title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The original Cavaliers were available as two and four-door saloons, and with a two-door booted (three-box) coupé body as used for the Opel Manta. The cars came with a choice of 1.6 and 1.9 L inline four cylinder Opel CIH engines in the saloon: only the 1.9 L engine was available in the coupé. Vauxhall engineers built Cavalier prototypes using the 2.3 L Vauxhall Slant-4 engine, for use in a future high-performance variant, but the proposals did not get past GM Europe management, and as a result the larger-engined Cavaliers were exclusively powered by the Opel CIH engine.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: It was revised in 1978, as the 1.9 L became a 2.0 L engine and the 1.3 L OHV engine from the Vauxhall Viva and Vauxhall Chevette was used to create the entry-level Cavalier 1.3 variant. At the same time, a three-door hatchback known as the Sports hatch (also seen on the Manta) was added to the range.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: There were plans for a five-door hatchback version to be launched, but this bodystyle was never produced on the first generation Cavalier, although at this time hatchbacks still only accounted for a small percentage of sales on larger family cars. That would change during the 1980s, however.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: All Cavalier saloons shared most of their bodywork with the Opel Ascona but had the slanted nose of the Manta to give them the distinct "droop snoot" front end. The coupé also had a front air dam.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Despite being the same car mechanically, the Opel Ascona was sold alongside the Cavalier in the United Kingdom until 24 July 1981, when GM decided to phase out duplicated models with the Opel brand in the United Kingdom and merge remaining dealerships with those of Vauxhall. The Opel Manta (and Monza) remained available, giving the Opel brand a "sports" position in Britain until the Manta was finally discontinued in 1988.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: That the Manta was sold alongside the MK2 Cavalier in the 1980s gave rise to the curiosity that the previous generation Ascona/Cavalier was effectively being sold concurrently with its successor, since a coupe/sports hatch version of the Ascona C/Cavalier Mark 2 was never engineered. However, the early to mid 1980s saw the decline of coupe models on the British market, with British Leyland not replacing the MG B when it closed the famous MG factory at Abingdon in 1980, and even the Ford Capri (a top-ten seller in Britain as late as 1980) had no immediate successor after the end of production in 1986, as Ford felt that there was not sufficient demand in Europe for a new sporting coupe to be launched. This was largely due to the rising popularity of "hot hatchbacks" and sports saloons including the Volkswagen Golf GTI.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Vauxhall, from 1978 until 1979, offered the Cavalier coupé in a convertible format called the Centaur. Only 118 of these were made and fewer than 30 were believed to have survived by 2007. The cars were developed by Magraw Engineering and sold through Vauxhall dealerships on behalf of Crayford. The Centaur is basically a Cavalier GLS coupé 2-litre with the hard roof replaced with a soft top leaving a T-bar for strength. The floor pan was also strengthened.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The ultimate Cavalier Mark I is the design concept by Wayne Cherry called Silver Aero. “Silver Aero” was a one-off Prototype build in 1980 based on the Cavalier MK1 Sportshatch. The car was displayed at the International Car Show at the NEC in October 1980. The plan was to offer existing Sportshatch owners and buyers to upgrade their car to the Silver Aero spec. The car has a 2.4 litre turbocharged engine which produces . Orders were taken but not enough to warrant production, and the car remains a one-off.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The original Cavalier was a relatively strong seller in Britain, even though it never quite matched the runaway sales success of the Ford Cortina, or even the sales figures attained by British Leyland's Morris Marina (which sold well throughout the 1970s despite being widely condemned in the motoring press) but it at least managed to help Vauxhall regain lost ground in a market sector where it had declined during the first half of the 1970s as Victor sales slumped. It also helped repair Vauxhall's image, which had been hit hard in the early 1970s by build quality and reliability issues surrounding cars like the Victor. Nearly 250,000 were sold, though by December 2009 just 373 remained.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Vauxhall Cavalier MK1 was also sold in LHD in some European countries, including Denmark, Netherlands, Belgium, Norway, Poland, Italy, Sweden, Finland and Switzerland, alongside its Opel equivalent. The Coupe was available with the 1.3 engine and in Scandinavia the car came with Manta-style headlight wipers. Vauxhalls were at one time sold alongside Opels in Europe but Vauxhall announced they were pulling out of the 11 other countries where they sold cars on 6 December 1979 and sales stopped in 1981, allowing General Motors to concentrate on the Opel brand in these markets.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: In RHD markets such as Ireland, Cyprus and Malta, the Vauxhall brand was also dropped, with Opel becoming the main GM marque. Holden also looked at taking the U-Car but they declined as they found that the prototypes they had tested were not suitable for the roads in the outback without extensive modifications.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The higher-end models of the range featured an upgraded dashboard with tachometer, four-spoke steering wheel and Rostyle wheels.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Chevrolet Chevair in South Africa was a variant of the Cavalier/Ascona, featuring the grille of the Opel Manta and a four-door body. The engine choices were different, consisting of a 2.0 and a 2.3 litre pushrod four. (These were both versions of Chevrolet's 2.5 litre four). Outputs were respectively, with the bigger engine being considered much smoother running. later (1978) version with the Ascona front was sold as the "Chevrolet Ascona", with Vauxhall's 1.3 litre engine from the Viva. The Chevair was first introduced in November 1976. The 2.0 was called De Luxe and the 2.3 received the GL moniker. Both models were available with a four-speed manual or a three-speed automatic, with the better equipped GL being recognizable by having headrests, Rostyle wheels, and chrome trim bordering the wheel wells. During 1978 a more luxurious Berlina version arrived, available only with the automatic transmission. It received new "mag-style" wheels, tinted windows, velour upholstery, and a twin exhaust tip. By July 1978 the outputs were quoted in ISO ratings; this meant that the stated power dropped from for the 2.3, while the 2.0 was no longer listed.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: In early 1980 an updated variant was introduced. The De Luxe was dropped. The 1980 model can be recognized by a new grille with somewhat larger openings, new wheels, and new wraparound bumpers in black plastic. Chevrolet badges were removed from the car, as GM South Africa were phasing out the Chevrolet name in the country. The Chevair was replaced by the front-wheel drive Opel Ascona in South Africa in 1983.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: GM South Africa also rallied the Chevair in the South African championships. A Group 1 car with a tuned 2.5-litre version of the Chevrolet engine, as well as a Group 2 car with a Lotusesque DOHC 16-valve Vauxhall 2.3-litre engine were campaigned. They developed respectively. A Chevair driven by Tony Pond won the 1979 Duckhams Rally. Despite a further victory in 1979 they could not threaten the Ford Escorts nor the Datsuns in the overall championship.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: After a four-year gestation period, the new front-wheel drive Cavalier was introduced on 26 August 1981. Unlike the previous generation, the Cavalier II had no styling or engineering difference from its Opel sister the Ascona C, differing only in badging and trim. On its launch, it offered class-leading levels of fuel economy and performance which had previously been unseen in this size of car. Sales began the following month.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: This model was part of GM's family of compact "J-cars", along with the new Opel Ascona, the Australian Holden Camira, the Brazilian Chevrolet Monza, the Japanese Isuzu Aska, and the North American Chevrolet Cavalier, Pontiac Sunbird, Buick Skyhawk, Oldsmobile Firenza (which made use of a Vauxhall nameplate from the 1970s), and Cadillac Cimarron. In the United Kingdom, the new Cavalier was a huge success and challenged the supremacy of the Ford Cortina as the company car of choice. Indeed, it went on sale only a year before the Cortina was discontinued.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: By 1982, Ford and Vauxhall had an effective two-horse race at the top of this sector on the British market, as sales of the Talbot Alpine (previously a Chrysler until Peugeot took over the European operations of Chrysler) had tailed off by 1981, while British Leyland was winding down production of the Austin Ambassador hatchback and Morris Ital saloon and estate in preparation for the launch of all-new car (which would be sold as the Austin Montego) by 1984. Popular foreign competitors at the time included the Renault 18, which had arrived on the British market in December 1978. The MK2 Cavalier also debuted in the same year as the MK2 Volkswagen Passat.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Following the British public's reluctance to embrace the Ford Sierra's radical styling in 1982, the Cavalier overtook the Sierra in sales and outsold the Sierra in 1984 and again in 1985, although the Sierra had comfortably outsold it in 1983. The Sierra narrowly outsold it in 1986, and a facelift for the Sierra at the start of 1987 helped Ford build a wide lead at the top of the large family car sector as nearly 140,000 Sierras were sold that year, while Cavalier sales fell below 100,000.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: By the time the second generation Cavalier was discontinued to make way for the third generation model in October 1988, the Sierra was almost twice as popular.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: It was Britain's second best selling car (behind the Ford Escort) in 1984 and 1985, and at its peak, this version of the Cavalier came with the choice of 1.3 or 1.6 L engines derived from the smaller Vauxhall Astra (also sold as the Opel Kadett), while for 1983 a 1.8 L engine was launched, which had electronic fuel injection. A diesel of 1.6 L was added about the same time, while the 1.8 L was supplemented by a 2.0 L for the 1987 model year.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Perhaps surprisingly, it was narrowly beaten to the European Car of the Year award for 1982 by the Renault 9, with third place going to the Mark II Volkswagen Polo.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: This model was produced as a two-door or four-door saloon and five-door hatchback. An estate version followed in October 1983, based on the Holden Camira wagon with rear body panels imported CKD from Australia. It was originally only available with the 1.6 S engine in Base, L, and GL models, and proved a slow seller. For 1985 the diesel was also made available, but the Estate still only represented about 7 percent of Cavalier sales in 1985 and 1986. The two-door saloon was soon dropped from the Cavalier range, although it remained part of the Ascona range in other markets. A convertible, based on the two-door and converted by Hammond & Thiede in Germany, was subsequently offered.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Thatcher government in the United Kingdom created a tax break at 1.8 L, with any company car having a larger engine than this attracting higher personal benefit taxes, thus effectively giving the Cavalier an advantage over its rivals soon after its launch.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: On its launch, the MK2 Cavalier was well received by the motoring press, and like its predecessor was the catalyst for another surge in Vauxhall sales. In 1981, just over 33,000 MK1 and MK2 Cavaliers had been sold in the UK, although it was still Britain's seventh best selling car. A year later, sales more than trebled to over 100,000 cars as Britain's fifth best selling car. In 1983, it attained more than 127,000 sales (some 7% of the new car market) and was the fourth best selling car, although it still trailed behind the new Ford Sierra. For 1984 and 1985, however, it was Britain's second best selling car, with more than 130,000 sales each year, comfortably outselling the fifth-placed Sierra. In 1986, it was narrowly outsold by the Sierra, which then underwent a major facelift and became available as a saloon for the first time, and gained a wide sales lead over the Cavalier for the next two years.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Over the course of the model's lifetime, there were two facelifts mirroring changes made to the Ascona - firstly for the 1985 model year which saw revised grilles, modified rear lamp clusters, new steering wheels, upgraded equipment, new upholstery options and different instrument graphics - some of these changes came direct from the recently introduced Kadett E/Astra Mark 2.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Despite the launch of an all-new Cavalier being just a year away, a further update in 1987 saw the grilles and rear lamp clusters revised again in a style similar to the larger Senator model together with further improvements to equipment levels. A new 2.0L engine option became available on CD, SRi and GLS trim, whilst the availability of the fuel injected 1.8L unit was extended down to L trim.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: By the end of its life cycle, the top of the range version was the powerful 2.0 SRi130, which had and could exceed . This had the same engine as the Astra GTE 8v (20SEH), though it was more powerful owing to a better exhaust route.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The last version of the Cavalier Mark II to be launched was the Cavalier Calibre. Based on the SRi130 with styling from Aston Martin/Tickford and the bodykit, sports suspension and exhaust being produced by Irmscher, it was a limited production run of only 500 cars. The car came with a very high specification including a trip computer, Recaro seats, power windows and power steering. It cost around £13,000 when released in 1987.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Vauxhall sold 807,624 examples of the second generation Cavalier between 1981 and 1988. By December 1989, it was the third most common model of car on British roads, although these government statistics mostly calculated each car by its generation rather than by different nameplate, with pre and post facelifted versions of an unchanged basic design (for example the Ford Sierra) being counted separately.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: In August 2006, "Auto Express" named it as the country's sixth most scrapped car of the last 30 years, with just 6,343 (fewer than 1%) still on the road. The only car to cease production after the Cavalier Mark II, and which disappeared at a greater rate, was the Skoda Estelle (which was withdrawn from sale in 1990). By December 2009, that figure had fallen to a mere 1,289.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: By the mid-1980s, General Motors had started developing a new model to replace the J-Car models in Europe (its American, Australian and Japanese divisions would instead be replaced by different designs in due course) by the end of the decade. The new model would retain the Cavalier nameplate for the Vauxhall version on the UK market, but elsewhere in Europe the car would be sold as the Opel Vectra - spelling the end for the long-running Ascona nameplate. Soon afterwards, development also began on a new coupe which would share the same underpinnings as the hatchbacks and saloons, but would use a different nameplate and feature completely different styling.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The final generation Cavalier went on sale on 14 October 1988, being Vauxhall's version of the Opel Vectra "A", again available as a saloon and hatchback. There was no estate version in the Opel line-up, and as this design was not going to be sold in Australia, there was no prospect of Vauxhall turning to Holden for a replacement. Early plans for an estate model exclusive to Europe to be developed never materialised. During 1989, however, the Cavalier's floorpan did spawn a new coupe - the Calibra, the first Vauxhall coupe since the original Cavalier coupe was discontinued in 1981. The Calibra was the official replacement for the Opel Manta, which had been discontinued in 1988, and was also sold on continental Europe under the Opel Brand. Plans for the Calibra to be imported to the USA under the Saab brand never materialised.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Vectra name was not adopted at this model change as Vauxhall feared reviving memories of the much-maligned Vauxhall Victor, whereas the Cavalier was a generally well received product and had helped boost Vauxhall's sales and reputation. Early Victors had been viewed in some quarters as excessively corrosion prone, but the Victor was becoming a very distant memory by this stage: the Vectra name would eventually appear on a Vauxhall in 1995, when the Cavalier was finally replaced.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: For the first time in fifteen years, Vauxhall began exporting cars in LHD to other European countries, with Cavaliers badged as Opel Vectras, which was a boost to GM's confidence in its once-troubled British division.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: In place of the Mark II Cavalier's angular exterior was a more rounded appearance, reflecting the change in styling tastes throughout Europe at this time. There was also a new economical 1.4 L petrol engine. The biggest changes to the range were the addition of 2.0 L sixteen valve engines, better known as the "red top" or XE. This was fitted to the GSi 2000 and later SRis. Also made available was a four-wheel drive system, fitted to a 2.0iL model (8 valve SRi spec) and on a version of the GSi 2000.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: There were two diesels available: a 1.7 L, from launch, and an 1.7-liter Isuzu-engined lightly blown turbodiesel from 1992. The early SRis were fitted with the 2.0-liter eight-valve engine from the previous Cavalier model, which produced .


