title: Komi peoples

text: Hunting, gathering and fishing have long been the main source of food for the Komi people, displayed through the dominance of meat, fish, berries & mushrooms in most Komi diets. Meat dishes were more common in the diet of the northern Komi, while dishes utilizing berries were more common in the south. Popular dishes of Komi cuisine are grain pies with fish, various porridges, , other sour soups, cold soups based on bread, kvass, etc. The popular Russian dumpling dish "pelmeni" likely has its origins in the cuisine of the Komi & Udmurt (Permian) peoples, its name ( пельнянь, "pel'n'an"') meaning "ear bread" in both languages.


title: Komi peoples

text: Most Komi myths are related to shamanism and paganism. The most widespread myths are about the creation of the world as a result of the struggle of two gods, (Komi: Ен) and (Komi: Омöль, "Omöl"'). These 2 deities are regarded as creator-gods in the Komi mythos, who created all life in the world (though it was En who would vivify them). As the Komi were gradually Christianized, the depictions of En & Omyol began to mirror those of God & Satan, in which Omyol would be depicted as the latter due to his efforts to hamper En's creation process. Even with the Christianization of the Komi, there are relatively few Christian legends and tales in the folklore of the Komi, but tales of c"hudins", who are pagans and flee away from the new order to the forests, have become widespread. Some notable characters from Komi mythology include Jirmak (Йиркап) from Sindor, who is thought by the Komi to have invented skis, Joma (Ёма) who is regarded to be a Komi equivalent to the Baba Yaga & Pera (Пера) who is a character from the tales of the Komi-Permyaks known for his courage.


title: Komi peoples

text: Information regarding the pre-Christian Komi religion is not well researched, with formal research by Russian ethnologists only beginning during the later half of the 19th century. Klavdij Alekseevich Popov (1874), Alexandr Vasilevich Krasov (1896), and Kallistrat Faloleevich Zhakov (1901) all made attempts to reconstruct the ancient religion of the Komi-Zyryans, while Nikolai Abramovich Rogov (1858, 1860), Nikolai Dobrotvorsky (1883), Ivan Nikolaevich Smirnov (1891), and Vladimir Mikhailovich Yanovich (1903) made reconstructions of the aspects of the Komi religion focusing on the natural world. According to "The Life of Saint Stefan, the Bishop of Perm" (1897) by Epiphany the Wise, the Komi ancestors had many deities, whose wooden images stood in dedicated cult sanctuaries for higher-ranking deities, while those of domestic deities were kept in Komi dwellings.


title: Komi peoples

text: A study on north-eastern-European populations, published in March 2013, found that Komi-Zyryans form a distinct pole of genetic diversity.


title: Air assault

text: Air assault is the movement of ground-based military forces by vertical take-off and landing (VTOL) aircraft—such as the helicopter—to seize and hold key terrain which has not been fully secured, and to directly engage enemy forces behind enemy lines. In addition to regular infantry training, air-assault units usually receive training in rappelling, fast-rope techniques and air transportation, and their equipment is sometimes designed or field-modified to allow better transportation within aircraft.


title: Air assault

text: The US Army field manual FM 1-02 (FM 101-5-1) describes an "air assault operation" as an operation in which assault forces (combat, combat support, and combat service support), using the firepower, mobility, and total integration of helicopter assets, maneuver on the battlefield under the control of the ground or air maneuver commander to engage and destroy enemy forces or to seize and hold key terrain usually behind enemy lines.


title: Air assault

text: Due to the transport load restrictions of helicopters, air assault forces are usually light infantry, though some armored fighting vehicles, like the Russian BMD-1 are designed to fit most heavy lift helicopters, which enable assaulting forces to combine air mobility with a certain degree of ground mechanization. Invariably the assaulting troops are highly dependent on aerial fire support provided by the attack helicopters, armed helicopters and/or fixed-wing aircraft escorting them. A concept called "mounted vertical maneuver" requires the ability to transport light, motorized, or medium-weight mechanized force by VTOL or super STOL aircraft.


title: Air assault

text: Air assault should not be confused with "air attack", "air strike", or "air raid", which all refer to attack using solely aircraft (for example bombing, strafing, etc.). Moreover, air assault should not be confused with an airborne assault, which occurs when paratroopers, and their weapons and supplies, are dropped by parachute from transport aircraft, often as part of a strategic offensive operation.


title: Air assault

text: Air assault and air mobility are related concepts. However, air assault is distinctly a combat insertion rather than transportation to an area in the vicinity of combat.


title: Air assault

text: Air assault units can vary in organization; using helicopters not only in transport but also as close air fire support, medical evacuation helicopters and resupply missions. Airmobile artillery is often assigned to air assault deployments. Units vary in size, but are typically company to


title: Air assault

text: Airmobile units are designed and trained for air insertion and vertical envelopment ("a maneuver in which troops, either air-dropped or air-landed, attack the rear and flanks of a force, in effect cutting off or encircling the force", air resupply, and if necessary air extraction.


title: Air assault

text: One specific type of air assault unit is the US Army air cavalry. It differs from regular air assault units only in fulfilling a traditional cavalry reconnaissance and short raids role. Britain's 16 Air Assault Brigade was formed in 1999 following an amalgamation of elements of 5th Infantry Brigade (5 Airborne Brigade) and 24 Airmobile Brigade, bringing together the agility and reach of airborne forces with the potency of the attack helicopter. Similarly, the US 101st Airborne Division was originally classed as airborne, then airmobile and now air assault.


title: Air assault

text: Air mobility has been a key concept in offensive operations since the 1930s. Initial approaches to air mobility focused on parachutists and the use of military gliders. During World War II many assaults were done by military gliders. The World War Two era German Fallschirmjäger, Brandenburgers, and the 22nd Air Landing Division glider borne paras laid the foundation for modern day air assault operations. In 1941 the U.S. Army quickly adopted this concept of offensive operations initially utilizing wooden gliders before the development of helicopters. Following the war, faster aircraft led to the abandonment of the flimsy wooden gliders with the then new helicopters taking their place. Four YR-4B helicopters saw limited service in the China Burma India theatre with the 1st Air Commando Group


title: Air assault

text: In 1943 the Germans conducted the Gran Sasso raid which implemented many aspects of the air assault concept. Another example was the German Brandenburgers' glider borne operation at Ypenburg during World War Two.


title: Air assault

text: In 1946, U.S. Marine General Roy S. Geiger observed the atomic bomb tests at Bikini Atoll and instantly recognized that atomic bombs could render amphibious landings difficult because of the dense concentrations of troops, ships and material at beachheads. During this time, The Commandant of the Marine Corps, Alexander Vandegrift, convened a special board known as the Hogaboom Board. This board recommended that the USMC develop transport helicopters in order to allow a diffused attack on enemy shores. It also recommended that the USMC form an experimental helicopter squadron. HMX-1 was commissioned in 1947 with Sikorsky HO3S-1s. In 1948 the Marine Corps Schools came out with "Amphibious Operations—Employment of Helicopters (Tentative)", or "Phib-31", which was the first manual for helicopter airmobile operations. The Marines used the term vertical envelopment instead of air mobility or air assault. HMX-1 performed its first vertical envelopment from the deck of an aircraft carrier in an exercise in 1949.


title: Air assault

text: American forces later used helicopters for support and transport to great effect during the Korean War showing that the helicopter could be a versatile and powerful military tool.


title: Air assault

text: The first helicopter airlift and helicopter sling load mission was conducted on September 13, 1951, during the Korean War. "Operation Windmill I" was conducted by the United States Marine Corps in support of a battalion clearing the enemy from a series of ridges around an extinct volcano called "The Punchbowl." In total seven HRS-1 Marine helicopters made 28 flights that delivered 8,550 kg (18,848 pounds) of supplies and evacuated 74 seriously wounded men.


title: Air assault

text: On November 5, 1956, the Royal Marines' 45 Commando performed the world's first combat helicopter insertion with air assault during an amphibious landing as part of Operation Musketeer, in Suez, Egypt. 650 marines and 23 tons of equipment were flown in ten Westland Whirlwind Mark 2s of 845 Naval Air Squadron from the deck of HMS "Theseus", and six each Whirlwinds and Bristol Sycamore HC.12s and HC.14s off s embarked Joint Experimental Helicopter Unit (JEHU) (Royal Air Force). The plan was to use the helicopters to drop No. 45 Commando at Raswa, to the south of Port Said, in order to secure two vital bridges. Last-minute concerns about their vulnerability to ground fire meant that they were replaced in this role by French paratroops who conducted a daring low-level drop on 5 November, securing one of the two bridges intact. Instead No. 45 Commando was landed the following day, disembarking close to the seafront in the aftermath of the seaborne landing that had secured the area. This first-ever operational use of helicopters to land troops during an amphibious assault proved successful. With their carriers lying nine miles offshore, the marines were landed far more quickly than could have been achieved using landing craft, and without the need to get their boots wet. However ... they landed the marines in much the same place that old style landing craft would have put them.


title: Air assault

text: In 1956, the United States Marine Corps executed the first Division-strength exercise of vertical envelopment when the 1st Marine Division was helicopter-lifted from converted WWII jeep carriers to landing sites at Camp Pendleton, CA, U.S. Marine Corps Base. One of the ships utilized for this exercise was the USS "Thetis Bay". This exercise was the culmination of the Marines' developing strategy of vertical envelopment rather than amphibious assaults on heavily defended beaches. The maneuvers were well-covered by the media of the time, including LIFE Magazine. The Marine Corps subsequently adopted this method as standard operating procedure after proving that helicopters could be used to transport very large numbers of troops and large amounts of supplies in a timely fashion.


title: Air assault

text: Operation Deep Water was a 1957 NATO naval exercise held in the Mediterranean Sea that involved the first units of the United States Marine Corps to participate in a helicopter-borne vertical envelopment operation during an overseas deployment.


title: Air assault

text: During the Vietnam war the U.S. conducted the first large scale air assault operation during the Battle of Ia Drang.


title: Air assault

text: The use of armed helicopters coupled with helicopter transport during the Algerian War for the French Army to drop troops into enemy territory gave birth to the tactics of airmobile warfare that continues today.


