title: Protoceratops

text: Furthermore, with the re-examinations of "Turanoceratops" in 2009 and "Zuniceratops"—two critical ceratopsian taxa regarding the evolutionary history of ceratopsids—in 2010 it was concluded that the origin of ceratopsids is unrelated to, and older than the fossil record of "Protoceratops" and relatives. In most recent/modern phylogenetic analyses "Protoceratops" and "Bagaceratops" are commonly recovered as sister taxa, leaving the interpretations proposing direct relationships with more derived ceratopsians unsupported.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2019 Czepiński analyzed a vast majority of referred specimens to the ceratopsians "Bagaceratops" and "Breviceratops", and concluded that most were in fact specimens of the former. Although the genera "Gobiceratops", "Lamaceratops", "Magnirostris", and "Platyceratops", were long considered valid and distinct taxa, and sometimes placed within Protoceratopsidae, Czepiński found the diagnostic (identifier) features used to distinguish these taxa to be largely present in "Bagaceratops" and thus becoming synonyms of this genus. Under this reasoning, Protoceratopsidae consists of "Bagaceratops", "Breviceratops", and "Protoceratops". Below are the proposed relationships among Protoceratopsidae by Czepiński:


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2019 Bitnara Kim and colleagues described a relatively well-preserved "Bagaceratops" skeleton from the Barun Goyot Formation, noting numerous similarities with "Protoceratops". Even though their respective skull anatomy had substantial differences, their postcranial skeleton was virtually the same. The phylogenetic analysis performed by the team recovered both protoceratopsids as sister taxa, indicating that "Bagaceratops" and "Protoceratops" were anatomically and systematically related. Below is the obtained cladogram, showing the position of "Protoceratops" and "Bagaceratops":


title: Protoceratops

text: Longrich and team in 2010 indicated that highly derived morphology of "P. hellenikorhinus"—when compared to "P. andrewsi"—indicates that this species may represent a lineage of "Protoceratops" that had a longer evolutionary history compared to "P. andrewsi", or simply a direct descendant of "P. andrewsi". The difference in morphologies between "Protoceratops" also suggests that the nearby Bayan Mandahu Formation is slightly younger than the Djadokhta Formation.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2020, Czepiński analyzed several long-undescribed protoceratopsid specimens from the Udyn Sayr and Zamyn Khondt localities of the Djadokhta Formation. One specimen (MPC-D 100/551B) was shown to present skull traits that are intermediate between "Bagaceratops rozhdestvenskyi" (which is native to adjacent Bayan Mandahu and Barun Goyot) and "P. andrewsi". The specimen hails from the Udyn Sayr locality, where "Protoceratops" remains are dominant, and given the lack of more conclusive anatomical traits, Czepiński assigned the specimen as "Bagaceratops" sp. He explained that the presence of this "Bagaceratops" specimen in such unusual locality could be solved by: (1) the coexistence and sympatric (altogether) evolution of both "Bagaceratops" and "Protoceratops" at this one locality; (2) the rise of "B. rozhdestvenskyi" in a different region and eventual migration to Udyn Sayr; (3) hybridization between the two protoceratopsids given the near placement of both Bayan Mandahu and Djadokhta; (4) anagenetic (proggressive evolution) evolutionary transition from "P. andrewsi" to "B. rozhdestvenskyi". Among scenarios, an anagenetic transition was best supported by Czepiński given the fact that no definitive "B. rozhdestvenskyi" fossils are found in Udyn Sayr, as expected from a hybridization event; MPC-D 100/551B lacks a well-developed accessory antorbital fenestra (hole behind the nostril openings), a trait expected to be present if "B. rozhdestvenskyi" had migrated to the area; and many specimens of "P. andrewsi" recovered at Udyn Sayr already feature a decrease in the presence of primitive premaxillary teeth, hence supporting a growing change in the populations.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 1955 paleontologist Georg Haas examined the overall skull shape of "Protoceratops" and attempted to reconstruct its jaw musculature. He suggested that the large neck frill was likely an attachment site for masticatory muscles. Such placement of the muscles may have helped to anchor the lower jaws, useful for feeding. Yannicke Dauphin and colleagues in 1988 described the enamel microstructure of "Protoceratops", observing a non-prismatic outer layer. They concluded that enamel shape does not relate to the diet or function of the teeth as most animals do not necessarily use teeth to process food. The maxillary teeth of ceratopsians were usually packed into a dental battery that formed vertical shearing blades which probably chopped the leaves. This feeding method was likely more efficient in protoceratopsids as the enamel surface of "Protoceratops" was coarsely-textured and the tips of the micro-serrations developed on the basis of the teeth, probably helping to crumble vegetation. Based on their respective peg-like shape and reduced microornamentation, Dauphin and colleagues suggested that the premaxillary teeth of "Protoceratops" had no specific function.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 1991, the paleontologist Gregory S. Paul stated that contrary to the popular view of ornithischians as obligate herbivores, some groups may have been opportunistic meat-eaters, including the members of Ceratopsidae and Protoceratopsidae. He pointed out that their prominent parrot-like beaks and shearing teeth along with powerful muscles on the jaws suggest an omnivore diet instead, much like pigs, hogs, boars and entelodonts. Such scenario indicates a possible competition with the more predatory theropods over carcasses, however, as the animal tissue ingestion was occasional and not the bulk of their diet, the energy flow in ecosystems was relatively simple. You Hailu and Peter Dodson in 2004 suggested that the premaxillary teeth of "Protoceratops" may have been useful for selective cropping and feeding.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2009 Kyo Tanque and team suggested that basal ceratopsians, such as protoceratopsids, were most likely low browsers due to their relatively small body size. This low-browsing method would have allowed to feed on foliage and fruits within range, and large basal ceratopsians may have consumed tougher seeds or plant material not available to smaller basal ceratopsians.


title: Protoceratops

text: David J. Button and Lindsay E. Zanno in 2019 performed a large phylogenetic analysis based on skull biomechanical characters—provided by 160 Mesozoic dinosaur species—to analyze the multiple emergences of herbivory among non-avian dinosaurs. Their results found that herbivorous dinosaurs mainly followed two distinct modes of feeding, either processing food in the gut—characterized by relatively gracile skulls and low bite forces—or the mouth, which was characterized by features associated with extensive processing such as high bite forces and robust jaw musculature. Ceratopsians (including protoceratopsids), along with "Euoplocephalus", "Hungarosaurus", parkosaurid, ornithopod and heterodontosaurine dinosaurs, were found to be in the former category, indicating that "Protoceratops" and relatives had strong bite forces and relied mostly on its jaws to process food.


title: Protoceratops

text: Brown and Schlaikjer in 1940 upon their large description and revision of "Protoceratops" remarked that the orbits, frontals, and lacrimals suffered a shrinkage in relative size as the animal aged; the top border of the nostrils became more vertical; the nasal bones progressively became elongated and narrowed; and the neck frill as a whole also increases in size with age. The neck frill specifically, underwent a dramatic change from a small, flat, and almost rounded structure in juveniles to a large, fan-like one in fully mature "Protoceratops" individuals. In 2001 Lambert and colleagues considered the development of the two nasal "horns" of "P. hellenikorhinus" to be a trait that was delayed in relation to the appearance of sexual-discriminant traits. This was based on the fact that one small specimen (IMM 96BM2/1) has a skull size slightly larger than a presumed sexually mature "P. andrewsi" skull (AMNH 6409), and yet it lacks double nasal horns present in fully mature "P. hellenikorhinus".


title: Protoceratops

text: Makovicky and team in 2007 conducted a histological analysis on several specimens of "Protoceratops" from the American Museum of Natural History collections in order to provide insights into the life history of "Protoceratops". The examined fossil bones indicated that "Protoceratops" slowed its ontogeny (growth) around 9–10 years of life, and it ceased around 11–13 years. They also observed that the maximum or latest stage of development of the neck frill and nasal horn occurred in the oldest "Protoceratops" individuals, indicating that such traits were ontogenically variable (meaning that they varied with age). Makovicky and team also stated that as the maximum/radical changes on the neck frill and nasal horn were present in most adult individuals, trying to differentiate sexual dimorphism (anatomical differences between sexes) in adult "Protoceratops" may not be a good practice.


title: Protoceratops

text: David Hone and colleagues in 2016 upon their analysis of "P. andrewsi" neck frills, found that the frill of "Protoceratops" was disproportionally smaller in juveniles, grew at a rapid rate than the rest of the animal during its ontogeny, and reached a considerable size only in large adult individuals. Other changes during ontogeny include the elongation of the premaxillary teeth that are smaller in juveniles and enlarged in adults, and the enlargement of middle neural spines in the tail or caudal vertebrae, which appear to grow much taller when approaching adulthood.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2017 Mototaka Saneyoshi with team analyzed several "Protoceratops" specimens from the Djadokhta Formation, noting that from perinate/juvenile to subadult individuals, the parietal and squamosal bones increased their sides to posterior sides of the skull. From subadult to adult individuals, the squamosal bone increased in size more than the parietal bone, and the frill expanded to a top direction. The team concluded that the frill of "Protoceratops" can be characterized by these ontogenetic changes.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2018 paleontologists Łucja Fostowicz-Frelik and Justyna Słowiak studied the bone histology of several specimens of "P. andrewsi" through cross-sections, in order to analyze the growth changes in this dinosaur. The sampled elements consisted of neck frill, femur, tibia, fibula, ribs, humerus and radius bones, and showed that the histology of "Protoceratops" remained rather uniform throughout ontogeny. It was characterized by simple fibrolamellar bone—bony tissue with an irregular, fibrous texture and filled with blood vessels—with prominent woven-fibered bone and low bone remodeling. Most bones of "Protoceratops" preserve a large abundance of bone fibers (including Sharpey's fibres), which likely gave strength to the organ and enhanced its elasticity. The team also find that the growth rate of the femur increased at the subadult stage, suggesting changes in bone proportions, such as the elongation of the hindlimbs. This growth rate is mostly similar to that of other small herbivorous dinosaurs such as primitive "Psittacosaurus" or "Scutellosaurus".