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Despite the lack of an estate body style, the Cavalier topped the large medium family car sales charts in Britain in 1990, narrowly outselling the Ford Sierra, while Rover was beginning to phase out its Montego in favour of the new Rover 400 Series and later the more upmarket 600 Series. Other strong contenders in this sector included the long-running Citroën BX and Peugeot's highly regarded 405.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Having first outsold the Sierra in Britain in 1990, it was Britain's second best selling car behind the Ford Escort in 1992. It did not lose top spot in its sector until it was overtaken by the Sierra's successor, the Mondeo, in 1994.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Calibra, launched in 1989, was well received, notably for its sporty although cramped interior (largely based on the interior of the Cavalier) and its streamlined styling which in turn enabled the Calibra to have the lowest drag coefficient of the period at 0.26 for the 8v model (0.29 for the rest) - a record it held for the next 10 years.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: A few variants were made: the 2.0 litre eight valve, 2.0 L sixteen valve (the same engine found in the proven Cavalier GSi 2000), the turbo version (again, the same engine used in the very successful Cavalier Turbo), the 2.5 L V6 (with a top speed of around 145 mph) and finally the 2.0 L 16-valve "Ecotec".


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: A facelift in the autumn of 1992 for the 1993 model year saw the Cavalier's 1.4 L engine dropped and the 2.5 L V6 added to the range. At this time the GSi 2000 was replaced by a new four wheel drive version badged simply "Cavalier Turbo", with a turbocharged version of the sixteen valve engine producing over . The Vauxhall logo was added to the centre of the boot. Most of the range now had airbags and anti-lock brakes as standard (the first car in its class to do so) and all models were fitted with a toughened safety cage, side impact beams (providing additional longitudinal load paths) and front seatbelt pretensioners. This version of the Cavalier was the first Vauxhall to feature a drivers airbag, with a passenger one being optional; this feature soon became available across the rest of the company's range.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The exterior design was also freshened up, with a new look grille, headlights, rear lights and bumper mouldings and an increase in sound insulation, especially in GLS and higher models making the Cavalier a quiet place to travel in. In late 1994, the new 2.0L Ecotec engine was launched replacing both the popular eight valve C20NE and high performance sixteen valve "redtop" engine. The new engine had improved fuel economy and low end torque at the cost of maximum power output, compared to for the "redtop" that it replaced.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: After twenty years and three generations, the Cavalier came to an end in October 1995 when it was replaced by the Vectra, though sales continued for about a year afterwards and several P registered versions (August 1996 to July 1997 period) were sold.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The third and final incarnation of the Cavalier was a big improvement over its predecessors (and most earlier Vauxhalls) in terms of durability, with the rust problems that had plagued Vauxhall for years finally being conquered. This was reflected by the fact that Mark III Cavaliers were a common sight on British roads for well over a decade after the end of production.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The demise of the Cavalier name marked a significant moment for the Luton-based company, as it would be the last of its main models with a distinct name from its Opel counterparts until the rebadging of the Opel Speedster as the Vauxhall VX220 and the Opel Karl as the Vauxhall Viva. All future Vauxhall models would share their names with those of Opel, or in the case of the 2004 Vauxhall Monaro, with Holden. However, the Astra nameplate was chosen by Vauxhall at the beginning of 1980 for its version of the first front-wheel drive Opel Kadett, and from 1991 General Motors decided to sell the Opel version of the car as the Astra.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: This version of the Cavalier shared its chassis with the Saab 900 that was produced from 1993 until 1998, and continued until 2002 as the Saab 9-3, due to Saab also being within the General Motors combine at the time.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: A total of more than 1,800,000 Cavaliers were sold in three generations, and a 20-year production run, making it the fifth most popular car ever sold in Britain.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Following its launch in October 1975, the original Cavalier took time to gain ground on the British market, with just under 30,000 sales placing it as the 13th best selling car for 1976. It climbed to eighth place the following year with more than 41,000 sales, peaking at seventh place in 1978 with over 55,000 sales. It was still the seventh best seller in 1980, though sales for that year had dipped back to just over 41,000 as the economy entered recession.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Well over 200,000 were sold in total over a six-year production run, but by the end of 2009 just 373 remained, and it had been a rare sight on British roads even by the mid 1990s. The Mark II Cavalier was a much bigger success. In 1982, its first full year on sale, just over 100,000 were sold in Britain. This placed it as Britain's fourth best selling car, putting it just 35,000 sales short of its key rival, the Ford Cortina, which was replaced that autumn by the all-new Sierra. 1983 saw Cavalier sales in Britain exceed 127,000 as it retained fourth place, but it was outsold by the Sierra which occupied second place with almost 160,000 sales.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The next two years, however, saw the Cavalier top the large family car sector in Britain in terms of sales, and overall it was the nation's second best selling car behind the Ford Escort, breaking the 130,000 barrier on both occasions while the Sierra only just made it into six figures. Despite falling popularity towards the end of production which saw the Ford Sierra comfortably outsell it, a total of 807,624 Mark II Cavaliers were sold in Britain during its seven-year production run. The Mark II Cavalier remained a popular second hand buy and common sight on British roads for a decade or so afterwards, and proved to be more resistant to rust than its predecessor as well as earlier Vauxhalls.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Mark III Cavalier enjoyed similar popularity to its predecessor. Launched in October 1988, Cavalier sales for 1989 stood at 130,000 (including some Mark II's) as it was Britain's fourth best selling car overall, while the Ford Sierra stood second with more than 175,000 sales, but in 1990, it edged ahead of the Sierra into third place, and by 1992, it was Britain's second best selling car with nearly 110,000 sales (the lower figures being the result of the recession at the time) while sales of the ageing Sierra had slumped to less than 80,000.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Sierra's successor, the Mondeo, overtook it in 1994 but even in the Cavalier's last year in production, 1995, it still managed nearly 74,000 sales, despite being replaced by the Vectra in October 1995.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: Airey Neave, Shadow Secretary of State for Northern Ireland, and advisor to Margaret Thatcher, was assassinated in a Mk.I Cavalier on 30 March 1979 by the Irish National Liberation Army (INLA) when a car bomb was detonated beneath it while driving away from the Palace of Westminster. A red Mark III Cavalier was also used in the 1998 Omagh bombing carried out by the Real IRA.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: By February 2016, just over 4,500 Cavaliers across all three generations were still in use on Britain's roads, with most remaining examples being MK3 models. More than 1.8 million had been sold there.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Cavalier was used in the British Touring Car Championship from 1990 to 1995. The Cavalier was always competitive, but the strength of the competition, and bad luck, conspired to deny John Cleland the victory in both the 1991 and 1992 seasons (although Vauxhall Motorsport did win the Manufacturer's Championship in 1992), finishing 2nd in 1991 and 3rd in 1992 - the latter a result of a dramatic final-race showdown, culminating in a collision between Cleland and rival Steve Soper.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: 1993 and 1994 both saw Cleland finish 4th in the championship; however the Cavalier finally won the title in 1995, with John Cleland winning the Driver's championship, and Vauxhall Sport the Manufacturer's title.


