title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Initially, rather than aligning with either communist or Zionist groups, the Iskra Resistance group aimed solely at combating and destroying the Nazis. From the outset, Iskra's inaugural members were Heszek Bauminger, Shlomo Sh., and eventually Gola Mire. Heszek Bauminger fought for the Polish army at the beginning of the war, and despite participating in the Social Zionist Hashomer Hatzair group, he moved his allegiances to communism. Gola Mire – another Hatzair former member – became involved in the Polish Communist Party. Accordingly, Iskra worked in conjunction with the communist Polish Workers' Party division – "Gwardia Ludowa" – in an armed initiative. Specifically, German armed forces were the target of Iskra. Further, Resistance in the Kraków ghetto decided to attack the “Aryan” portion of the city rather than fight a futile war from within. To strengthen itself, Iskra merged with Hahalutz Halochem – thus mixing communist leanings with a Zionist group and subsequently forming the Jewish fighting Organization (Zydowska Organizacja Bojowa; ZOB) Despite the similarity in name this ZOB was independent from the ZOB involved in Warsaw Ghetto Uprising.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Historians will argue that the youth movements involved had significant, but realistic aims. It is suggested that Nazi intentions were evident to the youth and they consequently decided to fight the Nazis vision, even though they knew success would be limited. Significantly, composed of members of the Akiva Zionist youth movement, Hahalutz Halochem worked with Iskra along with communist to stage the Cyganeria bombing. Aligning with Hahalutz Halochem motivated Akiva to transition to armed resistance.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Furthermore, the underground movements published a paper called “Hechalutz Halochem” which was edited by Simon Dranger. This paper served to combat the German work of “Zydowska Gazeta”; this was an underground work which attempted to conceal the Nazis' genocidal aims and thus stem any opposition.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: The Cyganeria Bombing is one of the more discussed attacks conducted by the Kraków Resistance movements. It was one of a series of attacks in a retaliatory response to the implementation of mass deportations. Prior to Cyganeria, attacks occurred at the Optima factory and the Cosmo Club – the Cosmo Club attack killed several Nazi elites. Furthermore, three attacks were planned for Dec. 24, 1942: Cyganeria Café, Esplanada Café, Sztuka theater, and an officers’ club. Ultimately, the Hahalutz Halochem and Iskra resistance groups bombed Cyganeria on December 22 and killed from 7 to 70 Germans and injured many others. The attack at the theater was relatively unsuccessful due to poor planning and a refusal to harm innocent Poles in attendance; however, Esplanada Café and the Officers’ club attacks were successful.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: The relative success of the Resistance groups was hindered by Julek Appel and Natek Waisman who betrayed the resistance. Hahalutz Halochem was quickly subdued by the Nazis – due to Appel and Waisman – but better security habits protected Iskra for a limited time. Additionally, two key resistance members – Adolf Liebeskind and Tennenbaum – died in the attack. Finally, following the Cyganeria Café attack, weapons, various currencies, and enemy uniforms were found by the Gestapo. The gestapo sent a message to Nazi elites via "SS-Obergruppenfüher" Wolff and "Reichsfüher" Himmler. Lucien Steinberg, the author of "Jews Against Hitler," argues that this communicates the attack's significance to Hitler.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Publicly the identity of the attacks perpetrators were not revealed and it was rumored to be the Polish Underground or the Soviets. Regarding the Jews who carried out the attack, they were disguised as Poles. This reflected a concern, within Hahalutz Halochem, of Nazi retaliation against the ghetto if the Jews were implicated.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Additionally, Jews in the Kraków Ghetto participated in a form of religious resistance by continuing to practice Judaism in secret. This succeeded through the safeguard of the Jewish police.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: The only pharmacy enclosed within the Kraków Ghetto boundary belonged to the Polish Roman Catholic pharmacist Tadeusz Pankiewicz, permitted by the German authorities to operate his "Under the Eagle Pharmacy" there upon his request. The scarce medications and tranquillizers supplied to the ghetto's residents often free of charge – apart from health-care considerations – contributed to their survival. Pankiewicz passed around hair dyes to Jews compelled to cross the ghetto walls illegally. In recognition of his heroic deeds in helping countless Jews in the Ghetto during the Holocaust, he was bestowed the title of the "Righteous among the Nations" by Yad Vashem on February 10, 1983. Pankiewicz is the author of a book describing, among other events, the ghetto liquidation.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: The list of several dozen Polish Righteous from Kraków, includes Maria and Bronisław Florek who lived at Czyżówka Street and saved Goldberger and Nichtberger families. Notably, Maria Florek smuggled forged identity papers procured at the "Emalia" Factory of Oskar Schindler (without his awareness), for the Jews hiding on the 'Aryan side' of Kraków. Władysław Budyński, who provided help without remuneration even to complete strangers, ended up marrying a Jewish girl, Chana Landau in 1943, but they were caught by Gestapo in 1944 and deported to different concentration camps. Both survived, reunited in Kraków, and in 1969 emigrated to Sweden. Polish gynaecologist Dr Helena Szlapak turned her home at Garbarska Street into a safe house for trafficked Jews and distribution of falsified documents as well as secret messages and storage of photographs from Auschwitz. She collaborated with Żegota, attended to sick Jews in hiding and placed them in hospitals under false identities.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Żegota also had prominence in Kraków. The goal of Żegota was to aid the Jews on a day-to-day basis – rather than aiming for an overall solution. Zegota provided opportunity with false documents, doctors for healthcare, money, and several other pivotal resources and aid for the Jews.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: In "Zegota", historians assert that Polish – Jewish relations were strong before the war, and Żegota became involved to strengthen the organically arising aid. Moreover, led by Stanislaw Dobrowolski, food, medicine, funds, and means for escape were provided. Several Żegota members – Jozefa Rysinska, Mieczyslaw Kurz, Tadeusz Bilewicz, Zygmunt Kuzma, and Ada Prochnicka – facilitated transport of supplies and overall aid in the camps.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Movie director Roman Polanski, a survivor of the Ghetto, in his 1984 memoir "Roman" evoked his childhood experiences there before the mass deportations of Operation Reinhard in Kraków. "My own feeling – Polański wrote – was that if only one could explain to them that we had done nothing wrong, the Germans would realize that it all was a gigantic misunderstanding."


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Many years later, Roma Ligocka, Polish artist and author, and a first cousin to Roman Polański who, as a small girl, was rescued and survived the Ghetto, wrote a novel based on her experiences, "The Girl in the Red Coat: A Memoir". She is mistakenly thought to be portrayed in the film "Schindler's List". The scene, however, was constructed on the memories of Zelig Burkhut, survivor of Plaszow (and other work camps). When being interviewed by Spielberg before the making for the film, Burkhut told of a young girl wearing a pink coat, no older than four, who was shot by a Nazi officer right before his eyes. Oskar Schindler was portrayed in the Thomas Keneally novel "Schindler's Ark" (the basis for Steven Spielberg's film "Schindler's List"). In an especially dramatic event, 300 of Schindler's workers were deported to the Auschwitz death camp despite his efforts, and he personally intervened to return them to him.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Other notable people include Mordechai Gebirtig, who was one of the most influential and popular writers of Yiddish songs and poems. He was shot there in 1942. Miriam Akavia, an Israeli writer, survived the Kraków ghetto and concentration camps. Renowned dermatologist and co-discoverer of Reyes Syndrome, Dr Jim Jacob Baral was also a Kraków Ghetto survivor; his mother pushed him and his brother Martin under the barbed wire to hide at the home of a Polish rescuer who took them to Bochnia where their mother and sister joined them later. Bernard Offen, born in 1929 in Kraków survived the Ghetto and several Nazi concentration camps.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Second lieutenant Jerzy Zakulski, an attorney, and member of the National Armed Forces ("Narodowe Siły Zbrojne", NSZ) in German-occupied Kraków was sentenced to death by Stalinist officials and executed in Soviet-controlled postwar Poland on charges of being an enemy spy. A Jewish Holocaust survivor from Kraków, Maria Błeszyńska "née" Bernstein, attempted to save Zakulski's life in gratitude for his rescue of her and her daughter during the Holocaust; however, she was unsuccessful. The certified letter she sent to the Regional Military Court in Warsaw was thrown out, along with the plea for presidential mercy.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: Zuzanna Ginczanka and her husband left the Lvov ghetto for the Kraków ghetto in September 1942. She was arrested and shot in a prison in January 1945.


title: Kraków Ghetto

text: In 1940 Edward Mosberg, at the time 14 years old, and his immediate family, grandparents, cousins, and aunt were moved into one small apartment in the Kraków Ghetto. In 1942, his grandmother, aunts, and cousins were deported from it to Belzec concentration camp in German-occupied Poland. In 1943, the Kraków Ghetto was liquidated, and the remaining Mosberg family was moved to the Kraków-Płaszów concentration camp in Płaszów just south of Kraków, a Nazi concentration camp operated by the SS, which had been constructed on the grounds of two former Jewish cemeteries.


title: Krissy Taylor

text: Taylor was born in Miami and lived in South Florida with her parents and two older sisters. Taylor’s foray into the modeling world was largely due to being supermodel Niki Taylor's younger sister. At age 11, Taylor began going to shoots with Niki, and photographers began to include her in photos. Her first shoot with sister Niki appeared in "Seventeen". She soon signed with her sister’s modeling agency in New York, IMG.


title: Krissy Taylor

text: At age 13, after Taylor accompanied her sister Niki to castings for the Fall Shows in Milan, the designers impulsively fitted Taylor, and she walked the runways alongside Naomi Campbell, Christy Turlington, and Claudia Schiffer. Thereafter, Taylor began getting calls to work solo. Taylor had amassed an impressive résumé of credits, including "ELLE", Italian "Glamour", "YM", "Cosmopolitan", and "Vogue". She had 13 covers to her credit, and appeared on "Entertainment Tonight" and MTV. She also did the 1994 Spring Collections in New York, landing eight shows, including Ralph Lauren.


title: Krissy Taylor

text: Her last photo shoot was with sister Niki Taylor for the July/August 1995 cover of "Ocean Drive" magazine.


title: Krissy Taylor

text: On July 2, 1995, Niki Taylor found Krissy lying unconscious on the floor of their family's home in Florida. After attempts to revive Taylor by her family and authorities failed, she was rushed to Memorial Hospital West and pronounced dead at 5:39 a.m. She was 17 years old.