title: Protoceratops

text: In 1996 Tereshchenko reconstructed the walking model of "Protoceratops" where he considered the most likely scenario to be "Protoceratops" as an obligate quadruped given the proportions of its limbs. The main gait of "Protoceratops" was probably trot-like mostly using its hindlimbs and it is unlikely to have used an asymmetric gait. If trapped in a specific situation (like danger or foraging), "Protoceratops" could have employed a rapid, facultative bipedalism. He also noted that the flat and wide pedal unguals of "Protoceratops" may have allowed efficient walking through loose terrain, such as sand which was common on its surroundings. Tereshchenko using speed equations also estimated the average maximum walking speed of "Protoceratops" at about 3 km/h (kilometres per hour).


title: Protoceratops

text: Upon the analysis of the forelimbs of several ceratopsians, Phil Senter in 2007 suggested that the hands of "Protoceratops" could reach the ground when the hindlimbs were upright, and the overall forelimb morphology and range of motion may reflect that it was at least a facultative (optional) quadruped. The forelimbs of "Protoceratops" could sprawl laterally but not for quadrupedal locomotion, which was accomplished with the elbows tucked in. In 2010 Alexander Kuznetsov and Tereshchenko analyzed several vertebrae series of "Protoceratops" in order to estimate overall mobility, and concluded that "Protoceratops" had greater lateral mobility in the presacral (pre-hip) vertebrae series and reduced vertical mobility in the cervical (neck) region. The fossilized footprint associated with the specimen ZPAL Mg D-II/3 described by Niedźwiedzki in 2012 indicates that "Protoceratops" was digitigrade, meaning that it walked with its toes supporting the body weight.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2019 however, Słowiak and team described the limb elements of ZPAL Mg D-II/3, which represents a sub-adult individual, and noted a mix of characters typical of bipedal ceratopsians such as a narrow glenoid with scapular blade and an arched femur. The absence of these traits in mature individuals indicates that young "Protoceratops" were capable of facultative bipedal locomotion and adults had an obligate quadrupedal stance. Even though adult "Protoceratops" were stocky and quadruped, their tibia-femur length ratio—the tibia being longer than femur, a trait present in bipedal ceratopsians—suggests the ability to occasionally stand on their hindlimbs. Słowiak and team also suggested that the flat and wide hand unguals (claw bone) of "Protoceratops" may have been useful for moving on loose terrain (such as sand) without sinking.


title: Protoceratops

text: Longrich in 2010 proposed that "Protoceratops" may have used its hindlimbs to dig burrows or take shelter under bushes and/or scrapes in order to escape the hottest temperatures of the day. A digging action with the hindlimbs was likely facilitated by the strong caudofemoralis muscle and its large feet equipped with flat, shovel-like unguals. As this behavior would have been common in "Protoceratops", it predisposed individuals to become entombed alive during the sudden collapse of their burrows and high energy sand-bearing events—such as sandstorms—and thus explaining the standing "in-situ" posture of some specimens. Additionally, Longrich suggested that a backward burrowing could explain the preservation of some specimens pointing forward with curved tails.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2019 Victoria M. Arbour and David C. Evans cited the robusticity of the ulna of "Ferrisaurus" as a useful feature for digging, which may have been also true for "Protoceratops".


title: Protoceratops

text: Gregory and Mook in 1925 suggested that "Protoceratops" was partially aquatic because of its large feet—being larger than the hands—and the very long neural spines found in the caudal (tail) vertebrae. Brown and Schlaikjer in 1940 and indicated that the expansion of the distal (lower) ischial end may reflect a strong ischiocaudalis muscle, which together with the high tail neural spines were used for swimming. Barsbold in his brief 1974 description of the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen accepted this hypothesis and suggested that "Protoceratops" was amphibious (water-adapted) and had well-developed swimming capacities based on its side to side flattened tail with very high neural spines.


title: Protoceratops

text: Jack Bowman Bailey in 1997 disagreed with previous aquatic hypotheses and indicated that the high caudal neural spines were instead more reminiscent of bulbous tails of some desert lizard species (such as "Heloderma" or "Uromastyx"), which are related to store fat with metabolic water in the tail. He considered a swimming adaptation unlikely given the arid settings of the Djadokhta Formation.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2008, based on the occurrence of some "Protoceratops" specimens in fluvial (river-deposited) sediments from the Djadokhta Formation and (vertebral centra that are saddle-shaped at both ends) caudal vertebrae of protoceratopsids, Tereshchenko concluded that the elevated caudal spines are a swimming adaptation. He proposed that protoceratopsids moved through water using their laterally-flattened tails as a paddle to aid in swimming. According to Tereschenko, "Bagaceratops" was fully aquatic while "Protoceratops" was only partially aquatic. Longrich in 2010 argued that the high tail and frill of "Protoceratops" may have helped it to shed excess heat during the day—acting as large-surface structures—when the animal was active in order to survive in the relatively arid environments of the Djadokhta Formation without highly developed cooling mechanisms.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2011 during the description of "Koreaceratops", Yuong-Nam Lee and colleagues found the above swimming hypotheses hard to prove based on the abundance of "Protoceratops" in eolian (wind-deposited) sediments that were deposited in prominent arid environments. They also pointed out that while taxa such as "Leptoceratops" and "Montanoceratops" are recovered from fluvial sediments, they are estimated to be some of the poorest swimmers. Lee and colleagues concluded that even though the tail morphology of "Koreaceratops"—and other basal ceratopsians—does not argues against swimming habits, the cited evidence for it is insufficient.


title: Protoceratops

text: Tereschhenko in 2013 examined the structure of the caudal vertebrae spines of "Protoceratops", concluding that it had adaptations for terrestrial and aquatic habits. Observations made found that the high number of caudal vertebrae may have been useful for swimming and use the tail to counter-balance weight. He also indicated that the anterior caudals were devoid of high neural spines and had increased mobility—a mobility that stars to decrease towards the high neural spines—, which suggest that the tail could be largely raised from its base. It is likely that "Protoceratops" raised its tail as a signal (display) or females could use this method during egg laying in order to expand and relax the cloaca.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2016 Hone and team indicated that the tail of "Protoceratops", particularly the mid region with elevated neural spines, could have been used in display to impress potential mates and/or for species recognition. The tail may have been related with structures like the frill for displaying behavior.


title: Protoceratops

text: Kim with team in 2019 cited the elongated tail spines as well-suited for swimming. They indicated that both "Bagaceratops" and "Protoceratops" may have used their tails in a similar fashion during similar situations, such as swimming, given how similar their postcranial skeletons were. The team also suggested that a swimming adaptation could have been useful to avoid aquatic predators, such as crocodylomorphs.


title: Protoceratops

text: Tomasz Jerzykiewiczz in 1993 reported several monospecific (containing only one dominant species) death assemblages of "Protoceratops" from the Bayan Mandahu and Djadokhta formations. A group of five medium-sized and adult "Protoceratops" was observed at the Bayan Mandahu locality. Individuals within this assemblage were lying on their bellies with their heads facing upwards, side by side parallel-aligned, and inclined about 21 degrees from the horizontal plane. Two other groups were found at the Tugriken Shireh locality; one group containing six individuals and another group of about 12 skeletons.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2014 David W. E. Hone and colleagues reported and described two blocks containing death assemblages of "P. andrewsi" from Tugriken Shireh. The first block (MPC-D 100/526) comprises four juvenile individuals in close proximity with their heads pointing upwards, and the second block (MPC-D 100/534) is composed of two sub-adults with a horizontal orientation. Based on previous assemblages and the two blocks, the team determined that "Protoceratops" was a social dinosaur that formed herds throughout its life and such herds would have varied in composition, with some including adults, sub-adults, siblings from a single nest or local members of a herd joining shortly after hatching. However, as the group could have loss members by predation or other factors, the remnants individuals would aggregate into larger groups to increase their survival. Hone and colleagues in particular suggested that juveniles would aggregate primarily as a defense against predators and an increased protection from the multiple adults within the group. The team also indicated that, while "Protoceratops" provides direct evidence for the formation of single cohort aggregations throughout its lifespan, it cannot be ruled out the possibility that some "Protoceratops" were solitary.


title: Protoceratops

text: Brown and Schlaikjer in 1940 upon their large analysis of "Protoceratops" noted the potential presence of sexual dimorphism among specimens in "P. andrewsi", concluding that this condition could be entirely subjective or represent actual differences between sexes. Individuals with a high nasal horn, massive prefrontals, and frontoparietal depression were tentatively determined as males. Females were mostly characterized by the lack of well-developed nasal horns. In 1972 Kurzanov made comparisons between "P. andrewsi" skulls from Bayn Dzak and Tugriken Shireh, noting differences on the nasal horn within populations.


