brompton Road to the west but extending well into Piccadilly, St James's to the east. Knightsbridge is home to many of the world's richest people and has some of the highest property prices in the world. In 2014 a terrace of 427m sold for £15,950,000, a home in Montpelier Square. The average asking price for all the properties in slightly wider SW7 was £4,348,911 (as at Autumn 2014). On-street parking spaces have sold for as much as £300,000 for a 94-year lease. Fourteen of Britain's two hundred most expensive streets are in the neighbourhood, as defined by "The Times".


title: Knightsbridge

text: In February 2007, the world's most expensive apartment at One Hyde Park, sold off plan for £100 million, bought by a Qatari prince, and another apartment at the same place in February 2009, at almost the same price, was bought by a Qatari prince. Apartments of this secure, optimum specification, address equate to in excess of £4,000 per square foot (£43,000 per square metre).


title: Knightsbridge

text: Land in Knightsbridge is for the most part identified by City of Westminster (and by the RBKC, where former Brompton parts are included) as strengthened planning law-governed Conservation Areas: 'Albert Gate', 'Belgravia', 'Knightsbridge' and 'Knightsbridge Green'. Properties must be offered here by developers as refurbished flats or houses meeting the enhanced architectural demands in the local Conservation Areas policy of the Local Plan. Within each many buildings are covered by the similar but separate requirements of being listed. Growing demand has since 2000 persuaded the authority to revise its planning policies to permit roof terraces and basement extensions, for residential facilities from leisure suites to private nightclubs, a degree of economic liberalisation documented by a non-tabloid paper in 2008.


title: Knightsbridge

text: The underlying landowners of the few streets making up, without any dispute, Knightsbridge are the Duke of Westminster, Lord Cadogan and the Wellcome Trust with a minority of the freeholds to houses in each street sold to others. Red-brick Queen Anne revival buildings form most of the Cadogan Estates, whereas white stucco-fronted houses are mostly found on the Grosvenor Estate, designed by architect Thomas Cubitt.


title: Knightsbridge

text: The Brompton Oratory, a place of Catholic worship, marks one of the transitions into Kensington, but Belgravia and Brompton have competing mapped neighbourhood status in the east and south of the neighbourhood, and as they have no eponymously named tube stations or historic parish boundaries, their limits are arbitrary and the triangular salient of Brompton, administratively in Kensington, as part of South Kensington, once coloured mid-wealth by Charles Booth, is now blurred with 'Knightsbridge', into which it long projected.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Brompton is only used when the postcode and/or Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea is being emphasised, rather than the modern Central London 'district' definitions, which suggest Knightsbridge or South Kensington, either tube station, being at most 350 m away and thus can be easily found on all maps.


title: Knightsbridge

text: For centuries, the area was renowned as the haunt of highwaymen, robbers and cutthroats targeting travellers on the western route out of London, but its fortunes were transformed in the 19th century. However, the area has been a target of several high-profile crimes.


title: Knightsbridge

text: In November 1975, two civilians were killed by the Provisional Irish Republican Army (IRA) in the Walton's Restaurant bombing.


title: Knightsbridge

text: In 1980, the Iranian Embassy siege took place, lasting several days. It ended when the Special Air Service stormed the building, which was on live television.


title: Knightsbridge

text: In 1983, three Christmas shoppers and three Metropolitan Police officers were killed by an IRA car bomb outside Harrods.


title: Knightsbridge

text: In 2005, 22-year-old beautician Clare Bernal was gunned down by her ex-boyfriend Michal Pech on the shopfloor of Harvey Nichols in front of colleagues and shoppers before Pech fatally turned the gun on himself. The case attracted extensive coverage in the media, and Clare's mother Patricia has since led a campaign to address flaws in the system, which allowed her daughter's murder to happen.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Many residential buildings are heavily covered by CCTV and are staffed by security guards, and railings or bars on lower floor windows are commonplace.


title: Knightsbridge

text: To the north of the area, is the Hyde Park Barracks of the Household Cavalry, with a distinctive 33-storey tower by Sir Basil Spence. The Royalty and Diplomatic Protection Department is based in Walton Street. The Embassy of Libya is located at 15 Knightsbridge, the Embassy of France at no 58 and the Embassy of Kuwait at 2 Albert Gate, just off Knightsbridge.


title: Knightsbridge

text: On the religious side it contains the impressive Brompton Oratory (Catholic church, Brompton Road) and the CoE Holy Trinity Church behind it, a Church of Jesus Christ of Latter Day Saints in Exhibition Road, the Russian Orthodox Church in Ennismore Gardens, St Columba's Church of Scotland, Pont Street, and Deutsche Evangelische Christuskirche. The former St Saviour's church, designed by George Basevi, is now a private home.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Notably, two of the four London buildings of Hill House School are located here at Cadogan Gardens and Hans Place.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Knightsbridge takes its name from the road that runs along the south side of Hyde Park, west from Hyde Park Corner, spanning the City of Westminster and the Royal Borough of Kensington and Chelsea. Up to Brompton Road, it is a part of the A4 arterial road, while the remainder is part of the A315 road. West of Rutland Gardens, the road becomes Kensington Road.


title: Knightsbridge

text: It is served by Knightsbridge station on the Piccadilly line, and Sloane Square station on the District and Circle lines. Brompton Road station closed in 1934.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Eric Coates uses Knightsbridge as the setting of a march for the 3rd movement of his "London Suite" (1933). It gained popularity through the radio show In Town Tonight(1933–1960).


title: Knightsbridge

text: Knightsbridge is referenced in the Rolling Stones song "Play with Fire", released in 1965. Knightsbridge is used as an indicator of a character's privilege, as opposed to the more working class Stepney.


title: Knightsbridge

text: Knightsbridge is referenced in the story book "Neverwhere" by Neil Gaiman as a place the protagonists need to cross to go to the next floating market. "The Knightsbridge" is used as metaphor for the night and its dangers they need to pass through.


title: Knightsbridge

text: In the 2017 film "The Foreigner", Knightsbridge is the location of a detonated bomb that sets the plot in motion.


title: Knightsbridge

text: On his 2017 album "Working On Dying" Swedish rapper Bladee references Knightsbridge in the title and lyrics of a song.


title: Christopher Hewett

text: Christopher George Hewett (5 April 1921 – 3 August 2001) was an English actor and theatre director best known for his role as Lynn Aloysius Belvedere on the ABC sitcom "Mr. Belvedere".


title: Christopher Hewett

text: Hewett was born in Worthing, Sussex to Christopher Fitzsimon Hewett (an army officer and a descendant of Daniel O'Connell), and his wife Eleanor Joyce Watts (an actress whose professional name was Rhoda Cleighton). He was educated at Beaumont College and at Wimbledon College, and at aged 7, made his acting debut in Dublin stage production of "A Midsummer Night's Dream". At age 16 Hewett joined the Royal Air Force, leaving in 1940. Hewett then joined the Oxford Repertory Company and made his West End theatre debut in 1943.