title: Krissy Taylor

text: Taylor was known to have had allergies that congested her upper respiratory system and she used Primatene, an over-the-counter epinephrine inhaler, to combat shortness of breath. While epinephrine can cause cardiac arrhythmia, it was impossible to prove she had taken any just prior to her death.


title: Krissy Taylor

text: The official cause of death was an acute asthma attack complicated by sudden cardiac arrhythmia. However, she had no prior history of asthma, and no symptoms of a heart condition. Uncertain of the medical examiner's diagnosis, the Taylor family hired independent experts to study tissue samples of Taylor's heart muscle. Those experts concluded that the more likely cause of her death was a rare cardiac disease called arrhythmogenic right ventricular dysplasia (ARVD).


title: Krissy Taylor

text: Taylor’s mother, Barbara, is now involved with the Cardiac Arrythmias Research and Education (CARE) Foundation.


title: The Miracle Season

text: The Miracle Season is a 2018 American sports drama film directed by Sean McNamara and starring Erin Moriarty, Helen Hunt, William Hurt, and Danika Yarosh. The film is based on the true story of the Iowa City West High School volleyball team after the sudden death of the team's heart and leader, Caroline Found, in 2011. It was released in the United States on April 6, 2018. The film received mixed reviews from critics and has grossed $10 million worldwide.


title: The Miracle Season

text: Caroline "Line" Found is the star volleyball player on the Iowa City West High School volleyball team and well-loved by members of the community. With Line as the captain, the Trojans have been undefeated and everyone in the city has high hopes for them to win the championship against their long-time rival, City High. During a party at her house, Line sneaks off to visit her mother Ellyn who is being treated for cancer in hospital. Line is killed in a moped accident, leaving the entire community in mourning. At Line's wake, Ellyn insists on walking to her daughter's casket to pay her respects; Ellyn dies from cancer days after the wake, leaving her husband and Line's father Ernie grieving over the loss of his wife and his daughter.


title: The Miracle Season

text: The Trojans' coach, Kathy "Brez" Bresnahan continues to hold volleyball practice. She asks Line's best friend, Kelley Fliehler to return to the team, saying Line would have wanted them to continue. Kelley initially refuses, but Brez persuades her. The Trojans forfeited their most recent match and Kelley encourages the entire school to continue for Line.


title: The Miracle Season

text: West High struggles in practice and loses their first game badly, still discouraged by Line's death. Brez runs the team through grueling drills and names Kelley the new captain. Kelley initially struggles in the role, but improves as the weeks go by. The team begins to win and is motivated to win the state championship for Line. They need to win the fourteen remaining games to be eligible for the state championship, which they do.


title: The Miracle Season

text: Before the tournament begins, Kelley receives a gift from Line's father, that encourages her not just to play for Line, but to "Live Like Line." At West High, Kelley and boyfriend Alex paint the windows to read "Live Like Line". T-Shirts with the catchphrase are given out to players, staff, and fans. The Trojans win the quarter-final game with ease, but struggle to win their semi-final game. They move on to the championship against City High, who are heavily favored to win. Before the game, Brez gives a tribute to Line, deciding not to have a moment of silence, but encourages the crowd to meet someone new, as Line always was kind to everyone. City takes the lead early, but West ties the score and forces the fifth and final game, which the Trojans win. As the crowd cheers, "Sweet Caroline" plays in honor of Line and Kelley holds Line's picture up high and proud.


title: The Miracle Season

text: During the closing credits, images, videos, and footage show the real life Caroline Found and her family, Kelley Fliehler, Kathy Bresnahan, and the Iowa West High volleyball team. On-screen subtitles show how Caroline Found's death inspired the real Iowa West High volleyball team to repeat their win for the 2011 Iowa State Championship. The Founds climbed Mount Monadnock. Over 4,000 students from across Iowa attended Line's funeral. Kathy "Brez" Bresnahan was voted National Coach of the Year for 2011; she retired from coaching in 2014 but remains in contact with the 2011 team. Scott Sanders would replace Bresnahan as the West High coach, while Kelley Fliehler went on to study microbiology at Iowa State University. Ernie was given a white rose at senior night to honor Caroline Found. A bench in downtown Iowa City was painted in honor of Line and her mother Ellyn.


title: The Miracle Season

text: The movie also had real-life former volleyball players as extras. Vanessa Wiebe and Cassandra Bagnell, who previously played for Thompson Rivers University and Dalhousie University respectively portray Twin Towers 1 & 2, City High School volleyball teammates who rival West High. Jessica Bailey, who was a volleyball player for Trinity Western University, portrays herself as one of the West High Volleyball players. Alexis Jonker, Katelyn Devaney, and Rowyn Neufeld, also from Trinity Western University portray other volleyball players from rival schools West High faces. Olivia Cesaretti of Douglas College, Brianna Solberg and Taeya Page of University of Calgary, Emma Barlow of University of Guelph, as well as Samantha Patko of University of British Columbia portray additional West High Volleyball players. The film's director, Sean McNamara, makes a cameo as a Caroline Found fan, while Helen Hunt's real-life daughter, Makena Lei Gordon Carnahan, portrays a high schooler named Ruby.


title: The Miracle Season

text: The film was originally titled "Live Like Line". William Hurt and Helen Hunt joined the film in June 2016; Hunt and McNamara previously worked together on the similarly-themed film "Soul Surfer". Filming took place in Vancouver, Canada.


title: The Miracle Season

text: "The Miracle Season" premiered at the Englert Theatre in Iowa City, where the film is set, on March 18, 2018. It was released by LD Entertainment on April 6, 2018.


title: The Miracle Season

text: In the United States and Canada, "The Miracle Season" was released alongside "A Quiet Place", "Chappaquiddick" and "Blockers", and as projected to gross around $3 million from 1,707 theaters in its opening weekend. It ended up debuting to $4.1 million, finishing 11th; 74% of its audience was female.


title: The Miracle Season

text: On review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, and an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""The Miracle Season" has a worthy real-life story to tell, but one-dimensional characters and aggressively maudlin storytelling undercut any emotional uplift." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 44 out of 100, based on 13 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.


title: No One Lives

text: No One Lives is a 2012 American horror film directed by Ryuhei Kitamura. It stars Luke Evans and Adelaide Clemens. The film premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2012, and had a limited release on May 10, 2013.


title: No One Lives

text: While traveling cross country, couple Betty and an unidentified man, referred to as "Driver," encounter a gang of robbers. The group, led by dedicated criminal Hoag, consists of Hoag's brother Ethan, his daughter Amber, girlfriend Tamara, Amber's boyfriend Denny, and the violent Flynn. Suspecting the couple to be wealthy and wanting to redeem himself for a robbery he botched earlier, Flynn kidnaps them and has Ethan interrogate them about accessing their money. However, Betty commits suicide by cutting her throat on a knife Ethan had against her neck, which leads to the Driver breaking out of his handcuffs and killing Ethan.


title: No One Lives

text: Meanwhile, Flynn, having brought the Driver's car to the group's hideout, finds a girl in the trunk of the vehicle. Amber, after watching a true crime show, realizes the girl is Emma Ward, a wealthy heiress who disappeared after 14 of her friends were murdered at a party, and the kidnapped man is the one responsible for the massacre. Following Hoag's orders, Denny and Tamara head to the gas station to contact Ethan, only to find his and Betty's bodies and the Driver missing. They bring Ethan's corpse back to their hideout and inadvertently bring the Driver along with them, who had been hiding in the cadaver.


title: No One Lives

text: The Driver begins his assault on the robbers by capturing Hoag, while Denny is injured by booby traps the Driver had set up previously. The Driver tortures Hoag, cutting off his ear as a trophy, and finally killing him by dropping him into a meat grinder. With the group's van blown up by the Driver, Denny volunteers to get their old jeep working, as he is bleeding out. Although he succeeds, the Driver shoves him into the open car engine, badly mangling his face and spraying Amber with blood, who was in the driver's seat. Amber flees, and the Driver pursues her. The others hear the noise and head to the barn to take the jeep. The Driver throws a scythe through Amber, piercing her lung. He leaves her to die when he realizes the rest of the gang is escaping. Nevertheless, Flynn accidentally hits Amber with the jeep when she stumbles onto the road.


title: No One Lives

text: After dropping Denny off at the hospital, Flynn, Tamara, and Emma head to a motel to stay the night. When Flynn uses the Driver's credit card to pay for a room, he inadvertently causes motel owner Harris to call the police as the Driver had previously checked himself into the same motel. The Driver himself also arrives at the motel and nearly strangles Tamara to death in the shower but stops when he hears Flynn shoot the sheriff responding to Harris' call. Flynn discovers Tamara, and when she startles him, he euthanatizes Tamara, which leads to Emma attempting to escape. Though Flynn manages to stop her, he is run over by the Driver in a police car. Emma flees into a nearby junkyard.


title: No One Lives

text: When the Driver confronts Emma, she beats him with a metal pipe until Flynn shoots the Driver in the chest with a shotgun. The Driver survives due to his Kevlar vest, leading to a fight between the two. Ultimately, Flynn manages to grab his weapon, but is knocked out by Emma before he can fire it. Emma, explaining she wants to be one who kills the Driver, attempts to shoot him, but the firearm fails to operate because a new shell had not been pumped into the chamber. Impressed, the Driver cuts out a tracking device he placed inside her stomach and announces that she is free. He then finishes Flynn off with a shotgun blast to the face and also shoots Harris for knowing his real name.


title: No One Lives

text: The next day, the Driver murders Denny in his hospital bed with a clipboard while disguised as a doctor. As he leaves, he notices Emma being wheeled into the hospital on a stretcher. He touches her arm before departing.


title: No One Lives

text: Andrea Frankle, Rob Steinberg, Jake Austin Walker, and Dalton E. Gray portray the family who are killed by Flynn.


title: No One Lives

text: The film premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2012. It was planned for a worldwide release in January 2013, however that release date was scrapped when Anchor Bay Films picked up the distribution rights to the film, they will release the film theatrically in North America, the U.K, and Australia and handle the home video release across various platforms.


title: No One Lives

text: The film will have a limited theatrical release in those countries and the new release date will be May 10, 2013. The film is Rated R for strong bloody violence, disturbing images, pervasive language, and some sexuality/nudity. On April 13, 2013, a red band trailer for the film was released. In the United States the film will be released in select cities like New York, Los Angeles, Chicago, San Francisco, Dallas, Philadelphia, Miami, Boston, Detroit, Houston and Baltimore.


title: No One Lives

text: Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes has a 48% approval rating based on 40 reviews with an average score of 4.7/10. The film premiered at the 2012 Toronto International Film Festival on September 8, 2012 and has received early mixed reviews. One review from William Brownridge states "Completely pointless and full of terrible dialogue, "No One Lives" still manages to be one of the most entertaining films around. This is a film that is best enjoyed among a crowd of genre fans. Extremely violent and bloody, audiences will cheer as Driver eliminates the gang one after another. The title isn’t just a suggestion, it’s a rule, and watching the madness that explodes from the screen is sure to please crowds looking for non-stop action and bloody violence."


title: No One Lives

text: Another review from the "Toronto Star" states "While parts of it are deliberately campy, the low-budget production veers onto the amateurish and some of the jump cuts make it look like it was edited with a switchblade. Or make that a butter knife."


title: No One Lives

text: "Even if it’s nothing to write home about, at 78 minutes sans credits and with plenty of over-the-top carnage that will have you squirming, this is mindless entertainment done right. It gets the job done quickly and effectively before calling it a day. Sometimes that’s all one can ask for", and it gives the shock score a 6.


title: No One Lives

text: "No One Lives" opened on May 10, 2013 in 53 theatres and in its opening weekend grossed $47,800 for an average of $902 per theatre. As of May 19, 2013 the film has grossed $74,918. The budget for the film was an estimated $2,900,000. However, it has performed much better than other past WWE studios limited releases including "The Day", "Legendary", "The Reunion" and "The Chaperone".