title: Vauxhall Cavalier

text: The Cavalier was replaced by the Vectra in 1996, although privateers such as Richard Kaye and Jamie Wall would continue to use them until the end of the 1997 season.


title: UFC Fight Night: Lewis vs. Daukaus

text: UFC Fight Night: Lewis vs. Daukaus (also known as UFC Vegas 45, UFC on ESPN+ 57 and UFC Fight Night 199) was a mixed martial arts event produced by the Ultimate Fighting Championship that took place on December 18, 2021 at the UFC Apex facility in Enterprise, Nevada, part of the Las Vegas Metropolitan Area, United States.


title: UFC Fight Night: Lewis vs. Daukaus

text: A heavyweight bout between former UFC Heavyweight Championship challenger Derrick Lewis and Chris Daukaus headlined the event.


title: UFC Fight Night: Lewis vs. Daukaus

text: A women's strawweight bout between Amanda Lemos and Nina Nunes was scheduled for the event. However, Nunes was removed from the bout due to undisclosed reasons and was replaced by former Invicta FC Strawweight Champion Angela Hill.


title: UFC Fight Night: Lewis vs. Daukaus

text: A middleweight bout between Anthony Hernandez and Dustin Stoltzfus was scheduled for the event. However, Hernandez withdrew from the event due to undisclosed reasons and was replaced by newcomer Caio Borralho. In turn, Borralho and Gerald Meerschaert's opponent, Abusupiyan Magomedov, were forced to withdraw from the fight due to visa issues, thus the UFC matched Meerschaert and Stoltzfus against each other for the event.


title: UFC Fight Night: Lewis vs. Daukaus

text: A women's bantamweight bout between former UFC Women's Bantamweight Championship challenger Raquel Pennington and Julia Avila was scheduled for the event. However, Avila was forced to pull out of the event due to injury. She was replaced by featherweight winner Macy Chiasson, thus changing the contest to the weight class above.


title: UFC Fight Night: Lewis vs. Daukaus

text: However, Jones withdrew from the fight due to undisclosed reasons and was replaced by Victor Henry. The pairing was then cancelled just hours before taking place due to COVID-19 protocols.


title: UFC Fight Night: Lewis vs. Daukaus

text: At the weigh-ins, three fighters missed weight for their respective bouts. Justin Tafa weighed in at 267 pounds, one pound over the heavyweight non-title fight limit (marking the first time in UFC history that a fighter missed weight in that division); Sijara Eubanks weighed in at 127.5 pounds, 1.5 pounds over the women's flyweight non-title fight limit; and Macy Chiasson weighed in at 148.5 pounds, 2.5 pounds over the women's featherweight non-title fight limit. All three bouts proceeded at a catchweight with Tafa, Eubanks and Chiasson each fined a percentage of their purses, which went to their opponents Harry Hunsucker, Melissa Gatto and Raquel Pennington respectively.


title: Honda Jazz

text: The Honda Jazz nameplate has been used by the Japanese manufacturer Honda to denote several different motorized vehicles since 1982:


title: Stratfor

text: Strategic Forecasting Inc., commonly known as Stratfor, is an American geopolitics publisher and consultancy founded in 1996. Stratfor's business model is to provide individual and enterprise subscriptions to Stratfor Worldview, its online publication, and to perform intelligence gathering for corporate clients. The focus of Stratfor's content is security issues and analyzing geopolitical risk.


title: Stratfor

text: Stratfor was founded by George Friedman, who was the company's chairman. Chip Harmon was appointed president in February 2018. Other executives include vice president of global analysis, Reva Goujon; senior vice president of strategic analysis, Rodger Baker; and former U.S. Special Operations Command officer Bret Boyd, vice president of custom intelligence services.


title: Stratfor

text: Stratfor clients have included academic institutions, investment firms and large corporations such as Lockheed Martin, Goldman Sachs, Bank of America, Coca-Cola and Dow Chemical Company.


title: Stratfor

text: Media coverage of their ideas about the 1998 bombing of Iraq brought Stratfor into the public eye. At this time, the company had about twenty employees. By 2008 they were up to 40 full-time employees in Austin. 2016 saw the number rise to about 100, three-quarters of whom were based in Austin. Stratfor often hires interns from the nearby University of Texas.


title: Stratfor

text: Stratfor analysts pay for information, but also use open source information to predict where global crises will arise. Stratfor also obtains information by way of personal networks. Fred Burton indicated in leaked emails that he maintained contact with his "trusted former CIA cronies" as a source of information, and that he was aware of the sealed indictment against Julian Assange in 2011.


title: Stratfor

text: "Barron's" once referred to Stratfor as "The Shadow CIA". "Barron's" Jonathan Laing has called Friedman "one of our favorite experts on geopolitics," saying, "His judgments tend to be more nuanced and long-term than those of the press or Wall Street." More recently, "The Atlantic's" James Fallows referenced a Stratfor article on U.S. strategy in Iraq and Ukraine, following outbreaks of turmoil in those regions.


title: Stratfor

text: In October 2015, Stratfor raised $12 million in funding through a growth equity investment by Dallas-based Teakwood Capital. Stratfor planned to use the funds to expand its reporting networks, improve operational infrastructure and move into new markets.


title: Stratfor

text: Stratfor bills itself as a geopolitical intelligence platform, with revenues derived from individual and enterprise subscriptions to Stratfor Worldview, its online publication, and corporate consulting.


title: Stratfor

text: Stratfor has published a daily intelligence briefing since its inception in 1996. Before the end of 1999, Stratfor had introduced a subscription service through which it offered the majority of its analyses. At the time of the September 11, 2001 attacks, Stratfor made its "breaking news" paragraphs, as well as some notable analyses predicting likely actions to be taken by al-Qaeda and the Bush administration, free to the public.


title: Stratfor

text: Stratfor's publishing business includes written and multimedia analysis available online. Stratfor Threat Lens, an enterprise level product launched in September 2016, offers specific insight and analysis to support corporate security leaders. In April 2017, the company launched its core online publication under the name Stratfor Worldview. Several older articles are freely available as teaser content.


title: Stratfor

text: Stratfor has published collections of analysis in paperback and as e-books on a variety of topics. Topics include user guides to personal security, the "devolution of jihadism," and the U.S. war in Afghanistan, according to a series of promotional videos on the company's YouTube channel. Stratfor sells their e-books and reports on their website.


title: Stratfor

text: A number of the company's top analysts have published books in their own name. Notable among these are founder George Friedman and vice president for intelligence Fred Burton. Kamran Bokhari, Stratfor's former vice president for Middle East and South Asian affairs, co-wrote "Political Islam in the Age of Democratization" (2013). Reviewer Amani el Sehrawey called the book "an invaluable tool for those seeking to gain knowledge of the nuances of the political systems of the Muslim world from a historical perspective, as well as to understand the contemporary changes happening in the region."


title: Stratfor

text: On December 24, 2011, Stratfor's website was hacked. Anonymous claimed responsibility, and also posted data they claim was taken from Stratfor, including credit card details, passwords, and addresses of Stratfor clients. Their email system was also compromised.


title: Stratfor

text: In November 2013, computer hacker Jeremy Hammond was sentenced to ten years in federal prison for his role in the Anonymous attack. An FBI informant, Hector Xavier Monsegur (also known as "Sabu"), initially faced 124 years in prison for his role in the attack, but his sentence was reduced to time served plus one year's supervised release in May 2014 in exchange for his cooperation as an FBI informant.


title: Stratfor

text: WikiLeaks announced the initial publication of more than five million of Stratfor's e-mail messages on February 26, 2012, under the name Global Intelligence Files. Anonymous said it had leaked the emails to WikiLeaks.


title: Stratfor

text: George Friedman stated that third parties may have forged or altered the e-mail messages, but that Stratfor would not validate either alterations or authenticity.


title: Stratfor

text: In October 2017, Stratfor sponsored the 2017 Texas National Security Forum organized by Clements Center for National Security, the Robert Strauss Center for International Security and Law, and the Intelligence Studies Project at the University of Texas at Austin. The theme was "Alliances and Partnerships in American National Security." The event included a keynote address by Michael Pompeo, then director of the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency and later U.S. Secretary of State. Stratfor Chief Security Officer Fred Burton moderated a panel that included former acting director of Central Intelligence John McLaughlin and former acting director of the Defense Intelligence Agency David Shedd.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone, sold under the brand name Florinef, among others, is a corticosteroid used to treat adrenogenital syndrome, postural hypotension, and adrenal insufficiency. In adrenal insufficiency, it is generally taken together with hydrocortisone. Fludrocortisone is taken by mouth and is most commonly used in its acetate form.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Common side effects of fludrocortisone include high blood pressure, swelling, heart failure, and low blood potassium. Other serious side effects can include low immune-system function, cataracts, muscle weakness, and mood changes. Whether use of fludrocortisone during pregnancy is safe for the fetus is unknown. Fludrocortisone is mostly a mineralocorticoid, but it also has glucocorticoid effects.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone was patented in 1953. It is on the World Health Organization's List of Essential Medicines.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone has been used in the treatment of cerebral salt-wasting syndrome. It is used primarily to replace the missing hormone aldosterone in various forms of adrenal insufficiency such as Addison's disease and the classic salt-wasting (21-hydroxylase deficiency) form of congenital adrenal hyperplasia. Due to its effects on increasing Na+ levels, and therefore blood volume, fludrocortisone is the first-line of treatment for orthostatic intolerance and postural orthostatic tachycardia syndrome (POTS).


