title: Joey Castillo

text: Castillo used larger sized tom drums than ever before, while moving to a smaller bass drum, the opposite of the "Lullabies"-era configuration. He continued using Vic Firth sticks, DW drums with OCDP clear acrylic shells, DW pedals and hardware, but switched from using Paiste to Zildjian cymbals.


title: Joey Castillo

text: For the "Lullabies" tour, Castillo continued to use DW drums, Paiste cymbals and Remo heads. Though during this tour he started using Vic Firth sticks instead of Vater. Joey also dropped his second floor tom and LP bongos during this tour and added on an LP jamblock to his drumkit. From this tour and on, he would use the toms to play "Better Living Through Chemistry" during the verses. During the Lullabies tour Joey started removing his bottom heads on both his toms


title: Joey Castillo

text: Castillo used DW drums and hardware, Paiste cymbals and Remo heads during the Songs for the Deaf tour, occasionally using PDP kits for one-off performances.


title: Jeff Maggioncalda

text: Jeff Maggioncalda is an American business executive and the chief executive officer of Coursera. Born in 1968, Maggioncalda grew up in Pacifica, California and went to St Ignatius College Prep in San Francisco and graduated from Stanford University in 1991 with a BA degree in English and Economics. Maggioncalda begun his career with Cornerstone Research before heading to Stanford for his Masters in Business Administration in 1996. He then worked at Financial Engines as founding CEO for 18 years, and was instrumental in the company going public in 2010 as the largest independent investment advisor in America. He was then recruited in 2017 to replace Rick Levin as CEO of Coursera. He is widely known to be an influential individual in the Ed-tech sector.


title: Jeff Maggioncalda

text: Maggioncalda took time off after 18 years as CEO of Financial Engines to travel, learn, and spend time with his family. He studied music theory and the piano, worked as a consultant for SafeSpace adolescent mental health programmes, coached businesses, ascended Mount. Kilimanjaro with his middle daughter, and travelled the world with his wife. Jeff is currently a member of the Silicon Valley Bank Board of Directors.


title: Nikolai Kinski

text: Nanhoï Nikolai Kinski (born July 30, 1976) is a French-American film actor, who has also done work in television and on stage. He was born in Paris, and grew up in California. Currently residing in Berlin, he has acted primarily in American and German films, and speaks English, German, and French. He is a citizen of both the U.S. and France.


title: Nikolai Kinski

text: He is the only son of the German actor Klaus Kinski and his third wife, Minhoi Geneviève Loanic. He is the half-brother of actresses Pola Kinski and Nastassja Kinski, and through Nastassja, the uncle of model Kenya Kinski-Jones.


title: Nikolai Kinski

text: Kinski was born in 1976 in Paris, to German actor Klaus Kinski, and his third wife, Minhoi Geneviève Loanic, a model of 19 when they met, who was born in Vietnam and came with her family to France at the age of seven. His father had two older daughters, Pola Kinski and Nastassja Kinski, born in Germany to his first and second wives, respectively. He took his family to California, where Nikolai lived mostly with his mother after his parents divorced in 1979. He was never close to his half-sisters, who lived most of the time in Germany.


title: Nikolai Kinski

text: Kinski's father encouraged his interest in acting. His first role was at the age of 13 alongside his father in the film "Kinski Paganini" (1989). In the mid-1990s, he entered the UCLA School of Theatre as a theatre major and graduated from there.


title: Nikolai Kinski

text: Afterward Kinski moved to Berlin, where he learned to speak German fluently. He has since starred in a number of German language films and TV series, in addition to American works. He starred in "Æon Flux" (2005) alongside Charlize Theron.


title: Self-coup

text: A self-coup, also called autocoup (from the ), is a form of coup d'état in which a nation's head, having come to power through legal means, tries to stay in power through illegal means. The leader may dissolve or render powerless the national legislature and unlawfully assume extraordinary powers not granted under normal circumstances. Other measures may include annulling the nation's constitution, suspending civil courts, and having the head of government assume dictatorial powers.


title: Self-coup

text: Between 1946 and 2022, an estimated 148 self-coup attempts have taken place, 110 in autocracies and 38 in democracies.