title: Air assault

text: The machines of the French Army Light Aviation carried out a considerable number of missions against Algerian insurgents between 1955, when the "Groupe d’Hélicoptères" No.2 (GH 2) was created, and 1962 when the French empire in Algeria finally came to an end. GH 2 was based at Sétif – Aïn Arnat in the east of the country, and it was equipped primarily with machines to undertake transport missions, though the Vertol H-21C, would soon join the unit owing to concerns about the lack of machines which could both defend themselves and carry out offensive missions against the insurgents. Acquiring these machines lay in the hands of the licensee Piasecki given France's urgent need to have them on account of the circumstances. Usually, the H-21 could carry up to 18 troops, yet local operating (as well as climatic) conditions decreed that the French army examples could carry only up to around 12 troops each. In two years, GH 2 received the vast majority of the H-21s acquired by ALAT, which consisted of five squadrons by the end of 1958. A sixth squadron from the French naval air arm, the "Aéronautique navale", had operated with GH 2 for little more than a year.


title: Air assault

text: From 1955 to 1962, GH 2 took part in the major battles, which occurred near the frontier between Algeria and Tunisia, including the battle of Souk-Ahras in April 1958. The helicopters, including types such as the H-21, the Alouette II, the Sikorsky H-19 and Sikorsky H-34, together aggregated over 190,000 flying hours in Algeria (over 87,000 for the H-21 alone) and helped to evacuate over 20,000 French combatants from the combat area, including nearly 2,200 at night. By the time the war in Algeria had ended, eight officers and 23 non-commissioned officers from ALAT had died in the course of their duties.


title: Air assault

text: U.S. Army CH-21 helicopter transports arrived in South Vietnam on 11 December 1961. Air assault operations using Army of the Republic of Vietnam (ARVN) troops began 12 days later in Operation Chopper. These were very successful at first but the Viet Cong (VC) began developing counter helicopter techniques, and at the Battle of Ap Bac in January 1963, 13 of 15 helicopters were hit and four shot down. The Army began adding machine guns and rockets to their smaller helicopters and developed the first purpose built gunship with the M-6E3 armament system.


title: Air assault

text: U.S. Marine helicopter squadrons began four-month rotations through Vietnam as part of Operation SHUFLY on 15 April 1962. Six days later, they performed the first helicopter assault using U.S. Marine helicopters and ARVN troops. After April 1963, as losses began to mount, U.S. Army UH-1 Huey gunships escorted the Marine transports. The VC again used effective counter landing techniques and in Operation Sure Wind 202 on 27 April 1964, 17 of 21 helicopters were hit and three shot down.


title: Air assault

text: The 2nd Battalion 3rd Marines made a night helicopter assault in the Elephant Valley south of Da Nang on 13 August 1965 shortly after Marine ground troops arrived in country. HMM-361 commanded by LtCol Tom Ross. On 17 August 1965 in Operation Starlite the 2nd Battalion 4th Marines landed in three helicopter landing zones (LZs) west of the 1st VC Regiment in the Van Tuong village complex, south of Chu Lai, while the 3rd Battalion 3rd Marines used seaborne landing craft on the beaches to the east. The transport helicopters were 24 UH-34s from HMM-361, HMM-261 and HMM-161 in relief, escorted by Marine and Army Hueys from VMO-2 and VMO-6 led by Maj Donald G. Radcliff, US Army who was killed in action. VC losses were 614 killed, Marine losses were 45 KIA and 203 WIA.


title: Air assault

text: The need for a new type of unit became apparent to the Tactical Mobility Requirements Board (normally referred to as the Howze Board) of the U.S. Army in 1962. The Board met at a difficult time; the bulk of the military hierarchy were focused primary on the Soviet threat to Western Europe, primarily perceived as requiring heavy, conventional units. The creation of new, light airmobile units could only occur at the expense of heavier units. At the same time, the incoming Kennedy administration was placing a much greater emphasis on the need to fight 'small wars', or counter-insurgencies, and was strongly supportive of officers such as General Howze who were embracing new technologies. The Board concluded that a new form of unit would be required, and commissioned tests – but justified these at the time on the need to fight a conventional war in Europe.


title: Air assault

text: Initially a new experimental unit was formed at Fort Benning, Georgia, the 11th Air Assault Division on 11 February 1963, combining light infantry with integral helicopter transport and air support. Opinions vary as to the level of support for the concept within the Army; some have argued that the initial tests against the context of conventional warfare did not prove promising, and, despite opposition from the Joint Chiefs of Staff, it was primarily the Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara who pushed through the changes in 1965, drawing on support from within the Pentagon which had now begun to establish a counter-insurgency doctrine that would require just such a unit. Others have put more weight on the support of newly appointed senior Army commanders, including the new Chief of Staff General Wheeler, in driving through the changes. Nonetheless, the 11th Air Assault Division assets were merged with the co-located 2nd Infantry Division and reflagged as the 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile), continuing the tradition of the 1st Cavalry Division. Within several months it was sent to Vietnam and the concept of air mobility became bound up with the challenges of that campaign, especially its varied terrain – the jungles, mountains, and rivers which complicated ground movement.


title: Air assault

text: The first unit of the new division to see major combat was the 1st Battalion, 7th Cavalry Regiment, 1st Cavalry Division, led by Lieutenant Colonel Harold G. Moore. The 7th Cavalry was the same regiment that Custer had commanded at the ill-fated Battle of the Little Bighorn. On November 14, 1965, Moore led his troops in the first large unit engagement of the Vietnam War, which took place near the Chu Pong massif near the Vietnam-Cambodia border. It is known today as the Battle of Ia Drang Valley, and is considered to be the first large scale helicopter air assault.


title: Air assault

text: This battalion (vice "squadron," which would have been its nomenclature had it actually been a cavalry organization) gave common currency, albeit incorrectly, to the U.S. term "Air Cavalry." However, 1-7 Cav was in actuality an infantry formation carrying a "Cavalry" designation purely for purposes of lineage and heraldry. (True air cavalry organizations are/were helicopter-mounted reconnaissance units.) Light infantry-centric organizations (battalions, brigades, or divisions) that are trained, organized, and equipped to operate with organic (i.e., owned by the joint parent headquarters of both the light infantry organization and the supporting aviation organization) are classified as "Air Assault," previously designated as "Airmobile."


title: Air assault

text: The Vietnam-era 1st Cavalry Division (Airmobile) was not an "air cavalry" division, per se, although it did contain air cavalry squadrons. The division was a new concept that probably was more akin to a modern version of "mounted rifles," owing to its helicopter "mounts," and, as did 1-7 Cav discussed above, carried the "Cavalry" designation primarily for purposes of lineage and heraldry, and not because of its then current mission or organizational structure.


title: Air assault

text: On a practical level, virtually any light infantry formation can instantly become "airmobile" simply by dividing the assault elements into "chalks" (aircraft load designations pertaining to order of loading and type of aircraft), embarking them on the aircraft, transporting them to the objective/assembly area, and inserting/disembarking them into a landing zone, etc. However, true "air assault" organizations are specialized light infantry (much like airborne troops), who are trained, organized, and equipped specifically to perform the complex, rapid, and dynamic tasks inherent in air assault vice simply being transported by aircraft. Perhaps a rough comparison can be made between "motorized" and "mechanized" infantry. Any light infantry unit can be transported by truck (viz., "motorized"), however, "mechanized" infantry are specifically trained, organized, and equipped to conduct operations in close-coordination with tanks.


title: Air assault

text: The armed forces of Portugal, Rhodesia and South Africa widely conducted airmobile warfare operations in Southern Africa, during the Portuguese Colonial War (1961–1974), the Rhodesian Bush War (1964–1979) and the South African Border War (1966–1990). The airmobile warfare was part of the counter-insurgency actions made by the forces of the three countries against guerrilla forces in Angola, Portuguese Guinea, Rhodesia, Mozambique and South-West Africa.


title: Air assault

text: The airmobile warfare tactics used by Portugal, Rhodesia and South Africa had many similar characteristics. The air forces of the three countries also used the same types of helicopters (mainly Alouette III and later, regarding Portugal and South Africa, SA 330 Puma), and there were military cooperation agreements and sharing of experience between the three powers, including the secret Alcora Exercise.


title: Air assault

text: Portuguese, Rhodesian and South African airmobile tactics often involved air assaults done by small units of special forces or light infantry, transported in four or five Alouette III helicopters. Assaults were often supported by an Alouette III armed with a side-mounted 20 mm MG 151 autocannon. This helicopter was nicknamed "Helicanhão" (heli-cannon) by the Portuguese and "K-Car" by the Rhodesians. Variants of the air mobile warfare tactics used in Africa included the Rhodesian Fireforce and the Portuguese heliborne-horseborne forces cooperation.


title: Air assault

text: Meghna Heli Bridge was an aerial operation of Indian and Bangladeshi allied forces during the Bangladesh Liberation War in 1971. It took place on 9 December, when the Indian Air Force airlifted the Mukti Bahini and the IV Corps of the Indian Army from Brahmanbaria to Raipura in Narsingdi over the River Meghna, bypassing the destroyed Meghna Bridge and Pakistani defences in Ashuganj.


title: Air assault

text: In the United States Army, the air assault mission is the primary role of the 101st Airborne Division (Air Assault). This unit is a division-sized helicopter-borne fighting force. 101st Airborne Division soldiers attend the Sabalauski Air Assault School. Graduates are qualified to insert and extract using fast rope and rappel means from a hover in addition to the ordinary walk on and off from an airlanded helicopter.


title: Air assault

text: In addition, all U.S. Marine Corps divisions are capable of, and routinely train for and perform, air assault operations. Forward-deployed Marine Corps infantry battalions/regiments (reinforced, organized, and designated as Battalion Landing Teams/Regimental Combat Teams, or BLTs and RCTs, respectively), form the Ground Combat Element (GCE) of a Marine Expeditionary Unit (MEU), or Marine Expeditionary Brigade (MEB). These MEUs and MEBs are capable of embarking aboard amphibious warships and include air assault as one of several means of conducting amphibious landing operations, supported by embarked Marine Corps tilt-rotor, helicopter, and STOVL fixed-wing strike aircraft.