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" is a song by the English rock band the Beatles from their 1968 album "The Beatles" (also known as "the White Album"). It was written by John Lennon and credited to the Lennon–McCartney partnership. The song was composed into three distinct sections, referred by Lennon as "the Dirty Old Man", "the Junkie" and "the Gunman (Satire of '50s R&R)". He derived the title from an NRA magazine and explained that the lyrics were a double entendre for guns and his sexual desire for Yoko Ono.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Although tensions were high during the recording sessions for the White Album, the Beatles worked together as a unit to complete the song's challenging rhythmic issues and time signature changes. A demo of the song, recorded at George Harrison's Kinfauns home before the album's recording sessions, showed the song in its initial stage, with only a few portions present. He helped with the time signature changes through his knowledge of Indian classical music. The final portion of the song features backing vocals by Harrison and Paul McCartney. An excerpt from the demo was released on "Anthology 3" in 1996, with the full demo being released on the super deluxe edition of the White Album in 2018.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Despite mixed reviews for the White Album on release, "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" was positively received by music critics, who highlighted the song's complex structure and lyrics for praise. All four Beatles identified it as their favourite song on the album. Nevertheless, it was banned by the BBC due to its sexually suggestive lyrics. The song has been covered by Tori Amos, U2 and the Breeders.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Lennon derived the title of "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" from that of an article in the May 1968 issue of "American Rifleman", the magazine of the National Rifle Association (NRA). The magazine belonged to George Martin, the Beatles' producer, who had brought it with him to the recording studio. Lennon recalled his reaction to the phrase: "I just thought it was a fantastic, insane thing to say. A warm gun means you just shot something." Written by Warren W. Herlihy, the article told the story of how Herlihy had introduced his teenage son to shooting and how much the young man had come to enjoy the sport. The magazine had adapted the headline from the title of the bestselling book by "Peanuts" cartoonist Charles M. Schulz, "Happiness is a Warm Puppy".


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Some commentators suggested that the "warm gun" could refer to Lennon's sexual desire for Yoko Ono or, due to the drug connotations in the lyric "I need a fix", to a syringe. Lennon denied the idea that the song was about heroin, as the syringe metaphor appeared to imply. In his 1980 "Playboy" interview, he admitted to the double meaning of guns and sexuality but denied that the song had anything to do with drugs. He said: "that was the beginning of my relationship with Yoko and I was very sexually oriented then."


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Lennon said he "put together three sections of different songs ... it seemed to run through all the different kinds of rock music ..." and described it as a miniature "history of rock and roll". This results in a three-part through-composed structure. The song begins with surreal imagery inspired by an acid trip that Lennon and Derek Taylor experienced, with Taylor contributing the opening lines. The three sections were described by Lennon as "the Dirty Old Man", "the Junkie" and "the Gunman (Satire of '50s R&R)".


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Author John Winn divides the completed composition into five sections: the fingerpicked guitar intro, with the line "She's not a girl who misses much"; the portion when the full band enters, containing more of the lyrical images supplied by Taylor; the blues-based "I need a fix" section; the "Mother Superior" refrain; and the doo wop-style section exploring the "warm gun" theme. The composite structure features several changes in time signature. According to Kenneth Womack, this consists of shifts from 4/4 to 6/4 time in the "Dirty Old Man" section; 9/8 and 12/8 in "the Junkie", although the drums play in 6/8 throughout; four-bar sequences of 6/8, 6/4, 6/8 and 7/4 over the "Mother Superior" portion; and 6/8 and 4/4 for "the Gunman" (even though the drums remain in 4/4). The musical keys used in the song are E minor, A major, A Lydian and C major.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: The demo recorded by Lennon in May 1968 shows the song in its initial stage, with only the "I need a fix" and "Mother Superior jump the gun" portions present. Lennon extends the "Mother Superior" part, segueing into a portion addressing Ono by name, which does not appear in the Beatles' recording. The section that became the rock 'n' roll and doo-wop satire was partly previewed at the end of Lennon's performance of "I'm So Tired" from the same demo tape. This two-minute solo performance of "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" was edited for release on the "Anthology 3" compilation album in 1996, with over 30 seconds being cut from the middle of the song.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Recording for "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" began at 7 pm in Studio Two at EMI Studios in London on 23 September 1968. Although tensions were high among the Beatles during the album's recording sessions, the band collaborated as a close unit to work out the song's challenging rhythmic and metre issues. Having spent much of the first session discussing the individual sections, the group completed a satisfactory basic track on 24 September, albeit by editing together two separate performances: takes 53 and 65. Work on the song was completed at 5 am on 26 September. Piano, organ and tuba parts in this recording are unattributed; the tuba was all but removed through mixing. Martin was on holiday while this song was recorded, and had left a note asking Chris Thomas to take over as producer.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Having spent over two years studying the sitar, George Harrison had become familiar with the complex time signatures typically found in Indian classical music. Lennon benefited from Harrison's input in the arrangement for "Happiness Is a Warm Gun", further to the pair having joined different sections together for Lennon's 1966 song "She Said She Said". Author Simon Leng highlights Harrison's guitar playing on the completed track – ranging from stinging riffs beside Lennon's picked chords, to the heavily distorted solo that introduces the "I need a fix" bridge – as an example of Harrison's empathetic musicianship on Lennon's White Album songs. A tape containing just the 25 September instrumental overdubs reveals that the guitar solo was added to the previous day's backing track, along with organ (over the opening section of the song), tambourine and extra hi-hat, and piano (throughout the closing, "doo-wop" portion). In his description of this tape, music critic Richie Unterberger comments that the organ part, which appears low in the final mix, sounds "so churchly downcast it would do the Zombies proud". Over the "Gunman" section of the song, Paul McCartney and Harrison sang backing vocals in the doo-wop style, including the lines "Bang bang, shoot shoot" in response to Lennon singing the title phrase.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Musicologists Kenny Jenkins, of Leeds Beckett University and Richard Perks, University of Kent, have expressed the opinion that a Bartell fretless guitar belonging to Harrison was used on this track.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Apple Records released "The Beatles" on 22 November 1968, with the double LP soon gaining the informal title "the White Album" due to its stark cover art. "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" was sequenced as the final track on side one, following "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" reportedly was Harrison and McCartney's favourite track on the White Album. All four of the Beatles later identified it as their favourite song on the album. American and British censors were unhappy with the song, and it was banned by the BBC.


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Nik Cohn gave the album an unfavourable review in "The New York Times", but he wrote: "The only track that I've found myself actually playing for pleasure has been 'Happiness Is a Warm Gun,' which is obviously mostly by John Lennon and which stands [in] roughly the same tradition as 'A Day in the Life' and 'I Am the Walrus.'" Cohn added that although the song "includes more than its share of half-baked poeticisms", it develops into "a marvelous parody of high school rock in the mid-fifties of groups like the Diamonds and the Monotones", during which Lennon's bandmates support his repetition of the title phrase with interjections of 'Bang bang – shoot shoot'". Cohn concluded that "Just this once, the take-off has edge, it's not pure self-indulgence." Hubert Saal of "Newsweek" was also highly critical of the Beatles' propensity for pastiche, yet he included "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" among the few successes that result when they abandoned their attempts to be "Alexander Pope or Max Beerbohm". He said it featured "an orgasmic ending that Mick Jagger would admire".


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: "Record Mirror" commented that the song starts as "a serene ballad, but is soon taken over in the true vein of this foremost stylist", with the arrival of the "deep guitar" solo and lyrics referencing Mother Superior and the sensation of "my hands on your trigger". The reviewer said that "The firearm becomes feminine and the lyrics ambiguous in this strange subject matter for a song." Barry Miles wrote in "International Times": "'Happiness is a Warm Gun' is one of the greatest numbers on the album. Again a very complex construction in which the music has three distinct phases ending with a touch of the '50s ... It has a fine developing deep bass line and uses a snatch from 'Angel Baby' by Rosie & The Originals at the end."