title: Christopher Hewett

text: He later appeared on Broadway in the musicals "My Fair Lady", "First Impressions", "The Unsinkable Molly Brown", "Music Is" and "Kean" and in the plays "Sleuth" and "The Affair", among others, and directed the 1960 Broadway revue "From A to Z" and the 1967 Off Broadway revival of the Rodgers and Hart musical "By Jupiter". Hewett also directed several stage productions including "The Marriage-Go-Round" and "Beyond the Fringe and Camelot".


title: Christopher Hewett

text: Hewett made his film debut in the crime drama "Pool of London" (1951), and later appeared in roles on "Robert Montgomery Presents" and "DuPont Show of the Month". He appeared as the grandiose and camp theatre director Roger DeBris in Mel Brooks's comedy "The Producers" (1967). In 1976, Hewett played the generic bureaucrat Federov in the short-lived sitcom "Ivan the Terrible". During the 1979-80 season he played Captain Hook to Sandy Duncan's Peter Pan on Broadway. From 1983 to 1984 he portrayed Lawrence, Mr. Roarke's (Ricardo Montalbán) sidekick on the final season of the ABC series "Fantasy Island".


title: Christopher Hewett

text: The following year, Hewett landed his best-known role as Lynn Aloysius Belvedere, an English butler who works for a middle class American family in the sitcom "Mr. Belvedere". After the series ended its run in 1990 Hewett appeared in a guest spot on an episode of the NBC teen sitcom "California Dreams" in 1994. His last on-screen role was a cameo appearance on the Fox series "Ned and Stacey" in 1997.


title: Christopher Hewett

text: A devout Catholic and lifelong bachelor, Hewett served at St. Victor's Church in West Hollywood. During his later years, he suffered from arthritis and diabetes.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: Church of the Sepulchre of Saint Mary, also Tomb of the Virgin Mary (; ; ), is a Christian tomb in the Kidron Valley – at the foot of Mount of Olives, in Jerusalem – believed by Eastern Christians to be the burial place of Mary, the mother of Jesus. The "Status Quo", a 250-year old understanding between religious communities, applies to the site.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: The Sacred Tradition of Eastern Christianity teaches that the Virgin Mary died a natural death (the Dormition of the Theotokos, the "falling asleep"), like any human being; that her soul was received by Christ upon death; and that her body was resurrected on the third day after her repose, at which time she was taken up, soul and body, into heaven in anticipation of the general resurrection. Her tomb, according to this teaching, was found empty on the third day.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: Roman Catholic teaching holds that Mary was "assumed" into heaven in bodily form, the Assumption; the question of whether or not Mary actually underwent physical death remains open in the Catholic view. On 25 June 1997 Pope John Paul II said that Mary experienced natural death prior to her assumption into Heaven.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: A narrative known as the "Euthymiaca Historia" (written probably by Cyril of Scythopolis in the 5th century) relates how the Emperor Marcian and his wife, Pulcheria, requested the relics of the Virgin Mary from Juvenal, the Patriarch of Jerusalem, while he was attending the Council of Chalcedon (451). According to the account, Juvenal replied that, on the third day after her burial, Mary's tomb was discovered to be empty, only her shroud being preserved in the church of Gethsemane. In 452 the shroud was sent to Constantinople, where it was kept in the Church of Our Lady of Blachernae ("Panagia Blacherniotissa").


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: According to other traditions, it was the Cincture of the Virgin Mary which was left behind in the tomb, or dropped by her during Assumption.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: In 1972, Bellarmino Bagatti, a Franciscan friar and archaeologist, excavated the site and found evidence of an ancient cemetery dating to the 1st century; his findings have not yet been subject to peer review by the wider archaeological community, and the validity of his dating has not been fully assessed.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: Bagatti interpreted the remains to indicate that the cemetery's initial structure consisted of three chambers (the actual tomb being the inner chamber of the whole complex), was adjudged in accordance with the customs of that period. Later, the tomb interpreted by the local Christians to be that of Mary's was isolated from the rest of the necropolis, by cutting the surrounding rock face away from it. An edicule was built on the tomb.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: A small upper church on an octagonal footing was built by Patriarch Juvenal (during Marcian's rule) over the location in the 5th century; this was destroyed in the Persian invasion of 614. During the following centuries the church was destroyed and rebuilt many times, but the crypt was left untouched, as for Muslims it is the burial place of the mother of prophet Isa (Jesus). It was rebuilt then in 1130 by the Crusaders, who installed a walled Benedictine monastery, the Abbey of St. Mary of the Valley of Jehoshaphat; the church is sometimes mentioned as the Shrine of Our Lady of Josaphat. The monastic complex included early Gothic columns, red-on-green frescoes, and three towers for protection. The staircase and entrance were also part of the Crusaders' church. This church was destroyed by Saladin in 1187, but the crypt was still respected; all that was left was the south entrance and staircase, the masonry of the upper church being used to build the walls of Jerusalem. In the second half of the 14th century Franciscan friars rebuilt the church once more. The Greek Orthodox clergy launched a Palm Sunday takeover of various Holy Land sites, including this one, in 1757 and expelled the Franciscans. The Ottomans supported this "status quo" in the courts. Since then, the tomb has been owned by the Greek Orthodox Church and the Armenian Apostolic Church of Jerusalem, while the grotto of Gethsemane remained in the possession of the Franciscans.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: Preceded by a walled courtyard to the south, the cruciform church shielding the tomb has been excavated in a rock-cut cave entered by a wide descending stair dating from the 12th century. On the right side of the staircase (towards the east) there is the chapel of Mary's parents, Joachim and Anne, initially built to hold the tomb of Queen Melisende of Jerusalem, the daughter of Baldwin II, whose sarcophagus has been removed from there by the Greek Orthodox. On the left (towards the west) there is the chapel of Saint Joseph, Mary's husband, initially built as the tomb of two other female relatives of Baldwin II.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: On the eastern side of the church there is the chapel of Mary's tomb. Altars of the Greeks and Armenians also own the east apse. A niche south of the tomb is a mihrab indicating the direction of Mecca, installed when Muslims had joint rights to the church. Currently the Muslims have no more ownership rights to this site. On the western side there is a Syriac altar.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: The Armenian Patriarchate Armenian Apostolic Church of Jerusalem and Greek Orthodox Church of Jerusalem are in possession of the shrine. The Syriacs, the Copts, and the Ethiopians have minor rights.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: A legend, which was first mentioned by Epiphanius of Salamis in the 4th century AD, purported that Mary may have spent the last years of her life in Ephesus, Turkey. The Ephesians derived it from John's presence in the city, and Jesus’ instructions to John to take care of Mary after his death. Epiphanius, however, pointed out that although the Bible mentions John leaving for Asia, it makes no mention of Mary going with him. The Eastern Orthodox Church tradition believes that Virgin Mary lived in the vicinity of Ephesus, at Selçuk, where there is a place currently known as the House of the Virgin Mary and venerated by Catholics and Muslims, but argues that she only stayed there for a few years, even though there are accounts of her spending nine years until her death.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: Although no information about the end of Mary's life or her burial are provided in the New Testament accounts, and many Christians believe that none exist in early apocrypha, some apocryphon are offered as supporting Mary's death (or other final fate). The "Book of John about the Dormition of Mary", written in either the 1st, 3rd, 4th, or 7th century, places her tomb in Gethsemene, as does the 4th century "Treatise about the passing of the Blessed Virgin Mary".