title: Protoceratops

text: Peter Dodson in 1996 used anatomical characters of the skull in "P. andrewsi" in order to quantify areas subject to ontogenic changes and sexual dimorphism. In total, 40 skull characters were measured and compared, including regions like the frill and nasal horn. Dodson found most of these characters to be highly variable across specimens, especially the frill which he interpreted to have had a bigger role in displaying behavior than simply serving as a site of masticatory muscles. He considered unlikely such interpretation based on the relative fragility of some frill bones and the large individual variation, which may have affected the development of those muscles. The length of the frill was found by Dodson to have a rather irregular growth in specimens, as juvenile AMNH 6419 was observed with a frill length smaller than other juveniles. He agreed with Brown and Schlaikjer in that a high, well-developed nasal horn represents a male trait and the opposite indicates females. In addition, Dodson suggested that traits like the nasal horn and frill in male "Protoceratops" may have been important visual displays for attracting females and repelling other males, or even predators. Lastly, he noted that both males and females had not significant disparity in body size, and that sexual maturity in "Protoceratops" could be recognised at the moment when males can be distinguished from females.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2001 Lambert and team upon the description of "P. hellenikorhinus" also noted variation within individuals. For instance, some specimens (e.g., holotype IMM 95BM1/1) preserve high nasal bones with a pair of horns; relatively short antorbital length; and vertically oriented nostrils. Such traits were regarded as representing male "P. hellenikorhinus". The other group of skulls is characterized by low nasals that have undeveloped horns; a relatively longer antorbital length; and more oblique nostrils. These individuals were considered as females. The team however, was not able to produce deeper analysis regarding sexual dimorphism in "P. hellenikorhinus" due to the lack of complete specimens. Also in 2001, Tereschhenko analized several specimens of "P. andrewsi" in order to evaluate sexual dimorphism. He found 19 anatomical differences in the vertebral column and pelvic region of regarded male and female "Protoceratops" individuals, which he considered to represent actual sexual characters.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2012 Naoto Handa and colleagues described four specimens of "P. andrewsi" from the Udyn Sayr locality of the Djadokhta Formation. They indicated that sexual dimorphism in this population was marked by a prominent nasal horn in males—trait also noted by other authors—relative wider nostrils in females, and a wider neck frill in males. Despite maintaining the skull morphology of most "Protoceratops" specimens (such as premaxillary teeth), the neck frill in this population was straighter with a near triangular shape. Handa and team in addition found variation across this Udyn Sayr sample and classified them in three groups. First group includes individuals with a well-developed bony ridge on the lateral surface of the squamosal bone, and the posterior border of the squamosal is backwards oriented. Second group had a fairly rounded posterior border of the squamosal, and a long and well-developed bony ridge on the posterior border of the parietal bone. Lastly, the third group was characterized by a curved posterior border of the squamosal and a notorious rugose texture on the top surface of the parietal. Such skull traits were regarded as marked intraspecific variation within "Protoceratops", and they differ from other populations across the Djadokhta Formation (like Tugriken Shireh), being unique to the Udyn Sayr region. These neck frill morphologies differ from those of "Protoceratops" from the Djadokhta Formation in the adjacent dinosaur locality Tugrikin Shire. The morphological differences among the Udyn Sayr specimens may indicate intraspecific variation of "Protoceratops". A large and well-developed bony ridge on the parietal has been observed on another "P. andrewsi" specimen, MPC-D 100/551, also from Udyn Sayr.


title: Protoceratops

text: However, Leonardo Maiorino with team in 2015 performed a large geometric morphometric analysis using 29 skulls of "P. andrewsi" in order to evaluate actual sexual dimorphism. Obtained results indicated that other than the nasal horn—which remained as the only skull trait with potential sexual dimorphism—all previously suggested characters to differentiate hyphotetical males from females were more linked to ontogenic changes and intraspecific variation independent of sex, most notably the neck frill. The geometrics showed no consistent morphological differences between specimens that were regarded as males and females by previous authors, but also a slight support for differences in the rostrum across the sample. Maiorino and team nevertheless, cited that the typical regarded "Protoceratops" male, AMNH 6438, pretty much resembles the rostrum morphology of AMNH 6466, a typical regarded female. However, they suggested that authentic differences between sexes could be still present in the postcranial skeleton. Although previously suggested for "P. hellenikorhinus", the team argued that the sample used for this species was not sufficient, and given that sexual dimorphism was not recovered in "P. andrewsi", it is unlikely that it occurred in "P. hellenikorhinus".


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2016 Hone and colleagues analyzed 37 skulls of "P. andrewsi", finding that the neck frill of "Protoceratops" (in both length and width) underwent positive allometry during ontongeny, that is, a faster growth/development of this region than the rest of the animal. The jugal bones also showed a trend towards an increase in relative size. These results suggest that they functioned as socio-sexual dominance signals, or, they were mostly used in display. The use of the frill as a displaying structure may be related to other anatomical features of "Protoceratops" such as the premaxillary teeth (at least for "P. andrewsi") which could have been used in display or intraspecific combat, or the high neural spines of tail. On the other hand, Hone and team argued that if neck frills were instead used for protective purposes, a large frill may have acted as an aposematic (warning) signal to predators. However, such strategies are most effective when the taxon is rare in the overall environment, opposed to "Protoceratops" which appears to be an extremely abundant and medium-sized dinosaur.


title: Protoceratops

text: Tereschenko in 2018 examined the cervical vertebrae series of six "P. andrewsi" specimens. Most of them had differences in the same exact vertebra, such as the shape and proportions of the vertebral centra and orientation of neural arches. According these differences, four groups were identified, concluding that individual variation was extended to the vertebral column of "Protoceratops".


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2020 nevertheless, Andrew C. Knapp and team conducted morphometric analyses of a large sample of "P. andrewsi" specimens, primarily confluding that the neck frill of "Protoceratops" has no indicators or evidence for being sexually dimorphic. Obtained results showed instead that several regions of the skull of "Protoceratops" independently varied in their rate of growth, ontogenetic shape and morphology; a high growth of the frill during ontogeny in relation to other body regions; and a large variability of the neck frill independent of size. Knapp and team noted that results of the frill indicate that this structure had a major role in signaling within the species, consistent with selection of potential mates with quality ornamentation and hence reproductive success, or dominance signaling. Such use of the frill may suggest that intraspecific social behavior was highly important for "Protoceratops". Results also support the general hypothesis that the neck frill of ceratopsians functioned as a socio-sexual signal structure.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 1989, Walter P. Coombs concluded that crocodilians, ratite and megapode birds were suitable modern analogs for dinosaur nesting behavior. He largely considered elongatoolithid eggs to belong to "Protoceratops" because adult skeletons were found in close proximity to nests, interpreting this as an evidence for parental care. Furthermore, Coombs considered the large concentration of "Protoceratops" eggs at small regions as an indicator of marked philopatric nesting (nesting in the same area). The nest of "Protoceratops" would have been excavated with the hindlimbs and was built in a mound-like, crater-shaped center structure with the eggs arranged in semicircular fashion. Richard A. Thulborn in 1992 analyzed the different types of eggs and nests—the majority of them, in fact, elongatoolithid—referred to "Protoceratops" and their structure. He identified types A and B, both of them sharing the elongated shape. Type A eggs differed from type B eggs in having a pinched end. Based on comparisons with other ornithischian dinosaurs such as "Maiasaura" and "Orodromeus"—known from more complete nests—Thulborn concluded that most depictions of "Protoceratops" nests were based on incompletely preserved clutches and mostly on type A eggs, which were more likely to have been laid by an ornithopod. He concluded that nests were built in a shallow mound with the eggs laid radially, contrary to popular restorations of crater-like "Protoceratops" nests.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2011 the first authentic nest of "Protoceratops" (MPC-D 100/530) from the Tugriken Shireh locality was described by David E. Fastovsky and team. As some individuals are closely appressed along the well-defined margin of the nest, it may have had a circular or semi-circular shape—as previously hypothetized—with a diameter of . Most of the individuals within the nest had nearly the same age, size and growth, suggesting that they belonged to a single nest, rather than an aggregate of individuals. Fastovsky and team also suggested that even though the individuals were young, they were not perinates based on the absence of eggshell fragments and their large size compared to even more smaller juveniles from this locality. The fact that the individuals likely spend some time in the nest after hatching for growth suggests that "Protoceratops" parents might have cared for their young at nests during at least the early stages of life. As "Protoceratops" was a relatively basal (primitive) ceratopsian, the finding may imply that other ceratopsians provided care for their young as well.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2017 Gregory M. Erickson and colleagues determined the incubation periods of "P. andrewsi" and "Hypacrosaurus" by using lines of arrested growth (LAGS; lines of growth) of the teeth in embryonic specimens ("Protoceratops" egg clutch MPC-D 100/1021). The results suggests a mean embryonic tooth replacement period of 30.68 days and relatively plesiomorphically (ancestral-shared) long incubation times for "P. andrewsi", with a minimum incubation time of 83.16 days. Norell and team in 2020 analyzed again this clutch and concluded that "Protoceratops" laid soft-shelled eggs. Most embryos within this clutch have a flexed position and the outlines of eggs are also present, suggesting that they were buried "in ovo" (in the egg). The outlines of eggs and embryos indicates ellipsoid-shaped eggs in life with dimensions about long and wide. Several of the embryos were associated with a black to white halo (circumference). Norell and team performed histological examinations to its chemical composition, finding traces of proteinaceous eggshells, and when compared to other sauropsids the team concluded that they were not biomineralized in life and thus soft-shelled. Given that soft-shelled eggs are more vulnerable to deshydratation and crushing, "Protoceratops" may have buried its eggs in moisturized sand or soil. The growing embryos therefore relied on external heat and parental care.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2018 Tereshchenko examined and described several articulated cervical vertebrae of "P. andrewsi" and reported the presence of two abnormally fused vertebrae (specimen PIN 3143/9). The fusion of the vertebrae was likely a product of disease or external damage.


title: Protoceratops

text: Barsbold in 1974 shortly described the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen and discussed possible scenarios. The "Velociraptor" has its right leg pinned under the "Protoceratops" body with its left sickle claw oriented into the throat region. The "Protoceratops" bit the right hand of the predator, implying that it was unable to escape. Barsbold suggested that both animals drowned as they fell into a swamp-like body of water or, the relatively quicksand-like bottom of a lake could have kept them together during the last moments of their fight.


title: Protoceratops

text: Osmólska in 1993 proposed another two hypotheses in order to explain their preservation. During the death struggle a large dune may have collapsed simultaneously burying both "Protoceratops" and "Velociraptor". Another proposal is that the "Velociraptor" was scavenging an already dead "Protoceratops" when it got buried and eventually killed by indeterminate circumstances.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 1995 David M. Unwin and colleagues cast doubt on previous explanations especially a scavenging hypothesis as there were numerous indications of a concurrent death event. For instance, the "Protoceratops" has a semi-erect stance and its skull is nearly horizontal, which could have not been possible if the animal was already dead. The "Velociraptor" has its right hand trapped within the jaws of the "Protoceratops" and the left one grasping the "Protoceratops" skull. Moreover, it lies on the floor with its feet directed to the prey's belly and throat areas, indicating that this "Velociraptor" was not scavenging. Unwin and colleagues examined the sediments surrounding the specimen and suggested that the two were buried alive by a powerful sandstorm. They interpreted the interaction as the "Protoceratops" being grasped and dispatched with kicks delivered by the low-lying "Velociraptor". They also considered possible that populations of "Velociraptor" were aware of crouching behaviors in "Protoceratops" during high-energy sandstorms and used it for successful hunts.