title: Happiness Is a Warm Gun

text: Coinciding with the 50th anniversary of its release, Jacob Stolworthy of "The Independent" listed the song at number 2 in his ranking of the White Album's 30 tracks, below Harrison's "While My Guitar Gently Weeps". Stolworthy described it as "A loaded weapon of a track" and "one of Lennon's best songs". In 2006, "Mojo" placed it at number 8 in the magazine's list of "The 101 Greatest Beatles Songs".<ref name="Alexander/Mojo"></ref> In her commentary with the selection, American singer-songwriter Tori Amos highlighted "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" as a rare example of social commentary that successfully makes its statement "without preaching". Amos added: "The Beatles had the ability to make you think about the world, not just your own little world. They could put the microcosm and macrocosm in the same song. They sang of drugs and guns without telling me what to feel about it. That's genius." Beatles biographer Bill Harry commented on the irony of Lennon having written a song titled "Happiness Is a Warm Gun" and then, following his fatal shooting in New York City in December 1980, becoming the "most high profile" of the many musicians who have died as a result of the wide availability of guns in the United States.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: An ion-exchange resin or ion-exchange polymer is a resin or polymer that acts as a medium for ion exchange. It is an insoluble matrix (or support structure) normally in the form of small (0.25–1.43 mm radius) microbeads, usually white or yellowish, fabricated from an organic polymer substrate. The beads are typically porous, providing a large surface area on and inside them where the trapping of ions occurs along with the accompanying release of other ions, and thus the process is called ion exchange. There are multiple types of ion-exchange resin. Most commercial resins are made of polystyrene sulfonate.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Ion-exchange resins are widely used in different separation, purification, and decontamination processes. The most common examples are water softening and water purification. In many cases ion-exchange resins were introduced in such processes as a more flexible alternative to the use of natural or artificial zeolites. Also, ion-exchange resins are highly effective in the biodiesel filtration process.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Most typical ion-exchange resins are based on crosslinked polystyrene. The actual ion-exchanging sites are introduced after polymerisation. Additionally, in the case of polystyrene, crosslinking is introduced by copolymerisation of styrene and a few percent of divinylbenzene. Crosslinking decreases ion-exchange capacity of the resin and prolongs the time needed to accomplish the ion-exchange processes but improves the robustness of the resin. Particle size also influences the resin parameters; smaller particles have larger outer surface, but cause larger head loss in the column processes.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Besides being made as bead-shaped materials, ion-exchange resins are also produced as membranes. These ion-exchange membranes, which are made of highly cross-linked ion-exchange resins that allow passage of ions, but not of water, are used for electrodialysis.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Specialised ion-exchange resins are also known such as chelating resins (iminodiacetic acid, thiourea-based resins, and many others).


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Anion resins and cation resins are the two most common resins used in the ion-exchange process. While anion resins attract negatively charged ions, cation resins attract positively charged ions.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Anion resins may be either strongly or weakly basic. Strongly basic anion resins maintain their negative charge across a wide pH range, whereas weakly basic anion resins are neutralized at higher pH levels. Weakly basic resins do not maintain their charge at a high pH because they undergo deprotonation. They do, however, offer excellent mechanical and chemical stability. This, combined with a high rate of ion exchange, make weakly base anion resins well suited for the organic salts.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: For anion resins, regeneration typically involves treatment of the resin with a strongly basic solution, e.g. aqueous sodium hydroxide. During regeneration, the regenerant chemical is passed through the resin, and trapped negative ions are flushed out, renewing the resin exchange capacity.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: The cation exchange method removes the hardness of water but induces acidity in it, which is further removed in the next stage of treatment of water by passing this acidic water through an anion exchange process.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Often these are styrene–divinylbenzene copolymer resins that have quaternary ammonium cations as an integral part of the resin matrix.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Anion-exchange chromatography makes use of this principle to extract and purify materials from mixtures or solutions.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: In this application, Ion-exchange resins are used to replace the magnesium and calcium ions found in hard water with sodium ions. When the resin is fresh, it contains sodium ions at its active sites. When in contact with a solution containing magnesium and calcium ions (but a low concentration of sodium ions), the magnesium and calcium ions preferentially migrate out of solution to the active sites on the resin, being replaced in solution by sodium ions. This process reaches equilibrium with a much lower concentration of magnesium and calcium ions in solution than was started with.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: The resin can be recharged by washing it with a solution containing a high concentration of sodium ions (e.g. it has large amounts of common salt (NaCl) dissolved in it). The calcium and magnesium ions migrate from the resin, being replaced by sodium ions from the solution until a new equilibrium is reached. The salt is used to recharge an ion-exchange resin, which itself is used to soften the water.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: In this application, ion-exchange resins are used to remove poisonous (e.g. copper) and hazardous metal (e.g. lead or cadmium) ions from solution, replacing them with more innocuous ions, such as sodium and potassium.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Few ion-exchange resins remove chlorine or organic contaminants from water – this is usually done by using an activated charcoal filter mixed in with the resin. There are some ion-exchange resins that do remove organic ions, such as MIEX (magnetic ion-exchange) resins. Domestic water purification resin is not usually recharged – the resin is discarded when it can no longer be used.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Water of highest purity is required for electronics, scientific experiments, production of superconductors, and nuclear industry, among others. Such water is produced using ion-exchange processes or combinations of membrane and ion-exchange methods.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Ion-exchange processes are used to separate and purify metals, including separating uranium from plutonium and other actinides, including thorium; and lanthanum, neodymium, ytterbium, samarium, lutetium, from each other and the other lanthanides. There are two series of rare-earth metals, the lanthanides and the actinides. Members of each family have very similar chemical and physical properties. Ion exchange was for many years the only practical way to separate the rare earths in large quantities. This application was developed in the 1940s by Frank Spedding. Subsequently, solvent extraction has mostly supplanted use of ion-exchange resins except for the highest-purity products.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: A very important case is the PUREX process (plutonium-uranium extraction process), which is used to separate the plutonium and the uranium from the spent fuel products from a nuclear reactor, and to be able to dispose of the waste products. Then, the plutonium and uranium are available for making nuclear-energy materials, such as new reactor fuel and nuclear weapons.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Ion-exchange beads are also an essential component in in-situ leach uranium mining. In-situ recovery involves the extraction of uranium-bearing water (grading as low as 0.05% UO) through boreholes. The extracted uranium solution is then filtered through the resin beads. Through an ion-exchange process, the resin beads attract uranium from the solution. Uranium-loaded resins are then transported to a processing plant, where UO is separated from the resin beads, and yellowcake is produced. The resin beads can then be returned to the ion-exchange facility, where they are reused.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: The ion-exchange process is also used to separate other sets of very similar chemical elements, such as zirconium and hafnium, which incidentally is also very important for the nuclear industry. Zirconium is practically transparent to free neutrons, used in building reactors, but hafnium is a very strong absorber of neutrons, used in reactor control rods.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Ion exchange resins are used in organic synthesis, e.g. for esterification and hydrolysis. Being high surface area and insoluble, they are suitable for vapor-phase and liquid-phase reactions. Examples can be found where basic (OH-form) of ion exchange resins are used to neutralize of ammonium salts and convert quaternary ammonium halides to hydroxides. Acidic (H-form) ion exchange resins have been used as solid acid catalysts for scission of ether protecting groups. and for rearrangement reactions.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacture of fruit juices such as orange and cranberry juice, where they are used to remove bitter-tasting components and so improve the flavor. This allows tart or poorer-tasting fruit sources to be used for juice production.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacturing of sugar from various sources. They are used to help convert one type of sugar into another type of sugar, and to decolorize and purify sugar syrups.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Ion-exchange resins are used in the manufacturing of pharmaceuticals, not only for catalyzing certain reactions, but also for isolating and purifying pharmaceutical active ingredients.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Three ion-exchange resins, sodium polystyrene sulfonate, colestipol, and cholestyramine, are used as active ingredients. Sodium polystyrene sulfonate is a strongly acidic ion-exchange resin and is used to treat hyperkalemia. Colestipol is a weakly basic ion-exchange resin and is used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Cholestyramine is a strongly basic ion-exchange resin and is also used to treat hypercholesterolemia. Colestipol and cholestyramine are known as bile acid sequestrants.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Ion-exchange resins are also used as excipients in pharmaceutical formulations such as tablets, capsules, gums, and suspensions. In these uses the ion-exchange resin can have several different functions, including taste-masking, extended release, tablet disintegration, increased bioavailability, and improving the chemical stability of the active ingredients.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Selective polymeric chelators have been proposed for maintenance therapy of some pathologies, where chronic ion accumulation occurs, such as Wilson disease (where copper accumulation occurs) or hereditary hemochromatosis (iron overload, where iron accumulation occurs) These polymers or particles have a negligible or null systemic biological availability and they are designed to form stable complexes with Fe and Fe in the GIT and thus limiting the uptake of these ions and their long-term accumulation. Although this method has only a limited efficacy, unlike small-molecular chelators (deferasirox, deferiprone, or deferoxamine), such an approach may have only minor side effects in sub-chronic studies. Interestingly, the simultaneous chelation of Fe and Fe increases the treatment efficacy.


title: Ion-exchange resin

text: Anion exchange resins readily absorb CO when dry and release it again when exposed to moisture. This makes them one of the most promising materials for direct carbon capture from ambient air, or direct air capture, since the moisture swing replaces the more energy-intensive temperature swing or pressure swing used with other sorbents. A prototype demonstrating this process has been developed by Klaus Lackner at the Center for Negative Carbon Emissions.


title: The Adventure Zone

text: The Adventure Zone is a weekly comedy and adventure actual play podcast based loosely upon the "Dungeons & Dragons" game series, along with other role-playing games. The show is distributed by the Maximum Fun network and hosted by brothers Justin, Travis, and Griffin McElroy, and their father Clint McElroy. Regular episodes of the podcast feature the family solving puzzles, fighting enemies, and leveling up their characters in a series of cinematic and humorous encounters.


title: The Adventure Zone

text: In 2010, the McElroy brothers launched their flagship podcast "My Brother, My Brother and Me", an advice podcast which joined the Maximum Fun network in 2011. During the 97th episode in May 2012, the brothers answered a question about a "Dungeons & Dragons" game—which Justin called "The Adventure Zone".


title: The Adventure Zone

text: The McElroy brothers would ultimately begin playing with their father Clint in the summer of 2014, using the newly released Starter Set for the fifth edition of D&D, which was released that July. The set came with the module "The Lost Mine of Phandelver", which served as the basis for the first few sessions. The first of these recordings was initially released as an experimental "MBMBaM" episode entitled "The Adventure Zone" on August 18, 2014, to cover for Justin's paternity leave. Starting that December, "The Adventure Zone" was then expanded into its own podcast on the Maximum Fun network, releasing biweekly. Griffin McElroy served as the show's primary host and Dungeon Master for the show's first campaign, later titled the Balance Arc. The campaign concluded with Episode 69 in August 2017. Additionally, three special episodes were released over the course of the campaign, titled "The "The Adventure Zone" Zone", and these act as "an informal chat show" discussing the game.


title: The Adventure Zone

text: "Déjà Vu" by Mort Garson (from the album "") served as the primary theme song for "The Adventure Zone" during the Balance Arc, as well as various interstitials and backing tracks. Griffin McElroy also created original compositions to enhance the show's production. Later arcs would use original themes for opening and closing.