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone is also a confirmation test for diagnosing Conn's syndrome (aldosterone-producing adrenal adenoma), the fludrocortisone suppression test. Loading the patient with fludrocortisone would "suppress" serum aldosterone level in a normal patient, whereas the level would remain "elevated" in a Conn's patient. The fludrocortisone suppression test is an alternative to the NaCl challenge (which would use normal saline or salt tablets).


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone is a corticosteroid and acts as a powerful mineralocorticoid, along with some additional but comparatively very weak glucocorticoid activity. Relative to cortisol, it is said to have 10 times the glucocorticoid potency but 250 to 800 times the mineralocorticoid potency. Fludrocortisone acetate is a prodrug of fludrocortisone, which is the active form of the drug.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Plasma renin, sodium, and potassium are checked through blood tests to verify that the correct dosage is reached.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone, also known as 9α-fluorocortisol (9α-fluorohydrocortisone) or as 9α-fluoro-11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione, is a synthetic pregnane steroid and a halogenated derivative of cortisol (11β,17α,21-trihydroxypregn-4-ene-3,20-dione). Specifically, it is a modification of cortisol with a fluorine atom substituted in place of one hydrogen atom at the C9α position. Fluorine is a good bioisostere for hydrogen because it is similar in size, with the major difference being in its electronegativity. The acetate form of fludrocortisone, fludrocortisone acetate, is the C21 acetate ester of fludrocortisone, and is hydrolyzed into fludrocortisone in the body.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone was described in the literature in 1953 and was introduced for medical use (as the acetate ester) in 1954. It was the first synthetic corticosteroid to be marketed, and followed the introduction of cortisone in 1948 and hydrocortisone (cortisol) in 1951. Fludrocortisone was also the first fluorine-containing pharmaceutical drug to be marketed.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone is the generic name of fludrocortisone and its , , , , and , whereas "fludrocortisone acetate" is the generic name of fludrocortisone acetate and its , and .


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone is marketed mainly under the brand names Astonin and Astonin-H, whereas the more widely used fludrocortisone acetate is sold mainly as Florinef, but also under several other brand names including Cortineff, Florinefe, and Fludrocortison.


title: Fludrocortisone

text: Fludrocortisone is marketed in Austria, Croatia, Denmark, Germany, Luxembourg, Romania, and Spain, whereas fludrocortisone acetate is more widely available throughout the world and is marketed in the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, various other European countries, Australia, Japan, China, Brazil, and many other countries.


title: Cravity

text: Cravity () is a South Korean boy band formed by Starship Entertainment. The group is composed of nine members: Serim, Allen, Jungmo, Woobin, Wonjin, Minhee, Hyeongjun, Taeyoung, and Seongmin. They debuted on April 14, 2020, with their extended play "".


title: Cravity

text: The group was dubbed as "Monster Rookies" in 2020, who "emerge as a global artist that attracted attention of the fans globally." They became the first 2020 rookie artist to debut on the "Billboard" K-pop Hot 100, and earned numerous awards including "New Artist of the Year" at the 12th Melon Music Awards, "Best of Next" at the 2020 Mnet Asian Music Awards and "Rookie Award" in the 4th Soribada Awards.


title: Cravity

text: Prior to the group's debut, Jungmo, Wonjin, Minhee, and Hyeongjun participated in the show "Produce X 101" in 2019, representing Starship Entertainment, along with Moon Hyunbin. In the finale, Jungmo and Wonjin placed at ranks 12 and 19 respectively (without taking into consideration the 'X'-position), missing the cut-off for the show's debut-lineup. However, Minhee and Hyeongjun placed at ranks 10 and 4 respectively, thereby making them members of the debut line-up and members of the group X1. They promoted with the group until their disbandment on January 6, 2020.


title: Cravity

text: In March 2020, Starship began unveiling the new nine-member boy group that the agency would debut, revealing the group's name to be "Cravity". Cravity's name is an amalgamation of the words "Creativity" and "Gravity" that implies bringing you into their universe with their unique charm. Cravity, which also stands for "Center of Gravity," contains the ambition of achieving the best performance and best stage presence when all members gather together in perfect balance.


title: Cravity

text: Cravity debuted with the extended play "" on April 14, 2020, which debuted and peaked atop of Gaon's Album Chart. The album is reported to have shipped over 100,000 copies in the month of April 2020, making them the best-selling South Korean rookie artist in 2020, as of August 2020.


title: Cravity

text: Cravity entered and peaked on the "Billboard" Social 50 Chart at number 12. They are the fifth fastest South Korean group to enter Social 50, as well as being the only South Korean rookie artist to chart on "Billboard"'s Social 50 in 2020 at the time of their debut. On June 17, Cravity released a music video for their song "Cloud 9", a track previously included in their debut extended play. They subsequently began music show promotions for this song.


title: Cravity

text: On August 5, Cravity announced they would be making their first comeback with their second extended play "Season 2. Hideout: The New Day We Step Into" on August 24, 2020, with the title track "Flame". This album will feature lyrics written by members Serim and Allen. On August 13, at the 2020 Soribada Awards, Cravity won the "New Artist Award", their first award since debut. On August 24, Cravity released their second album, "". The EP contains seven tracks, including the lead single "Flame". The album has topped the Japanese Tower Records' album chart and ranked first on seven regions on iTunes.


title: Cravity

text: On September 1, Cravity had their first music show win on SBS MTV's The Show with "Flame" with the song also debuting at number 97 on the Billboard Korea K-pop Hot 100 chart on the chart issue dated week of September 26.


title: Cravity

text: On September 14, the group formally released their official light stick, which they called "Remembong."


title: Cravity

text: Cravity on October 9 held an exclusive on-tact fan meeting 'CRAVITY COLLECTION: C-EXPRESS' through Naver V Live wherein they greeted their fans in 126 regions. The fanmeeting was organized with a theme of an "amusement park" as a way of the group to greet their fans brightly. On October 21, Cravity released a performance video for their song "Ohh Ahh", a B-side track on "Season 2. Hideout: The New Day We Step Into". They subsequently began music show promotions with the song.


title: Cravity

text: On January 19, Cravity released the third installment of the Hideout series with their third extended play "", along with the music video of the lead single, "My Turn". The album features some of the songs written by members Serim, Allen and Wonjin. They subsequently began promoting their title track alongside their B-side track "Mammoth" on music shows.


title: Cravity

text: On March 2, it was announced that Cravity would release a performance video for their B-side track "Bad Habits" on March 11. They began promotions for the song on music shows following the video's release.


title: Cravity

text: On August 19, Cravity released the first part of their first studio album "", featuring the title track "Gas Pedal". They subsequently began promoting their title track alongside their B-side track "Veni Vidi Vici" on music shows. Within the first week after its release, over 100,000 copies were sold, making it the first of Cravity's works to have reached that milestone and the first to be eligible for Hanteo certification. On September 27, it was announced that Cravity would be releasing a special video for their B-side track "Veni Vidi Vici" on October 7. After its release, the group began a second round of promotions on music shows with the song.


title: Cravity

text: On November 20–21, Cravity held the two-day fan meeting 'CRAVITY COLLECTION: C-DELIVERY', marking their first performance in a year since their solo on:tact fan gathering in October 2020. On December 15, the group announce the launch of the soon to be released Cravity character dolls where each member personally participated in the design. The characters were first shown through the group's fan meeting 'CRAVITY COLLECTION: C-DELIVERY' held in November.


title: Cravity

text: On January 26, it was announced that Cravity would be making their comeback with the second part of their first studio album "", featuring the title track "Adrenaline" on February 22. On February 4, it was announced on social media that they had been chosen as special DJs for KBS Cool FM's "STATION Z" radio show, with weekly appearances as units during February.


title: Cravity

text: On February 12, it was announced that 7 of the 9 members had tested positive for COVID-19 (later updated to 8 of the 9 members on February 16 and all 9 on February 20) and as a result, their comeback was postponed. On February 28, it was announced that their comeback would be rescheduled for March 22. With the release of their new promotion schedule, they also announced that they would be holding their first set of solo concerts at Olympic Hall within Seoul's Olympic Park on April 2 and 3.


title: Cravity

text: On March 22, Cravity released the second installment of their first studio album. The group started promoting their title track "Adrenaline" on Mnet's "M Countdown". On March 30, Cravity released a choreography video for their song "Maybe Baby" from their second studio album. They subsequently began promotion of the song through SBS' "The Show".


title: Cravity

text: On April 2, the group was awarded the "Silver Creator" award by TikTok for surpassing 1 million followers on the platform. On the same day, they were announced as part of the lineup for the 'KCON 2022 Premiere' in Chicago, their first appearance at the annual music festival. On May 31, Cravity released the promotional single "Vivid" through the Universe Music platform on the mobile application Universe.


title: Cravity

text: On June 30, Cravity successfully wrapped up their two-day sold-out concert entitled 'CRAVITY THE 1ST FAN–CON CENTER OF GRAVITY' at Zepp Osaka Bayside in Japan. On July 20, Cravity confirmed their participation in the 'KCON 2022 US TOUR', which was held until September. The group participated as a representative of the next generation of K-pop artists, starting with 'KCON 2022 LA', held on August 19 to 21, followed by KCON editions in San Francisco, Minneapolis, Houston, Dallas, Atlanta, wrapping up their participation with 'KCON 2022 New York' on September 1.


title: Cravity

text: On August 5, Cravity announced that they would be releasing their fourth mini-album "New Wave" in September. Ahead of the album's release, the group pre-released their first English digital single, "Boogie Woogie", on August 12. On September 27, Cravity released their fourth mini-album "New Wave", featuring the title track "Party Rock". On October 4, Cravity received their first music show win for "Party Rock" and second music show win overall on SBS M's "The Show".


title: Cravity

text: In the tourism sector, Cravity has been appointed as tourism ambassadors for "K-pop Star Street" in Gwangju, the group will be doing numerous activities that will publicly promote tourist destinations of the city for one year.


title: Cravity

text: In June 2022, it was announced that Cravity was selected by the Ministry of Culture, Sports, and Tourism as an overseas ambassador for Korean culture for the year 2022.


title: Cravity

text: In October 2020, Cravity was chosen as the model for the cosmetic brand Blackrouge. The group's passion, powerful energy, health and vitality as a new male idol group fit well with the lively image of Blackrouge leading to them being selected as the models of the cosmetic brand. The group promoted the brand not just in Korea, but also in China and other countries in Southeast Asia. The group and Blackrouge parted ways a year later in October 2021.


title: Cravity

text: In August 2022, Cravity was unveiled to be the first official model of the American casual brand Searchit. The boy group designed a hand-drawn unique design collection for the brand's t-shirt to which all the products worn by the members were sold out.


title: Cravity

text: In July 2022, Starship Entertainment, along with Cravity, join hands with the Blue Tree Foundation to prevent and eradicate cyberbullying among teenagers. Starship expects the participation of Cravity and its fellow artists to not only protect the artist's rights and interests but also become another fandom culture that will change society.


title: Cravity

text: In an interview with Allure Magazine, the band revealed that their labelmate seniors Monsta X under Starship Entertainment were their biggest role model and influence in their careers when it came to styling and fashion. Member Jungmo singled out BTS V, describing him as "handsome, stunning, and cool."