title: Protoceratops

text: Kenneth Carpenter in 1998 considered the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen to be conclusive evidence for theropods as active predators and not scavengers. He suggested another scenario where the multiple wounds delivered by the "Velociraptor" on the "Protoceratops" throat had the latter animal bleeding to death. As a last effort, the "Protoceratops" bit the right hand of the predator and trapped it beneath its own weight, causing the eventual death and desiccation of the "Velociraptor". The missing limbs of the "Protoceratops" were afterwards taken by scavengers. Lastly, both animals were buried by sand. Given that the "Velociraptor" is relatively complete, Carpenter suggested that it may have been completely or partially buried by sand.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2010 David Hone with team reported a new interaction between "Velociraptor" and "Protoceratops" based on tooth marks. Several fossils were collected at the Gate locality of the Bayan Mandahu Formation in 2008, including teeth and body remains of protoceratopsid and velociraptorine dinosaurs. The team referred these elements to "Protoceratops" and "Velociraptor" mainly based on their abundance across the unit, although they admitted that reported remains could represent different, yet related taxa (in this case, "Linheraptor" instead of "Velociraptor"). At least 8 body fossils of "Protoceratops" present active teeth marks, which were interpreted as feeding traces. Much in contrast to the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen, the tooth marks are inferred to have been produced by the dromaeosaurid during late-stage carcass consumption either during scavenging or following a group kill. The team stated that feeding by "Velociraptor" upon "Protoceratops" was probably a relatively common occurrence in these environments, and that this ceratopsian actively formed part of the diet of "Velociraptor".


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2016 Barsbold re-examined the Fighting Dinosaurs specimen and found several anomalies within the "Protoceratops" individual: both coracoids have small bone fragments indicatives of a breaking of the pectoral girdle; the right forelimb and scapulocoracoid are torn off to the left and backwards relative to its torso. He concluded that the prominent displacement of pectoral elements and right forelimb was caused by an external force that tried to tear them out. Since this event likely occurred after the death of both animals or during a point where movement was not possible, and the "Protoceratops" is missing other body elements, Barsbold suggested that scavengers were the most likely authors. Because "Protoceratops" is considered to have been a herding animal, another hypothesis is that members of a herd tried to pull out the already buried "Protoceratops", causing the joint dislocation of limbs. However, Barsbold pointed out that there no related traces within the overall specimen in order to support this latter interpretation. Lastly, he restored the course of the fight with the "Protoceratops" power-slamming the "Velociraptor", which used its feet claws to damage the throat and belly regions and its hand claws to grasp the herbivore's head. Before their burial, the deathmatch ended up on the ground with the "Velociraptor" lying on its back right under the "Protoceratops". After burial, either "Protoceratops" herd or scavengers tore off the buried "Protoceratops" to the left and backwards, making both predator and prey to be slightly separated.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2010 Nick Longrich examined the relatively large orbital ratio and sclerotic ring of "Protoceratops", which he suggested as evidence for a nocturnal lifestyle. Based on the size of its sclerotic ring, "Protoceratops" had an unusually large eyeball among protoceratopsids. In birds, a medium-sized sclerotic ring indicates that the animal is a predator, a large sclerotic ring indicates that it is nocturnal, and the largest ring size indicates it is an active nocturnal predator. Eye size is an important adaptation in predators and nocturnal animals because a larger eye ratio poses a higher sensitivity and resolution. Because of the energy necessary to maintain a larger eyeball and the weakness of the skull that corresponds with a larger orbit, Longrich argues that this structure may have been an adaptation for a nocturnal lifestyle. The jaw morphology of "Protoceratops"—more suitable for processing plant material—and its extreme abundance indicate it was not a predator, so if it was a diurnal animal, then it would have been expected to have a much smaller sclerotic ring size.


title: Protoceratops

text: However, in 2011 Lars Schmitz and Ryosuke Motani measured the dimensions of the sclerotic ring and eye socket in fossils specimens of dinosaurs and pterosaurs, as well as some living species. They noted that whereas photopic (diurnal) animals have smaller sclerotic rings, scotopic (nocturnal) animals tend to have more enlarged rings. Mesopic (cathemeral) animals—which are irregularly active throughout the day and night—are between these two ranges. Schmitz and Motani separated ecological and phylogenetic factors and by examining 164 living species and noticed that eye measurements are quite accurate when inferring diurnality, cathemerality, or nocturnality in extinct tetrapods. The results indicated that "Protoceratops" was a cathemeral herbivore and "Velociraptor" primarily nocturnal, suggesting that the Fighting Dinosaurs deathmatch may have occurred at twilight or under low-light conditions. Lastly, Schmitz and Motani concluded that ecological niche was a potential main driver in the development of daily activity. However, a subsequent study in 2021 found that Protoceratops had a greater capability of nocturnal vision than did Velociraptor.


title: Protoceratops

text: Based on general similarities between the vertebrate fauna and sediments of Bayan Mandahu and the Djadokhta Formation, the Bayan Mandahu Formation is considered to be Late Cretaceous in age, roughly Campanian. The dominant lithology is reddish-brown, poorly cemented, fine grained sandstone with some conglomerate, and caliche. Other facies include alluvial (stream-deposited) and eolian (wind-deposited) sediments. It is likely that sediments at Bayan Mandahu were deposited by short-lived rivers and lakes on an alluvial plain (flat land consisting of sediments deposited by highland rivers) with a combination of dune field paleoenvironments, under a semi-arid climate. The formation is known for its vertebrate fossils in life-like poses, most of which are preserved in unstructured sandstone, indicating a catastrophic rapid burial.


title: Protoceratops

text: The paleofauna of Bayan Mandahu is very similar in composition to the nearby Djadokhta Formation, with both formations sharing several of the same genera, but differing in the exact species. In this formation, "P. hellenikorhinus" is the representative species, and it shared its paleoenvironment with numerous dinosaurs such as dromaeosaurids "Linheraptor" and "Velociraptor osmolskae"; oviraptorids "Machairasaurus" and "Wulatelong"; and troodontids "Linhevenator", "Papiliovenator", and "Philovenator". Other dinosaur members include the alvarezsaurid "Linhenykus"; ankylosaurid "Pinacosaurus mephistocephalus"; and closely related protoceratopsid "Bagaceratops". Additional fauna from this unit comprises nanhsiungchelyids turtles, and a variety of squamates and mammals.


title: Protoceratops

text: "Protoceratops" is known from most localities of the Djadokhta Formation in Mongolia, which dates back to the Late Cretaceous about 71 million to 75 million years ago, being deposited during a rapid sequence of polarity


title: Protoceratops

text: changes in the late part of the Campanian stage. Dominant sediments at Djadokhta include dominant reddish-orange and pale orange to light gray, medium to fine-grained sands and sandstones, caliche, and sparse fluvial (river-deposited) processes. Based on these components, the paleoenvironments of the Djadokhta Formation are interpreted as having a hot, semiarid climate with large dune fields/sand dunes and several short-lived water bodies, similar to the modern Gobi Desert. It is estimated that at the end of the Campanian age and into the Maastrichtian the climate would shift to the more mesic (humid/wet) conditions seen in the Nemegt Formation.


title: Protoceratops

text: The Djadokhta Formation is separated into a lower Bayn Dzak Member and upper Turgrugyin Member. "Protoceratops" is largely known from both members, having "P. andrewsi" as a dominant and representative species in the overall formation. The Bayn Dzak member (mostly the Bayn Dzak locality) has yielded the dromaeosaurids "Halszkaraptor" and "Velociraptor mongoliensis"; oviraptorid "Oviraptor"; ankylosaurid "Pinacosaurus grangeri"; and troodontid "Saurornithoides". Ukhaa Tolgod, a highly fossiliferous locality is also included in the Bayn Dzak member. and its dinosaur paleofauna is composed of alvarezsaurids "Kol" and "Shuvuuia"; ankylosaurid "Minotaurasaurus"; birds "Apsaravis" and "Gobipteryx"; dromaeosaurid "Tsaagan"; oviraptorids "Citipati" and "Khaan"; troodontids "Almas" and "Byronosaurus"; and a new, unnamed protoceratopsid closely related to "Protoceratops". In the Turgrugyin Member (mainly Tugriken Shireh locality), "P. andrewsi" shared its paleoenvironment with the bird "Elsornis"; dromaeosaurids "Mahakala" and "Velociraptor mongoliensis"; and ornithomimid "Aepyornithomimus". "P. andrewsi" is also abundant at Udyn Sayr, where "Avimimus" and "Udanoceratops" have been recovered.


title: Protoceratops

text: The relatively low dinosaur paleodiversity, small body size of most dinosaurs, and arid settings of the Djadokhta Formation compared to those of the Nemegt Formation, suggest that "Protoceratops" and contemporaneous biota lived in a stressed paleoenvironment (physical factors that generate adverse impacts on the ecosystem). In addition, the high occurrence of protoceratopsid fossils in arid-deposited formations indicates that these ceratopsians preferred warm environments. Although "P. andrewsi" was the predominant protoceratopsid on this formation, tentative remains of "P. hellenikorhinus" have been reported from the Udyn Sayr and Bor Tolgoi localities, suggesting that both species co-existed. Whereas "P. andrewsi" is found in aeolian sediments (Bayn Dzak or Tugriken Shireh), "P. hellenikorhinus" is found in the aeolian-fluvial sediments. As the latter type of sediments is also found in the Bayan Mandahu Formation, it is likely that "P. hellenikorhinus" preferred environments combining humid and arid conditions.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 1993 Jerzykiewiczz suggested that many articulated "Protoceratops" specimens died in the process of trying to free themselves from massive sand bodies that trapped them during sandstorms events and were not transported by environmental factors. He cited the distinctive posture of some "Protoceratops" involving the body and head arched upwards with forelimbs tucked in at their sides—a condition known as "standing" in particular cases—the absence of sedimentary structures in sediments preserving the individuals, and the Fighting Dinosaurs taphonomic history itself as evidence for this catastrophic preservation. Given that this posture is exhibited by populations from both Bayan Mandahu and Djadokhta formations, Jerzykiewiczz indicated that this behavior was not unique to any locality. He also considered it unlikely that these "Protoceratops" individuals died after burying themselves in the sand given that these specimens are only found in structureless sandstones; an arched posture would pose hard breathing conditions; and burrowers are known to excavate headfirst and sub horizontally.