title: Air assault

text: The 10th Mountain Division Light Infantry has a limited capability to perform air assault operations. On September 19, 1994, the 1st Brigade of the 10th Mountain Division conducted the Army's first air assault from an aircraft carrier, the , as part of Operation Uphold Democracy. This force consisted of 54 helicopters and almost 2,000 soldiers. This was the Army's largest operation from an aircraft carrier since the Doolittle Raid of World War II


title: Air assault

text: The 16th Air Assault Brigade of the British Army is the UK's main air assault body. It comprises units of paratroopers from the Parachute Regiment and light infantry units trained in helicopter insertion, as well as light tanks and artillery.


title: Air assault

text: Britain's 3 Commando Brigade Royal Marines are also highly experienced in air assault, both for boarding ships and in land attacks, see article above.


title: Paywall

text: A paywall is a method of restricting access to content, with a purchase or a paid subscription, especially news. Beginning in the mid-2010s, newspapers started implementing paywalls on their websites as a way to increase revenue after years of decline in paid print readership and advertising revenue, partly due to the use of ad blockers. In academics, research papers are often subject to a paywall and are available via academic libraries that subscribe.


title: Paywall

text: Paywalls have also been used as a way of increasing the number of print subscribers; for example, some newspapers offer access to online content plus delivery of a Sunday print edition at a lower price than online access alone. Newspaper websites such as that of "The Boston Globe" and "The New York Times" use this tactic because it increases both their online revenue and their print circulation (which in turn provides more ad revenue).


title: Paywall

text: In 1996, "The Wall Street Journal" set up and has continued to maintain a "hard" paywall. It continued to be widely read, acquiring over one million users by mid-2007, and 15 million visitors in March 2008.


title: Paywall

text: In 2010, following in the footsteps of "The Wall Street Journal", "The Times" (London) implemented a "hard" paywall; a decision which was controversial because, unlike "The Wall Street Journal", "The Times" is a general news site, and it was said that rather than paying, users would seek the information without charge elsewhere. The paywall was deemed in practice to be neither a success nor a failure, having recruited 105,000 paying visitors. In contrast "The Guardian" resisted the use of a paywall, citing "a belief in an open Internet" and "care in the community" as its reasoning – an explanation found in its welcome article to online news readers who, blocked from "The Times" site following the implementation of their paywall, came to "The Guardian" for online news. "The Guardian" since experimented with other revenue-increasing ventures such as open API. Other papers, prominently "The New York Times", have oscillated between the implementation and removal of various paywalls. Because online news remains a relatively new medium, it has been suggested that experimentation is key to maintaining revenue while keeping online news consumers satisfied.


title: Paywall

text: Some implementations of paywalls proved unsuccessful, and have been removed. Experts who are skeptical of the paywall model include Arianna Huffington, who declared "the paywall is history" in a 2009 article in "The Guardian". In 2010, Wikipedia co-founder Jimmy Wales reportedly called "The Times's" paywall "a foolish experiment." One major concern was that, with content so widely available, potential subscribers would turn to free sources for their news. The adverse effects of earlier implementations included decline in traffic and poor search engine optimization.


title: Paywall

text: Paywalls have become controversial, with partisans arguing over the effectiveness of paywalls in generating revenue and their effect on media in general. Critics of paywalls include many businesspeople, academics such as media professor Jay Rosen, and journalists such as Howard Owens and media analyst Matthew Ingram of GigaOm. Those who see potential in paywalls include investor Warren Buffett, former "Wall Street Journal" publisher Gordon Crovitz, and media mogul Rupert Murdoch. Some have changed their opinions of paywalls. Felix Salmon of Reuters was initially an outspoken skeptic of paywalls, but later expressed the opinion that they could be effective. A NYU media theorist, Clay Shirky, was initially a skeptic of paywalls, but in May 2012 wrote, "[Newspapers] should turn to their most loyal readers for income, via a digital subscription service of the sort the [New York Times] has implemented." Paywalls are rapidly changing journalism, with an impact on its practice and business model, and on freedom of information on the Internet, that is yet unclear.


title: Paywall

text: Three high level models of paywall have emerged: "hard paywalls" that allow no free content and prompt the user straight away to pay in order to read, listen or watch the content, "soft paywalls" that allow some free content, such as an abstract or summary, and "metered paywalls" that allow a set number of free articles that a reader can access over a specific period of time, allowing more flexibility in what users can view without subscribing.


title: Paywall

text: The "hard" paywall, as used by "The Times", requires paid subscription before any of their online content can be accessed. A paywall of this design is considered the riskiest option for the content provider. It is estimated that a website will lose 90% of its online audience and ad revenue only to gain it back through its ability to produce online content appealing enough to attract subscribers. News sites with "hard" paywalls can succeed if they:


title: Paywall

text: Many experts denounce the "hard" paywall because of its inflexibility, believing it acts as a major deterrent for users. Financial blogger Felix Salmon wrote that when one encounters a "paywall and can’t get past it, you simply go away and feel disappointed in your experience." Jimmy Wales, founder of the online encyclopedia Wikipedia, argued that the use of a "hard" paywall diminishes a site's influence. Wales stated that, by implementing a "hard" paywall, "The Times" "made itself irrelevant." Though the "Times" had potentially increased its revenue, it decreased its traffic by 60%.


title: Paywall

text: The "soft" paywall is best embodied by the metered model. The metered paywall allows users to view a specific number of articles before requiring paid subscription. In contrast to sites allowing access to select content outside the paywall, the metered paywall allows access to any article as long as the user has not surpassed the set limit. The "Financial Times" allows users to access 10 articles before becoming paid subscribers. "The New York Times" controversially implemented a metered paywall in March 2011 which let users view 20 free articles a month before paid subscription. In April 2012 "New York Times" reduced the number of free articles per month to 10. Their metered paywall has been defined as not only soft, but "porous," because it also allows access to any link posted on a social media site, and up to 25 free articles a day if accessed through a search engine.


title: Paywall

text: The model is designed to allow the paper to "retain traffic from light users", which in turn allows the paper to keep their number of visitors high, while receiving circulation revenue from the site's heavy users. Using this model "The New York Times" garnered 224,000 subscribers in the first three months. While many proclaimed "The New York Times" paywall a success after it reported a profit in the third quarter of 2011, the profit increase is said to be "ephemeral" and "largely based on a combination of cutbacks and the sale of assets."


title: Paywall

text: Google Search previously enforced a policy known as "First Click Free", whereby paywalled news websites were required to have a metered paywall for a minimum number of articles per-day (three, initially five) that could be accessed via results on Google Search or Google News. The site could still paywall other articles that were accessible via the page. This encouraged publications to allow their articles to be indexed by Google's web crawler, thus enhancing their prominence on Google Search and Google News. Sites that opted out of First Click Free were demoted in Google's rankings. Google discontinued the policy in 2017, stating that it provide additional tools for helping publications integrate subscriptions into its platforms.


title: Paywall

text: A "softer" paywall strategy includes allowing free access to select content, while keeping premium content behind a paywall. Such a strategy has been said to lead to "the creation of two categories: cheap fodder available for free (often created by junior staffers), and more 'noble' content." This type of separation brings into question the egalitarianism of the online news medium. According to political and media theorist Robert A Hackett, "the commercial press of the 1800s, the modern world’s first mass medium, was born with a profound democratic promise: to present information without fear or favour, to make it accessible to everyone, and to foster public rationality based on equal access to relevant facts.".


title: Paywall

text: "The Boston Globe" implemented a version of this strategy in September 2011 by launching a second website, BostonGlobe.com, to solely offer content from the paper behind a hard paywall, aside from most sports content, which was kept open to compete against other local sports websites. The former "Boston Globe" website, Boston.com, was relaunched with a larger focus on community news, sports, and lifestyle content, as well as selected "Boston Globe" content. The paper's editor Martin Baron described the two services as "two different sites for two different kinds of reader – some understand [that] journalism needs to be funded and paid for. Other people just won't pay. We have a site for them." By March 2014 the site had over 60,000 digital subscribers; at that time, the "Globe" announced that it would replace the hard paywall with a metered system allowing users to read 10 articles without charge in any 30-day period. "The Boston Globe" editor Brian McGrory believed that an ability to sample the site's premium content would encourage more people to subscribe to the service. At the same time, McGrory also announced plans to give Boston.com a more distinct editorial focus, with a "sharper voice that better captures the sensibilities of Boston", while migrating other content by "Globe" writers, such as blogs from Boston.com to the paper's website, but keeping them freely available.


title: Paywall

text: Professional reception to the implementation of paywalls has been mixed. Most discussion of paywalls centers on their success or failure as business ventures, and overlooks their ethical implications for maintaining an informed public. In the paywall debate there are those who see the implementation of a paywall as a "sandbag strategy" – a strategy which may help increase revenue in the short term, but not a strategy that will foster future growth for the newspaper industry. For the "hard" paywall specifically, however, there seems to be an industry consensus that the negative effects (loss of readership) outweigh the potential revenue, unless the newspaper targets a niche audience.


title: Paywall

text: There are also those who remain optimistic about the use of paywalls to help revitalize floundering newspaper revenues. Those who believe implementing paywalls will succeed, however, continually buffer their opinion with contingencies. Bill Mitchell states that for a paywall to bring new revenue and not deter current readers, newspapers must: "invest in flexible systems, exploit their journalists' expertise in niche areas, and, crucially, offer readers their money's worth in terms of new value." The State of the News Media's 2011 annual report on American journalism makes the sweeping claim that: "[t]o survive financially, the consensus on the business side of news operations is that news sites not only need to make their advertising smarter, but they also need to find some way to charge for content and to invent new revenue streams other than display advertising and subscriptions." Even those who do not believe in the general success of paywalls recognize that, for a profitable future, newspapers must start generating more attractive content with added value, or investigate new sources of earning revenue.