title: The Adventure Zone

text: Following the conclusion of the "Balance" campaign, the McElroys decided to work on smaller "experimental arcs", a set of shorter campaigns using other systems, in order to give themselves time to develop their next overarching storyline. Three experimental arcs were aired from October 2017 to March 2018. These included Clint's "Commitment" arc, Griffin's "Amnesty" arc and Travis' "Dust" arc. Each of these arcs takes place in their own game worlds, separate from those explored in the other campaigns. With the conclusion of these experimental arcs, McElroys announced that Season 2 of "The Adventure Zone" would continue the story introduced in "Amnesty", and that it would become the next full campaign.


title: The Adventure Zone

text: Griffin McElroy again took on the role of game master (called a "Keeper" in the system). While the arc was inspired by monster of the week shows such as "Buffy the Vampire Slayer" and "Supernatural", Griffin stated that the arc is mostly based on the "Persona" game series. To replicate the less connected nature of the former's 1990s setting, Kepler is situated in West Virginia's section of the National Radio Quiet Zone. Hal Lublin provides a guest voice in two episodes. The campaign ended after 36 episodes on September 23, 2019.


title: The Adventure Zone

text: When performing live the McElroy family continued to predominantly use the "Balance" setting in this period, though two "Amnesty" live shows, "The Ballad of Bigfoot" and "Amnesty Halloween Special", released on October 17, 2019, and November 12, 2020, respectively. Additional episodes of "The "The Adventure Zone" Zone" were released at the start and conclusion of the main run of "Amnesty".


title: The Adventure Zone

text: All four cast members played as guests in "Dimension 20"’s "Tiny Heist" campaign, a game DMed by Brennan Lee Mulligan in late 2019, for release in early 2020. Travis, the Dungeon Master of the upcoming arc, was inspired by "Tiny Heist"'s worldbuilding, commenting that "the world in that was so well thought through that it was basically like a big playground..." Travis' role as DM was confirmed in a SyFy Wire interview. A trailer for "Graduation" released on October 18 and announced a return to the "Dungeons & Dragons" system. The fantasy themed campaign, centred around a school for heroes and villains, ran from October 31, 2019, to April 15, 2021. The arc was poorly received, with reviewers citing Travis' lack of experience as a DM, as well as the very high number of NPCs. Travis considered stepping back from the show around the 20th episode, and having someone else brought in to finish the season- but decided that would be unfair to those who were invested, including the players.


title: The Adventure Zone

text: There were few live shows during the run of "Graduation" due to the COVID-19 pandemic, and none of these made use of Graduation's Nua setting. A "Laughter & Love" McElroy family tour in April 2020 would have featured "The Adventure Zone" performances in Boston and Baltimore. Instead of Nua or another established setting, a series of new campaign settings were used in virtual live shows, sometimes with multiple episodes and continuity between performances. These minor campaigns include "Fur" (with Erika Ishii), "Hootenanny", "Inheritance", "Just Us", "Mercer" (with Matt Mercer) and "Lords of Crunch".


title: The Adventure Zone

text: Before the finale of "Graduation", Griffin McElroy confirmed in an interview with Brennan Lee Mulligan that the fourth season of Adventure Zone would also be played in the "Dungeons & Dragons" 5th edition system, and would involve ships. The campaign's name, "Ethersea", and a brief trailer were released on May 3, 2021. The series is set in and around the submarine city of Founder's Wake, for which Griffin McElroy drew inspiration from a number of sources including "The Eternal Darkness: A Personal History of Deep-Sea Exploration" by Robert Ballard. A special primer episode was released on October 12 for the Maximum Fun Block Party, introducing new listeners to the podcast and suggesting where to begin- with Justin recommending "Ethersea", Griffin recommending "Balance", Clint recommending "Amnesty" and Travis recommending his experimental arc "Dust".<ref>


title: Flagellant

text: Flagellants are practitioners of a form of mortification of the flesh by whipping their skin with various instruments of penance. Many Christian confraternities of penitents have flagellants, who beat themselves, both in the privacy of their dwellings and in public processions, in order to repent of sins and share in the Passion of Jesus.


title: Flagellant

text: In the 14th century, a movement within Western Christianity known as Flagellantism became popular and adherents "began beating their flesh in a public penitential ritual in response to war, famine, plague and fear engendered by millenarianism." Though this movement withered away, the practices of public repentance and promoting peace were adopted by the flagellants in Christian, especially Roman Catholic, confraternities of penitents that exist to the present-day.


title: Flagellant

text: Flagellation (from Latin "flagellare", to whip) was quite a common practice amongst the more fervently religious throughout antiquity.


title: Flagellant

text: Christianity has formed a permanent tradition surrounding the doctrine of mortification of the flesh, ranging from self-denial, wearing hairshirts and chains, fasting and self-flagellation using the discipline. Those who practice self-flagellation claim that St. Paul’s statement in the Bible ‘I chastise my body’ refers to self-inflicted bodily scourging (). There are prominent Christians who have practiced self-flagellation. Martin Luther, the Protestant Reformer, self-flagellated among other ascetic practices during his early years as an Augustinian monk (although he later condemned such practices). Likewise, the Congregationalist writer Sarah Osborn also practiced self-flagellation in order "to remind her of her continued sin, depravity, and vileness in the eyes of God". It became "quite common" for members of the Tractarian movement within the Anglican Communion to practice self-flagellation using a discipline.


title: Flagellant

text: Historically speaking, in the 11th century, Peter Damian, a Benedictine Christian monk in the Roman Catholic tradition, taught that spirituality should manifest itself in physical discipline; he admonished those who sought to follow Christ to practice self-flagellation for the duration of the time it takes one to recite forty Psalms, increasing the number of flagellations on holy days of the liturgical calendar. For Damian, only those who shared in the sufferings of Christ could be saved. Throughout Christian history, the mortification of the flesh, wherein one denies themselves physical pleasures, has been commonly followed by members of the clergy, especially in Christian monasteries and convents; the 11th-century Dominicus Loricatus repeated the entire Psalter twenty times in one week, accompanying each psalm with a hundred lash-strokes to his back. The distinction of the Flagellants was to take this self-mortification into the cities and other public spaces as a demonstration of piety.


title: Flagellant

text: Flagellantism was a 14th-century movement, consisting of penitents in the Catholic Church. It began as a Christian pilgrimage and was later condemned by the Catholic Church as heretical. The followers were noted for including public flagellation in their rituals. This was a common practice during the Black Death, or the Great Plague.


title: Flagellant

text: The first recorded incident was in Central Italy in Perugia, in 1259, the year after severe crop damage and famine throughout Europe. From Perugia the phenomenon seemed to spread across Northern Italy and into Austria. Other incidents are recorded in 1296, 1333-34 (the Doves), notably at the time of the Black Death (1349), and 1399. The practice peaked during the Black Death. Spontaneously Flagellant groups arose across Northern and Central Europe in 1349, including in England.


title: Flagellant

text: Initially the Catholic Church tolerated the Flagellants and individual monks and priests joined in the early movements. By the 14th century, the Church was less tolerant and the rapid spread of the movement was alarming. Clement VI officially condemned them in a bull of October 20, 1349 and instructed Church leaders to suppress the Flagellants. This position was reinforced in 1372 by Gregory XI who associated the Flagellants with other heretical groups, notably the Beghards, and instructed inquisitors to eradicate them. They were accused of heresies including doubting the need for the sacraments, denying ordinary ecclesiastical jurisdiction and claiming to work miracles. In 1392, a sect of Flagellants and Beghards, consisting of peasants, were found throughout Swabia and Wurzburg. The papal inquisitor imposed the penance of preaching and joining a crusade against the Ottoman Turks.


title: Flagellant

text: The Inquisition was active against any revival of the movement in the 15th century, but action against the flagellants was often taken by the local princes. In 1414, 80–90 followers of Konrad Schmid were burned in Thuringia, in Germany, even though they had recanted. Three hundred were burnt in one day in 1416, also in Thuringia. Other trials where the accused were condemned as Flagellants were recorded as late as the 1480s. The practice of flagellation within the bounds of the Catholic Church continued as an accepted form of penance.


title: Flagellant

text: Rulers like Catherine de' Medici and France's King Henry III supported Flagellants but Henry IV banned them. Flagellant orders like "Hermanos Penitentes" (Spanish 'Penitential Brothers') also appeared in colonial Spanish America, even against the specific orders of Church authorities.


title: Flagellant

text: The first recorded cases of mass popular flagellation occurred in Perugia, in 1259. The prime cause of the Perugia episode is unclear, but it followed an outbreak of an epidemic and chroniclers report how mania spread throughout almost all the people of the city. Thousands of citizens gathered in great processions, singing and with crosses and banners, they marched throughout the city whipping themselves. It is reported that surprising acts of charity and repentance accompanied the marchers. However, one chronicler noted that anyone who did not join in the flagellation was accused of being in league with the devil. They also killed Jews and priests who opposed them. Marvin Harris links them to the Messianic preaching of Gioacchino da Fiore.


title: Flagellant

text: Similar processions occurred across Northern Italy, with groups up to 10,000 strong processing in Modena, Bologna, Reggio and Parma. Although certain city authorities refused the Flagellant processions entry.


title: Flagellant

text: A similar movement arose again in 1399, again in Northern Italy in the form of the White Penitents or "Bianchi" movement. This rising is said to have been started by a peasant who saw a vision. The movement became known as the "laudesi" from their constant hymn singing. At its peak, a group of over 15,000 adherents gathered in Modena and marched to Rome, but the movement rapidly faded when one of its leaders was burned at the stake by order of Boniface IX.


title: Flagellant

text: The German and Low Countries movement, the Brothers of the Cross, is particularly well documented - they wore white robes and marched across Germany in 33.5 day campaigns (each day referred to a year of Jesus's earthly life) of penance, only stopping in any one place for no more than a day. They established their camps in fields near towns and held their rituals twice a day. The ritual began with the reading of a letter, claimed to have been delivered by an angel and justifying the Flagellants' activities. Next, the followers would fall to their knees and scourge themselves, gesturing with their free hands to indicate their sin and striking themselves rhythmically to songs, known as "Geisslerlieder", until blood flowed. Sometimes the blood was soaked up in rags and treated as a holy relic. Originally members were required to receive permission to join from their spouses and to prove that they could pay for their food. However, some towns began to notice that sometimes Flagellants brought plague to towns where it had not yet surfaced. Therefore, later they were denied entry. They responded with increased physical penance.