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: The pilgrim Antoninus of Piacenza, writing of travels in 560-570 AD, mentions in that valley was "the basilica of the Blessed Mary, which they say was her house; in which is shown a sepulchre, from which they say that the Blessed Mary was taken up into heaven." Later, Saints Epiphanius of Salamis, Gregory of Tours, Isidore of Seville, Modest, Sophronius of Jerusalem, German of Constantinople, Andrew of Crete, and John of Damascus talk about the tomb being in Jerusalem, and bear witness that this tradition was accepted by all the Churches of East and West.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: Turkmen Keraites believe, according to a Nestorian tradition that another tomb of the Virgin Mary is located in Mary, Turkmenistan a town originally named "Mari".


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: Other claims are that Jesus, after surviving the crucifixion, travelled to India along with the Virgin Mary where they remained until the end of their lives. The Ahmadiyya movement believe that Mary was buried in the town of Murree, Pakistan and her tomb is presently located in the shrine Mai Mari da Ashtan. The authenticity of these claims is not yet academically established and has not undergone any scholastic or academic research, nor canonical endorsement from the Holy See, nor anyone else.


title: Tomb of the Virgin Mary

text: Another tradition exists among the Christians of Nineveh in northern Iraq, that the tomb of Mary is located near Erbil, linking the site to the direction of tilt of the former Great Mosque of al-Nuri minaret in Mosul.


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: Kim Jae-kyung (born December 24, 1988), formerly mononymously known as Jaekyung, is a South Korean actress and singer. Before transitioning to acting full-time, she was a member and leader of the South Korean girl group Rainbow.


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: Kim was born in Seodaemun-gu, Seoul, South Korea on December 24, 1988. She studied at Deungchon High School and Dongduk Women's University, where she majored in Fashion Design. She was a trainee at JYP Entertainment before switching to DSP Media. Her brother is N.Flying's Jaehyun.


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: While under DSP Media, in 2007 she was asked if she wanted to debut as a member of Kara. Kim turned the offer down because she thought she would be happy with her Rainbow members. In 2007, she was asked to join SM Entertainment, hinting at the possibility that she may have joined Girls' Generation. In 2008, she appeared in SS501's song "A Song Calling For You" music video before debuting as a Rainbow member.


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: Jae-kyung debuted as leader of girl group Rainbow. On November 12, 2009, Rainbow's released mini album "Gossip Girl". The group's first broadcast performance of "Gossip Girls" was held at MBC's music show Show! Music Core on November 14, 2009 .


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: Rainbow Blaxx, the second official sub-unit of Rainbow, was formed in 2014. The group released their first mini-album titled RB Blaxx on January 20, 2014.


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: In the year 2010, she became a cast member in the variety television show "Honey Jar". In the same year, she also became a cast member in the school variety show "100 Points Out of 100".


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: On March 31, 2012, her major leading role, she portrayed Na Yoo-mi in the JTBC's drama "Monster". In the year 2012, she became a cast member in the variety television show "Law of the Jungle W".


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: In December 2013, she was confirmed for tvN's new reality program, "", with 12 other representative figures from different fields of work such as TV personalities, politicians, gamblers, and more. She was the second person eliminated.


title: Kim Jae-kyung

text: She was then cast in a supporting role in the 2014 drama "Inspiring Generation". In 2014, she has also been a main in "Quiz of God 4". On January 12, 2014, she was a guest on "Running Man".


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: In physics, the degrees of freedom (DOF) of a mechanical system is the number of independent parameters that define its configuration or state. It is important in the analysis of systems of bodies in mechanical engineering, structural engineering, aerospace engineering, robotics, and other fields.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: The position of a single railcar (engine) moving along a track has one degree of freedom because the position of the car is defined by the distance along the track. A train of rigid cars connected by hinges to an engine still has only one degree of freedom because the positions of the cars behind the engine are constrained by the shape of the track.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: An automobile with highly stiff suspension can be considered to be a rigid body traveling on a plane (a flat, two-dimensional space). This body has three independent degrees of freedom consisting of two components of translation and one angle of rotation. Skidding or drifting is a good example of an automobile's three independent degrees of freedom.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: The position and orientation of a rigid body in space is defined by three components of translation and three components of rotation, which means that it has six degrees of freedom.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: The exact constraint mechanical design method manages the degrees of freedom to neither underconstrain nor overconstrain a device.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: The position of an "n"-dimensional rigid body is defined by the rigid transformation, ["T"] = ["A", "d"], where "d" is an "n"-dimensional translation and "A" is an "n" × "n" rotation matrix, which has "n" translational degrees of freedom and "n"("n" − 1)/2 rotational degrees of freedom. The number of rotational degrees of freedom comes from the dimension of the rotation group SO(n).


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: A non-rigid or deformable body may be thought of as a collection of many minute particles (infinite number of DOFs), this is often approximated by a finite DOF system. When motion involving large displacements is the main objective of study (e.g. for analyzing the motion of satellites), a deformable body may be approximated as a rigid body (or even a particle) in order to simplify the analysis.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: The degree of freedom of a system can be viewed as the minimum number of coordinates required to specify a configuration. Applying this definition, we have:


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: A single rigid body has at most six degrees of freedom (6 DOF) "3T3R" consisting of three translations "3T" and three rotations "3R".