title: Paywall

text: Proponents of the paywall believe that it may be crucial for smaller publications to stay afloat. They argue that since 90 percent of advertising revenues are concentrated in the top 50 publishers, smaller operations can't necessarily depend on the traditional ad-supported free content model the way that larger sites can. Many paywall advocates also contend that people are more than willing to pay a small price for quality content. In a March 2013 guest post for VentureBeat, Malcolm CasSelle of MediaPass stated his belief that monetization would become "something of a self-fulfilling prophecy: people [will] pay for content, and that money goes back into making the overall content even better."


title: Paywall

text: In April 2013 the Newspaper Association of America released its industry revenue profile for 2012, which reported that circulation revenue grew by 5 percent for dailies, making it the first year of circulation growth in ten years. Digital-only circulation revenue reportedly grew 275%; print and digital bundled circulation revenue grew 499%. Along with the shift towards bundling print and online into combined access subscriptions, print-only circulation revenue declined 14%. This news corroborates a growing belief that digital subscriptions will be the key to securing the long-term survival of newspapers.


title: Paywall

text: In May 2019, research by the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism at the University of Oxford showed that despite the controversies surrounding paywalls, these were on the rise across Europe and the United States. According to the study by Felix Simon and Lucas Graves, more than two-thirds of leading newspapers (69%) across the EU and US were operating some kind of online paywall as of 2019, a trend that has increased since 2017 according to the researchers, with the US seeing an increase from 60% to 76%.


title: Paywall

text: General user response to the implementation of paywalls has been measured through a number of recent studies which analyze readers' online news-reading habits. A study completed by the Canadian Media Research Consortium entitled "Canadian Consumers Unwilling to Pay for News Online", directly identifies the Canadian response to paywalls. Surveying 1,700 Canadians, the study found that 92% of participants who read the news online would rather find a free alternative than pay for their preferred site (in comparison to 82% of Americans), while 81% stated that they would absolutely not pay for their preferred online news site. Based on the poor reception of paid content by the participants, the study concludes with a statement similar to those of the media experts, stating, with the exception of prominent papers such as "The Wall Street Journal" and "The Times", that given the "current public attitudes, most publishers had better start looking elsewhere for revenue solutions."


title: Paywall

text: A study by Elizabeth Benítez from the World Association of News Publishers surveyed 355 participants in Mexico, Europe and the United States. The study found that "Young readers are willing to pay up to €6 for a monthly digital news subscription – 50% less than the average price (€14.09) across countries. According to the Reuters Institute for the Study of Journalism (Simon and Graves 2019), €14.09 is the average monthly subscription price across six European countries and the United States."


title: Paywall

text: Hackett argues that a "forum on the internet [...] can function as a specialized or smaller-scale public sphere." In the past, the internet has been an ideal location for the general public to gather and discuss relevant news issues – an activity made accessible first through free access to online news content, and subsequently the ability to comment on the content, creating a forum. Erecting a paywall restricts the public's open communication with one another by restricting the ability to both read and share online news.


title: Paywall

text: The obvious way in which a paywall restricts equal access to the online public sphere is through requiring payment, deterring those who do not want to pay, and barring those who cannot from joining the online discussion. The restriction of equal access was taken to a new extreme when the UK's "The Independent" in October 2011 placed a paywall on foreign readers only. Online news media have the proven ability to create global connection beyond the typical reach of a public sphere. In "Democratizing Global Media," Hackett and global communications theorist Yuezhi Zhao describe how a new "wave of media democratization arises in the era of the internet which has facilitated transnational civil society networks of and for democratic communication."


title: Paywall

text: The use of paywalls has also received many complaints from online news readers regarding an online subscriptions' inability to be shared like a traditional printed paper. While a printed paper can be shared among friends and family, the ethics behind sharing an online subscription are less clear because there is no physical object involved. "The New York Times"' "ethicist" columnist, Ariel Kaminer, addressing the question of sharing online subscription, states that "sharing with your spouse or young child is one thing; sharing with friends or family who live elsewhere is another." The reader comments following Kaminer's response focus on the dichotomy between paying for a printed paper and paying for an online subscription. A printed paper's ease of access meant that more individuals could read a single copy, and that everyone who read the paper had the ability to send a letter to the editor without the hassle of registering or paying for the subscription. As such, the use of a paywall closes off the communication in both the personal realm and online. This opinion is not just held by online news readers, but also by opinion writers. Jimmy Wales comments that he "would rather write [an opinion piece] where it is going to be read", declaring that "putting opinion pieces behind paywalls [makes] no sense."


title: Paywall

text: In the U.S., it has been observed that the use of paywalls by high-quality publications has enhanced the reach of non-paywalled online outlets that promote right-wing perspectives, conspiracy theories, and fake news.


title: Paywall

text: The use of a paywall to bar individuals from accessing news content online without payment, brings up numerous ethical questions. According to Hackett, media are already "failing to furnish citizens with ready access to relevant civic information." The implementation of paywalls on previously free news content heightens this failure through intentional withholding. Hackett cites "general cultural and economic mechanisms, such as the commodification of information and the dependence of commercial media on advertising revenue" as two of the greatest influences on media performance. According to Hackett, these cultural and economic mechanisms "generate violations of the democratic norm of equality." Implementation of a paywall addresses and intimately ties the two mechanisms cited by Hackett, as the paywall commodifies news content to bring in revenue from both readers and from increased circulation of printed paper's ads. The result of these mechanisms, as stated by Hackett, is an impediment to "equal access to relevant [news] facts."


title: Paywall

text: The commodification of information–making news into a product that must be purchased–restricts the egalitarian founding principle of the newspaper. Editor's Weblog reporter Katherine Travers, addressing this issue in a post discussing the future of "The Washington Post", asks, "is digital subscription as permissible as charging a couple of dollars now and then for a paper copy?" While subscription fees have long been attached to print newspapers, all other forms of news have traditionally been free. Online news, in comparison has existed as a medium of free dissemination. Poynter digital media fellow Jeff Sonderman outlines the ethical tension created by a paywall. Sonderman explains that "[t]he underlying tension is that newspapers act simultaneously as businesses and as servants of the public’s interest. As for-profit enterprises, they have the right (the duty, even) to make money for shareholders or private owners. But most also claim to have a social compact, in which they safeguard the entire public interest and help their entire community shape and understand its shared values."


title: Paywall

text: Some newspapers have removed their paywall from blocking content covering emergencies. When Hurricane Irene hit the United States' east coast in late August 2011, "The New York Times" declared that all storm related coverage, accessed both online and through mobile devices, would be free to readers. "The New York Times"' assistant managing editor, Jeff Roberts, discusses the paper's decision, stating: "[w]e are aware of our obligations to our audience and to the public at large when there is a big story that directly impacts such a large portion of people." In his article discussing the removal of paywalls, Soderman commends "The New York Times"' action, stating that, while a publisher "commits to a paywall as the best business strategy for his news company, there may be some stories or subjects which carry such importance and urgency that it is irresponsible to withhold them from nonsubscribers."


title: Paywall

text: Similarly in 2020, a large number of outlets exempted stories relating to the COVID-19 pandemic from their paywalls as a public service, and to combat misinformation relating to the virus. In April 2020, Canadian newspaper group Postmedia went further and removed its paywall from all content in April 2020, with a sponsorship from a fast food chain.


title: Paywall

text: Given the overwhelming opinion that, regardless of paywall success, new revenue sources must be sought out for newspapers' financial success, it is important to highlight new business initiatives. According to Poynter media expert Bill Mitchell, in order for a paywall to generate sustainable revenue, newspapers must create "new value"—higher quality, innovation, etc.—in their online content that merits payment which previously free content did not. In addition to erecting paywalls, newspapers have been increasingly exploiting tablet and mobile news products, the profitability of which remains inconclusive. Another strategy, pioneered by "The New York Times", involves creating new revenue by packaging old content in e-books and special feature offerings, to create an appealing product for readers. The draw of these packages is not just the topic but the authors and the breadth of coverage. According to reporter Mathew Ingram, newspapers can benefit from these special offerings in two ways, first by taking advantage of old content when new interest arises, such as an anniversary or an important event, and second, through the creation of packages of general interest. "The New York Times", for example, has created packages, mainly ebooks, on baseball, golf and the digital revolution.


title: Paywall

text: Also, successful implementation of paywalls in digital media follows a general rule of thumb: where there is a drop in advertising revenue, there is a solid chance for adopting a subscription model and/or paywalls.


title: Paywall

text: An open API (application programming interface) makes the online news site "a platform for data and information that [the newspaper company] can generate value from in other ways." Opening their API makes a newspaper's data available to outside sources, allowing developers and other services to make use of a paper's content for a fee. "The Guardian", in keeping with its "belief in an open internet", has been experimenting with the use of API. "The Guardian" has created an "open platform" which works on a three level system:


title: Paywall

text: While an open API is regarded as a gamble just like a paywall, journalist Matthew Ingram ethically notes that the use of an open API aims at "profiting from the open exchange of information and other aspects of an online-media world, while the [paywall] is an attempt to create the kind of artificial information scarcity that newspapers used to enjoy." An open API keeps news content free to the public while the newspaper makes a profit from the quality and usefulness of its data to other businesses. The open API strategy can be commended because it takes the pressure off of the news room to continually investigate and explore new means of revenue. Instead, the open API strategy relies on the interest and ideas of those outside the newsroom, to whom the site's content and data are attractive.


title: Paywall

text: Due to implementation details involving web technologies, most paywalls that do not simply require the user to pay to view articles at all can be defeated.


title: Paywall

text: Some online paywalls can be bypassed using the browser's "Private Browsing Mode" or "incognito", which make browser not to have trace, such as record browser history, cookie, cache, auto completed form fill, logged in website, or other traces.


title: Paywall

text: Since many paywalls require JavaScript in order to function, the paywall itself might cease to do anything if the user disables scripting in their web browser, for example, through the NoScript extension.


title: Paywall

text: As certain paywalls enforce the metering by setting a HTTP cookie, the user might simply have to clear cookies for that site, remove the site's permission to set them, or set their web browser to "session cookies only", which overrides the cookie's expiration date.


title: Paywall

text: Some paywalls rely on obstructing the content, but not removing it. Therefore, clicking the web browser's "Reader Mode" may allow the content to be formatted in such a way that it is readable.