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: In archaeogenetics, the term Western Hunter-Gatherer (WHG), West European Hunter-Gatherer or Western European Hunter-Gatherer names a distinct ancestral component of modern Europeans, representing descent from a population of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers scattered over Western, Southern and Central Europe, from the British Isles in the west to the Carpathians in the east.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: Along with the Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers (SHG) and Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHG), the WHGs constituted one of the three main genetic groups in the postglacial period of early Holocene Europe. The border between WHGs and EHGs ran roughly from the lower Danube, northward along the western forests of the Dnieper towards the western Baltic Sea.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: SHGs were in turn an equal mix of WHGs and EHGs. Once the main population throughout Europe, the WHGs were largely displaced by successive expansions of Early European Farmers (EEFs) during the early Neolithic, but experienced a resurgence during the Middle Neolithic, mainly mediated by WHG males mating with EEF females. During the Late Neolithic and Early Bronze Age, Western Steppe Herders (WSHs) from the Pontic–Caspian steppe embarked on a massive expansion, which further displaced the WHGs. Among modern-day populations, WHG ancestry is most common among populations of the eastern Baltic.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: Western Hunter-Gatherers (WHG) are recognised as a distinct ancestral component contributing to the ancestry to all modern Europeans, including Early European Farmers (EEF), who were, however, mostly of Anatolian descent. With the Neolithic expansion, EEF came to dominate the gene pool in most parts of Europe, although WHG ancestry had a resurgence in Western Europe from the Early Neolithic to the Middle Neolithic. Most Europeans can be modeled as a mixture of WHG, EEF and peoples from the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: WHGs themselves were a mix of Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHGs) and the Upper Paleolithic people (Cro-Magnon) of the Grotte du Bichon in Switzerland. EHGs in turn derived 75% of their ancestry from ANEs. Scandinavian Hunter-Gatherers (SHGs) were found to be a mix of EHGs and WHGs. It is though that they separated from eastern Eurasians around 40,000 BP, and from Ancient North Eurasians (ANE) around 24,000 BP.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: People of the Mesolithic Kunda culture and the Narva culture of the eastern Baltic were a mix of WHG and EHG, showing the closest affinity with WHG. Samples from the Ukrainian Mesolithic and Neolithic were found to cluster tightly together between WHG and EHG, suggesting genetic continuity in the Dnieper Rapids for a period of 4,000 years. The Ukrainian samples belonged exclusively to the maternal haplogroup U, which is found in around 80% of all European hunter-gatherer samples.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: People of the Pit–Comb Ware culture (CCC) of the eastern Baltic were closely related to EHG. Unlike most WHGs, the WHGs of the eastern Baltic did not receive European farmer admixture during the Neolithic. Modern populations of the eastern Baltic thus harbor a larger amount of WHG ancestry than any other population in Europe.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: SHGs have been found to contain a mix of WHG components who had likely migrated into Scandinavia from the south, and EHGs who had later migrated into Scandinavia from the northeast along the Norwegian coast. This hypothesis is supported by evidence that SHGs from western and northern Scandinavia had less WHG ancestry (ca 51%) than individuals from eastern Scandinavia (ca. 62%). The WHGs who entered Scandinavia are believed to have belonged to the Ahrensburg culture. EHGs and WHGs displayed lower allele frequencies of SLC45A2 and SLC24A5, which cause depigmentation, and OCA/Herc2, which causes light eye color, than SHGs.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: The DNA of eleven WHGs from the Upper Palaeolithic and Mesolithic in Western Europe, Central Europe and the Balkans was analyzed, with regards to their Y-DNA haplogroups and mtDNA haplogroups. The analysis suggested that WHGs were once widely distributed from the Atlantic coast in the West, to Sicily in the South, to the Balkans in the Southeast, for more than six thousand years. The study also included an analysis of a large number of individuals of prehistoric Eastern Europe. Thirty-seven samples were collected from Mesolithic and Neolithic Ukraine (9500-6000 BC). These were determined to be an intermediate between EHG and SHG, although WHG ancestry in this population increased during the Neolithic. Samples of Y-DNA extracted from these individuals belonged exclusively to R haplotypes (particularly subclades of R1b1) and I haplotypes (particularly subclades of I2). mtDNA belonged almost exclusively to U (particularly subclades of U5 and U4). A large number of individuals from the Zvejnieki burial ground, which mostly belonged to the Kunda culture and Narva culture in the eastern Baltic, were analyzed. These individuals were mostly of WHG descent in the earlier phases, but over time EHG ancestry became predominant. The Y-DNA of this site belonged almost exclusively to haplotypes of haplogroup R1b1a1a and I2a1. The mtDNA belonged exclusively to haplogroup U (particularly subclades of U2, U4 and U5). Forty individuals from three sites of the Iron Gates Mesolithic in the Balkans were also analyzed. These individuals were estimated to be of 85% WHG and 15% EHG descent. The males at these sites carried exclusively haplogroup R1b1a and I (mostly subclades of I2a) haplotypes. mtDNA belonged mostly to U (particularly subclades of U5 and U4). People of the Balkan Neolithic were found to harbor 98% Anatolian ancestry and 2% WHG ancestry. By the Chalcolithic, people of the Cucuteni–Trypillia culture were found to harbor about 20% hunter-gatherer ancestry, which was intermediate between EHG and WHG. People of the Globular Amphora culture were found to harbor ca. 25% WHG ancestry, which is significantly higher than Middle Neolithic groups of Central Europe.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: Analysis pf remains out of the Grotta Continenza in Italy showed that of the six paternal haplogroups the three buried between ca. 10,000 BC and 7000 BC were of I2a-P214); of the presumably WHG maternal haplogroups were two U5b1 and one U5b3. Around 6000 BC, the WHGs of Italy were almost completely genetically replaced by EEFs (two G2a2) and one Haplogroup R1b, although WHG ancestry slightly increased in subsequent millennia.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: Neolithic individuals in the British Isles were close to Iberian and Central European Early and Middle Neolithic populations, modelled as having about 75% ancestry from EEF with the rest coming from WHG in continental Europe. They subsequently replaced most of the WHG population in the British Isles without mixing much with them.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: According to David Reich, DNA analysis has shown that Western Hunter Gatherers were typically dark skinned, dark haired, and blue eyed. Archaeologist Graeme Warren has said that their skin color ranged from olive to black, and speculated that they may have had some regional variety of eye and hair colors. This is strikingly different from the Eastern Hunter-Gatherers (EHG)—who have been suggested to be light-skinned, brown-eyed or blue eyed and dark-haired or light-haired.


title: Western Hunter-Gatherer

text: Two WHG skeletons with incomplete SNPs, La Braña and Cheddar Man, are predicted to have had dark or dark-to-black skin, whereas two other WHG skeletons with complete SNPs, "Sven" and Loschbour man, are predicted to have had dark/intermediate and intermediate skin, respectively.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: Christian Fuchs (; born 7 April 1986) is an Austrian professional footballer who plays as a left back for Major League Soccer club Charlotte FC and is the former captain of the Austria national football team.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: He began his senior career as a teenager at Wiener Neustadt before signing his first professional contract at 17 with SV Mattersburg, challenging for the Austrian Football Bundesliga title and taking part in European competitions. In 2008, he left for Germany, signing for VfL Bochum. After a season on loan at 1. FSV Mainz 05, he signed for FC Schalke 04 in 2011, where he contested the UEFA Champions League but suffered a serious knee injury. In 2015, he signed for Leicester, winning the Premier League in his first season at the club.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: A full international for a decade starting from his debut in 2006, Fuchs earned 78 caps for Austria. He played for the nation at UEFA Euro 2008 and UEFA Euro 2016, captaining them for the first time in 2010 and on a permanent basis from 2012, before retiring from international duty in 2016.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: Born in Neunkirchen, Lower Austria, his father was an amateur goalkeeper. He began as a forward at local team SVg Pitten before moving to 1. Wiener Neustädter SC at the age of 14. At the age of 15, while still an amateur and at mainstream school, Fuchs played for their senior team. When he was 17, he signed his first professional deal at SV Mattersburg, a team who despite coming from a town of 6,000 drew league record average crowds of 17,000, came third in the Austrian Football Bundesliga and played in European competition.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: Prior to UEFA Euro 2008, he joined the German side VfL Bochum. He later described it as a useful move to play regularly while attracting attention from bigger teams. In 2010, he was signed on loan by 1. FSV Mainz 05, a newly promoted team who ended the season in the top five.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: On 6 June 2011, Fuchs signed a contract until 30 June 2015 with Schalke 04. The transfer fee is reportedly undisclosed by Schalke's sport and communications manager Horst Heldt. Fuchs was assigned the number 23 shirt, previously worn by Danilo Fernando Avelar.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: In his time at the team from Gelsenkirchen, he competed in the UEFA Champions League, but suffered a long-term knee injury.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: On 3 June 2015, Leicester City announced the signing of Fuchs on a free transfer, signing a three-year deal with the Foxes effective from 1 July. Signed under previous manager Nigel Pearson, Fuchs didn't have a regular spot in new manager Claudio Ranieri's squad until October. Fuchs made an appearance in Leicester's third round League Cup tie against West Ham United, providing an assist for Andy King's extra time winner. Following a 2–5 loss to Arsenal on 26 September, Ranieri elected to shake up his defensive back four, inserting Fuchs and teammate Danny Simpson in place of Jeffrey Schlupp and Ritchie De Laet, respectively. Fuchs made his first Premier League start the next week against Norwich.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: In his first season, Leicester finished as champions on odds of 5,000–1, making Fuchs the first Austrian to receive a Premier League winners' medal since Arsenal's Alex Manninger in 1998. Following the insertion of Fuchs into the lineup on Matchday 8, Leicester City led the Premier League in clean sheets along with Arsenal, with 15. Fuchs himself led the league during this period in successful tackles with 77, while finishing second in interceptions with 98.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: Prior to signing for Leicester, Fuchs had an offer to play in the United States, where his family live, but he turned it down. He said in March 2016, "My intention is to play in the US. I have come [to Leicester] for three years. I decided that I would sign one last contract in Europe, when I left Schalke, then go to the US."