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: For example, the motion of a ship at sea has the six degrees of freedom of a rigid body, and is described as:


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: For example, the trajectory of an airplane in flight has three degrees of freedom and its attitude along the trajectory has three degrees of freedom, for a total of six degrees of freedom.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: Physical constraints may limit the number of degrees of freedom of a single rigid body.  For example, a block sliding around on a flat table has 3 DOF "2T1R" consisting of two translations "2T" and 1 rotation "1R".  An XYZ positioning robot like SCARA has 3 DOF "3T" lower mobility.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: The mobility formula counts the number of parameters that define the configuration of a set of rigid bodies that are constrained by joints connecting these bodies.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: Consider a system of "n" rigid bodies moving in space has 6"n" degrees of freedom measured relative to a fixed frame. In order to count the degrees of freedom of this system, include the fixed body in the count of bodies, so that mobility is independent of the choice of the body that forms the fixed frame. Then the degree-of-freedom of the unconstrained system of "N" = "n" + 1 is


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: Joints that connect bodies in this system remove degrees of freedom and reduce mobility. Specifically, hinges and sliders each impose five constraints and therefore remove five degrees of freedom. It is convenient to define the number of constraints "c" that a joint imposes in terms of the joint's freedom "f", where "c" = 6 − "f". In the case of a hinge or slider, which are one degree of freedom joints, have "f" = 1 and therefore "c" = 6 − 1 = 5.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: The result is that the mobility of a system formed from "n" moving links and "j" joints each with freedom "f", "i" = 1, ..., j, is given by


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: A single open chain consists of "n" moving links connected end to end by "n" joints, with one end connected to a ground link. Thus, in this case "N" = "j" + 1 and the mobility of the chain is


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: For a simple closed chain, "n" moving links are connected end-to-end by "n" + 1 joints such that the two ends are connected to the ground link forming a loop. In this case, we have "N" = "j" and the mobility of the chain is


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: An example of a simple open chain is a serial robot manipulator. These robotic systems are constructed from a series of links connected by six one degree-of-freedom revolute or prismatic joints, so the system has six degrees of freedom.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: An example of a simple closed chain is the RSSR spatial four-bar linkage. The sum of the freedom of these joints is eight, so the mobility of the linkage is two, where one of the degrees of freedom is the rotation of the coupler around the line joining the two S joints.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: It is common practice to design the linkage system so that the movement of all of the bodies are constrained to lie on parallel planes, to form what is known as a "planar linkage". It is also possible to construct the linkage system so that all of the bodies move on concentric spheres, forming a "spherical linkage". In both cases, the degrees of freedom of the links in each system is now three rather than six, and the constraints imposed by joints are now "c" = 3 − "f".


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: An example of a planar simple closed chain is the planar four-bar linkage, which is a four-bar loop with four one degree-of-freedom joints and therefore has mobility "M" = 1.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: A system with several bodies would have a combined DOF that is the sum of the DOFs of the bodies, less the internal constraints they may have on relative motion. A mechanism or linkage containing a number of connected rigid bodies may have more than the degrees of freedom for a single rigid body. Here the term "degrees of freedom" is used to describe the number of parameters needed to specify the spatial pose of a linkage. It is also defined in context of the configuration space, task space and workspace of a robot.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: A specific type of linkage is the open kinematic chain, where a set of rigid links are connected at joints; a joint may provide one DOF (hinge/sliding), or two (cylindrical). Such chains occur commonly in robotics, biomechanics, and for satellites and other space structures. A human arm is considered to have seven DOFs. A shoulder gives pitch,yaw, and roll, an elbow allows for pitch, and a wrist allows for pitch, yaw and roll. Only 3 of those movements would be necessary to move the hand to any point in space, but people would lack the ability to grasp things from different angles or directions. A robot (or object) that has mechanisms to control all 6 physical DOF is said to be holonomic. An object with fewer controllable DOFs than total DOFs is said to be non-holonomic, and an object with more controllable DOFs than total DOFs (such as the human arm) is said to be redundant. Although keep in mind that it is not redundant in the human arm because the two DOFs; wrist and shoulder, that represent the same movement; roll, supply each other since they can't do a full 360.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: In mobile robotics, a car-like robot can reach any position and orientation in 2-D space, so it needs 3 DOFs to describe its pose, but at any point, you can move it only by a forward motion and a steering angle. So it has two control DOFs and three representational DOFs; i.e. it is non-holonomic. A fixed-wing aircraft, with 3–4 control DOFs (forward motion, roll, pitch, and to a limited extent, yaw) in a 3-D space, is also non-holonomic, as it cannot move directly up/down or left/right.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: A summary of formulas and methods for computing the degrees-of-freedom in mechanical systems has been given by Pennestri, Cavacece, and Vita.


title: Degrees of freedom (mechanics)

text: In electrical engineering "degrees of freedom" is often used to describe the number of directions in which a phased array antenna can form either beams or nulls. It is equal to one less than the number of elements contained in the array, as one element is used as a reference against which either constructive or destructive interference may be applied using each of the remaining antenna elements. Radar practice and communication link practice, with beam steering being more prevalent for radar applications and null steering being more prevalent for interference suppression in communication links.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The Groningen gas field is a natural gas field in Groningen province in the northeastern part of the Netherlands. With an estimated 2,740 billion cubic metres of recoverable natural gas it is the largest natural gas field in Europe and one of the largest in the world.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The gas field was discovered in 1959 near Slochteren. The subsequent extraction of the natural gas became central to the energy supply in the Netherlands. Virtually all of the Netherlands was connected to Groningen gas in the following years. Revenue from natural gas production became important in the post-war development and construction of the Dutch welfare state. As of 2013, 2,057 billion cubic metres of natural gas had been extracted from the field.


title: Groningen gas field

text: Gas extraction resulted in subsidence above the field. From 1991 this was also accompanied by earthquakes. This led to damage to houses and unrest among residents. It was decided to phase out gas extraction from 2014 onwards. The Groningen gas field is expected to be closed between 2025 and 2028, with the possibility of bringing this forward. The reinforcement operation and damage settlement as a result of the earthquakes are progressing slowly. The National Ombudsman called this a "national crisis" in 2021.


title: Groningen gas field

text: Natural gas was initially mainly a by-product of petroleum, which was more economically attractive. In 1948 the (NAM), jointly owned by Shell and Esso, discovered a natural gas field in the Netherlands for the first time near Coevorden. This gave rise to the expectation that more natural gas fields could be found in the Netherlands. In the north and east of the country they searched for gas fields, including near the later Groningen gas field. In 1954 and 1955 drilling at Haren and yielded nothing. On October 24, 1955, when seeking oil at Thesinge, natural gas was found in the Zechstein formation, but they drilled 40 to 50 meters too little to discover the Groningen gas field.


title: Groningen gas field

text: On May 29, 1959, the NAM started exploratory research on land owned by farmer Kees Boon, near Kolham in the municipality of Slochteren. Two months later on July 22, the drilling led to the discovery of natural gas for the first time. Initially it received little media attention, because little was known about its size at the time. The flaring did attract local attention. The fact that it was a large gas field became clear when gas was found near Delfzijl in 1960. The properties of that natural gas matched those of Slochteren, so had to be the same gas field. These findings about the size were initially kept secret, also from NAM shareholder Esso.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The size was not made public until October 14, 1960. A Belgian newspaper reported on a speech by Belgian Member of the European Parliament Victor Leemans, in which he mentioned that the Netherlands had found a gas field of 300 billion m³. The cabinet responded to parliamentary questions that a large amount of natural gas had indeed been found, but kept it at 60 billion m³. Behind closed doors, it was then estimated at a maximum of 100 billion m³.