title: Paywall

text: A few paywalls offer IP blocking which track users' IP address. This prevents them from switching to Private Browser (incognito) mode to view restricted content.


title: Paywall

text: Website archival sites such as Archive.today and the Wayback Machine often have full articles without the paywall, for articles that are already partially available without the paywall.


title: Paywall

text: In November 2018, Mozilla removed an extension called Bypass Paywalls from the Firefox add-on store, but users can still install it from outside the store. A version for Google Chrome and Chromium-based web browsers also exists.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: The Toyota New Global Architecture (abbreviated as TNGA) are modular automobile platforms that underpin various Toyota and Lexus models starting with the fourth-generation Prius in late 2015. TNGA platforms accommodate different vehicle sizes and also front-, rear- and all-wheel drive configurations.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: The platforms were developed as part of a company-wide effort to simplify the vehicles being produced by Toyota. Before the introduction of the TNGA, Toyota was building roughly 100 different platform variants. , the five TNGA platforms underpin more than 50% of Toyota vehicles sold worldwide and is expected to underpin about 80% by 2023.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: Each platform is based on a standardized seat height that allows for sharing of key interior components such as steering systems, shifters, pedals, seat frames and airbags. These components are often less visible, allowing for cars that share platforms to have unique interiors. Compared to Toyota's older platforms, TNGA costs 20 percent less to produce while offering increased chassis stiffness, lower centers of gravity for better handling and lower hood cowls for better forward visibility.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: The TNGA platform was developed alongside the Dynamic Force engine, which similarly is replacing more than 800 engine variants with a much simpler lineup of 17 versions of nine engines. Toyota is also simplifying its lineup of transmissions, hybrid systems, and all-wheel drive systems.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: The TNGA-B platform underpins unibody vehicles in the A-segment or city car, B-segment or subcompact car, subcompact crossover SUV, and mini MPV categories. The platform is offered in both front-wheel drive and all-wheel drive variants and is paired with a transverse engine. The platform also supports a wheelbase length of . TNGA-B replaces the older B platform.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: The TNGA-C platform underpins unibody vehicles in the C-segment or compact car, subcompact/compact crossover SUV, and compact/mid-size MPV categories. The platform is offered in both front-wheel drive and all-wheel drive variants and is paired with a transverse engine. The platform also supports a wheelbase length of . TNGA-C replaces the older MC/New MC platform.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: The TNGA-F platform underpins body-on-frame vehicles in the full-size SUV and full-size pickup truck categories, and is also expected to underpin future mid-sized pickup trucks as well as mid-sized SUVs. It supports a wheelbase length of .


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: The TNGA-K platform underpins unibody vehicles in the D-segment or mid-size car, E-segment or full-size car, compact/mid-size crossover SUV, and large MPV categories. The platform is offered in both front-wheel drive and all-wheel drive variants and is paired with a transverse engine. The platform also supports a wheelbase length of . TNGA-K replaces the older K platform.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: The TNGA-L platform underpins unibody vehicles in the E-segment or executive car, F-segment or full-size luxury car, and S-segment or grand tourer categories. The platform is offered in both rear-wheel drive and all-wheel drive variants and is paired with a longitudinal engine. The platform also supports a wheelbase length of . The Crown was also produced with a narrow version at wide. TNGA-L replaces the older N platform.


title: Toyota New Global Architecture

text: e-TNGA is a modular platform dedicated to battery electric vehicles, which was announced in October 2019. Internally known as the 40PL platform, the platform will enable offering various type and size of vehicles, different battery capacity and with front-wheel drive, rear-wheel drive or dual motor all-wheel drive. This vehicle architecture is partitioned into five modules. These are the front module, center module, rear module, battery and motor. Up to three versions of each module are in development, including three capacities for the lithium-ion battery. The first e-TNGA-based model is the bZ4X crossover, which was presented for the first time in April 2021. Other vehicles planned by 2025 include a medium SUV, a medium minivan, a medium sedan, and a large SUV. For Subaru-badged models, the platform is also known as the e-Subaru Global Platform (e-SGP).


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: Forbidden is the eighteenth studio album by English rock band Black Sabbath, released in June 1995. This recording saw the reunion of Black Sabbath's "Tyr"-era line-up from 1990, with the return of Neil Murray and Cozy Powell. It was the last album to feature Tony Martin on vocals and Geoff Nicholls on keyboards, and the last by the band until 2013 when Ozzy Osbourne and Geezer Butler returned for the album "13". The album sold 21,000 copies in the US in its first week and as of 2013, "Forbidden" has sold 191,000 copies in the US.


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: The album received a generally negative response from critics and fans alike. After its release, the band underwent several line-up changes and found itself at a career crossroads. However, original Black Sabbath vocalist Ozzy Osbourne would reconcile with guitarist Tony Iommi not long afterwards.


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: The recording of "Forbidden" followed some late lineup changes within the band, with Butler replaced by Murray and Powell returning in the immediate aftermath of the 1994 "Cross Purposes" tour. Writing and rehearsals took place at Bluestone Farm in Wales, ahead of recording at Parr Street Studios, Liverpool that December. According to a July 1995 interview by Tony Iommi for the Boston radio station WBCN, the album took ten days to record. The album was launched in June 1995.


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: Musically, the release draws on traditional heavy metal and power metal styles as well as influences from blues. Ernie C of the rap metal band Body Count produced, recorded and mixed the album. The album's opening track, "The Illusion of Power", features a verse by Body Count member Ice-T, delivering a spoken word part during the song's bridge.


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: "Forbidden" was panned by critics upon its release. AllMusic's Bradley Torreano gave the album only one and a half stars, remarking that "with boring songs, awful production, and uninspired performances, this is easily avoidable for all but the most enthusiastic fan". He also stated that he considered it a "sad state of affairs" given the band's long history. "Blender" magazine called "Forbidden" "an embarrassment ... the band's worst album".


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: Band members have since spoken about their mixed opinions of the album. Vocalist Tony Martin made known his feelings in an interview in July 2011, during which he stated: "Well, "Forbidden" is... I want to say 'crap', but it's actually not". He added that he thought the songs worked in rehearsals, but other factors, such as rumours of a reunion of the original Black Sabbath line-up and the record company wanting to "take [the album] and see what Ice-T wanted to do", gave the album a "distinct ill feeling". Martin also maintained that he never believed a "Run-D.M.C. type"/"Rap Sabbath" album would work. Rob Zombie gave some lighter praise at the launch, stating "There is one easy way to figure out the lasting power of Black Sabbath. There's always certain bands that get a great reaction and Black Sabbath is always one of them." In regards to the subsequent original line-up reunion, Martin has also said "Forbidden" was a "filler album that got the band out of the label deal, rid of the singer, and into the reunion", but remarked that he "wasn't privy to that information at the time".


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: Guitarist Tony Iommi has admitted to Sabbath fanzine "Southern Cross" that he was "not happy" with "Forbidden". He elaborated by saying, "We brought in Ernie C to do production, which was a bit difficult really, because I had to leave him to it… One of the problems was we weren't all there at the same time, when we were writing it. Cozy and Neil were still contracted to do other stuff, so it ended up with just Tony Martin, Geoff Nicholls and myself just jamming around and putting ideas down. It all came together very quickly and we didn't have time to reflect: make sure it was the right songs and the right way of doing it." Iommi reiterated his dissatisfaction with the album to the "Birmingham Mail" newspaper.


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: On 4 March 2016, Iommi discussed future re-releases of the Tony Martin-era catalogue. He explained: "We've held back on the reissues of those albums because of the current Sabbath thing with Ozzy Osbourne, but they will certainly be happening... I'd like to do a couple of new tracks for those releases with Tony Martin... I'll also be looking at working on "Cross Purposes" and "Forbidden"." In 2019, Iommi said he was working on a remix of "Forbidden" "on and off" with Mike Exeter.


title: Forbidden (Black Sabbath album)

text: On 14 May 2020, during an interview with Eddie Trunk, Iommi revealed that the remix of the album was complete and he was just waiting for "the right time" to re-release the album.


title: IS-7

text: The IS-7 heavy tank, also known by its project name Object 260, is a Soviet tank that began development in 1945. The vehicle existed only in prototype form and was cancelled in favor of the T-10 tank.


title: IS-7

text: The IS-7 heavy tank design began in Leningrad in 1945 by Nikolai Fedorovich Shashmurin Weighing 68 tonnes, thickly armoured and armed with a 130 mm S-70 long-barrelled gun, it was the largest and heaviest member of the IS family and one of the most advanced heavy tank designs.


title: IS-7

text: The armour was engineered in a similar fashion to the IS-3, with a pike nose on the upper glacis sporting 150mm of armor sloped at 65°. This armor was designed to defeat rounds from the Jagdtiger's 12.8 cm Pak 44 from as close as . The lower glacis was designed to be 100mm but a measure taken by Nicholas Moran found it to be as thick as 110-120mm depending on welding variations. The armor on the sides was also 150mm on the upper side plate and 100mm on the lower side plate. Behind the lower side plate, inflatable bags could hold fuel. The turret mantlet was 350mm thick and the turret itself between 240-250mm angled at 50-60 degrees. When shot at frontally, the extreme angle that the pike nose presents results in a much higher likelihood of a ricochet. Thus, armour protection could be enhanced without having to use excessive amounts of materials. However, if the pike nose was shot at a sideways angle, it would not have a relative thickness high enough to ricochet the shell. The tank's interior has a "V" shape seen from the front of the tank so that the side armor was spaced. In spite of its weight, it was easy to drive due to numerous hydraulic assists. The loaders noted that the IS-7 was comfortable and that the autoloader was easy to use. It was also able to achieve a top speed of 60 km/h, thanks to a 1050-horsepower diesel engine, giving it a power-to-weight ratio of 15.4 hp/tonne, a ratio superior to most contemporary medium tanks. Its armour was not only immune to the Jagdtiger's 12.8 cm PaK 44 but was even proof to its own 130 mm. Due to unknown reasons, most likely because of the considerable issues arising from its mass (bridges, rail transport - no Soviet/Russian tank accepted into service afterwards exceeded 55 t), the tank never reached the production lines.