title: Flagellant

text: Modern processions of hooded Flagellants are still a feature of various Mediterranean Christian countries, mainly in Spain, Italy and some former colonies, usually every year during Lent. They also occur in the Philippines during Holy Week.


title: Flagellant

text: For example, in the comune of Guardia Sanframondi in Campania, Italy, such parades are organized once every seven years. In Italy, members of the Flagellant movement were called "disciplinati", while "laudesi" never practiced flagellation, but met together in their own chapel to sing "laudi" (canticles) in honour of the Blessed Virgin, but which gradually assumed a dramatic form and grew into a theatrical form known as "rappresentazioni sacre". A play in the Roman dialect of the 14th century, edited by Vattasso (Studi e Testi, no. 4, p. 53), explicitly bears the title lauda.


title: Flagellant

text: Some Roman Catholics in Philippines practice flagellation as a form of devout worship, sometimes in addition to self-crucifixion.


title: Flagellant

text: In English, "the penitent brothers." This is a semi-secret society of flagellants among the Hispanic Roman Catholics of Colorado and New Mexico.


title: Flagellant

text: Unrelated practices exist in non-Christian traditions, including actual flagellation amongst some Shiites (commemorating the martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali AS).


title: Secretly, Greatly

text: Secretly, Greatly () is a 2013 South Korean action comedy-drama film starring Kim Soo-hyun, Park Ki-woong, and Lee Hyun-woo, who play North Korean spies who infiltrate South Korea as a village idiot, a rock musician, and a high school student, respectively. They assimilate to small-town life while awaiting their orders, until one day, due to a sudden power shift in the North, their mission turns out to be an order to commit suicide.


title: Secretly, Greatly

text: The film is based on the 2010 spy webtoon series "Covertness" by Hun, which has received over 40 million page hits. Upon its release on June 5, 2013, the film broke several box office records in South Korea: the highest single day opening for a domestic film, most tickets sold in one day for a domestic film, the biggest opening weekend, the highest-grossing webtoon-based film, and the fastest movie to reach the million, two million, three million, and four million marks in audience number. Movie pundits attribute its success to a large percentage of teen audience turnout.


title: Secretly, Greatly

text: A group of spies called the 5446 Corps were trained by North Korean elite special forces since their youth, ostensibly towards the lofty goal of unifying Korea. They are ambitiously dispatched to South Korea, where each disguises himself as a fool, an aspiring singer, and a high school student. Passing boring time without receiving any orders from the North, they gradually get used to life as ordinary neighbors in a small town until one day, their mundane lives are turned upside down when a "secret and great" mission is suddenly assigned to them. Due to the events of the Second Battle of Yeonpyeong, South Korea demands the names, location, and rank of 30 North Korean spies active in South Korea, promising financial aid to the North on the condition that Pyongyang turns in their spies. To prevent the elites from falling into enemy hands, the North Korean government orders dozens of active duty spies to take their own lives. Meanwhile, their North Korean army instructor Kim Tae-won crosses the border to eliminate those who refuse to follow.


title: Secretly, Greatly

text: With 498,282 tickets sold on the day of its release, "Secretly, Greatly" recorded the highest single day opening of all time (by a domestic film) in South Korea, surpassing the record previously held by "The Host", which opened with about 450,000 tickets sold in 2006. Within just 36 hours after its release, the film drew 1,011,025 viewers, becoming the fastest movie to reach the million mark in audience number, in the nation. For its second day (which coincided with Korea's Memorial Day holiday), it recorded the largest admissions total for a single day (by a domestic film) with 919,035 viewers. 72 hours after its release, the number of tickets sold for "Secretly, Greatly" crossed the 2 million border, making it the fastest film to do so. On its fifth day of release, the total ticket sales broke the 3 million mark, as the fastest record of all time. The film recorded the biggest opening weekend with a total of 3,491,294 viewers, beating "" which opened with 3,356,316 viewers in 2011. It also became the highest-grossing webtoon-based movie in the nation, surpassing 2010 film "Moss" with 3,408,144 tickets sold.


title: Secretly, Greatly

text: On its eighth day of release, the film became the fastest movie to reach the 4 million mark in audience number, tied with "The Host", "", "The Thieves", and "Iron Man 3". By the twelfth day, it drew 5 million viewers. In nineteen days, it became the fourth highest-grossing film of 2013 in the nation, behind "Miracle in Cell No. 7" (12.32 million), "Iron Man 3" (8.99 million), and "The Berlin File" (7.16 million), garnering over 6.96 million in audience.


title: Secretly, Greatly

text: In North America, it was the centerpiece presentation of the 12th New York Asian Film Festival held on 11 July 2013. Following its festival date, it opened in New York City and Los Angeles on 19 July before rolling out to 10-15 US cities throughout the summer. The 2nd Atlanta Korean Film Festival also screened the film along with several other South Korean films. In addition, the 17th Fantasia International Film Festival in Montreal screened the film in mid-July ahead of its 26 July Canadian release date.


title: Secretly, Greatly

text: In Asia, the film was first screened in Singapore starting on 18 July before opening in Taiwan on 26 July 2013. It then expanded across the region during the season with runs in Japan, Indonesia and Hong Kong, where Kim made his appearance for the local premiere in late July. Deals were also brokered with China and Thailand. The film was also screened at the 17th Puchon International Fantastic Film Festival and won the NH Nonghyup Citizen's Choice Award.


title: Secretly, Greatly

text: In Europe, the film was included at the "Signals: How to Survive" program section of the 43rd International Film Festival Rotterdam held from 22 January to 2 February 2014.


title: Columbina

text: Columbina (in Italian Colombina, meaning "little dove"; in French and English Colombine) is a stock character in the "commedia dell'arte". She is Harlequin's mistress, a comic servant playing the tricky slave type, and wife of Pierrot. Rudlin and Crick use the Italian spelling Colombina in "Commedia dell'arte: A Handbook for Troupes".


title: Columbina

text: The role of the female servant was originally that of an entr'acte dancer. Women were not allowed to be part of the story that was being played out on stage, but they were allowed to have a dance in-between the action. Eventually these women became the busom and gossipy servants of characters that were already allowed on stage, and then, later, the counterparts to the Zanni characters. She was very down to earth and could always see the situation for what it actually was. She was also sometimes portrayed as a prostitute. She was very infrequently without something to say to or about someone.


title: Columbina

text: She is dressed in a very short ragged and patched dress, appropriate to a master of the arts. These characters were usually played unmasked, but with bonnets and metal chokers. She was also known to wear heavy makeup around her eyes and carry a tambourine, which she could use to fend off the amorous advances of Pantalone. Columbina was sometimes chased after by Arlecchino (also known as Harlequin) or was close friends with him. There is record of Columbine using numerous disguises to trick or seduce Harlequin. Where most other characters are content with one disguise, Gheraldi's Colombine has several different disguises to confuse Harlequin and to keep the audience on their toes.


title: Columbina

text: She was often the only functional intellect on the stage. Columbine aided her mistress, the "innamorata", to gain the affections of her one true love. She is sometimes the lover of Harlequin, but not always. They sometimes engage in sexual activity, but not always. She may be a flirtatious and impudent character, indeed a soubrette.


title: Columbina

text: In the verismo opera "Pagliacci" by Ruggero Leoncavallo, the head of the troupe's wife, Nedda, playing as Colombine, cheats on her husband, Canio, playing as Pagliaccio, both onstage with Harlequin and offstage with Silvio.


title: Columbina

text: Although Colombine is one name associated with the female servant prostitute character archetype, other names under which the same character is played in "Commedia dell'arte" performances include Franceschina, Smeraldina, Oliva, Nespola, Spinetta Ricciolina, and Corallina Diamantina. Colombina became the most common name used to describe the "sobretta" character, especially as Colombine in France and in England.


title: Columbina

text: One of the actresses who made this character famous was Silvia Roncagli, the first woman recorded doing a seretta role named Francheschina in about 1570. One of the first women to play the role named Colombina was Italian actress Isabella Franchini Biancolelli. Her granddaughter, Caterina Biancolelli, was one of the most famous serettas whose name was Colombina. She played the part about 1683.


title: Columbina

text: There is record of the French playwright Molière having attended many performances of the comédie italienne, or "commedia dell'arte". He is even referenced in a performance by Angelo Costantini of his show "Une Vie de Scaramouche", which refers to the writer and poet. This might suggest that the servant character in many of Molière's plays, such as Dorine in his play "Tartuffe", might be based on this particular character archetype from the "commedia dell'arte".


title: Isaaq

text: The Isaaq (also Isaq, Ishaak, Isaac) (, ) is a Somali clan. It is one of the major Somali clans in the Horn of Africa, with a large and densely populated traditional territory.


title: Isaaq

text: The clan-family traces their lineage to Sheikh Ishaaq bin Ahmed, an Arab Islamic scholar who purportedly traveled to Somaliland in the 12th or 13th century and married into the local Dir clan, though this story is probably legendary.


title: Isaaq

text: According to genealogical books and Somali tradition, the Isaaq clan was founded in the 12th or 13th century with the arrival of Sheikh Ishaaq Bin Ahmed (Sheikh Ishaaq) from Arabia. He purportedly settled in the coastal town of Maydh in modern-day northeastern Somaliland, where he married into the local Magaadle clan. According to multiple Arabic hagiologies, Sheikh Ishaaq is a descendant of Ali ibn Abi Talib, the cousin and son-in-law of the prophet Muhammad, though according to I.M. Lewis this lineage was most likely invented to enhance the clan-family's prestige and to stress its proper Muslim background.


title: Isaaq

text: There are also numerous existing hagiologies in Arabic which describe Sheikh Ishaaq's travels, works and overall life in modern Somaliland, as well as his movements in Arabia before his arrival. Besides historical sources, one of the more recent printed biographies of Sheikh Ishaaq is the "Amjaad" of Sheikh Husseen bin Ahmed Darwiish al-Isaaqi as-Soomaali, which was printed in Aden in 1955.


title: Isaaq

text: Sheikh Ishaaq's tomb is in Maydh, and is the scene of frequent pilgrimages. Sheikh Ishaaq's "mawlid" (birthday) is also celebrated every Thursday with a public reading of his "manaaqib" (a collection of glorious deeds). His Siyaara or pilgrimage is performed annually both within Somaliland and in the diaspora particularly in the Middle East among Isaaq expatriates.