title: Groningen gas field

text: After the discovery, NAM applied for the concession for the field. At the initiative of Esso employee Douglass Stewart, NAM planned to sell the gas directly to households. The Dutch government had previously committed itself to purchase all natural gas extracted in the Netherlands. The size of the Groningen gas field made this promise financially untenable. Minister of Economic Affairs Jan de Pous entered into negotiations with NAM about gas extraction. Shell and Esso initially wanted a substantial majority share in the extraction and sale, to the disapproval of De Pous. On the other hand, the Labour Party wanted a greater role for the government. Member of Parliament Anne Vondeling argued for complete nationalization. After more than a year and a half of negotiations, De Pous sent his plan to the Tweede Kamer on 17 July 1962. This regulated the tasks of various parties. This division of tasks and responsibilities later became known as the "".


title: Groningen gas field

text: It was decided to regulate the exploitation of the Groningen field in the "Maatschap Groningen". In this the Dutch government, through the (later DSM and ), had a 40% interest and NAM had a 60% interest. The decision to create a "maatschap" was intended to conceal the fact that the Dutch government participated in natural gas extraction. With this they tried, among other things, to prevent sheikhs in the Middle East from following the Dutch example of also claiming profits from Shell and Esso, who extracted oil there. At that time, the deliberate avoidance of transparency was already criticized by, among others, the Minister of Justice Albert Beerman.


title: Groningen gas field

text: In the plan, the foundations were also laid for the establishment of the Gasunie. 10% of its shares were directly owned by the Dutch state, 40% by the "Staatsmijnen" and 50% shared by Shell and Esso. The Gasunie was given the task of laying a pipeline network to connect the whole of the Netherlands to Groningen gas. In cities where town gas was already being used, the existing pipes were used. In December 1968 it was celebrated that Egmond aan Zee was the last municipality to be connected to Groningen natural gas.


title: Groningen gas field

text: A "Cooperation Agreement" was signed on March 4, 1963 by the Staatsmijnen, NAM, Shell and Esso. In this agreement, further agreements were written down between the parties. On May 30, 1963, the concession was then granted to NAM.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The plans were largely supported by the Dutch House of Representatives. Only the Groningen Member of Parliament noted that gas extraction in the United States and Italy had led to subsidence. According to De Pous this was not the case with the Groningen gas field and this would otherwise be reimbursed by the NAM and Staatsmijnen. In an article in the Nieuwsblad van het Noorden, engineer Willem Meiborg warned on 8 November 1963 about subsidence. He predicted subsidence of up to one meter. He asked to set aside money for the consequences. Publicly, NAM denied Meiborg's prediction, but secretly ordered an investigation. The investigation confirmed that subsidence could occur, as much as 1.5 meters. The research was shared with the province of Groningen, but was not made public. It only became public when D66 Member of Parliament Jan Terlouw found out about the research in 1972 and asked parliamentary questions about it.


title: Groningen gas field

text: On paper, the discovery of the gas field made Groningen the richest region in the Netherlands. Some in Groningen were pleased with the jobs created by gas extraction. Others thought that the economically disadvantaged province was not benefiting enough from the extraction. The natural gas revenues flowed into the national budget, which created the sentiment that Groningen was being used as a ", roughly meaning "exploitation territory" or an area exploited for resources without any beneficial returns. Prominently, CPN politician Fré Meis from Groningen complained about what he regarded as injustice. Between 1972 and 1980, the CPN therefore organized four instances of a to draw attention to this. This sentiment returned regularly in the decades that followed.


title: Groningen gas field

text: Until 1959, it had been assumed that the North Sea had no natural gas and oil. This opinion changed after the discovery of the Groningen gas field. In the decade after the discovery they successfully searched for fields in the North Sea.


title: Groningen gas field

text: Initially it was expected that nuclear energy would eventually replace the use of natural gas. Efforts were made to sell natural gas as quickly as possible, both at home and abroad. In the mid-1970s, this policy was revised after the oil crisis of 1973 and the great social resistance to the deployment of nuclear energy. That is why the desire arose to keep the Groningen gas field as a reserve. Therefore, the small fields policy was introduced in 1974. The aim of this policy was to extract more natural gas from smaller fields, including in the North Sea, to limit the production in the Groningen gas field. Because small fields entailed higher operating costs, the Dutch government reduced its profit share to make exploitation more attractive.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The first earthquake induced by a Dutch natural gas field occurred in 1986 near Assen, induced by the Eleveld gas field. Local politician argued that there was a connection between gas extraction in the Groningen field and the earthquake. On December 4, 1991, the first induced earthquake of the Groningen field was measured, with a magnitude of 2.4 on the Richter scale. In 1993, after research, NAM recognized a link between earthquakes and gas extraction. In the following decades, the number of induced earthquakes increased. Along with the earthquakes, resistance against gas extraction also increased. For example, the was founded in 2009 in response to the .


title: Groningen gas field

text: According to a 2015 report by the Dutch Safety Board, until 2013, "the safety of the citizens of Groningen in relation to induced earthquakes had not influenced decision-making about the exploitation of the Groningen field." A tipping point was the on 16 August 16 2012. With an estimated moment magnitude of 3.6, it was the heaviest earthquake measured above the Groningen gas field. After the earthquake, the (SodM) concluded that the earthquakes in the area could become stronger in the future, between 4 and 5 on the Richter scale. SodM recommended limiting gas extraction quickly, and as much as possible.


title: Groningen gas field

text: In January 2013, the Minister of Economic Affairs Henk Kamp decided not to limit gas extraction immediately, but requested fourteen investigations. The report also coincided with austerity measures, which made the government reluctant to reduce natural gas revenues. At the end of the year it was announced that about 10% more gas, 54 billion cubic meters, had been extracted than previous years, according to the NAM because of the cold.


title: Groningen gas field

text: In 2014, gas production from the Groningen gas field was limited due to earthquakes for the first time. In January 2014, Kamp announced that it would limit production to 42.5 billion m³ in 2014. At the beginning of 2015, the Dutch cabinet decided that a maximum of 39.4 billion m³ of gas could be produced from the gas field in that calendar year, which was further reduced to 30 billion m³ in June 2015. In November 2015, the Council of State lowered the limit to 27 billion m³. A month later, Kamp decided to maintain this maximum. In September 2016 it was subsequently decided to further limit gas extraction to 21.6 billion m³. A year later, the Council of State concluded that this decision was insufficiently motivated and that it had to be renewed.


title: Groningen gas field

text: In October 2017, Eric Wiebes became the new Minister of Economic Affairs and Climate. Three months into his term, Wiebes had to deal with the . It was the third strongest in magnitude, but was perceived as stronger due to higher ground acceleration. In March 2018, Wiebes announced that gas extraction in the Groningen field had to be reduced to zero by 2030 at the latest. The extraction plan was again rejected by the Council of State in July 2019. Wiebes then announced an accelerated phasing out, whereby gas extraction would be stopped by 2022 during normal winters. Not much later, however, this turned out to be too optimistic. As of 2021, the expectation is that the Groningen field will be closed between 2025 and 2028, with the possibility of bringing this forward.