title: IS-7

text: The 130 mm S-70 was a conversion of a naval gun, firing a ~ armor piercing round ~ The loading mechanism for the gun was an assisted loading mechanism with a conveyor belt system. It held six ready rounds that would then have to be refilled. The rounds came in two parts: shell and propellant. The IS-7 had a massive number of machine guns (eight) and probably would have lost five of them if it had entered production, according to Nicholas Moran. Despite being an excellent break-through vehicle, the IS-7 was heavy, expensive and overspecialized; the T-10 being better suited for longer battles and protracted warfare alongside being easier and cheaper to transport. Work on the IS-7 ceased in 18 February 1949


title: IS-7

text: The tracks were specially made for the IS-7, while those used in the IS series models were rather similar. The track was the first Soviet track to use rubber bushings with single pins, retained in place by bolts. The IS-7 has a total of seven road wheels attached to road wheel arms on torsion bars, limited by volute spring bump stops, and hydraulic shock absorbers.


title: President of Ghana

text: The president of the Republic of Ghana is the elected head of state and head of government of Ghana, as well as commander-in-chief of the Ghana Armed Forces. The current president of Ghana is Nana Akufo-Addo, who won the 2020 presidential election against former president, John Dramani Mahama, by a margin of 4.23%. He was sworn into office for his second term on 7 January 2021.


title: President of Ghana

text: According to Chapter 8, Article 62 of the 1992 Constitution of Ghana, a person shall not be qualified for election as the president of Ghana unless:


title: President of Ghana

text: Presidential candidates must lodge a nomination document signed by at least two registered voters in each district, and includes the name of a vice presidential running mate.


title: President of Ghana

text: The president serves a four-year term. The president is limited to two terms, whether successive or separated. If the president dies, resigns, is permanently incapacitated, or is removed from office, the vice president automatically ascends as president for the balance of the term. If the vice president ascends to the presidency before more than half of the presidential term expires, the vice president is only allowed to run for a single full term as president. If both the president and vice president are unable to perform the duties of president, the Speaker of Parliament becomes acting president, and new elections must be held within three months.


title: President of Ghana

text: The president of Ghana must be sworn in by the chief justice before Parliament and the citizens of Ghana. The president-elect must repeat the following:


title: President of Ghana

text: "I, _______________ having been elected to the high office of President of the Republic of Ghana do (in the name of the Almighty God swear) (solemnly affirm) that I will be faithful and true to the Republic of Ghana; that I will at all times preserve, protect and defend the Constitution of the Republic of Ghana; and that I dedicate myself to the service and well-being of the people of the Republic of Ghana and to do right to all manner of persons.


title: President of Ghana

text: I further (solemnly swear) (solemnly affirm) that should I at any time break this oath of office; I shall submit myself to the laws of the Republic of Ghana and suffer the penalty for it. (So help me God)".


title: President of Ghana

text: After the oath of office has been taken by the elected president, these following insignia are handed over to the president. These devices are used to display the rank of his/her office and are used on special occasions.


title: President of Ghana

text: The president may execute or cause to be executed treaties, agreements or conventions in the name of the Republic of Ghana. The president shall take precedence over the populace of the Republic of Ghana and may refer important policy matters to a national referendum, declare war, conclude peace and other treaties, appoint senior public officials, and grant amnesty (with the concurrence of the Parliament of Ghana). In times of serious internal or external turmoil or threat, or economic or financial crises, the president may assume emergency powers "for the maintenance of national security or public peace and order".


title: President of Ghana

text: The president shall be removed from office if found, in accordance with the provisions of the Constitution, Chapter 8 section 69 (ii) – prejudicial or inimical to the economy or the security of the Republic of Ghana. The president shall cease to hold office on the date the Parliament of Ghana votes to remove the president from office.


title: President of Ghana

text: The presidential aircraft uses the colour scheme as the flag of Ghana in stripes, except for the use of the Ghanaian coat of arms on the empennage instead of the flag of Ghana.


title: President of Ghana

text: In October 2012 a jet aircraft was acquired in the Golden Jubilee House. According to the Chief of the Golden Jubilee House Property Agency acquisition of an Embraer 190 jet aircraft for the president cost 105 million cedis (about US$55 million). The jet aircraft's planned location is in the Ghanaian Presidential Retreat's Peduase Lodge.


title: Fundamental frequency

text: The fundamental frequency, often referred to simply as the fundamental, is defined as the lowest frequency of a periodic waveform. In music, the fundamental is the musical pitch of a note that is perceived as the lowest partial present. In terms of a superposition of sinusoids, the fundamental frequency is the lowest frequency sinusoidal in the sum of harmonically related frequencies, or the frequency of the difference between adjacent frequencies. In some contexts, the fundamental is usually abbreviated as , indicating the lowest frequency counting from zero. In other contexts, it is more common to abbreviate it as , the first harmonic. (The second harmonic is then = 2⋅, etc. In this context, the zeroth harmonic would be 0 Hz.)


title: Fundamental frequency

text: All sinusoidal and many non-sinusoidal waveforms repeat exactly over time – they are periodic. The period of a waveform is the smallest value of formula_1 for which the following is true:


title: Fundamental frequency

text: Where formula_2 is the value of the waveform at formula_3. This means that the waveform's values over any interval of length formula_1 is all that is required to describe the waveform completely (for example, by the associated Fourier series). Since any multiple of period formula_1 also satisfies this definition, the fundamental period is defined as the smallest period over which the function may be described completely. The fundamental frequency is defined as its reciprocal:


title: Fundamental frequency

text: For a pipe of length formula_7 with one end closed and the other end open the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic is formula_8, as indicated by the first two animations. Hence,


title: Fundamental frequency

text: where formula_9 is the speed of the wave, the fundamental frequency can be found in terms of the speed of the wave and the length of the pipe:


title: Fundamental frequency

text: If the ends of the same pipe are now both closed or both opened as in the last two animations, the wavelength of the fundamental harmonic becomes formula_10 . By the same method as above, the fundamental frequency is found to be


title: Fundamental frequency

text: In music, the fundamental is the musical pitch of a note that is perceived as the lowest partial present. The fundamental may be created by vibration over the full length of a string or air column, or a higher harmonic chosen by the player. The fundamental is one of the harmonics. A harmonic is any member of the harmonic series, an ideal set of frequencies that are positive integer multiples of a common fundamental frequency. The reason a fundamental is also considered a harmonic is because it is 1 times itself.


title: Fundamental frequency

text: The fundamental is the frequency at which the entire wave vibrates. Overtones are other sinusoidal components present at frequencies above the fundamental. All of the frequency components that make up the total waveform, including the fundamental and the overtones, are called partials. Together they form the harmonic series. Overtones which are perfect integer multiples of the fundamental are called harmonics. When an overtone is near to being harmonic, but not exact, it is sometimes called a harmonic partial, although they are often referred to simply as harmonics. Sometimes overtones are created that are not anywhere near a harmonic, and are just called partials or inharmonic overtones.


title: Fundamental frequency

text: The fundamental frequency is considered the "first harmonic" and the "first partial". The numbering of the partials and harmonics is then usually the same; the second partial is the second harmonic, etc. But if there are inharmonic partials, the numbering no longer coincides. Overtones are numbered as they appear the fundamental. So strictly speaking, the "first" overtone is the "second" partial (and usually the "second" harmonic). As this can result in confusion, only harmonics are usually referred to by their numbers, and overtones and partials are described by their relationships to those harmonics.


title: Fundamental frequency

text: Consider a spring, fixed at one end and having a mass attached to the other; this would be a single degree of freedom (SDoF) oscillator. Once set into motion, it will oscillate at its natural frequency. For a single degree of freedom oscillator, a system in which the motion can be described by a single coordinate, the natural frequency depends on two system properties: mass and stiffness; (providing the system is undamped). The natural frequency, or fundamental frequency, , can be found using the following equation:


title: Rebecca Ryan

text: Rebecca Ryan (born 27 April 1991) is an English actress, best known for her role as Debbie Gallagher in the Channel 4 comedy-drama series "Shameless" (2004–2009). Ryan also appeared as Vicki MacDonald in the BBC One school-based drama series "Waterloo Road" (2009–2011), Gemma Dean in the BBC One medical drama "Casualty" (2017–2019) and from 2021 to 2022, she appeared in the ITV soap opera "Coronation Street" as Lydia Chambers.


title: Rebecca Ryan

text: Ryan's Northern Irish mother Maranna was the first World Irish dancing champion. Inspired by her mother, Ryan took up Irish dancing lessons at age 3, competed in numerous competitions and ranked third at age 12. Ryan first followed her brother, Charlie Ryan, onto the stage at the age of six in a production of "The Who's Tommy" at Manchester Opera House. Ryan then starred as Debbie Gallagher in "Shameless", which she began playing at the age of 11. Though she never had any formal training as an actor, she credits the time spent on the set of "Shameless" as a useful learning experience.


title: Rebecca Ryan

text: Ryan has appeared in various television series, including "State of Play," "Holby City" and the CBBC series, "Stupid!". In February 2006, she appeared in "Emmerdale" playing Bob Hope's (Tony Audenshaw) daughter, Carly Hope. She also appeared on "Celebrity Big Brother 6" as part of a task. Ryan made her stage debut in "Scarborough" by Fiona Evans at London's Royal Court Theatre in 2008, and subsequently appeared in "Lost Monsters" at the Everyman Theatre in Liverpool. From 2009 to 2011, she appeared as pupil Vicki MacDonald in BBC One school-based drama series "Waterloo Road". In January 2010, she played the part of Ellie McCall in a special five-part storyline in BBC daytime soap opera "Doctors". In February 2011, Ryan appeared in "Let's Dance for Comic Relief", with fellow "Waterloo Road" cast member, Philip Martin Brown. In May 2011, she played Maeve Summers in an episode of "Casualty". She has also appeared as Grace in "Monroe" (2012), Erin Doyle in an episode of "DCI Banks" (2014) and Natalie Dixon in "Doctors" (2015).