title: Anti-rape device

text: An anti-rape device is one of a variety of devices invented for the purpose of preventing or deterring rape. The first such devices were the chastity belts of the 15th century. Although a number of devices have been proposed, none of them are in commercial production .


title: Anti-rape device

text: Some of the most well-known anti-rape devices were proposed in South Africa, a country with a high incidence of rape and a low rate of successful convictions. South African activists argue that the legal system has not been effective in preventing or reducing rape and other violent acts against women.


title: Anti-rape device

text: According to a 2001 World Health Organization study, 20% of women worldwide had been victims of rape or attempted rape at least once in their lives. According to figures from a 2011 report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, one in five women in America are victims of sexual assault. More than 40% of these victims are children, reporting they were first raped before they were 18 years old.


title: Anti-rape device

text: A number of concepts have been proposed for physical deterrents to rape, and although they attracted media attention, none of them have gone into production.


title: Anti-rape device

text: An early prototypical anti-rape female tampon was invented in late 2000 by Jaap Haumann, a South African man, for the purpose of preventing rape. Haumann's device was designed to resemble a tampon for ease of insertion, and consisted of a hard cylindrical plastic core containing a tensioned spring blade primed to slice when pressed against by the tip of a penis. Following activation, a portion of the tip of the penis would be removed, in effect performing a minor penectomy.


title: Anti-rape device

text: An anti-rape female condom using a different design was invented by Sonette Ehlers, a South African woman. Ehlers was motivated to create it while working as a blood technician with the South African Blood Transfusion Service, during which time she met many rape victims. Ehlers mentioned that she was inspired to create RAPEX (later renamed to Rape-aXe) when a patient who had been raped stated, "If only I had teeth down there," suggesting the myth of the vagina dentata. Initially called RapeX, the name was changed in 2006 upon discovering that RAPEX is also an EU warning system against dangerous goods on the market.


title: Anti-rape device

text: The Rape-aXe is a latex sheath embedded with shafts of sharp, inward-facing barbs that would be worn by a woman in her vagina like a female condom. If an attacker were to attempt vaginal rape, his penis would enter the latex sheath and be snagged by the barbs, causing the attacker excruciating pain during withdrawal and giving the victim time to escape. The condom would remain attached to the attacker's body when he withdrew and could only be removed surgically, which would alert hospital staff and police. Like most condoms, Rape-aXe also usually prevents pregnancy and the transmission of HIV and sexually transmitted infections.


title: Anti-rape device

text: Rape-aXe was unveiled on August 31, 2005, in South Africa. There have been objections to Ehlers' invention, describing it as "vengeful, horrible, and disgusting" and its planned sale in pharmacies has been opposed. Concerns were raised that use of the device could possibly enrage an attacker and further jeopardize the victim. Ehlers responded saying that "many women have been killed over time, as nobody can guarantee the outcome of any rape" and that the pain caused from Rape-aXe will temporarily disable the attacker, giving the victim time to get away.


title: Anti-rape device

text: Although media coverage at the time implied that mass production was due to begin in April 2007, the device has never been marketed to the public and it remains unclear whether the product will ever be available for purchase.


title: Anti-rape device

text: A startup called DrinkSavvy has raised funds for a line of straws and glassware that will change color if a drink has been altered with a date rape drug, intending to release its first products in December 2013. The cups, glasses, and straws/stirrers served at bars and restaurants would look normal but they would immediately change color to warn people when someone slips a date rape drug into their drink. , no product had been released.


title: Underground comix

text: Underground comix are small press or self-published comic books that are often socially relevant or satirical in nature. They differ from mainstream comics in depicting content forbidden to mainstream publications by the Comics Code Authority, including explicit drug use, sexuality, and violence. They were most popular in the United States in the late 1960s and 1970s, and in the United Kingdom in the 1970s.


title: Underground comix

text: Robert Crumb, Gilbert Shelton, Barbara "Willy" Mendes, Trina Robbins and numerous other cartoonists created underground titles that were popular with readers within the counterculture scene. Punk had its own comic artists like Gary Panter. Long after their heyday, underground comix gained prominence with films and television shows influenced by the movement and with mainstream comic books, but their legacy is most obvious with alternative comics.