title: Protoceratops

text: Fastovsky in 1997 examined the geology at Tugriken Shireh providing insights into the taphonomy of "Protoceratops". He agreed in that the preservation of "Protoceratops" specimens indicate that they underwent a catastrophic event such as desert storms, and carcasses were not relocated by scavengers or environmental factors. Several isolated burrows found in sediments at this locality have also been reported penetrating in the bone surface of some buried "Protoceratops" individuals. Fastovsky pointed out these two factors combined indicate that this site was host to high biotic activity, mainly composed of arthropod scavengers who were also involved in the recycling of "Protoceratops" carcasses. The flexed position of most buried "Protoceratops" is indicative of desiccation and shrinking of ligaments/tendons in the legs, necks, and tails after death.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 1998 during a conference abstract at the Society of Vertebrate Paleontology, James I. Kirkland and team reported multiple arthropod pupae casts and borings (tunnels) on a largely articulated "Protoceratops" specimen from Tugriken Shireh, found in 1997. A notorious amount of pupae were found in clusters and singly along the bone surfaces, mostly in the joint areas, where the trace makers would have feed on dried ligaments, tendons and cartilage. The examined pupae from the specimen are more cylindrical structures with rounded ends. The pupae found in this "Protoceratops" individual were reported as measuring as much a long and wide and compare best with pupae attributed to solitary wasps. Additionally, the reported borings have a structure that differs from traces made by dermestid beetles. The team indicated that both pupae and boring traces reflect a marked ecological relationship between dinosaur carcasses and a relatively large necrophagous insect taxon.


title: Protoceratops

text: Later in 2010, Kirkland and Kenneth Bader redescribed and discussed the numerous feeding traces from this "Protoceratops" specimen, which they nicknamed Fox Site "Protoceratops". They found at least three types of feeding traces on this individual; nearly circular borings—which they found instead to correlate best with feeding traces made by dermestid beetles—of in diameter; semicircular shaped notches at the edge of bones; and destruction of articular surfaces, mostly at the joints of the limbs. The co-workers also noted that the Fox Site "Protoceratops" preserves associated traces in the encasing sediment, indicative of necrophagous activity after the animal was buried. Kirkland and Bader concluded that adults of a large beetle taxon would detect decaying carcasses buried below the sand and dig down in order to feed and lay their eggs. After emerging from the eggs, larvae would have fed on the carcass prior to pupating. The last larvae to emerge would have feed on the dried tendons and cartilage in the joint areas—thereby explaining the notorious poor preservation of these areas in the specimen—and subsequently chewing on the bone itself, prior to pupating. After reaching full maturity, adult beetles would have then dig back to the surface, most likely leaving borings through bones, and finally beginning to search for new carcasses and thus continuing the recycling of "Protoceratops" carcasses.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2010 the paleontologists Yukihide Matsumoto and Mototaka Saneyoshi reported multiple borings and bite traces on joint areas of articulated "Bagaceratops" and "Protoceratops" specimens from the Tugriken Shireh locality of the Djadokhta Formation and Hermiin Tsav locality of the Barun Goyot Formation, respectively. They interpreted the damaged areas in the "Protoceratops" specimen as product of active feeding by burrowing arthropods, most likely insects. These specimens were formally described and discussed in 2011 by Saneyoshi and team, including fossils from "Velociraptor" and an ankylosaurid. Reported traces were identified as pits, notches, borings, and channels across the skeletons, most notably at limb joint areas. The team indicated that it is very likely that these were made by scavenging insects, however, relatively large borings (about wide) in the ribs and scapulae of one "Protoceratops" specimen (MPC-D100/534) indicates that insects were not the only scavengers involved in the bone damage, but also mammals. Given the dry/harsh paleoenvironmental conditions of units like the Djadokhta Formation, medium to large-sized dinosaur carcasses may have been an important source of nutrition for small animals. Saneyoshi and team emphasized that the high frequency of feeding traces at the limb joints of numerous specimens and reports of previous studies, indicates that small animals may have targeted the collagen found in the joint cartilage of dried dinosaur carcasses as a source of nitrogen, which was low in the desert-dry conditions of these dinosaur fossils.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2011 Fastovsky with colleagues concluded that the juveniles within the nest MPC-D 100/530 were rapidly overwhelmed by a strong sand-bearing event and entombed alive. The sediments of the nest suggest a deposition through a dune-shift or strong sandstorms, and the orientation of the individuals indicates that sediments were brought from a prevailing west-southwest wind. Most individuals are preserved with their forelimbs splayed and hindlimbs are extended, an arrangement that suggests that young "Protoceratops" tried to push against the powerful airstream in the initially loose sand. Prior to or during burial, some may have tried to climb on top of others. Because it is generally accepted that most fossil specimens at Tugriken Shireh were preserved by rapidly migrating dunes and sandstorms, Fastovsky with colleagues suggested that the lee side borders of the nest would have been the area where air was sand-free and consequently, all young "Protoceratops" may have struggled to reach this area, resulting in their final burial and eventual death.


title: Protoceratops

text: Hone and colleagues in 2014 indicated that two assemblages of "Protoceratops" at Tugriken Shireh (MPC-D 100/526 and 100/534) suggest that individuals died simultaneously, rather than accumulating over time. For instance, the block of four juveniles preserves the individuals with near-identical postures, spatial positions, and all of them have their heads facing upwards, which indicates that they were alive at the time of burial. During burial, the animals were most likely not completely restricted in their movements at all, given that the individuals of MPC-D 100/526 are in relatively normal life positions and have not been disturbed. At least two individuals within this block are preserved with their arms at a level above the legs, suggestive of attempts of trying to move upwards with the purpose of free themselves. The team also noted the presence of borings on the skulls and skeletons of both assemblages, and these may have been produced by insect larvae after the animals died.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2016 Meguru Takeuchi and team reported numerous fossilized feeding traces preserved on skeletons of "Protoceratops" from the Bayn Dzak, Tugriken Shireh, and Udyn Sayr localities, and also from other dinosaurs. Preserved traces were reported as pits, notches, borings, and tunnels, which they attributed to scavengers. The diameter of the feeding traces preserved on a "Protoceratops" skull from Bayn Dzak was bigger than traces reported among other specimens, indicating that the scavengers responsible for these traces were notoriously different from other trace makers preserved on specimens.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 1993 the Folklorist and historian of science Adrienne Mayor of Stanford University suggested that the exquisitely preserved fossil skeletons of "Protoceratops", "Psittacosaurus" and other beaked dinosaurs, found by ancient Scythian nomads who mined gold in the Tian Shan and Altai Mountains of Central Asia, may have been at the root of the image of the mythical creature known as the griffin. Griffins were described as lion-sized quadrupeds with large claws and a raptor-bird-like beak; they laid their eggs in nests on the ground.


title: Protoceratops

text: Dodson in 1996 pointed out Greek writers began describing the griffin around 675 B.C., at the same time the Greeks first made contact with Scythian nomads. Griffins were described as guarding the gold deposits in the arid hills and red sandstone formations of the wilderness. The region of Mongolia and China, where many "Protoceratops" fossils are found, is rich in gold runoff from the neighboring mountains, lending some credence to the theory that these fossils were the basis of griffin myths.


title: Protoceratops

text: Mayor in 2001 and 2011 defended the hypothesis of "Protoceratops" as an influence over the griffin by citing that some other Greek histories about mythological creatures may have had their origins at the hands of fossil findings made by ancient people. She cited myths such as cyclopes, giants, griffins and minotaurs.


title: Protoceratops

text: In 2016 this hypothesis was criticized by the British paleontologist and paleoartist Mark P. Witton, as it ignores pre-Greek griffin art and accounts. Witton goes on to point out that the wings of traditional griffins are positioned above the shoulder blades, not behind the neck as the frills of "Protoceratops", that the bodies of griffins much more closely resemble the bodies of modern big cats than they do those of "Protoceratops", and that the gold deposits of central Asia occur hundreds of kilometers from the known "Protoceratops" fossil remains, among many other inconsistencies. It is simpler, he argues, to understand the griffin as a mythical combination of well-known extant animal species than as an ancient misunderstanding of fossilized collections of bones.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 6)

text: Bigg Boss 6 is the sixth season of the Indian Hindi-language reality TV show "Bigg Boss", which is telecast on Colors TV. The season started from 7 October 2012. Salman Khan, who was the host of the previous two seasons, returned as the host for the show. The sixth season was launched as a "Parivarik" season with a Gujarati tagline- "Alag che!" (English: It's different).