title: Rebecca Ryan

text: In May 2014, Ryan toured in the production of "A Taste of Honey" Derby Theatre. In February 2015, Ryan starred in the Derby Theatre's "Solace of the Road" playing the characters Holly and Solace. The "Derby Telegraph" reviewer, Susie Brighouse, said of her performance: "Rebecca Ryan perfects the complex art of acting by a subtle change of tone to clarify what Solace is thinking, as well as deftly changing between the personalities of Holly and Solace throughout the play." Alfred Hickling of "The Guardian" wrote: "It’s hard to think of an actor more capable of veering between the ages of 12 and 27 at any given moment [than Ryan.]" Ryan featured in the second run of "Beryl", written by fellow "Shameless" actress Maxine Peake, at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in June and July 2015, followed by an autumn 2015 tour around England. In 2017, Ryan began portraying hospital porter Gemma Dean in the BBC medical drama, "Casualty". Ryan confirmed she had departed "Casualty" on 10 August 2019. In December 2021, she joined the cast of the ITV soap opera "Coronation Street" as Lydia Chambers. She confirmed that her exit would air in 2022 following the conclusion of Lydia's storyline.


title: Pelagius

text: Pelagius (; c. 354–418) was a British theologian known for promoting a system of doctrines (termed Pelagianism by his opponents) which emphasized human choice in salvation and denied original sin. Pelagius and his followers abhorred the moral standards of Christians in Rome, which he blamed on the view of divine grace. Pelagius was accused of heresy at the synod of Jerusalem in 415 and his doctrines were harshly criticized by Augustine of Hippo, especially the Pelagian views about humankind's good nature and individual responsibility for choosing ascetism. Pelagius especially stressed the freedom of human will. Very little is known about the personal life and career of Pelagius.


title: Pelagius

text: Pelagius was active between about 390 and 418. He was said by his contemporaries, such as Augustine of Hippo, Prosper of Aquitaine, Marius Mercator, and Paul Orosius, to have been of Celtic British origin. Jerome apparently thought that Pelagius was Irish, suggesting that he was "stuffed with Irish porridge" (). He was tall in stature and portly in appearance. Pelagius was also highly educated, spoke and wrote Latin and Greek with great fluency, and was well versed in theology. His name has traditionally been understood as a Graecized form (from , "sea") of the Welsh name Morgan ("sea-born"), or another Celtic equivalent.


title: Pelagius

text: Pelagius became better known around 380 when he moved to Rome. There he enjoyed a reputation of austerity; he also corresponded with Paulinus of Nola. Pelagius became concerned about the moral laxity of society. He blamed this laxity on the theology of divine grace preached by Augustine, among others. He began to teach a very strict, rigid moralism, emphasizing a natural, innate human ability to attain salvation. Twenty-five years after the fact, Augustine related that Pelagius had reacted strongly to the statement from Augustine's "Confessions" (397–401) "Give what you command and command what you will", as he believed that it undermined human responsibility. However, this incident's historicity is questioned by scholars.


title: Pelagius

text: When Alaric sacked Rome in 410, Pelagius and his follower Caelestius fled to Carthage, where he continued his work.


title: Pelagius

text: Pelagianism quickly spread, especially around Carthage. Augustine wrote ("Three Books on the Merits and Forgiveness of Sins") in 412, and ("On the Spirit and the Letter") in 414. When in 414 disquieting rumours arrived from Sicily and the so-called , said to be the work of Caelestius, were sent to him, he at once (414 or 415) published the rejoinder, . In these, he strongly affirmed the existence of original sin, the need for infant baptism, the impossibility of a sinless life without Christ, and the necessity of Christ's grace. Augustine stands as an important source on the life and theology of Pelagius, and wrote about him extensively.


title: Pelagius

text: Pelagius soon left for Palestine, befriending the bishop there. Jerome, who also lived there, became involved as well. Pelagius had criticized his commentary on the Epistle to the Ephesians. Jerome wrote against Pelagius in his Letter to Ctesiphon and . With Jerome at the time was Orosius, a visiting pupil of Augustine, who had similar views on the dangers of Pelagianism. Together, they publicly condemned Pelagius. Bishop John of Jerusalem, a personal friend of Pelagius, called a council in July 415. Church sources claim Orosius' lack of fluency in Greek rendered him unconvincing and John's Eastern background made him more willing to accept that humans did not have inherent sinfulness, yet the council rendered no verdict and passed the controversy to the Latin Church because Pelagius, Jerome, and Orosius were all Latin.


title: Pelagius

text: A few months later in December of 415, another synod in Diospolis (Lydda) under the bishop of Cæsarea was called by two deposed bishops who came to the Holy Land. However, neither bishop attended for unrelated reasons and Orosius had left after consultation with Bishop John. Pelagius explained to the synod that he did believe God was necessary for salvation because every human is created by God. He also claimed that many works of Celestius did not represent his own views. He showed letters of recommendation by other authoritative figures including Augustine himself, who for all their disagreements, thought highly of Pelagius' character.


title: Pelagius

text: The Synod of Diospolis therefore concluded: "Now since we have received satisfaction in respect of the charges brought against the monk Pelagius in his presence and since he gives his assent to sound doctrines but condemns and anathematises those contrary to the faith of the Church, we adjudge him to belong to the communion of the Catholic Church."


title: Pelagius

text: Manichaeism stressed that the spirit was God-created, while material substance was corrupt and evil. Theologian Gerald Bonner felt that part of Pelagius' analysis was an over-reaction to Manicheanism. Pelagius held that everything created by God was good, therefore, he could not see how God had made humans fallen creatures. (Augustine's teaching on the Fall of Adam was not a settled doctrine at the time the Augustinian/Pelagian dispute began.) The Pelagians accused Augustine of bringing Manichaeian theology into the Christian church, which Augustine himself denied.


title: Pelagius

text: The view that mankind can avoid sinning, and that humans can freely choose to obey God's commandments, stands at the core of Pelagian teaching. Pelagius stressed human autonomy and freedom of the will; an illustration of Pelagius' views on man's "moral ability" not to sin can be found in his Letter to Demetrias.


title: Pelagius

text: For Pelagius, "grace" consisted of the gift of free will, the Law of Moses, and the teachings of Jesus. According to Augustine, Pelagians saw baptism of infants as useless because they had no sin. Celestius, who was a disciple of Pelagius, also denied original sin and the necessity of infant baptism for salvation.


title: Pelagius

text: Seeking to undo his condemnation, Pelagius wrote a letter and statement of belief to Pope Zosimus, Innocent I's successor, arguing that he was orthodox. In these he articulated his beliefs so as not to contradict what the synods condemned. Zosimus was persuaded by Celestius to reopen the case, but opposition from the African bishops and Emperor Honorius forced Zosimus to condemn and excommunicate Celestius and Pelagius in 418.


title: Pelagius

text: Pelagianism was condemned at the Council of Carthage in 418. Augustine, shocked that Pelagius and Celestius were not denounced as heretics, had called the Council of Carthage in 418. The synod issued eight canons


title: Pelagius

text: After his condemnation, Pelagius was expelled from Jerusalem, and Saint Cyril of Alexandria allowed him to settle in Egypt. He is not heard of thereafter.


title: Pelagius

text: His death did not end his teachings, although those who followed him may have modified those teachings. Because little information remains with regard to Pelagius' actual teachings, some of his doctrines possibly were subject to revision and suppression by his enemies (followers of Augustine and the Church leadership as a whole at that time).


title: Pelagius

text: Belief in Pelagianism and Semipelagianism was common for the next few centuries, especially in Britain, the Holy Land, and North Africa. St Germanus visited Britain to combat Pelagianism in or around AD 429. In Wales, Saint David was credited with convening the Synod of Brefi and the Synod of Victory against the followers of Pelagius in the sixth century.


title: Pelagius

text: Because of the fifth-century condemnations of him, Pelagius became known as "a heresiarch of the deepest dye". Evaluation of him changed after the publication of a 1943 biography by Georges de Plinval and more recent scholars have viewed him as an orthodox Christian theologian who was a victim of denunciation. His Pauline commentaries were popular during the Middle Ages but frequently claimed to be the work of other authors.


title: Pelagius

text: An objective view of Pelagius and his effect is difficult. His name has been used as an epithet for centuries by both Protestants and Catholics, and he has had few defenders. The very early church denounced his ideas and the Reformation accused Roman Catholics of adhering to his beliefs and condemned both Pelagius and the Catholic Church. Modern scholarship suggests that Pelagius did not take the more extreme positions later associated with his followers. Ronald Hutton describes him as "a first-rate theologian".


title: Pelagius

text: The theologian Carol Harrison commented that Pelagius presented "a radically different alternative to Western understandings of the human person, human responsibility and freedom, ethics and the nature of salvation" which might have come about if Augustine had not been victorious in the Pelagian controversy. According to Harrison, "Pelagianism represents an attempt to safeguard God's justice, to preserve the integrity of human nature as created by God, and of human beings' obligation, responsibility and ability to attain a life of perfect righteousness." However, this is at the expense of downplaying human frailty and presenting "the operation of divine grace as being merely external". According to the scholar Rebecca Weaver, "what most distinguished Pelagius was his conviction of an unrestricted freedom of choice, given by God and immune to alteration by sin or circumstance."


title: Pelagius

text: Unfortunately, most of his work survives only in the quotations of his opponents. Only in the past century have works attributable to Pelagius been identified as such.


title: Pelagius

text: Other writings include "On Nature", parts of which are quoted in Augustine's "On Nature and Grace", and "Defense of the Freedom of the Will", quoted in Augustine's "On the Grace of Christ". Also surviving are his letter to Demetrias, along with fragments of other letters, and the written statement of faith which was received by Pope Zosimus.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: A Brandy Alexander is a brandy-based dessert cocktail consisting of cognac, crème de cacao, and cream, that became popular during the early 20th century. It is a variation of an earlier, gin-based cocktail called simply an Alexander. The cocktail known as Alexander today may contain gin or brandy. Ice cream can be added for a "frozen Brandy Alexander".


title: Brandy Alexander

text: There are many rumours about its origins. Some sources say it was created at the time of the London wedding of Princess Mary and Viscount Lascelles in 1922. Drama critic and Algonquin Round Table member Alexander Woollcott said it was named after him. Other sources say it was named after the Russian tsar Alexander II.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: The drink was possibly named after Troy Alexander, a bartender at Rector's, a New York City restaurant, who created the drink in order to serve a white drink at a dinner celebrating Phoebe Snow, a character in a popular advertising campaign in the early 20th century.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: John Lennon was introduced to it on 12 March 1974, by Harry Nilsson, on Lennon's so-called . The pair began heckling the Smothers Brothers, and whilst being ejected Lennon allegedly assaulted a waitress. Lennon later said the drinks "tasted like milkshakes".