title: Underground comix

text: The United States underground comics scene emerged in the 1960s, focusing on subjects dear to the counterculture: recreational drug use, politics, rock music, and free love. The underground comix scene had its strongest success in the United States between 1968 and 1975, with titles initially distributed primarily though head shops. Underground comix often featured covers intended to appeal to the drug culture, and imitated LSD-inspired posters to increase sales.


title: Underground comix

text: These titles were termed "comix" in order to differentiate them from mainstream publications. The "X" also emphasized the X-rated contents of the publications. Many of the common aspects of the underground comix scene were in response to the strong restrictions forced upon mainstream publications by the Comics Code Authority, which refused publications featuring depictions of violence, sexuality, drug use, and socially relevant content, all of which appeared in greater levels in underground comix. Robert Crumb stated that the appeal of underground comix was their lack of censorship: "People forget that that was what it was all about. That was why we did it. We didn't have anybody standing over us saying 'No, you can't draw this' or 'You can't show that'. We could do whatever we wanted."


title: Underground comix

text: Between the late 1920s and late 1940s, anonymous underground artists produced counterfeit pornographic comic books featuring unauthorized depictions of popular comic strip characters engaging in sexual activities. Often referred to as Tijuana bibles, these books are often considered the predecessors of the underground comix scene.


title: Underground comix

text: American comix were strongly influenced by 1950s EC Comics and especially magazines edited by Harvey Kurtzman, including "Mad" (which first appeared in 1952). Kurtzman's "Help!" magazine, published from 1960 to 1965, featured the works of artists who would later become well known in the underground comix scene, including R. Crumb and Gilbert Shelton. Other artists published work in college magazines before becoming known in the underground scene.


title: Underground comix

text: Early underground comix appeared sporadically in the early- and mid-1960s, but did not begin to appear frequently until after 1967. The first underground comix were personal works produced for friends of the artists. Perhaps the earliest of the underground comic strips was Frank Stack's (under the pseudonym Foolbert Sturgeon) "The Adventures of Jesus", begun in 1962 and compiled in photocopied zine form by Gilbert Shelton in 1964. It has been credited as the first underground comic. Shelton's own Wonder Wart-Hog appeared in the college humor magazine "Bacchanal" #1-2 in 1962. Jack Jackson's "God Nose", published in Texas in 1964, has also been given that title. One guide lists two other underground comix from that year, Vaughn Bodē's "Das Kampf" and Charles Plymell's "Robert Ronnie Branaman".


title: Underground comix

text: Joel Beck began contributing a full-page comic each week to the underground newspaper the "Berkeley Barb" and his full-length comic "Lenny of Laredo" was published in 1965. Another underground paper, the "East Village Other", was an important precursor to the underground comix movement, featuring comic strips by artists including Crumb, Shelton, Kim Deitch, Trina Robbins, Spain Rodriguez, and Art Spiegelman before true underground comix emerged from San Francisco with the first issue of "Zap Comix". "Zap" and many of the first true underground comix publications began with reprints of comic strip pages which first appeared in underground papers like the "East Village Other", the "Berkeley Barb", and "Yarrowstalks".


title: Underground comix

text: In February 1968, in San Francisco, Robert Crumb published (with the help of poet Charles Plymell and Don Donahue of Apex Novelties) his first solo comic, "Zap Comix". The title was financially successful and almost single-handedly developed a market for underground comix.


title: Underground comix

text: Within a few issues, "Zap" began to feature other cartoonists — including S. Clay Wilson, Robert Williams, Spain Rodriguez, and Gilbert Shelton — and Crumb launched a series of solo titles, including "Despair", "Uneeda" (both published by Print Mint in 1969), "Big Ass Comics", "R. Crumb's Comics and Stories", "Motor City Comics" (all published by Rip Off Press in 1969), "Home Grown Funnies" (Kitchen Sink Press, 1971) and "Hytone Comix" (Apex Novelties, 1971), in addition to founding the pornographic anthologies "Jiz" and "Snatch" (both Apex Novelties, 1969).