title: Groningen gas field

text: In addition to phasing out gas extraction, various measures were taken. Between 2014 and 2020, three times more than a billion euros was pledged for reinforcement, handling claims and compensation. The was established in 2014 to further distance the claims handling process from NAM. And as the central point of contact, Hans Alders was appointed in 2015 as . Despite these measures, claims handling and reinforcement are progressing slowly. In 2020, the SodM calculated that the reinforcement operation will take another 20 years, but the Inspector General of the SodM demanded that these should be completed by 2028. In October 2021, National Ombudsman called the issue a "national crisis". The gas extraction of the Groningen gas field and the problems it has caused is as of 2021 subject of the "parliamentary inquiry into natural gas extraction Groningen".


title: Groningen gas field

text: The source rock of the Groningen gas field, the stratum from which the natural gas originated, is the upper part of the Carboniferous sequence. During the late Carboniferous period, the Netherlands was located on the equator and was covered by tropical swamp forests. The plant remains were buried by subsequent layers and eventually became coal, in particular in the . In South Limburg this layer was shallow enough for coal mines, but in Groningen it was 3.3 kilometres underground. Natural gas was generated from the in that coal-rich layer as it became heated by further burial.


title: Groningen gas field

text: This gas then rose to the overlying Upper Rotliegend from the early part of the Permian epoch. Within the Upper Rotliegend it lies specifically in the . This layer had a porosity of 15-20% and a permeability of 0.1-3000 mD. During the Permian period, the area consisted of desert, of which the sand came from the Variscan orogen. The best petroleum reservoirs are located in fine-grained aeolian dune sand. In the case of the Groningen gas field, there is a lot of gas in the coarser granular fluvial wadi sand. The reservoir is located between 2,600 and 3,200 meters underground. Above the Upper Rotliegend is the Zechstein layer, which forms the seal rock. This layer contains impermeable carbonate, halite and anhydrite layers, so that the gas remained trapped in the Upper Rotliegend.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The Groningen structure is a long-lived high, cut by many faults, most of which are normal in type. The faults were formed, and in many cases subsequently reactivated, during the phases of rifting and later inversion that have affected the area. There is evidence of some active faulting during the deposition of the Rotliegend regionally, although not at Groningen itself. The main rift phase occurred during the Late Jurassic to Early Cretaceous period. The domininant fault orientation is NNW–SSE trending, with some faults also running W–E and N–S. The area was affected by a number of phases of shortening associated with the Alpine orogeny during the Late Cretaceous to Paleogene, which locally reactivated normal faults in reverse sense. The faults have some impact on production in the field, although the constant gas composition and lack of pressure changes between fault blocks suggest that few of the faults are acting as barriers.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The gas from the Groningen gas field is characterized by a high percentage of dinitrogen in the composition. The high percentage of the non-combustible nitrogen ensures a low calorific value. When burned, the Groningen gas yields 35.17 megajoule per cubic meter (MJ/m³). Due to the deviating calorific value and higher pressure, gas-consuming appliances had to be fitted with other burners after 1963 or replaced completely. Conversely, when gas production was being phased out, nitrogen had to be added to imported high-calorific gas. To this end, work has been underway since 2020 on a nitrogen plant in Zuidbroek.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The gas field is spread out over approximately 900 square kilometers. Estimates of the size of the gas field have risen sharply since its discovery in 1959. After the drilling success in Delfzijl, the size of the gas field was estimated at 60 billion m³. The search continued and the gas estimates were revised upwards; in the autumn of 1962 the estimate was 470 billion m³; in October 1963 already 1110 billion m³ and in 1967 2000 billion m³. With the knowledge of 2010, the recoverable gas stock is estimated at 2700 billion m³. The recoverable gas stock depends on the technology and price of the gas, because at higher prices more reserves are economically recoverable.


title: Groningen gas field

text: At its peak, the Groningen field had 29 extraction clusters. Spread over these clusters were approximately 300 gas wells. These are controlled from a control room in Sappemeer. The saline groundwater that emerges from the gas production is injected into an empty gas field in the original rock layer at Borgsweer. The natural gas condensate that is released is transported by inland shipping to refineries in Botlek.


title: Groningen gas field

text: After decades of production, the pressure in the Groningen field decreased. The Groningen Long Term Project (GLT) was started in 1997 to counteract the pressure drop. This project was completed in 2009. Compressors are installed that can bring the pressure of the field back to the desired level. The total investment amount was approximately two billion euros. During this renovation, the characteristic flare towers with pilot light disappeared at many locations.


title: Groningen gas field

text: Initially, gas extraction had a strong seasonal pattern. In winter, there was a high demand for gas for heating purposes, hence more was produced. From 2015 the goal has been to achieve equal production throughout the year. This was because the pressure decreased and less could be extracted per day, but also to limit earthquakes. For this purpose, natural gas is stored in in the summer. There are three gas storage facilities in the Netherlands: Bergermeer gas storage, Langelo/Norg and Grijpskerk.


title: Groningen gas field

text: A large part of the revenue from the Groningen field ends up as with the Dutch State. Initially, about 70% of the revenues from the Groningen field went to the Dutch state. Minister of Economic Affairs Ruud Lubbers raised this to 85-95% during his term of office (1973-1977). As of January 1, 2018, this was reduced to 73%, in line with other gas fields. The reason for this was that gas extraction decreased, but the costs of the NAM for compensation and reinforcement increased. With the exception of a few years, the Ministry of Economic Affairs has not tracked of how much of the natural gas revenues came from the Groningen field. In the period 2006-2013, natural gas revenues amounted to 69 billion euros from the Groningen field and 29 billion euros from the small fields. Total natural gas revenues, including the small fields, amounted to 417 billion euros until 2018.


title: Groningen gas field

text: Unlike other countries, the Minister of Finance Jelle Zijlstra chose not to establish a separate fund for natural gas revenues. The income in the regular budget made it possible to expand the Dutch welfare state. According to The Economist, this led to the so-called Dutch disease. According to the magazine, the natural gas revenues strengthened the currency too much, making it more difficult for other industries to compete with foreign countries. As a result, unemployment had risen from 1.1% in 1970 to 5.1% in 1978, when The Economist published about the phenomenon. Later separate funds were created, such as the between 1995 and 2011. To Groningen's dissatisfaction, the Institute for Research on Public Expenditure concluded in 2006 that only 1% of that fund was returned to the northern provinces Groningen, Drenthe and Friesland.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The gas extraction contributes to subsidence above the field. This drop is caused by a drop in pressure in the sandstone where the gas is stored. At its deepest point, the subsidence in 2018 had fallen 37 centimeters compared to 1963, according to the 'Commission on Subsidence'. In 2020, the Commission assumed that this would increase to 46 centimeters in 2080.