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 6)

text: The series was won by soap actress Urvashi Dholakia on 12 January 2013. Imam Siddiqui was the first runner up while Sana Khan and Niketan Madhok were second and third runners-up respectively.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 6)

text: The final episode on 12 January had a 4.4 TVR (television rating points), becoming the highest-rated non-fiction show during the week. The finale also fared better than its previous season, which had dropped to 3.6 TVR. In the fourth season, the finale had rated a 6.7 TVR. The show averaged 3.3 TVR in the week ended 12 January compared to 2.8 in the trailing week.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 6)

text: The purpose built house is located at Lonavla, Maharashtra. It is designed by renowned art director Sabu Cyril. The house is built over an area of 15000 square feet. Featuring a more subtle and home-like feel with shades of red and white, it follows a completely different look from the previous year's house.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 6)

text: In the grand premiere there was a twist where these more housemates came as commoners and the public had to vote which one of them will be selected to go inside. Kashif was selected while Divya and Rohin was rejected.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 6)

text: The "Padosi Ghar" (Neighbour house) or the Secret village was revealed on Day 41, following the eviction of Aashka. Bigg Boss revealed that this year some evicted housemates and new entries will move to the village house where they will live for an undisclosed amount of time. Eventually, some of the housemates living in the village may return to the main house.


title: Bigg Boss (Hindi season 6)

text: The house is built on grounds adjacent to the luxury house on a space only one-fourth of the size of the former. This rustic squatters' area has been designed by Leena Chanda. It is not equipped with amenities like air conditioning, microwave ovens, sink and swimming pool. 4 days after re-entering the village house Imam was relocated to the main house. 6 days after Imam was moved, the village was intruded by masked men who destroyed the house completely and abducted all five housemates in an attempt of move them to the main house via a tunnel.


title: Hard Kill

text: Hard Kill is a 2020 American action thriller film directed by Matt Eskandari, starring Jesse Metcalfe, Bruce Willis, and Natalie Eva Marie. It was released on August 21, 2020, by Vertical Entertainment.


title: Hard Kill

text: Upset that her revolutionary technology will be misused for military purposes, Eva Chalmers approaches an extremist known as the Pardoner, who promises to help her use it to save the world. When she balks at his terrorist plans, he takes her hostage and attempts to coerce her father, Donovan, into revealing the code to activate it. Donovan hires a team of mercenaries led by Derek Miller to rescue Eva and recover the tech.


title: Hard Kill

text: Principal photography began in January 2020 in Cincinnati, under the working title "Open Source". According to the "Los Angeles Times" and actress Lala Kent, an incident occurred on set when Bruce Willis incidentally fired a gun loaded with blanks on the wrong cue and then did it again on the next take. Nobody was injured but the report said the incident left some crew members "shaken". "Hard Kill" is one of the last films to star Willis, who retired from acting because he was diagnosed with aphasia.


title: Hard Kill

text: The film was simultaneously released in theaters and video on-demand in the United States on August 21, 2020. "Hard Kill" then became available to stream on Netflix in the USA on November 23, 2020 and was the top streamed film for several weeks.


title: Hard Kill

text: As of October 29, 2020, "Hard Kill" grossed $111,523 in the United Arab Emirates, Saudi Arabia, and Vietnam.


title: Hard Kill

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of based on reviews and an average rating of . Frank Scheck of "The Hollywood Reporter" said that Willis "seems to have settled on making listless appearances in forgettable B-movie action movies as a retirement funding plan". He said that although Metcalfe "boasts the appropriate physicality" for his role, he is "unable to summon sufficient charisma to make his character remotely interesting". Scheck called the other performances "equally lackluster" except for Marie, who "makes for a convincing female badass". Lukas Spathis of Voices from the Balcony said "While Hard Kill is never boring enough to turn off thanks to a barrage of action, commitment from Metcalfe, and the few times Willis is lucid; its story is too cliche, its MacGuffin is unexplained, and its look is too flat to be memorable."


title: Seeley Booth

text: Seeley Joseph Booth is a fictional character in the US television series "Bones" (2005–2017), portrayed by David Boreanaz. Agent Booth is a co-protagonist of the series with Dr. Temperance Brennan (Emily Deschanel), whom he affectionately refers to as "Bones". The character made an appearance in the "Sleepy Hollow" episode "Dead Men Tell No Tales" as part of a two-part Halloween cross-over with "Bones".


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth is from Philadelphia but was raised in Pittsburgh. He is a fan of the Philadelphia Flyers hockey team; he has pictures of the team hanging on the back wall of his office, has been seen wearing a Flyers T-shirt when off-duty and is known to become extremely annoyed whenever he is interrupted while watching a Flyers game. During many episodes he is seen drinking from a Pittsburgh Steelers coffee mug, suggesting he is also a fan of that football team. In his apartment Booth has a Pittsburgh Penguins hockey jersey of Mario Lemieux, which implies he is a fan of the Penguins. He is implied to be a Philadelphia Phillies supporter as well; in season 8, his mother brings his childhood toy – a miniature Phillie Phanatic stuffed toy – to give to Christine and in season 6, episode 16 "The Blackout in the Blizzard" he acquires a row of seats from the former Veterans Stadium and recounts for Dr. Brennan how he attended game 6 of the 1980 World Series with his father, describing it as the "best day of [his] life". A deeply religious man, he was raised and still is a practicing Catholic, having served as an altar boy during his youth; throughout the series he is often seen wearing a St. Christopher medal, which was given to him by his grandfather before being deployed to Somalia, around his neck. Little is known about his schooling years, though it has been implied that he went through the public school system and he once mentioned attending five different schools by the time he was nine. It is not mentioned where or when he attended college but he has stated that he attended on an athletic scholarship before a shoulder injury ended any dreams of going professional and taught dance to help pay for tuition. He has been an avid athlete and sports fan since his high school days. His home and office walls are adorned with various sports memorabilia including a signed picture of Bruins player Bobby Orr and the jerseys of NHL legends Mario Lemieux and Bobby Clarke.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth's age is never specified. However, in Season 3 it is stated that he is 35 years old and that Brennan is five years younger than him and, in Season 4 episode "The Con Man in the Meth Lab", the "squints" celebrate his birthday. In the episode "Women in Limbo" of season 1, it is stated that Brennan is born in 1976, which should put Booth's birthday in 1971. In season 11, Booth (and his brother, Jared) are mentioned as now being in their (early) 40s.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth is the older of two boys and has a younger brother Jared (Brendan Fehr). Their father "flew Thuds and Phantoms in Vietnam" and moved to Philadelphia where he worked as a barber and eventually started a family. After his death, Booth found a Purple Heart medal among his possessions, indicating he was likely shot down and injured at some point during the war. Their mother Marianne (Joanna Cassidy) was a dancer and composed jingles for television advertisements. Booth is a (fictional) member of the Anglo-American Booth family, best known for producing generations of actors including John Wilkes Booth, the assassin of Abraham Lincoln; because of the latter, Booth does not like to talk about the fact.


title: Seeley Booth

text: For the first three seasons, details on Booth's family background were generally sketchy as he rarely mentioned his family members. He is still uncomfortable discussing his childhood and becomes especially defensive when asked about it. Prior to Jared's appearance in the episode "The Con Man in the Meth Lab", Booth's long-time friend Dr. Camille Saroyan was the only one who knew about his childhood; in the same episode, Sweets observed the brothers and independently came to the conclusion himself that they were products of a physically abusive household. However, it is not until Season 5 when Booth's grandfather Hank is introduced that his abusive background is fully revealed.


title: Seeley Booth

text: In Season 8 Booth bluntly tells Brennan that he "grew up in a household of violence and hatred", one of the few times the character has ever openly spoken of his past. When his younger brother Jared is first introduced, it becomes apparent that Booth was estranged from his family. Their father was an abusive alcoholic; this was reinforced by the fact that Booth is able to almost instantly recognize suspects with a drinking problem even when they are sober. Booth used to protect Jared from their father when he became violent, and was extremely protective of him. The extent of their father's abuse was never fully revealed but based on Booth's vague admissions throughout the show and Hank and Marianne's own statements, it was likely that he was also emotionally neglectful of his ex-wife and sons. One of Booth's deepest fears and insecurities is that he would become like his father, which continues to trouble him to this day. It is implied that their mother was also subjected to abuse by their father as she once mentioned to Brennan that she was thrown down a flight of stairs by her ex-husband. Eventually she left the family out of desperation. In the Season 8 episode "The Party in the Pants", she contacts Booth for the first time in over two decades to invite him to her wedding. The boys were essentially singlehandedly raised by their paternal grandfather Hank (Ralph Waite), whom Booth affectionately calls "Pops". Hank had stumbled upon his son abusing Seeley and drove him out of the house. He calls Booth "Shrimp" as Seeley was a young child then. From then on, he raised his two grandsons as his own. Booth has admitted that he might have killed himself as a kid had it not been for his grandfather.


title: Seeley Booth

text: After losing his athletic scholarship, Booth enlisted in the United States Army. He is at least a third-generation military servicemember—his grandfather, Hank, was an MP veteran of the Korean War and his father was a veteran of the Vietnam War. It is mentioned in season 4 that, prior to Jared's court-martial and dishonorable discharge for stealing evidence to save Booth, "no Booth has ever gotten a dishonorable discharge." Based on facts subsequently revealed throughout the show, he would have served during the 1990s, prior to joining the FBI. He was a sniper in the 101st Airborne Division, 75th Ranger Regiment, and Special Forces. He served in the Gulf War, Somalia, Guatemala, and Kosovo, along with other places. He also stated that he has trained with Delta Force operators and it has been indicated that he has experience in clandestine operations. For a time, he held the record for the longest shot made in combat. In the Season 5 finale, he is shown wearing a 101st Airborne Division combat patch, Ranger and Special Forces qualification tabs, a Combat Infantryman Badge, and Parachutist, Military Free Fall Parachutist, and Air Assault badges. He also has a Pathfinder Badge in his shadow boxes in his office. His achievement and service medals can be seen in the shadow boxes mounted on the wall behind his desk in his office. While in the military, he was awarded a Bronze Star Medal, a Purple Heart, and an Army Good Conduct Medal. He separated from the Army at the rank of Master Sergeant.