title: Christian Fuchs

text: On 21 October 2016, Fuchs signed a new contract with Leicester, keeping him with the club until June 2019. The next day, Fuchs scored his first goal for Leicester against Crystal Palace, volleying home a corner-kick clearance by Christian Benteke for the team's final goal in a 3–1 victory.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: In May 2019 he signed a new one-year contract with Leicester. On 18 June 2020, Leicester announced that Fuchs had signed one-year extension.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: On 21 May 2021, it was announced that Fuchs would be leaving Leicester at the end of the 2020–21 season.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: On 7 June 2021, it was announced that Fuchs would join Major League Soccer expansion side Charlotte FC, which entered the league in 2022. On 27 July 2021, Fuchs joined USL Championship side Charlotte Independence for the remainder of the season.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: Fuchs made his debut for Austria on 23 May 2006 in a friendly match against Croatia, replacing Stefan Lexa for the final six minutes of the 1–4 loss at the Ernst-Happel-Stadion in Vienna.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: He was part of the Austrian international squad as they co-hosted UEFA Euro 2008 alongside Switzerland. He made only one appearance in the group stage elimination, playing the entirety of the 1–0 loss to Germany in their last match of the tournament.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: On 11 August 2010, in the absence of regular skipper Marc Janko, Fuchs captained his nation for the first time in a 0–1 friendly loss to the Swiss in Klagenfurt. That 17 November, he scored his first international goal, equalising in a 1–2 home friendly loss to Greece.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: Fuchs received the armband on a permanent basis at the behest of manager Marcel Koller on 13 August 2012. He played all 10 games as they qualified for UEFA Euro 2016, the first time they did so, and featured in every minute of the group stage elimination in France. Afterwards, he retired from international play with a total of 78 caps, declaring "I am very proud of the 10 years that I have spent with the national team. I did everything with passion and, as I said, I am very, very proud."


title: Christian Fuchs

text: Fuchs' wife Raluca Gold-Fuchs, with whom he has a stepson, son, and daughter, is a businesswoman formerly of Goldman Sachs. She lives with their children in Manhattan and Fuchs sees them once a month. He runs a public relations company and a football academy in the same city, and plans to move there permanently after his football career.


title: Christian Fuchs

text: The "Leicester Mercury" described Fuchs as "not your stereotypical footballer...[he] has more strings to his bow than an orchestra". He is noted for his online video series "No Fuchs Given", a play on his surname and the English-language obscenity ""fuck""; the series consists of himself and teammates doing unusual football-related challenges, such as him and Robert Huth shooting the ball as hard as possible at each other's backsides. He also has a stated dream to become an NFL placekicker and has demonstrated his skills on the BBC's NFL coverage. His surname "Fuchs" is the German word for "Fox".


title: IBM System/360

text: The IBM System/360 (S/360) is a family of mainframe computer systems that was announced by IBM on April 7, 1964, and delivered between 1965 and 1978. It was the first family of computers designed to cover both commercial and scientific applications and to cover a complete range of applications from small to large. The design distinguished between architecture and implementation, allowing IBM to release a suite of compatible designs at different prices. All but the only partially compatible Model 44 and the most expensive systems use microcode to implement the instruction set, which features 8-bit byte addressing and binary, decimal, and hexadecimal floating-point calculations.


title: IBM System/360

text: The System/360 family introduced IBM's Solid Logic Technology (SLT), which packed more transistors onto a circuit card, allowing more powerful but smaller computers to be built.


title: IBM System/360

text: The slowest System/360 model announced in 1964, the Model 30, could perform up to 34,500 instructions per second, with memory from 8 to 64 KB. High-performance models came later. The 1967 IBM System/360 Model 91 could execute up to 16.6 million instructions per second. The larger 360 models could have up to 8 MB of main memory, though that much main memory was unusual—a large installation might have as little as 256 KB of main storage, but 512 KB, 768 KB or 1024 KB was more common. Up to 8 megabytes of slower (8 microsecond) Large Capacity Storage (LCS) was also available for some models.


title: IBM System/360

text: The IBM 360 was extremely successful in the market, allowing customers to purchase a smaller system with the knowledge they would be able to move to larger ones if their needs grew, without reprogramming application software or replacing peripheral devices. Its design influenced computer design for years to come; many consider it one of the most successful computers in history.


title: IBM System/360

text: The chief architect of System/360 was Gene Amdahl, and the project was managed by Fred Brooks, responsible to Chairman Thomas J. Watson Jr. The commercial release was piloted by another of Watson's lieutenants, John R. Opel, who managed the launch of IBM’s System 360 mainframe family in 1964.


title: IBM System/360

text: Application-level compatibility (with some restrictions) for System/360 software is maintained to the present day with the System z mainframe servers.


title: IBM System/360

text: Contrasting with industry practice of the day, IBM created an entire new series of computers, from small to large, low- to high-performance, all using the same instruction set (with two exceptions for specific markets). This feat allowed customers to use a cheaper model and then upgrade to larger systems as their needs increased without the time and expense of rewriting software. Before the introduction of System/360, business and scientific applications used different computers with different instruction sets and operating systems. Different-sized computers also had their own instruction sets. IBM was the first manufacturer to exploit microcode technology to implement a compatible range of computers of widely differing performance, although the largest, fastest models had hard-wired logic instead.


title: IBM System/360

text: This flexibility greatly lowered barriers to entry. With most other vendors customers had to choose between machines they could outgrow and machines that were potentially too powerful and thus too costly. This meant that many companies simply did not buy computers.


title: IBM System/360

text: IBM initially announced a series of six computers and forty common peripherals. IBM eventually delivered fourteen models, including rare one-off models for NASA. The least expensive model was the Model 20 with as little as 4096 bytes of core memory, eight 16-bit registers instead of the sixteen 32-bit registers of other System/360 models, and an instruction set that was a subset of that used by the rest of the range.


title: IBM System/360

text: The initial announcement in 1964 included Models 30, 40, 50, 60, 62, and 70. The first three were low- to middle-range systems aimed at the IBM 1400 series market. All three first shipped in mid-1965. The last three, intended to replace the 7000 series machines, never shipped and were replaced with the 65 and 75, which were first delivered in November 1965, and January 1966, respectively.


title: IBM System/360

text: Later additions to the low-end included models 20 (1966, mentioned above), 22 (1971), and 25 (1968). The Model 20 had several sub-models; sub-model 5 was at the higher end of the model. The Model 22 was a recycled Model 30 with minor limitations: a smaller maximum memory configuration, and slower I/O channels, which limited it to slower and lower-capacity disk and tape devices than on the 30.


title: IBM System/360

text: The Model 44 (1966) was a specialized model, designed for scientific computing and for real-time computing and process control, featuring some additional instructions, and with all storage-to-storage instructions and five other complex instructions eliminated.


title: IBM System/360

text: A succession of high-end machines included the Model 67 (1966, mentioned below, briefly anticipated as the 64 and 66), 85 (1969), 91 (1967, anticipated as the 92), 95 (1968), and 195 (1971). The 85 design was intermediate between the System/360 line and the follow-on System/370 and was the basis for the 370/165. There was a System/370 version of the 195, but it did not include Dynamic Address Translation.


title: IBM System/360

text: The implementations differed substantially, using different native data path widths, presence or absence of microcode, yet were extremely compatible. Except where specifically documented, the models were architecturally compatible. The 91, for example, was designed for scientific computing and provided out-of-order instruction execution (and could yield "imprecise interrupts" if a program trap occurred while several instructions were being read), but lacked the decimal instruction set used in commercial applications. New features could be added without violating architectural definitions: the 65 had a dual-processor version (M65MP) with extensions for inter-CPU signalling; the 85 introduced cache memory. Models 44, 75, 91, 95, and 195 were implemented with hardwired logic, rather than microcoded as all other models.


title: IBM System/360

text: The Model 67, announced in August 1965, was the first production IBM system to offer dynamic address translation (virtual memory) hardware to support time-sharing. "DAT" is now more commonly referred to as an MMU. An experimental one-off unit was built based on a model 40. Before the 67, IBM had announced models 64 and 66, DAT versions of the 60 and 62, but they were almost immediately replaced with the 67 at the same time that the 60 and 62 were replaced with the 65. DAT hardware would reappear in the S/370 series in 1972, though it was initially absent from the series. Like its close relative, the 65, the 67 also offered dual CPUs.


title: IBM System/360

text: IBM's existing customers had a large investment in software that executed on second-generation machines. Several models offered the option of emulation of the customer's previous computer using a combination of special hardware, special microcode and an emulation program that used the emulation instructions to simulate the target system, so that old programs could run on the new machine.


title: IBM System/360

text: IBM later added features and modified emulator programs to allow emulation of the 1401, 1440, 1460, 1410 and 7010 under the control of an operating system.


title: IBM System/360

text: The Model 85 and later System/370 maintained the precedent, retaining emulation options and allowing emulator programs to execute under operating system control alongside native programs.