title: Isaaq

text: The dialect of the Somali language that the Isaaq speak has the highest prestige of any other Somali dialect.


title: Isaaq

text: The Isaaq have a very wide and densely populated traditional territory. The clan-family makes up 80% of Somaliland's population, and lives in all of its six regions (Awdal, Marodi Jeh, Togdheer, Sahil, Sanaag and Sool). The Isaaq have large settlements in the Somali Region of Ethiopia, mainly on the eastern side of Somali Region also known as the Hawd and formerly Reserve Area which is mainly inhabited by the Isaaq sub-clan members. They also have large settlements in Kenya, where the clan makes up a large percentage of the Somali population, and in Djibouti, where the Isaaq is the fourth largest group after the Issa, the Afar, and the Gadabuursi, accounting for 20% of Djibouti's population. The Isaaq also inhabit Somalia, with the clan-family constituting the majority of the inhabitants of the Hodan district in Mogadishu, while a subclan of the Habr Yunis, the Damal Muse, inhabit the Mudug region of Somalia.


title: Isaaq

text: The Isaaq clan-family constitute the largest Somali clan in Somaliland. The populations of five major cities in Somaliland – Hargeisa, Burao, Berbera, Erigavo and Gabiley – are all predominantly Isaaq. They exclusively dominate the Marodi Jeh region, and the Togdheer region, and form a majority of the population inhabiting the western and central areas of Sanaag region, including the regional capital Erigavo. The Isaaq also have a large presence in the western and northern parts of Sool region as well, with Habr Je'lo sub-clan of Isaaq living in the Aynabo district whilst the Habr Yunis subclan of Garhajis lives in the eastern part of Xudun district and the very western part of Las Anod district. They also live in the northeast of the Awdal region, with Saad Muse sub-clan being centered around Lughaya and its environs.


title: Isaaq

text: The populations of five major cities in Somaliland – Hargeisa, Burao, Berbera, Erigavo and Gabiley – are predominantly Isaaq.


title: Isaaq

text: The Isaaq clan played a prominent role in the Ethiopian-Adal War (1529–1543, referred to as the "Conquest of Abyssinia") in the army of Ahmad ibn Ibrahim al-Ghazi, I. M. Lewis noted that only the Habr Magadle division (Ayoub, Garhajis, Habr Awal and Arap) of the Isaaq were mentioned in chronicles of that war written by Shihab Al-Din Ahmad Al-Gizany known as Futuh "Al Habash."


title: Isaaq

text: I. M. Lewis states: The Marrehan and the Habr Magadle [Magādi] also play a very prominent role (...) The text refers to two Ahmads's with the nickname 'Left-handed'. One is regularly presented as 'Ahmad Guray, the Somali' (...) identified as Ahmad Guray Xuseyn, chief of the Habr Magadle. Another reference, however, appears to link the Habr Magadle with the Marrehan. The other Ahmad is simply referred to as 'Imam Ahmad' or simply the 'Imam'.This Ahmad is not qualified by the adjective Somali (...) The two Ahmad's have been conflated into one figure, the heroic Ahmed Guray (...)


title: Isaaq

text: Long after the collapse of the Adal Sultanate, the Isaaq established successor states, the Isaaq Sultanate and the Habr Yunis Sultanate. These two Sultanates possessed some of the organs and trappings of a traditional integrated state: a functioning bureaucracy, regular taxation in the form of livestock, as well as an army (chiefly consisting of mounted light cavalry). These sultanates also maintained written records of their activities, which still exist. The Isaaq Sultanate ruled parts of the Horn of Africa during the 18th and 19th centuries and spanned the territories of the Isaaq clan in modern day Somaliland and Ethiopia. The sultanate was governed by the Rer Guled branch of the Eidagale clan and is the pre-colonial predecessor to the modern Republic of Somaliland.


title: Isaaq

text: The modern Guled Dynasty of the Isaaq Sultanate was established in the middle of the 18th century by Sultan Guled of the Eidagale line of the Garhajis clan. His coronation took place after the victorious battle of Lafaruug in which his father, a religious mullah Abdi Eisa successfully led the Isaaq in battle and defeated the Absame tribes near Berbera where a century earlier the Isaaq clan expanded into. After witnessing his leadership and courage, the Isaaq chiefs recognized his father Abdi who refused the position instead relegating the title to his underage son Guled while the father acted as the regent till the son come of age. Guled was crowned the as the first Sultan of the Isaaq clan in July 1750. Sultan Guled thus ruled the Isaaq up until his death in 1839, where he was succeeded by his eldest son Farah full brother of Yuusuf and Du'ale, all from Guled's fourth wife Ambaro Me'ad Gadid.


title: Isaaq

text: By the early 1880s the Isaaq Sultanate had been reduced to the "Ciidangale" confederation with the Eidagale, Arap and Ishaaq Arreh subclan of the Habr Yunis remaining. In 1884–1886 the British signed treaties with the coastal subclans and had not yet penetrated the interior in any significant way. Sultan Deria Hassan remained "de facto" master of Hargeisa and it's environs.


title: Isaaq

text: The Isaaq clan also played a major role in the Dervish movement, with Sultan Nur Aman of the Habr Yunis being fundamental in the inception of the movement. Sultan Nur was the principle agitator that rallied the dervish behind his anti-French Catholic Mission campaign that would become the cause of the dervish uprise. Haji Sudi of the Habr Je'lo was the highest ranking Dervish after Mohammed Abdullah Hassan, he died valiantly defending the Taleh fort during the RAF bombing campaign. The Isaaq sub-clans that were highly known for joining the Dervish movement were from the eastern Habr Yunis and Habr Je'lo sub-clans. These two sub-clans were able to purchase advanced weapons and successfully resist both British Empire and Ethiopian Empire for many years. The fourth Isaaq Grand Sultan Deria Hassan exchanged letters with Muhammad Abdullah Hassan in the first year of the movement's foundation, with the sultan inciting an insurrection in Hargeisa in 1900 as well as supplying the Mullah with vital information.


title: Isaaq

text: The Isaaq clan along with other northern Somali tribes were under British Somaliland protectorate administration from 1884 to 1960. On gaining independence, the Somaliland protectorate decided to form a union with Italian Somalia. The Isaaq clan spearheaded the greater Somalia quest from 1960 to 1991.


title: Isaaq

text: The Isaaq played a massive role to push for unification and independence. They selected to join the Trust Territory of Somaliland to form the Somali Republic. During the civilian government from 1960 to 1969, they held dominant positions. Jama Mohamed Ghalib (1960-4) and Ahmed Mohamed Obsiye (1964-6), both belonging to the Isaaq clan, served as the president of the National Assembly, while a notable Isaaq member named Muhammad Haji Ibrahim Egal served as the Prime Minister of Somalia from 1967-9. Furthermore, when English became one of the official languages, the ministries of Foreign Trade, Foreign Affairs, Education, and Information were mainly held by the Isaaq members. They were still powerful in the early years of the military dictatorship (1969–91). However, from the late 1970s, Marehan became politically powerful under the leadership of the military dictator Siad Barre. The Isaaq began to face political and economic marginalization and in response, they organized the Somali National Movement to over his regime. Thus the Somaliland War of Independence began and this struggle movement forced the Isaaq clan to become a victim to a genocidal campaign by Siad Barre's troops (which also included armed Somali refugees from Ethiopia); the death toll has been estimated to be between 50,000 and 200,000. After the collapse of the Somali Democratic Republic in 1991 the Isaaq-dominated Somaliland declared independence from Somalia as a separate nation.


title: Isaaq

text: Historically (and presently to a degree), the wider Isaaq clan were relatively more disposed to trade than their tribal counterparts due in part to their centuries old trade links with the Arabian Peninsula. In view of this imbalance in mercantile experience, other major Somali clans tended to resort to tribal slang terms such as "iidoor", an enviable pejorative roughly meaning trader/exchanger:


title: Isaaq

text: Somalis bandied about numerous stereotypes of clan behavior that mirrored these emerging social inequalities. The pejorative slang terms iidoor or kabadhe iidoora (loosely meaning "exchange") reflect Somali disdain for the go-between, the person who amasses wealth through persistence and mercantile skills without firm commitments to anyone else. As the Isaaq became more international and cosmopolitan, their commercial success and achievement ideology aroused suspicion and jealousy, notably among rural Darod who disliked Isaaq self-confidence and made them the target of stereotypes.


title: Isaaq

text: The Habr Awal clan of the Isaaq have a rich mercantile history largely due to their possession of the major Somali port of Berbera, which was the chief port and settlement of Habr Awal clan during the early modern period. The clan had strong ties to the Emirate of Harar and Emirs would hold Habr Awal merchants in their court with high esteem with Richard Burton noting their influence in Emir Ahmad III ibn Abu Bakr's court and discussions with the Vizier Mohammed. The Habr Awal merchants had extensive trade relations with Arab and Indian merchants from Arabia and the Indian subcontinent respectively, and also conducted trade missions on their own vessels to the Arabian ports. Berbera, in addition to Berbera being described as “the freest port in the world, and the most important trading place on the whole Arabian Gulf, was also the main marketplace in the entire Somali seaboard for various goods procured from the interior, such as livestock, coffee, frankincense, myrrh, acacia gum, saffron, feathers, wax, ghee, hide (skin), gold and ivory.


title: Isaaq

text: The Habr Je'lo clan of the Isaaq derived a large supply of frankincense from the trees south in the mountains near port town of Heis. This trade was lucrative and with gum and skins being traded in high quantity, Arab and Indian merchants would visit Habr Je'lo ports early in the season to get these goods cheaper than at Berbera or Zeyla before continuing westwards along the Somali coast. Heis, in addition to being a leading exporter of tanned skins also exported a large quantity of skins and sheep to Aden as well as imported a significant amount of goods from both the Arabian coast and western Somali ports, reaching nearly 2 million rupees by 1903. The Habr Je’lo coastal settlements and ports, stretching from near Siyara in the west to Heis (Xiis) in the east, were important to trade and communication with the Somali interior, with Kurrum (Karin), the principle Habr Je’lo port, being a major market for livestock and frankincense procured from the interior, and was a favorite for livestock traders due to the close proximity of the port to Aden.