title: Seeley Booth

text: In the episode "The Beginning in the End," Booth is approached by a Colonel Pelant and handed a letter from the Secretary of Defense requesting him to return to active duty to train Afghan soldiers at "tracking and apprehending insurgents". He is offered a promotion to Sergeant Major and a position as an advisor to the Afghan National Army. Although initially reluctant, Booth accepts and is deployed to Afghanistan during the time frame between Seasons 5 and 6 when he, Bones, Angela, and Hodgins leave Washington, D.C. for a year-long sabbatical.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Despite his distinguished service record, Booth is generally reticent about his military service and rarely speaks about it openly, even with Bones. Part of the reason is the classified nature of some his assignments. Bones subsequently discovers that he has been tortured while held as a POW in the Middle East, which Booth never elaborated on and has not been addressed since, after looking at his x-rays. In Season 2, he was kidnapped and tortured with a heated screwdriver by a mobster for refusing to give information and later told Bones that he has been "tortured worse". In Season 9, Bones mentions that he does not throw his socks into the hamper after coming home from work so that his feet stay warm, suggesting that he still suffers from the physical ramifications of the torture he endured. Booth is still haunted by memories from his time in the Army, having lost friends in combat and watched his own buddy bleed to death in his arms. As such, he is noticeably affected when investigating cases involving veterans and was also implied to have stopped attending unit reunions and gatherings in an effort to distance himself from his painful past in the military. It is apparent that he suffers from survivor's guilt, although the term is never used in the show, and his "kill count" is a major sore point and an extremely sensitive issue for him. Former priest and Army chaplain, Aldo Clemens, whom Booth regularly confessed to while he was in the service, told Bones that Booth was the reason why he left the priesthood and decided that God was his "worst enemy" and a "bastard". In the episode "Hero in the Hold," it is revealed that he has blamed himself for the death of his spotter, Corporal Edward "Teddy" Parker (whom Booth named his son after), on a sniper mission, even though Teddy had unintentionally disobeyed orders to keep his head down and was fatally shot as a result. He sought out Sweets for counseling in Season 6 after he was confronted by his former mentor and ex-military sniper-turned-vigilante Jacob Broadsky. Towards the end of Season 1 he confessed to Bones for the first time about the buried guilt of assassinating a man in front of his son, after much persuasion from a fellow veteran, telling her, "It's never just the one person who dies, Bones. [...] With each shot we all die a little bit." In Season 9, when Bones receives a $75,000 advanced check from her book sales and asks Booth what he wants to do with it, he opts to donate it to the Wounded Warrior Project, a charity for injured veterans. In season 12, while working a case involving his former Army buddies, Booth admits to Bones that he had been lucky and was only able to move on with her support.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth had a gambling problem which developed as a coping mechanism after leaving the military. According to flashbacks in "The Parts in the Sum of the Whole," he only began to quit after meeting (and subsequently asking out) Bones for the first time while working a case together. As of the series pilot, he has been clean after attending GA meetings and has been able to resist the urge on several occasions when a case required him to be at a casino or a similar environment. In several episodes he can be seen twirling a poker chip (sometimes his GA sobriety chip) or playing with dice. In season 10 he suffered a relapse when a case required him to go undercover to infiltrate an underground gaming ring but managed to get it under control again when Brennan forced him to re-attend GA meetings.


title: Seeley Booth

text: In Season 4, it is stated that Booth has been in the FBI for twelve years, which implies that he would have joined the Bureau around 1996. However, this contradicts his statements in Season 6 about going AWOL to be present at the birth of his son, Parker (Parker was four when the show premiered in 2005) and in season 10 when he recounts to Wendell Bray of watching his men getting shot and killed by the Taliban during a mission in Ghazni, Afghanistan (American troops did not enter Afghanistan until after the attacks on September 11, 2001). A possible realistic explanation would be that Booth remained in the Army as a reservist.


title: Seeley Booth

text: It was during his time in the service that he first became acquainted with Jacob Broadsky (Arnold Vosloo), a fellow master sniper who later become a personal nemesis for Booth.


title: Seeley Booth

text: The following are the awards (decorations, medals/ribbons, and badges) fictionally worn by Sergeant Major Booth.


title: Seeley Booth

text: John Kubicke of BuddyTV described Booth as "charming, funny, a tad brutish but ultimately warm and caring". He is worldly wise, socially at ease with people, very athletic, and apparently sexually confident with women. He often refers to himself as a jock, having played football and several other sports in high school and college. Other characters have described him as an "alpha male" and "a complex man".


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth is portrayed as a patriot and has a strong sense of duty to his country and job. In "Soldier on the Grave", Angela described him as "someone who wants to keep honor and responsibility alive". For much of Season 1, this often led to friction between him and Jack Hodgins, who held anti-government views. According to Cam, Booth relies on his faith in the government to keep his sanity intact having killed nearly fifty people on government orders as an Army sniper. He takes his oath and position as a federal agent seriously and holds himself to an equally high standard; he is especially distressed whenever a law enforcement officer is involved and refuses to participate in cover-ups. Booth is also fiercely loyal and protective towards his friends and family to the point where he will not hesitate to physically threaten and intimidate anyone who attempts to harm them.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth is occasionally over-protective, often to Bones' annoyance, of his family and people he cares about. Sweets theorized that his protective instincts – which he labeled "white knight syndrome" – stems from his abusive childhood and his having to frequently protect his younger brother Jared from their alcoholic father. His former boss Sam Cullen called him a "paladin" – "Defender of the faith, protector".


title: Seeley Booth

text: Due in part to his Catholic upbringing, Booth sees the world and morality in black and white, which contrasts Bones' objective view of such abstract concepts. This conflicting view is often a source of friction and, later, banter between them. Booth draws the line between the "good guys" and "bad guys" and stated that "life is about taking sides", when asked about how he is able to reconcile his past as a sniper while hunting down his former mentor-turned-vigilante Jacob Broadsky. Booth once told Sweets that while he has killed (because he was following orders), he has never murdered. It is stated that Booth will not pull the trigger unless he is absolutely certain of the identity and guilt of the "target" he is about to kill and that it is sanctioned by a higher authority and not on his own volition. Booth views the law in a similarly subjective way and believes that committing a crime is never justifiable regardless of the circumstances. This, coupled with his "by the book" approach, is apparent when he arrests Bones' father Max, for killing the Deputy Director of the FBI (who was revealed to be part of a cover-up), in her own office without hesitation in the Season 2 finale "Stargazer in a Puddle", although he does apologize to Bones before leading Max out in handcuffs.


title: Seeley Booth

text: One of Booth's noted characteristics is his respect for life. Despite spending most of his working life around firearms, it is a known fact that he dislikes having to kill another human being and it remains a sensitive topic for him. His past as a sniper still haunts him emotionally and Bones surmised that his choice to become an FBI agent and his dedication for seeking justice for victims was his way of paying penance. In the pilot, he tells Bones that he hopes to catch as many criminals as people he has killed. In the episode "The Man in the S.U.V.", after shooting and killing a terrorist about to detonate a bomb at a crowded convention center, he refused to accept credit and explains to Bones that he finds "no pleasure in taking someone's life". When he shot a mechanical clown on an ice cream truck for seemingly no reason, he was ordered to see Dr. Gordon Wyatt for counseling in order to get his badge and gun back. In subsequent episodes Dr. Wyatt uncovers the guilt and anger Booth has been harboring for so long. In Season 6 Booth's FBI colleague Dr. Lance Sweets noted that the reason why Booth was able to live through the guilt was his ability to channel it into his career in the FBI and responsibility to his son and those he cared about.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Generally, Booth has a cheerful, happy-go-lucky personality. He frequently smiles, makes jokes, and occasionally acts in a silly, almost childish manner. On the job, he tends to adopt a more serious, professional attitude, although his cheerful side occasionally slips through. However, he also has issues with his temperament and, as shown in several episodes, it has gotten him in trouble on occasion. He shoots the clown head on an ice cream truck in season 2 episode "The Girl in the Gator" due to coulrophobia. As a result, his service pistol is confiscated and he is ordered to see Dr Gordon Wyatt (Stephen Fry) for counseling sessions to be cleared for duty. In Season 4 he shoots a black metal band's guitar amplifier after the guitarist spits on his badge and was promptly reprimanded by Dr Wyatt. There is a running gag in the show where Booth often sarcastically threatens to shoot a squint (especially Hodgins or a "squintern") in exasperation when they start "rambling" or occasionally an uncooperative suspect in the interrogation room. Despite his ability to emotionally detach himself from a case and compartmentalize, there were instances where he has "snapped", especially when a case touches a sensitive subject, such as when he physically hit a suspect who had a history of abusing his wife. Having grown up in an abusive home, he has admitted to Sweets and Bones of his fears that he would become like his father.


title: Seeley Booth

text: When investigating a crime, Booth relies on intuition and instinct honed from his training and experience, something which the rational empiricist Bones is unable to understand. His interpersonal approach is especially effective in the interrogation room – "[his] domain". Despite lacking the academic background of Bones and Sweets, he has been shown repeatedly to possess a natural ability to read people and detect subtle behavioral cues and accurately establish motive. Initially Bones rebuffs Booth's intuition as she (at first) rejects anything that cannot be measured with numbers, research and scientific evidence, but he soon earns her and the team's respect for his ability to correctly interpret evidence. In Season 4, Bones tries to interrogate a suspect for the first time but fails, making a fool of herself in the process. She eventually concedes that the interpersonal aspects of the job and interrogations are still exclusively Booth's area of expertise. In Season 9, while Booth and Bones were observing Sweets interrogating a highly intelligent suspect, he explains to her Sweets' techniques and the suspect's behavioral responses. Despite his general demeanor and occasional silliness, Booth is actually very intelligent, but frequently downplays his intelligence, deliberately making himself look stupid and ignorant (something made easier by keeping Bones around as an intellectual contrast). This leads people to dismiss him as a simple fool, lulling them into a false sense of security which Booth uses to his advantage. Angela has observed that his ability to "pretend to be stupider than he actually is most of the time" was what made him such a skilled interrogator, as opposed to Bones, whose bluntness often gives a poor first impression and puts people off. Gordon Wyatt has also noticed this: on one occasion when Booth made a stupid comment, Wyatt immediately called him out on it, saying "He does that, doesn't he? He wants to be underestimated." Angela also believes that Booth pretends to be stupid in order to make Bones feel smarter, since he knows that she likes to be the smart one. Booth is often frustrated by the scientific and highly technical jargon Bones and the other scientists, and sometimes Sweets, tend to use, as shown when he abruptly cuts them off in the middle of a sentence and tells them to "translate" into layman's terms. Although lacking the squints' "book smarts", he compensates with his instincts honed from his experience in the FBI, as shown by the fact that he is able to accurately guess Bones' top three password choices. Although Bones still ridicules the concept of "gut feeling", she and the Jeffersonian team have deferred to his own expertise as a federal agent, especially when connecting the crime with the weapon used.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth tends to keep his personal and professional life as separate as possible and is quite territorial, especially in regards to his personal life and what he considers his personal space. This is exhibited by the fact that he displays his military medals and memorabilia in his office rather than in his home and his horrified reaction to Sweets using the master bathroom and helping Bones fold his underwear when the latter was temporarily staying with him and Bones in season 8. He is also extremely guarded and taciturn about most aspects of his personal life, namely his abusive father, troubled childhood, "love life" and traumatic experiences in the military. For example, in the episode "A Night at the Bones Museum", he becomes offended when Bones talks about him while on a date with his "boss's boss" Andrew Hacker and curtly tells her that "what goes on between us is ours". When asked more personal questions, such as about his emotional problems, especially by Sweets or Bones, his first reaction is to change the subject, deflect them with jokes or become defensive. Even when confronted privately "out of office", he usually refuses to talk outright, choosing instead to downplay his emotions and brood over a drink at the bar. In later seasons, he has begun to openly admit to Bones or Cam when he is "not ok" instead of brushing it off.