title: IBM System/360

text: System/360 (excepting the Model 20) was replaced with the compatible System/370 range in 1970 and Model 20 users were targeted to move to the IBM System/3. (The idea of a major breakthrough with FS technology was dropped in the mid-1970s for cost-effectiveness and continuity reasons.) Later compatible IBM systems include the 4300 family, the 308x family, the 3090, the ES/9000 and 9672 families (System/390 family), and the IBM Z series.


title: IBM System/360

text: Computers that were mostly identical or compatible in terms of the machine code or architecture of the System/360 included Amdahl's 470 family (and its successors), Hitachi mainframes, the UNIVAC 9000 series, Fujitsu as the Facom, the RCA Spectra 70 series, and the English Electric System 4. The System 4 machines were built under license to RCA. RCA sold the Spectra series to what was then UNIVAC, where they became the UNIVAC Series 70. UNIVAC also developed the UNIVAC Series 90 as successors to the 9000 series and Series 70. The Soviet Union produced a System/360 clone named the ES EVM.


title: IBM System/360

text: The IBM 5100 portable computer, introduced in 1975, offered an option to execute the System/360's APL.SV programming language through a hardware emulator. IBM used this approach to avoid the costs and delay of creating a 5100-specific version of APL.


title: IBM System/360

text: Special radiation-hardened and otherwise somewhat modified System/360s, in the form of the System/4 Pi avionics computer, are used in several fighter and bomber jet aircraft. In the complete 32-bit AP-101 version, 4 Pi machines were used as the replicated computing nodes of the fault-tolerant Space Shuttle computer system (in five nodes). The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration operated the IBM 9020, a special cluster of modified System/360s for air traffic control, from 1970 until the 1990s. (Some 9020 software is apparently still used via emulation on newer hardware.)


title: IBM System/360

text: The System/360 series has a computer system architecture specification. This specification makes no assumptions on the implementation itself, but rather describes the interfaces and expected behavior of an implementation. The architecture describes mandatory interfaces that must be available on all implementations, and optional interfaces. Some aspects of this architecture are:


title: IBM System/360

text: Binary arithmetic and logical operations are performed as register-to-register and as memory-to-register/register-to-memory as a standard feature. If the Commercial Instruction Set option was installed, packed decimal arithmetic could be performed as memory-to-memory with some memory-to-register operations. The Scientific Instruction Set feature, if installed, provided access to four floating-point registers that could be programmed for either 32-bit or 64-bit floating-point operations. The Models 85 and 195 could also operate on 128-bit extended-precision floating-point numbers stored in pairs of floating-point registers, and software provided emulation in other models. The System/360 used an 8-bit byte, 32-bit word, 64-bit double-word, and 4-bit nibble. Machine instructions had operators with operands, which could contain register numbers or memory addresses. This complex combination of instruction options resulted in a variety of instruction lengths and formats.


title: IBM System/360

text: Memory addressing was accomplished using a base-plus-displacement scheme, with registers 1 through F (15). A displacement was encoded in 12 bits, thus allowing a 4096-byte displacement (0–4095), as the offset from the address put in a base register.


title: IBM System/360

text: Register 0 could not be used as a base register nor as an index register (nor as a branch address register), as "0" was reserved to indicate an address in the first 4 KB of memory, that is, if register 0 was specified as described, the value 0x00000000 was implicitly input to the effective address calculation in place of whatever value might be contained within register 0 (or if specified as a branch address register, then no branch was taken, and the content of register 0 was ignored, but any side effect of the instruction was performed).


title: IBM System/360

text: This specific behavior permitted initial execution of an interrupt routines, since base registers would not necessarily be set to 0 during the first few instruction cycles of an interrupt routine. It isn't needed for IPL ("Initial Program Load" or boot), as one can always clear a register without the need to save it.


title: IBM System/360

text: With the exception of the Model 67, all addresses were real memory addresses. Virtual memory was not available in most IBM mainframes until the System/370 series. The Model 67 introduced a virtual memory architecture, which MTS, CP-67, and TSS/360 used—but not IBM's mainline System/360 operating systems.


title: IBM System/360

text: The System/360 machine-code instructions are 2 bytes long (no memory operands), 4 bytes long (one operand), or 6 bytes long (two operands). Instructions are always situated on 2-byte boundaries.


title: IBM System/360

text: Operations like MVC (Move-Characters) (Hex: D2) can only move at most 256 bytes of information. Moving more than 256 bytes of data required multiple MVC operations. (The System/370 series introduced a family of more powerful instructions such as the MVCL "Move-Characters-Long" instruction, which supports moving up to 16 MB as a single block.)


title: IBM System/360

text: An operand is two bytes long, typically representing an address as a 4-bit nibble denoting a base register and a 12-bit displacement relative to the contents of that register, in the range (shown here as hexadecimal numbers). The address corresponding to that operand is the contents of the specified general-purpose register plus the displacement. For example, an MVC instruction that moves 256 bytes (with length code 255 in hexadecimal as ) from base register 7, plus displacement , to base register 8, plus displacement , would be coded as the 6-byte instruction "" (operator/length/address1/address2).


title: IBM System/360

text: The System/360 was designed to separate the "system state" from the "problem state". This provided a basic level of security and recoverability from programming errors. Problem (user) programs could not modify data or program storage associated with the system state. Addressing, data, or operation exception errors made the machine enter the system state through a controlled routine so the operating system could try to correct or terminate the program in error. Similarly, it could recover certain processor hardware errors through the "machine check" routines.


title: IBM System/360

text: Peripherals interfaced to the system via "channels". A channel is a specialized processor with the instruction set optimized for transferring data between a peripheral and main memory. In modern terms, this could be compared to direct memory access (DMA). The S/360 connects channels to control units with bus and tag cables; IBM eventually replaced these with (Enterprise Systems Connection (ESCON) and Fibre Connection (FICON) channels.


title: IBM System/360

text: There were initially two types of channels; byte-multiplexer channels (known at the time simply as "multiplexor channels"), for connecting "slow speed" devices such as card readers and punches, line printers, and communications controllers, and selector channels for connecting high speed devices, such as disk drives, tape drives, data cells and drums. Every System/360 (except for the Model 20, which was not a standard 360) has a byte-multiplexer channel and 1 or more selector channels, though the model 25 has just one channel, which can be either a byte-multiplexor or selector channel. The smaller models (up to the model 50) have integrated channels, while for the larger models (model 65 and above) the channels are large separate units in separate cabinets: the IBM 2870 is the byte-multiplexor channel with up to four selector sub-channels, and the IBM 2860 is up to three selector channels.


title: IBM System/360

text: The byte-multiplexer channel is able to handle I/O to/from several devices simultaneously at the device's highest rated speeds, hence the name, as it multiplexed I/O from those devices onto a single data path to main memory. Devices connected to a byte-multiplexer channel are configured to operate in 1-byte, 2-byte, 4-byte, or "burst" mode. The larger "blocks" of data are used to handle progressively faster devices. For example, a 2501 card reader operating at 600 cards per minute would be in 1-byte mode, while a 1403-N1 printer would be in burst mode. Also, the byte-multiplexer channels on larger models have an optional selector subchannel section that would accommodate tape drives. The byte-multiplexor's channel address was typically "0" and the selector subchannel addresses were from "C0" to "FF." Thus, tape drives on System/360 were commonly addressed at 0C0–0C7. Other common byte-multiplexer addresses are: 00A: 2501 Card Reader, 00C/00D: 2540 Reader/Punch, 00E/00F: 1403-N1 Printers, 010–013: 3211 Printers, 020–0BF: 2701/2703 Telecommunications Units. These addresses are still commonly used in z/VM virtual machines.


title: IBM System/360

text: System/360 models 40 and 50 have an integrated 1052-7 console that is usually addressed as 01F, however, this was not connected to the byte-multiplexer channel, but rather, had a direct internal connection to the mainframe. The model 30 attached a different model of 1052 through a 1051 control unit. The models 60 through 75 also use the 1052-7.


title: IBM System/360

text: Selector channels enabled I/O to high speed devices. These storage devices were attached to a control unit and then to the channel. The control unit let clusters of devices be attached to the channels. On higher speed models, multiple selector channels, which could operate simultaneously or in parallel, improved overall performance.


title: IBM System/360

text: Control units are connected to the channels with "bus and tag" cable pairs. The bus cables carried the address and data information and the tag cables identified what data was on the bus. The general configuration of a channel is to connect the devices in a chain, like this: Mainframe—Control Unit X—Control Unit Y—Control Unit Z. Each control unit is assigned a "capture range" of addresses that it services. For example, control unit X might capture addresses 40–4F, control unit Y: C0–DF, and control unit Z: 80–9F. Capture ranges had to be a multiple of 8, 16, 32, 64, or 128 devices and be aligned on appropriate boundaries. Each control unit in turn has one or more devices attached to it. For example, you could have control unit Y with 6 disks, that would be addressed as C0-C5.


title: IBM System/360

text: There are three general types of bus-and-tag cables produced by IBM. The first is the standard gray bus-and-tag cable, followed by the blue bus-and-tag cable, and finally the tan bus-and-tag cable. Generally, newer cable revisions are capable of higher speeds or longer distances, and some peripherals specified minimum cable revisions both upstream and downstream.


title: IBM System/360

text: The cable ordering of the control units on the channel is also significant. Each control unit is "strapped" as High or Low priority. When a device selection was sent out on a mainframe's channel, the selection was sent from X->Y->Z->Y->X. If the control unit was "high" then the selection was checked in the outbound direction, if "low" then the inbound direction. Thus, control unit X was either 1st or 5th, Y was either 2nd or 4th, and Z was 3rd in line. It is also possible to have multiple channels attached to a control unit from the same or multiple mainframes, thus providing a rich high-performance, multiple-access, and backup capability.


title: IBM System/360

text: Typically the total cable length of a channel is limited to 200 feet, less being preferred. Each control unit accounts for about 10 "feet" of the 200-foot limit.


title: IBM System/360

text: IBM first introduced a new type of I/O channel on the Model 85 and Model 195, the 2880 block multiplexer channel, and then made them standard on the System/370. This channel allowed a device to suspend a channel program, pending the completion of an I/O operation and thus to free the channel for use by another device. A block multiplexer channel can support either standard 1.5 MB/second connections or, with the 2-byte interface feature, 3 MB/second; the latter use one tag cable and two bus cables. On the S/370 there is an option for a 3.0 MB/s data streaming channel with one bus cable and one tag cable.