title: Isaaq

text: Starting in the middle of the 19th century, Isaaq clans became more connected to the European commercial world as historic ties between southern Somali towns along the Benadir coast with India and Oman were being reoriented southward toward Zanzibar. Isaaq trade and migration patterns were skewed by British imperial control of Aden more toward Europe and colonies like India, Egypt, and the Sudan, enabling the Isaaq to maintain a variety of contacts across the British Empire. The Isaaq clan-family became the first Somalis to actually reside abroad, in western Europe or its colonial outposts, where they socialized in two different cultures.


title: Isaaq

text: The Isaaq affinity for mercantilism was not lost on the sole president and dictator of the Somali Democratic Republic (1969–1991), Siad Barre, who disliked the Isaaq clan-family due to their financial independence, thus making it harder to control them:


title: Isaaq

text: Siyaad had a deep and personal dislike for the clan. The real reasons can only be guessed at, but in part it was due to his inability to control them. As accomplished business operatives, they had built a society that was not dependant on government largesse. The Isaaq had traditional trade relationships with the nations of the Arabian Peninsula that continued despite the attempts of the government to center all economic activity in Mogadishu. Siyaad did what he could, however, and Isaaq traders were forced to make the long trip to Mogadishu for permits and licenses.


title: Isaaq

text: Nevertheless, in the 1970s and 1980s, nearly all of the livestock exports went out through the port of Berbera via Isaaq livestock traders, with the towns of Burao and Yirowe in the interior being home to the largest livestock markets in the Horn of Africa. The entire livestock exports accounted to upwards of 90% of the Somali Republic's entire export figures in a given year, and Berbera's exports alone provided over 75% of the nation's recorded foreign currency income at the time.


title: Isaaq

text: In the Isaaq clan-family, component clans are divided into two uterine divisions, as shown in the genealogy. The first division is between those lineages descended from sons of Sheikh Ishaaq by a Harari woman – the Habr Habuusheed – and those descended from sons of Sheikh Ishaaq by a Somali woman of the Magaadle sub-clan of the Dir – the Habr Magaadle. Indeed, most of the largest clans of the clan-family are in fact uterine alliances hence the matronymic "Habr" which in archaic Somali means "mother". This is illustrated in the following clan structure.


title: Isaaq

text: There is clear agreement on the clan and sub-clan structures that has not changed for a long time. The oldest recorded genealogy of a Somali in Western literature was by Sir Richard Burton in the mid–19th century regarding his Isaaq (Habr Yunis) host and the governor of Zeila, Sharmarke Ali Saleh


title: Isaaq

text: The following listing is taken from the World Bank's "Conflict in Somalia: Drivers and Dynamics" from 2005 and the United Kingdom's Home Office publication, "Somalia Assessment 2001".


title: Isaaq

text: Stereotypes among the Isaaq clans go a long way to explaining each clan's role in Somaliland. In one exemplified folklore tale, Sheikh Ishaaq's three eldest sons split their father's inheritance among themselves. Garhajis receives his "imama", a symbol of leadership; Awal receives the sheikh's wealth; and Ahmed (Tolja'ele) inherits his sword. The story is intended to depict the Garhajis's proclivity for politics, the Habr Awal's mercantile prowess, and the Habr Je'lo's bellicosity.


title: Isaaq

text: To strengthen these clan stereotypes, historical anecdotes have been used: The Garhajis were dominant leaders before and during the colonial period, and thus acquired intellectual and political superiority; Habr Awal dominance of the trade via Djibouti and Berbera is practically uncontested; and Habr Je’lo military prowess is cited in accounts of previous conflicts.


title: Kuldhara

text: Kuldhara is an abandoned village in the Jaisalmer district of Rajasthan, India. Established around the 13th century, it was once a prosperous village inhabited by Paliwal Brahmins. It was abandoned by the early 19th century for unknown reasons, possibly because of dwindling water supply, an earthquake, or as a local legend claims, because of the atrocities by the Jaisalmer State's minister Salim Singh.


title: Kuldhara

text: Over years, Kuldhara acquired reputation as a haunted site, and the Government of Rajasthan decided to develop it as a tourist spot in the 2010s.


title: Kuldhara

text: The former village site is located about 18 km south-west of the Jaisalmer city. The village was located on an 861 m x 261 m rectangular site aligned in the north-south direction. The township was centred around a temple of the mother goddess. It had three longitudinal roads, which were cut through by a number of latitudinal narrow lanes.


title: Kuldhara

text: The remains of a city wall can be seen on the north and the south sides of the site. The eastern side of the town faces the dry-river bed of the small Kakni river. The western side was protected by the back-walls of man-made structures.


title: Kuldhara

text: The Kuldhara village was originally settled by Brahmins who had migrated from Pali to Jaisalmer region. These migrants originating from Pali were called Paliwals. "Tawarikh-i-Jaisalmer", an 1899 history book written by Lakshmi Chand, states that a Paliwal Brahmin named Kadhan was the first person to settle in the Kuldhara village. He excavated a pond called Udhansar in the village.


title: Kuldhara

text: The ruins of the village include 3 cremation grounds, with several "devali"s (memorial stones or cenotaphs). The village was settled by the early 13th century, as indicated by two "devali" inscriptions. These inscriptions are dated in the Bhattik Samvat (a calendar era starting in 623 CE), and record the deaths of two residents in 1235 CE and 1238 CE respectively.


title: Kuldhara

text: Ruins of 410 buildings can be seen in the former village. Another 200 buildings were located in the lower township on the outskirts of the village.


title: Kuldhara

text: Lakshmi Chand's "Tawarikh-i-Jaisalmer" (1899) provides statistics about Paliwal population and households of several villages. Using the figure of 3.97 persons per household based on these statistics, and considering the number of ruined houses as 400, S. A. N. Rezavi estimated the 17th-18th century population of Kuldhara as 1,588. The British officer James Tod recorded the 1815 population of Kuldhara as 800 (in 200 households), based on information from "the best informed natives". By this time, the Paliwals had already started deserting the village. By 1890, the population of the village had declined to 37 people; the number of houses was recorded as 117.


title: Kuldhara

text: There are several other "devali" inscriptions at the site. These inscriptions do not mention the term "Paliwal"; they only describe the inhabitants as Brahmin ("Vrahman" or "Vaman"). Several inscriptions mention the caste of the residents as "Kuldhar" or "Kaldhar". It appears that Kuldhara was a caste group among Paliwal Brahmins, and the village was named after this caste.


title: Kuldhara

text: Some inscriptions also mention the "jati" (sub-caste) and "gotra" (clan) of the residents. The various "jati"s mentioned in the inscriptions include Harjal, Harjalu, Harjaluni, Mudgal, Jisutiya, Loharthi, Lahthi, Lakhar, Saharan, Jag, Kalsar, and Mahajalar. The "gotra"s mentioned include Asamar, Sutdhana, Gargvi and Gago. One inscription also mentions the "kula" (family lineage) of a Brahmin as Gonali. Apart from the Paliwal Brahmins, the inscriptions also mention two "sutradhars" (architects) named Dhanmag and Sujo Gopalna. The inscriptions indicate that the Brahmin residents married within the Brahmin community, although the "jati"s or sub-castes were exogamous.


title: Kuldhara

text: The residents of the village were Vaishnavites. The main temple of the village had sculptures of Vishnu and Mahishasura Mardini. Most of the inscriptions start with an invocation to Ganesha, whose miniature sculptures also appear on the gateways. The villagers also worshiped bull and a local horse-riding deity.


title: Kuldhara

text: If the idols on the "devali"s are considered as representatives of the contemporary fashion, it appears that the men of Kuldhara wore Mughal-style turbans and jamas (tunic-like garment) with kamarband (a type of waist belt). They generally sported a beard, wore a necklace and carried a khanjar (dagger). The women wore tunics or lehengas, and some of them wore necklaces.


title: Kuldhara

text: The villagers were mostly agricultural traders, bankers and farmers. They used ornamented pottery made of fine clay.


title: Kuldhara

text: For agricultural purposes, the villagers used the water from the Kakni river and several wells. They also tapped the water using "khareen", an artificial depression dammed on three sides. When the water in the "khareen" evaporated, it left soil conducive for growing jowar, wheat and gram. A 2.5 km. "khareen" was situated to the south of Kuldhara.


title: Kuldhara

text: The Kakni river branches into two streams near Kuldhara. The first branch is called "Masurdi nadi"; the second branch is now a drain. The Kakni river is a seasonal river. When it went dry, the villagers tapped groundwater using wells and a step-wells. A pillar inscription states that Tejpal, a Kuldhara Brahmin, commissioned the step-well in 1815 VS (1757 CE).


title: Kuldhara

text: By the 19th century, the village had been deserted for unknown reasons. Possible causes proposed in the 20th century include lack of water and the atrocities of a Diwan (official) named Salim Singh (or Zalim Singh).


title: Kuldhara

text: By 1815, most of the wells in the village had dried up. By 1850, only the step-well and two other deep wells were functional. When S. A. N. Rezavi surveyed the village in the 1990s, the only water remaining at the site was the stagnant water at some portions of the dried-up river bed. The dwindling water supply would have greatly reduced agricultural productivity, without a corresponding reduction in tax demands from the Jaisalmer State. This could have forced the Paliwals to abandon Kuldhara. A local legend claims that Salim Singh, the cruel minister of Jaisalmer, levied excessive taxes on the village, leading to its decline.


title: Kuldhara

text: As stated earlier, the historical records suggest that the population of the village declined gradually: its estimated population was around 1,588 during 17th-18th century; around 800 in 1815; and 37 in 1890. However, a variation of the legend claims that the village was abandoned overnight. According to this version, the lecherous minister Salim Singh was attracted to a beautiful girl from the village. He sent his guards to force the villagers to hand over the girl. The villagers asked the guards to return next morning, and abandoned the village overnight. Another version claims that 83 other villages in the area were also abandoned overnight.


title: Kuldhara

text: A 2017 study by A. B. Roy et al., published in "Current Science", suggests that Kuldhara and other neighbouring Paliwal villages (such as Khabha) were destroyed because of an earthquake. According to the authors, the ruined houses in these villages show evidence of earthquake-related destruction, such as "collapsed roofs, fallen joists, lintels and pillars". Such extensive destruction cannot be attributed to "the normal processes of weathering and erosion". The authors further state that their theory is supported by "the evidence of recent tectonic activities and the observed ground movements along several major faults in the region".


title: Kuldhara

text: The local legend claims that while deserting the village, the Paliwals imposed a curse that no one would be able to re-occupy the village. Those who tried to re-populate the village experienced paranormal activities, and therefore, the village remains uninhabited.