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the movie "Days of Wine and Roses", alcoholic Joe Clay (Jack Lemmon) takes Kirsten Arnesen (Lee Remick) out on a date. When she explains that she dislikes liquor but likes chocolate, he orders her a Brandy Alexander. This begins Kirsten's descent into alcoholism.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the 1981 film "Tattoo", Bruce Dern takes Maud Adams out for dinner and orders a Brandy Alexander. When she comments that he does not look the Brandy Alexander type, he replies, "I like the foam...it reminds me of the ocean."


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the episode "Anniversary Reunion" of "Fantasy Island" aired on 28 January 1978, the character played by Jim Backus gives Brandy Alexanders to Tom and Toni Elgen. Tom Elgen is played by Ronnie Cox.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: The 1981 Granada Television production of "Brideshead Revisited", episode 1, (based on the novel by Evelyn Waugh) has a scene where Anthony Blanche (Nickolas Grace) offers Charles Ryder (Jeremy Irons) two Brandy Alexanders while at Oxford.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the show "Three's Company", Jack Tripper is catering a party where one of the guests orders a Brandy Alexander from Mr. Roper, who is the bartender. Mr. Roper tells her his name is Stanley and that she does not want to drink that junk. He tries to give her a fresh bourbon instead.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the show "Cheers" episode 9 of season 1, Diane (Shelley Long) orders three drinks, one being a Brandy Alexander, from Carla (Rhea Perlman) who then just gives her three beers instead.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the James Gray movie "Two Lovers", Michelle (Gwyneth Paltrow) tells Leonard (Joaquin Phoenix) she drinks Brandy Alexanders with her boyfriend Ronald, a rich lawyer. Leonard orders one at a restaurant to impress her, but ruins the effect by mistaking the stirrer for a straw.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the first episode of "The Mary Tyler Moore Show", Mary asks Lou Grant for a Brandy Alexander in her job interview.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the film "A Glimpse Inside the Mind of Charles Swan III", Charlie Sheen's character drinks Brandy Alexanders throughout the film.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the film "Bedazzled", Brendan Fraser allegedly drinks Brandy Alexanders and runs around singing while wearing his Speedo.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the Netflix movie "", Zach Galifianakis orders a Brandy Alexander while talking to Chrissy Teigen at a bar.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the show Starsky and Hutch, episode ‘Hutchinson: Murder One’, Hutch orders his ex-wife a Brandy Alexander in Huggy’s ‘The Pits’ bar.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In the show Mad Men, season 1, episode 11, ‘Indian Summer,’ Peggy Olson orders a Brandy Alexander for herself while out on a date, stating that another character, Joan Holloway, usually orders them for her and that this one is less sweet than she is used to.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: The character Brandy Alexander in the novel "Invisible Monsters" by Chuck Palahniuk is named after the drink.


title: Brandy Alexander

text: Anthony Blanche orders four "Alexandra cocktails" in Evelyn Waugh's novel "Brideshead Revisited". The Granada Television adaptation for television helped repopularize the drink in the 1980s. Christian Kracht repeats the four Brandy Alexanders motif in his 1995 novel "Faserland".


title: Brandy Alexander

text: In Kurt Vonnegut's book, "Mother Night", the protagonist suspects that an overly flattering article in the "Herald Tribune" about his neighbor was "written by a pansy full of Brandy Alexanders."


title: 6th millennium BC

text: The 6th millennium BC spanned the years 6000 BC to 5001 BC (c. 8 ka to c. 7 ka). It is impossible to precisely date events that happened around the time of this millennium and all dates mentioned here are estimates mostly based on geological and anthropological analysis. The only exceptions are the felling dates for some construction timbers from neolithic wells in Central Europe.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: This millennium is reckoned to mark the end of the global deglaciation which had followed the Last Glacial Maximum and caused sea levels to rise by some over a period of about 5,000 years.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: Neolithic culture and technology had spread from the Near East and into eastern Europe by 6000 BC. Its development in the Far East grew apace and there is increasing evidence through the millennium of its presence in Prehistoric Egypt and the Far East. In much of the world, however, including north and western Europe, people still lived in scattered Palaeolithic hunter-gatherer communities. The world population is believed to have increased sharply, possibly quadrupling, as a result of the Neolithic Revolution. It has been estimated that there were perhaps forty million people worldwide at the end of this millennium, growing to 100 million by the Middle Bronze Age c. 1600 BC.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: It has been estimated that humans first settled in Malta c. 5900 BC, arriving across the Mediterranean from both Europe and North Africa.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: The Zhaobaogou culture in China began c. 5400 BC. It was in the north-eastern part of the country, primarily in the Luan River valley in Inner Mongolia and northern Hebei.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: Four identified cultures starting around 5300 BC were the Dnieper-Donets, the Narva (eastern Baltic), the Ertebølle (Denmark and northern Germany) and the Swifterbant (Low Countries). They were linked by a common pottery style that had spread westward from Asia and is sometimes called "ceramic Mesolithic", distinguishable by a point or knob base and flared rims.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: Indigenous Australians in what is now South Western Victoria were farming and smoking eels as a food source and trade good using stone weirs, canals, and woven traps around 6000BC.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: The early Holocene sea level rise (EHSLR), which began c.10,000 BC, tailed off during the 6th millennium. Global water levels had risen by about 60 metres due to deglaciation of ice masses since the end of the Last Ice Age. Accelerated rises in sea level rise, called meltwater pulses, occurred three times during the EHSLR. The last one, Meltwater Pulse 1C, which peaked c. 6000 BC, produced a rise of 6.5 metres in only 140 years. It is believed that the cause was a major ice sheet collapse in Antarctica.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: Approximately 8,000 years ago (c. 6000 BC), a massive volcanic landslide off Mount Etna, Sicily, caused a megatsunami that devastated the eastern Mediterranean coastline on the continents of Asia, Africa and Europe.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: In South America, a large eruption occurred at Cueros de Purulla c. 5870 BC, forming a buoyant cloud and depositing the Cerro Paranilla Ash in the Calchaquí Valleys.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: A cataclysmic volcanic eruption occurred c. 5700 BC in Oregon when high Mount Mazama created Crater Lake as the resulting caldera filled with water. Another major eruption occurred c. 5550 BC on Mount Takahe, Antarctica, possibly creating an ozone hole in the region.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: The carbon-14 content in tree rings created c. 5480 BC indicates an abnormal level of solar activity.


title: 6th millennium BC

text: The epoch of the Byzantine calendar, used in the Byzantine Empire and many Christian Orthodox countries, is equivalent to 1 September 5509 BC on the Julian proleptic calendar (see image right).


title: 6th millennium BC

text: The 6th millennium BC falls entirely within the Astrological Age of Gemini (c. 6450 BC to c. 4300 BC) according to some astrologers.


title: Scooby-Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster

text: Scooby-Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster is a 2010 American made-for-television comedy horror mystery film directed by Brian Levant for Cartoon Network and based on the Saturday morning cartoon series "Scooby-Doo" by Hanna-Barbera. It is a sequel to the 2009 film "Scooby-Doo! The Mystery Begins" as well as the fourth installment and second prequel to the "Scooby-Doo" live-action film series. Robbie Amell, Hayley Kiyoko, Kate Melton, Nick Palatas and Frank Welker cast reprise their roles. The film was shot in Santa Clarita, California and Sherwood Country Club in Thousand Oaks, California and premiered on October 16, 2010.


title: Scooby-Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster

text: Summer vacation has come and Velma, Shaggy and Scooby-Doo meet up with Fred and Daphne so they can go to meet Daphne's uncle, Thornton "Thorny" Blake V, who has given them summer jobs at his country club in Erie Point in order to pay back damages from a prior mystery. The night of the club's opening party, a huge frog-like monster suddenly appears and wreaks havoc. The gang decides to investigate the only person who has ever taken a picture of the lake monster, a lighthouse keeper named Elmer Uggins. He then tells them the story of the lake monster: when people were first settling in Erie Point, a witch named Wanda Grubwort warned them not to come onto her land. They paid no attention to her, so she used her magic staff - which used moonstones as the source of her power - to turn a frog into a horrible monster that attacked the villagers. Wanda was later tried for her crimes and burnt at the stake.


title: Scooby-Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster

text: The next day, Velma shows the others security footage of the lake monster meeting a mysteriously cloaked figure on the beach. They begin to zoom in on the figure to see its face, but Velma accidentally spills her green tea on the computer and destroys the footage. Things are further complicated due to friction between Fred and Daphne, whose relationship is strained due to them regularly finding each other socializing with other people, as well as Shaggy's blossoming feelings for Velma causing him to alienate Scooby.


title: Scooby-Doo! Curse of the Lake Monster

text: The next morning, they find Velma unconscious on the beach. Shaggy begins to tell her that he was very worried, but stops when he notices warts on her hand. Velma looks surprised, but guiltily assures them that it is nothing. After they fill her in on the latest monster attack, Daphne says that she saw purple paint on the figure's cloak and suggests they check out a boat that they saw on the way to Erie Point. Shaggy asks Velma out on a date, and things go well until he lights a match to light some candles. Velma flings herself back in terror, though she is unsure why. Scooby, who is angry at Shaggy for ignoring him, tries to ruin the date, causing Shaggy to knock over the table and drop the moonstone on the ground that he was going to give to Velma as a surprise. Fred and Daphne go to see the boat, but are then locked in a flooding room by the monster. However, they are able to escape.