title: IBM System/360

text: The initial use for this was the 2305 fixed-head disk, which has 8 "exposures" (alias addresses) and rotational position sensing (RPS).


title: IBM System/360

text: Block multiplexer channels can operate as a selector channel to allow compatible attachment of legacy subsystems.


title: IBM System/360

text: Being uncertain of the reliability and availability of the then new monolithic integrated circuits, IBM chose instead to design and manufacture its own custom hybrid integrated circuits. These were built on 11 mm square ceramic substrates. Resistors were silk screened on and discrete glass encapsulated transistors and diodes were added. The substrate was then covered with a metal lid or encapsulated in plastic to create a "Solid Logic Technology" (SLT) module.


title: IBM System/360

text: A number of these SLT modules were then flip chip mounted onto a small multi-layer printed circuit "SLT card". Each card had one or two sockets on one edge that plugged onto pins on one of the computer's "SLT boards". This was the reverse of how most other company's cards were mounted, where the cards had pins or printed contact areas and plugged into sockets on the computer's boards.


title: IBM System/360

text: Up to twenty SLT boards could be assembled side-by-side (vertically and horizontally) to form a "logic gate". Several gates mounted together constituted a box-shaped "logic frame". The outer gates were generally hinged along one vertical edge so they could be swung open to provide access to the fixed inner gates. The larger machines could have more than one frame bolted together to produce the final unit, such as a multi-frame Central Processing Unit (CPU).


title: IBM System/360

text: The smaller System/360 models used the Basic Operating System/360 (BOS/360), Tape Operating System (TOS/360), or Disk Operating System/360 (DOS/360, which evolved into DOS/VS, DOS/VSE, VSE/AF, VSE/SP, VSE/ESA, and then z/VSE).


title: IBM System/360

text: The larger models used Operating System/360 (OS/360). IBM developed several levels of OS/360, with increasingly powerful features: Primary Control Program (PCP), Multiprogramming with a Fixed number of Tasks (MFT), and Multiprogramming with a Variable number of Tasks (MVT). MVT took a long time to develop into a usable system, and the less ambitious MFT was widely used. PCP was used on intermediate machines too small to run MFT well, and on larger machines before MFT was available; the final releases of OS/360 included only MFT and MVT. For the System/370 and later machines, MFT evolved into OS/VS1, while MVT evolved into OS/VS2 (SVS) (Single Virtual Storage), then various versions of MVS (Multiple Virtual Storage) culminating in the current z/OS.


title: IBM System/360

text: When it announced the Model 67 in August 1965, IBM also announced TSS/360 (Time-Sharing System) for delivery at the same time as the 67. TSS/360, a response to Multics, was an ambitious project that included many advanced features. It had performance problems, was delayed, canceled, reinstated, and finally canceled again in 1971. Customers migrated to CP-67, MTS (Michigan Terminal System), TSO (Time Sharing Option for OS/360), or one of several other time-sharing systems.


title: IBM System/360

text: CP-67, the original virtual machine system, was also known as CP/CMS. CP/67 was developed outside the IBM mainstream at IBM's Cambridge Scientific Center, in cooperation with MIT researchers. CP/CMS eventually won wide acceptance, and led to the development of VM/370 (Virtual Machine) which had a primary interactive "sub" operating system known as VM/CMS (Conversational Monitoring System). This evolved into today's z/VM.


title: IBM System/360

text: The Model 20 offered a simplified and rarely used tape-based system called TPS (Tape Processing System), and DPS (Disk Processing System) that provided support for the 2311 disk drive. TPS could run on a machine with 8 KB of memory; DPS required 12 KB, which was pretty hefty for a Model 20. Many customers ran quite happily with 4 KB and CPS (Card Processing System). With TPS and DPS, the card reader was used to read the Job Control Language cards that defined the stack of jobs to run and to read in transaction data such as customer payments. The operating system was held on tape or disk, and results could also be stored on the tapes or hard drives. Stacked job processing became an exciting possibility for the small but adventurous computer user.


title: IBM System/360

text: A little-known and little-used suite of 80-column punched-card utility programs known as Basic Programming Support (BPS) (jocularly: Barely Programming Support), a precursor of TOS, was available for smaller systems.


title: IBM System/360

text: IBM created a new naming system for the new components created for System/360, although well-known old names, like IBM 1403 and IBM 1052, were retained. In this new naming system, components were given four-digit numbers starting with 2. The second digit described the type of component, as follows:


title: IBM System/360

text: IBM developed a new family of peripheral equipment for System/360, carrying over a few from its older 1400 series. Interfaces were standardized, allowing greater flexibility to mix and match processors, controllers and peripherals than in the earlier product lines.


title: IBM System/360

text: In addition, System/360 computers could use certain peripherals that were originally developed for earlier computers. These earlier peripherals used a different numbering system, such as the IBM 1403 chain printer. The 1403, an extremely reliable device that had already earned a reputation as a workhorse, was sold as the 1403-N1 when adapted for the System/360.


title: IBM System/360

text: Also available were optical character recognition (OCR) readers IBM 1287 and IBM 1288 which could read Alpha Numeric (A/N) and Numeric Hand Printed (NHP/NHW) Characters from Cashier's rolls of tape to full legal size pages. At the time this was done with very large optical/logic readers. Software was too slow and expensive at that time.


title: IBM System/360

text: Models 65 and below sold with an IBM 1052-7 as the console typewriter. The 360/85 with feature 5450 uses a display console that was not compatible with anything else in the line; the later 3066 console for the 370/165 and 370/168 use the same basic display design as the 360/85.


title: IBM System/360

text: The IBM System/360 models 91 and 195 use a graphical display similar to the IBM 2250 as their primary console.


title: IBM System/360

text: Additional operator consoles were also available. Certain high-end machines could optionally be purchased with a 2250 graphical display, costing upwards of US $100,000; smaller machines could use the less expensive 2260 display or later the 3270.


title: IBM System/360

text: The first disk drives for System/360 were IBM 2302s and IBM 2311s. The first drum for System/360 was the IBM 7320.


title: IBM System/360

text: The 156 KB/second 2302 was based on the earlier 1302 and was available as a model 3 with two 112.79 MB modules or as a model 4 with four such modules.


title: IBM System/360

text: The 2311, with a removable 1316 disk pack, was based on the IBM 1311 and had a theoretical capacity of 7.2 MB, although actual capacity varied with record design. (When used with a 360/20, the 1316 pack was formatted into fixed-length 270 byte sectors, giving a maximum capacity of 5.4MB.)


title: IBM System/360

text: In 1966, the first 2314s shipped. This device had up to eight usable disk drives with an integral control unit; there were nine drives, but one was reserved as a spare. Each drive used a removable 2316 disk pack with a capacity of nearly 28 MB. The disk packs for the 2311 and 2314 were "physically" large by today's standards — e.g., the 1316 disk pack was about in diameter and had six platters stacked on a central spindle. The top and bottom outside platters did not store data. Data were recorded on the inner sides of the top and bottom platters and both sides of the inner platters, providing 10 recording surfaces. The 10 read/write heads moved together across the surfaces of the platters, which were formatted with 203 concentric tracks. To reduce the amount of head movement (seeking), data was written in a virtual cylinder from inside top platter down to inside bottom platter. These disks were not usually formatted with fixed-sized sectors as are today's hard drives (though this "was" done with CP/CMS). Rather, most System/360 I/O software could customize the length of the data record (variable-length records), as was the case with magnetic tapes.


title: IBM System/360

text: Some of the most powerful early System/360s used high-speed head-per-track drum storage devices. The 3,500 RPM 2301, which replaced the 7320, was part of the original System/360 announcement, with a capacity of 4 MB. The 303.8 KB/second IBM 2303 was announced on January 31, 1966, with a capacity of 3.913 MB. These were the only drums announced for System/360 and System/370, and their niche was later filled by fixed-head disks.


title: IBM System/360

text: The 6,000 RPM 2305 appeared in 1970, with capacities of 5 MB (2305-1) or 11 MB (2305-2) per module. Although these devices did not have large capacity, their speed and transfer rates made them attractive for high-performance needs. A typical use was overlay linkage (e.g. for OS and application subroutines) for program sections written to alternate in the same memory regions. Fixed head disks and drums were particularly effective as paging devices on the early virtual memory systems. The 2305, although often called a "drum" was actually a head-per-track disk device, with 12 recording surfaces and a data transfer rate up to 3 MB per second.


title: IBM System/360

text: Rarely seen was the IBM 2321 Data Cell, a mechanically complex device that contained multiple magnetic strips to hold data; strips could be randomly accessed, placed upon a cylinder-shaped drum for read/write operations; then returned to an internal storage cartridge. The IBM Data Cell [noodle picker] was among several IBM trademarked "speedy" mass online direct-access storage peripherals (reincarnated in recent years as "virtual tape" and automated tape librarian peripherals). The 2321 file had a capacity of 400 MB, at the time when the 2311 disk drive only had 7.2 MB. The IBM Data Cell was proposed to fill cost/capacity/speed gap between magnetic tapes—which had high capacity with relatively low cost per stored byte—and disks, which had higher expense per byte. Some installations also found the electromechanical operation less dependable and opted for less mechanical forms of direct-access storage.


title: IBM System/360

text: The Model 44 was unique in offering an integrated single-disk drive as a standard feature. This drive used the 2315 "ramkit" cartridge and provided 1,171,200 bytes of storage.


title: IBM System/360

text: The 2400-series of 1/2" magnetic tape units consisted of the 2401 and 2402 Models 1-6 Magnetic Tape Units, the 2403 Models 1-6 Magnetic Tape Unit and Control, the 2404 Models 1-3 Magnetic Tape Unit and Control, and the 2803/2804 Models 1 and 2 Tape Control Units. The later 2415 Magnetic Tape Unit and Control, introduced in 1967 contained two, four, or six tape drives and a control in a single unit, and was slower and cheaper. The 2415 drives and control were not marketed separately. With System/360, IBM switched from IBM 7-track to 9-track tape format. Some 2400-series drives could be purchased that read and wrote 7-track tapes for compatibility with the older IBM 729 tape drives. In 1968, the IBM 2420 tape system was released, offering much higher data rates, self-threading tape operation and 1600bpi packing density. It remained in the product line until 1979.