title: Groningen gas field

text: It is controversial to what extent this subsidence in itself contributed to building damage above and around the Groningen field. Research commissioned by the "Instituut Mijnbouwschade Groningen" (IMG) conducted by TNO and TU Delft concluded in 2021 that this was not the case. The subsidence does cause changes in the groundwater level. Damage to waterworks and damage to farmers due to the changing groundwater level was compensated by NAM from the start. The IMG is still investigating whether the changing groundwater level can lead to damage to houses.


title: Groningen gas field

text: Since 1991, the subsidence has also been accompanied by earthquakes above the field. Until 2021, the biggest earthquake, , was a magnitude of 3.6 on the Richter Scale. These earthquakes caused extensive damage to buildings above the field. Even with the phasing out of gas production, the earthquakes are expected to continue for a while. In 2013, the NAM CEO also said that it was possible that earthquakes would become heavier, increasing to a magnitude of 5 on the Richter scale. A reinforcement operation was launched to have houses meet the Meijdam standard, whereby the chance of dying per year from an earthquake must be less than 1 in 100,000. 26,000 are made more earthquake-resistant for that reason.


title: Groningen gas field

text: The earthquakes also have immaterial consequences. The earthquakes, for example, cause stress among residents, which, according to researchers at the University of Groningen, leads to health problems and even death. The value of homes above and around the Groningen field also fell.


title: Lists of stars by constellation

text: All stars but one can be associated with an IAU constellation. IAU constellations are areas of the sky. Although there are only 88 IAU constellations, the sky is actually divided into 89 irregularly shaped boxes as the constellation Serpens is split into two separate sections, Serpens Caput (the snake's head) to the west and Serpens Cauda (the snake's tail) to the east.


title: Lists of stars by constellation

text: The only star that does not belong to a constellation is the Sun. The Sun travels through the 13 constellations along the ecliptic, the 12 of the Zodiac and Ophiuchus.


title: Lists of stars by constellation

text: Among the remaining stars, the nearer ones exhibit proper motion, so it is only a matter of time before some of them cross a constellation boundary and switch constellations as a consequence. In 1992, Rho Aquilae became the first star to have its Bayer designation "invalidated" by moving to a neighbouring constellation—it is now a star of the constellation Delphinus.


title: Lists of stars by constellation

text: Note that these lists are currently unfinished, and there may be stars missing that satisfy these conditions. If you come across one, please feel free to add it.


title: Plantation complexes in the Southern United States

text: A plantation complex in the Southern United States is the built environment (or complex) that was common on agricultural plantations in the American South from the 17th into the 20th century. The complex included everything from the main residence down to the pens for livestock. Until the abolition of slavery, such plantations were generally self-sufficient settlements that relied on the forced labor of enslaved people.


text: Plantations are an important aspect of the history of the Southern United States, particularly the antebellum era (pre-American Civil War). The mild temperate climate, plentiful rainfall, and fertile soils of the southeastern United States allowed the flourishing of large plantations, where large numbers of enslaved Africans or African Americans were held captive and forced to produce crops to create wealth for a white elite.


text: Today, as was also true in the past, there is a wide range of opinion as to what differentiated a plantation from a farm. Typically, the focus of a farm was subsistence agriculture. In contrast, the primary focus of a plantation was the production of cash crops, with enough staple food crops produced to feed the population of the estate and the livestock. A common definition of what constituted a plantation is that it typically had or more of land and produced one or two cash crops for sale. Other scholars have attempted to define it by the number of enslaved persons.


text: The vast majority of plantations did not have grand mansions centered on a huge acreage. These large estates did exist, but represented only a small percentage of the plantations that once existed in the South. Although many Southern farmers did enslave people before emancipation in 1862, few enslaved more than five. These farmers tended to work the fields alongside the people they enslaved. Of the estimated 46,200 plantations existing in 1860, 20,700 had 20 to 30 enslaved people and 2,300 had a workforce of a hundred or more, with the rest somewhere in between.


text: Many plantations were operated by absentee-landowners and never had a main house on site. Just as vital and arguably more important to the complex were the many structures built for the processing and storage of crops, food preparation and storage, sheltering equipment and animals, and various other domestic and agricultural purposes. The value of the plantation came from its land and the enslaved people who toiled on it to produce crops for sale. These same people produced the built environment: the main house for the plantation owner, the slave cabins, barns, and other structures of the complex.


text: The materials for a plantation's buildings, for the most part, came from the lands of the estate. Lumber was obtained from the forested areas of the property. Depending on its intended use, it was either split, hewn, or sawn. Bricks were most often produced onsite from sand and clay that was molded, dried, and then fired in a kiln. If a suitable stone was available, it was used. Tabby was often used on the southern Sea Islands.


text: Few plantation structures have survived into the modern era, with the vast majority destroyed through natural disaster, neglect, or fire over the centuries. With the collapse of the plantation economy and subsequent Southern transition from a largely agrarian to an industrial society, plantations and their building complexes became obsolete. Although the majority have been destroyed, the most common structures to have survived are the plantation houses. As is true of buildings in general, the more substantially built and architecturally interesting buildings have tended to be the ones that survived into the modern age and are better documented than many of the smaller and simpler ones. Several plantation homes of important persons, including Mount Vernon, Monticello, and The Hermitage have also been preserved. Less common are intact examples of slave housing. The rarest survivors of all are the agricultural and lesser domestic structures, especially those dating from the pre-Civil War era.


text: Slave housing, although once one of the most common and distinctive features of the plantation landscape, has largely disappeared from most of the South. Many were insubstantial to begin with. Only the better-built examples tended to survive, and then usually only if they were turned to other uses after emancipation. Slave quarters could be next to the main house, well away from it, or both. On large plantations they were often arranged in a village-like grouping along an avenue away from the main house, but sometimes were scattered around the plantation on the edges of the fields where the enslaved people toiled, like most of the sharecropper cabins that were to come later.


text: Slave houses were often one of the most basic construction. Meant for little more than sleeping, they were usually rough log or frame one-room cabins; early examples often had chimneys made of clay and sticks. Hall and parlor houses (two rooms) were also represented on the plantation landscape, offering a separate room for eating and sleeping. Sometimes dormitories and two-story dwellings were also used as slave housing. Earlier examples rested on the ground with a dirt floor, but later examples were usually raised on piers for ventilation. Most of these represent the dwellings constructed for field slaves. Rarely though, such as at the former Hermitage Plantation in Georgia and Boone Hall in South Carolina, even field slaves were provided with brick cabins.


text: More fortunate in their accommodations were the house servants or skilled laborers. They usually resided either in a part of the main house or in their own houses, which were normally more comfortable dwellings than those of their counterparts who worked in the fields. A few enslavers went even further to provide housing for their household servants. When Waldwic in Alabama was remodeled in the Gothic Revival style in the 1852, the household servants were provided with large accommodations that matched the architecture of the main house. This model, however, was exceedingly rare.