title: Seeley Booth

text: On the job, Booth is characterized as a "man of action" and once claimed that he would "rot behind a desk". Early in season 8, he was given an opportunity to earn a promotion to an administrative position but passed up the chance in order to help Sweets and rookie agent Olivia Sparling with an emergency situation involving an assassin armed with an explosive. Bones herself commented that Booth being assigned to a desk job was akin to "caging an animal" and that he was "meant to run free". Booth tends to shy away from the limelight when it comes to taking credit for solving a case. He tends to be a kinesthetic person who favors the physical aspects of his job, such as chasing down suspects or leading a SWAT team, and would throw around a ball or putt a golf ball into a cup in his office while thinking through his cases.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth is a fan of classic rock and arena rock music. He has expressed great affection for the group Foreigner (in fact, Foreigner's "Hot Blooded" is Booth's & Bones' song), and poked fun at Bones for her interest in world, rap, and hip hop music. He also likes the band Poco. In the season three finale, he listens to the hardcore punk/punkabilly band Social Distortion. In the Season 4 episode "Mayhem on the Cross" he mentions that his father thought that Black Flag and the Dead Kennedys sounded the same. Given the relatively underground nature of the California hardcore punk scene, of which Social Distortion, Black Flag and the Dead Kennedys were all seminal members, it is most likely that Booth's father would have heard these bands only if Booth himself had played their records. He is also familiar with country music as his grandfather "raised [him] on Grand Ole Opry".


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth shows a preference for the old school. He despises new age innovations, feeling that technology dehumanizes everything. He hates cappuccinos, referring to it as "foamy crap" and not actual coffee, only drinking his coffee black. He hates tea as well: when working on a case in England, he remarks that his drink is "the weakest coffee I've ever had". When Brennan informs him that it isn't coffee, but actually tea, Booth immediately discards it by throwing it in the river. He also dislikes reading news on a tablet, preferring to hold the newspaper in his hands, and had a vintage fridge in his kitchen at his old apartment. Bones told Hannah that Booth has always wanted an old-fashioned rotary telephone, as he believes that it is what a phone should be: sturdy and heavy enough to knock someone out. He also believes that the mechanics of it make it human.


title: Seeley Booth

text: It is revealed in the season three episode "The Mummy in The Maze" that Booth suffers from coulrophobia. When traveling through a haunted house, Booth is frightened of an evil clown mannequin; Brennan is bewildered by his behavior and Booth feels ashamed when he purposely avoids walking by the mannequin. In season two he shoots a large plastic clown head on an ice cream truck, annoyed with the music. Booth wears a "Cocky" belt buckle in episodes following "The Boneless Bride in the River", which is absent in the first episode of season five after recovery from surgery. However, in the first two seasons he wears a stylized eagle buckle and for most of Season 9 he is seen wearing a heavy buckle with crossed muskets, the insignia of the US Army Infantry Branch. He also likes to wear colorful socks. In the episode "The Wannabe in the Weeds", it is revealed that he is allergic to grass.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Toward the end of season 4, Booth suffers from a brain tumor that leads him to hallucinate conversations with Stewie Griffin. The tumor is successfully removed, but it leaves him with residual memory loss and a lack of confidence in the field.


title: Seeley Booth

text: In the series pilot, Booth was introduced as an FBI special agent in the homicide department who seeks the professional opinion of Dr. Temperance Brennan at the (fictional) renowned Jeffersonian Institute. He was eventually made the liaison between the Jeffersonian and the FBI, much to his chagrin, but he soon develops a close working relationship with the Jeffersonian team of scientists, whom Booth and his fellow FBI agents call "squints", a nickname which has since become a term of endearment Bones and her team associate him with. Booth once referred to the Jeffersonian team of scientists, whom he affectionately calls the "squint squad", as "my people". Caroline Julian, a federal prosecutor who frequently works with them, has commented that aside from him "there isn't a single normal law enforcement officer who could work with these people." Bones herself often immediately objects when another agent (other than Booth) is assigned to work with her. Although not as "book smart" as the other "squints", he is quick to link evidence with and often uses his "street smarts" and intuition to assist the case. He is characterized as a "hands on" agent and makes no secret of his distaste for paperwork and formal documentation.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth is based at the J. Edgar Hoover Building along with his late colleague Dr. Lance Sweets and current partner Special Agent James Aubrey but frequents the Jeffersonian, which he jokingly dubbed "Squint Central", for updates on the evidence and has his own access card. The fact that he has his own office and is called "sir" by younger agents denotes some seniority or supervisory status. In addition, when his credentials are seen close up, the acronym "SSA" can be seen, strongly implying that Booth holds the rank of Supervisory Special Agent. It has been implied through interactions with other characters that Booth is generally well regarded and respected within the Bureau and other federal agencies for his skill, even if his distaste for the politics that entails his job has put him at odds with his boss and other local and federal law enforcement agencies. Little is known about his work history in the FBI except for the fact that he spent a period of time in Japan as part of an exchange program with the Tokyo Police. His call sign is 22705.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Because of his training as an FBI agent and military background, he adheres to protocol and the chain of command. As such, he often has to keep the "squints" in line when a case emotionally affects them in order to ensure that they abide by the rules and not jeopardize the case. When necessary, Booth will not hesitate to bend the rules or use underhanded tactics to get what he needs, and will go through great lengths to obtain a confession, especially when the situation is urgent or desperate (e.g. a hostage situation), but he will not stoop to actually breaking the law or disobeying protocol. His former special forces training and experience has proven useful at times, especially in cases involving firearms or armed and dangerous suspects. Other notable incidents include in Season 4 when he was kidnapped by "The Grave Digger" and had to find his way out of a decommissioned Navy ship rigged with explosives; in Season 6 when he was forced to pursue rogue vigilante sniper Jacob Broadsky through a container terminal without back-up; in the Season 9 episode "The Sense in the Sacrifice" when he tracks down tech-savvy serial killer Christopher Pelant undetected through an abandoned power plant alone and armed with only a knife, rifle and pistol; and in the season 9 finale where he utilized his knowledge of explosives to singlehandedly subdue former special forces operatives who were sent to assassinate him.


title: Seeley Booth

text: A highly skilled marksman, Booth is well-known within the Bureau as a "legendary shot". While in the Army he achieved the "Expert" Marksmanship Badge and is still proficient with a sniper rifle. He mentioned in "Fire in the Ice" that he does not have a "wrong hand", implying that he is comfortable using either hand to shoot despite being predominantly right-handed. He is also equally proficient with vintage firearms, demonstrating the double tap technique with a replica World War II-era Carcano for one of Hodgins' experiments in "The Proof in the Pudding" and completing the shooting contest at a cowboy competition with ease using 19th-century guns and rifles in "The Cowboy in the Contest". He is also a skilled knife thrower and is familiar with various types of explosives and weapons.


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth states in "The Girl in the Gator" that Howard Epps was his fiftieth kill. However, Booth is not technically responsible for Epps' death, so as of "The Man in the Cell" his official kill count is at 49. However, as of "The Mastodon in the Room", Booth's official kill count is at least 54, as he killed the serial killer dressed as a clown (50), Gormogon (51), a corrupt sheriff(52), a doctor (53) and a terrorist (54). He has also killed serial killer Christopher Pelant and two of the three Delta Force assassins sent to kill him in "The Recluse in the Recliner".


title: Seeley Booth

text: Booth generally tries to keep his personal and professional life separate. He dislikes bringing his work back home and tries to avoid discussing a case after hours. Despite this, there were several occasions where his past has caught up with him. During the sixth season, while dealing with his complicated relationship with Brennan and his new girlfriend Hannah Burley (Katheryn Winnick), Booth faces his former mentor Jacob Broadsky, a former Army sniper who has apparently gone rogue. Broadsky kills the Gravedigger, a serial kidnapper and killer who threatened both Booth and Brennan, destroys identifying evidence, and escapes. Broadsky points out that Booth has no definite proof that would allow him to feel comfortable shooting his old teacher. Booth is comforted by the news that Brennan does not see him and Broadsky as identical and later successfully arrests him without having to kill him. At the end of Season 8 and the beginning of Season 9, serial killer and hacker Christopher Pelant murders several of Booth's fellow FBI agents and blackmails Booth into calling off his wedding to Bones. Booth later tracks down and kills Pelant with a single bullet to the center of his chest. In season 12 the son of the Serbian general he had been assigned to kill nearly twenty years ago during the Bosnian War comes to Washington D.C. seeking revenge.