text: Famous landscape designer Frederick Law Olmsted had this recollection of a visit to plantations along the Georgia coast in 1855:


text: A crucial residential structure on larger plantations was an overseer's house. The overseer was largely responsible for the success or failure of an estate, making sure that quotas were met and sometimes meting out punishment for infractions by the enslaved. The overseer was responsible for healthcare, with enslaved people and slave houses inspected routinely. He was also the record keeper of most crop inventories and held the keys to various storehouses.


text: The overseer's house was usually a modest dwelling, not far from the cabins of the enslaved workers. The overseer and his family, even when white and southern, did not freely mingle with the planter and his family. They were in a different social stratum than that of the owner and were expected to know their place. In village-type slave quarters on plantations with overseers, his house was usually at the head of the slave village rather than near the main house, at least partially due to his social position. It was also part of an effort to keep the enslaved people compliant and prevent the beginnings of a slave rebellion, a very real fear in the minds of most plantation owners.


text: Economic studies indicate that fewer than 30 percent of planters employed white supervisors for their slave labor. Some planters appointed a trusted slave as the overseer, and in Louisiana free black overseers were also used.


text: Another residential structure largely unique to plantation complexes was the garconnière or bachelors' quarters. Mostly built by Louisiana Creole people, but occasionally found in other parts of the Deep South formerly under the dominion of New France, they were structures that housed the adolescent or unmarried sons of plantation owners. At some plantations it was a free-standing structure and at others it was attached to the main house by side-wings. It developed from the Acadian tradition of using the loft of the house as a bedroom for young men.


text: A variety of domestic and lesser agricultural structures surrounded the main house on all plantations. Most plantations possessed some, if not all, of these outbuildings, often called dependencies, commonly arranged around a courtyard to the rear of the main house known as the kitchen yard. They included a cookhouse (separate kitchen building), pantry, washhouse (laundry), smokehouse, chicken house, spring house or ice house, milkhouse (dairy), covered well, and cistern. The privies would have been located some distance away from the plantation house and kitchen yard.


text: The cookhouse or kitchen was almost always in a separate building in the South until modern times, sometimes connected to the main house by a covered walkway. This separation was partially due to the cooking fire generating heat all day long in an already hot and humid climate. It also reduced the risk of fire. Indeed, on many plantations the cookhouse was built of brick while when the main house was of wood-frame construction. Another reason for the separation was to prevent the noise and smells of cooking activities from reaching the main house. Sometimes the cookhouse contained two rooms, one for the actual kitchen and the other to serve as the residence for the cook. Still other arrangements had the kitchen in one room, a laundry in the other, and a second story for servant quarters. The pantry could be in its own structure or in a cool part of the cookhouse or a storehouse and would have secured items such as barrels of salt, sugar, flour, cornmeal and the like.


text: The washhouse is where clothes, tablecloths, and bed-covers were cleaned and ironed. It also sometimes had living quarters for the laundrywoman. Cleaning laundry in this period was labor-intensive for the domestic slaves that performed it. It required various gadgets to accomplish the task. The wash boiler was a cast iron or copper cauldron in which clothes or other fabrics and soapy water were heated over an open fire. The wash-stick was a wooden stick with a handle at its uppermost part and four to five prongs at its base. It was simultaneously pounded up and down and rotated in the washing tub to aerate the wash solution and loosen any dirt. The items would then be vigorously rubbed on a corrugated wash board until clean. By the 1850s, they would be passed through a mangle. Prior to that time, wringing out the items was done by hand. The items would then be ready to be hung out to dry or, in inclement weather, placed on a drying rack. Ironing would have been done with a metal flat iron, often heated in the fireplace, and various other devices.


text: The milkhouse would have been used by enslaved people to make milk into cream, butter, and buttermilk. The process started with separating the milk into skim milk and cream. It was done by pouring the whole milk into a container and allowing the cream to naturally rise to the top. This was collected into another container daily until several gallons had accumulated. During this time the cream would sour slightly through naturally occurring bacteria. This increased the efficiency of the churning to come. Churning was an arduous task performed with a butter churn. Once firm enough to separate out, but soft enough to stick together, the butter was taken out of the churn, washed in very cold water, and salted. The churning process also produced buttermilk as a by-product. It was the remaining liquid after the butter was removed from the churn. All of the products of this process would have been stored in the spring house or ice house.


text: The smokehouse was utilized to preserve meat, usually pork, beef, and mutton. It was commonly built of hewn logs or brick. Following the slaughter in the fall or early winter, salt and sugar were applied to the meat at the beginning of the curing process, and then the meat was slowly dried and smoked in the smokehouse by a fire that did not add any heat to the smokehouse itself. If it was cool enough, the meat could also be stored there until it was consumed.


text: The chicken house was a building where chickens were kept. Its design could vary, depending on whether the chickens were kept for egg production, meat, or both. If for eggs, there were often nest boxes for egg laying and perches on which the birds to sleep. Eggs were collected daily. Some plantations also had pigeonniers (dovecotes) that, in Louisiana, sometimes took the form of monumental towers set near the main house. The pigeons were raised to be eaten as a delicacy and their droppings were used as fertilizer.


text: Few functions could take place on a plantation without a reliable water supply. Every plantation had at least one, and sometimes several, wells. These were usually roofed and often partially enclosed by latticework to keep out animals. Since the well water in many areas was distasteful due to mineral content, the potable water on many plantations came from cisterns that were supplied with rainwater by a pipe from a rooftop catchment. These could be huge aboveground wooden barrels capped by metal domes, such as was often seen in Louisiana and coastal areas of Mississippi, or underground brick masonry domes or vaults, common in other areas.


text: Some structures on plantations provided subsidiary functions; again, the term dependency can be applied to these buildings. A few were common, such as the carriage house and blacksmith shop; but most varied widely among plantations and were largely a function of what the planter wanted, needed, or could afford to add to the complex. These buildings might include schoolhouses, offices, churches, commissary stores, gristmills, and sawmills.


text: Found on some plantations in every Southern state, plantation schoolhouses served as a place for the hired tutor or governess to educate the planter's children, and sometimes even those of other planters in the area. On most plantations, however, a room in the main house was sufficient for schooling, rather than a separate dedicated building. Paper was precious, so the children often recited their lessons until they memorized them. The usual texts in the beginning were the Bible, a primer, and a hornbook. As the children grew older their schooling began to prepare them for their adult roles on the plantation. Boys studied academic subjects, proper social etiquette, and plantation management, while girls learned art, music, French, and the domestic skills suited to the mistress of a plantation.


text: Most plantation owners maintained an office for keeping records, transacting business, writing correspondence, and the like. Although it, like the schoolroom, was most often within the main house or another structure, it was not at all rare for a complex to have a separate plantation office. John C. Calhoun used his plantation office at his Fort Hill plantation in Clemson, South Carolina as a private sanctuary of sorts, with it utilized as both study and library during his twenty-five year residency.