title: Underground comix

text: The San Francisco Bay Area was an epicenter of the underground comix movement; Crumb and many other underground cartoonists lived in San Francisco's Haight-Ashbury neighborhood in the mid-to-late 1960s. Just as importantly, the major underground publishers were all based in the area: Don Donahue's Apex Novelties, Gary Arlington's San Francisco Comic Book Company, and Rip Off Press were all headquartered in the city, with Ron Turner's Last Gasp and the Print Mint based in Berkeley. (Last Gasp later moved to San Francisco.)


title: Underground comix

text: By the end of the 1960s, there was recognition of the movement by a major American museum when the Corcoran Gallery of Art staged an exhibition, "The Phonus Balonus Show" (May 20-June 15, 1969). Curated by Bhob Stewart for famed museum director Walter Hopps, it included work by Crumb, Shelton, Vaughn Bodé, Kim Deitch, Jay Lynch and others.


title: Underground comix

text: Crumb's best known underground features included "Whiteman", "Angelfood McSpade", "Fritz the Cat", and "Mr. Natural". Crumb also drew himself as a character, portraying himself as he was often perceived — a self-loathing, sex-obsessed intellectual. While Crumb's work was often praised for its social commentary, he was also criticized for the misogyny that appeared within his comics. Trina Robbins stated "It's weird to me how willing people are to overlook the hideous darkness in Crumb's work... What the hell is funny about rape and murder?" Because of his popularity, many underground cartoonists tried to imitate Crumb's work. While "Zap" was the best-known anthology of the scene, other anthologies appeared, including "Bijou Funnies", a Chicago publication edited by Jay Lynch and heavily influenced by "Mad". The San Francisco anthology "Young Lust" (Company & Sons, 1970), which parodied the 1950s romance genre, featured works by Bill Griffith and Art Spiegelman. Another anthology, "Bizarre Sex" (Kitchen Sink, 1972), was influenced by science fiction comics and included art by Denis Kitchen and Richard "Grass" Green, one of the few African-American comix creators.


title: Underground comix

text: Other important underground cartoonists of the era included Shelton, Wilson, Deitch, Rodriguez, Skip Williamson, Rick Griffin, George Metzger, and Victor Moscoso. Shelton became famous for his characters Wonder Wart-Hog, a superhero parody, and The Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers, a strip about a trio of "freaks" whose time is spent attempting to acquire drugs and avoid the police, both of which first appeared in the self-published "Feds 'N' Heads" in 1968. Wilson's work is permeated by shocking violence and ugly sex; he contributed to "Zap" and created the infamous The Checkered Demon, a portly, shirtless being who is frequently called upon to kill the various demented bikers, pirates, and rapists who populate Wilson's universe. Spain worked for the "East Village Other" before becoming known within underground comix for Trashman and his solo titles "Zodiac Mindwarp" and "Subvert". Williamson created his character Snappy Sammy Smoot, appearing in several titles.


title: Underground comix

text: Underground horror comics also became popular, with titles such as "Skull" (Rip Off Press, 1970), "Bogeyman" (San Francisco Comic Book Company, 1969), "Fantagor" (Richard Corben, 1970), "Insect Fear" (Print Mint, 1970), "Up From the Deep" (Rip Off Press, 1971), "Death Rattle" (Kitchen Sink, 1972), "Gory Stories" (Shroud, 1972), "Deviant Slice" (Print Mint, 1972) and "Two Fisted Zombies" (Last Gasp, 1973). Many of these were strongly influenced by 1950s EC Comics like "Tales from the Crypt".


title: Underground comix

text: The male-dominated scene produced many blatantly misogynistic works, but female underground cartoonists made strong marks as well. Edited by Trina Robbins, "It Ain't Me, Babe", published by Last Gasp in 1970, was the first all-female underground comic; followed in 1972 by "Wimmen's Comix" (Last Gasp), an anthology series founded by cartoonist Patrica Moodian that featured (among others) Melinda Gebbie, Lynda Barry, Aline Kominsky, and Shary Flenniken. Joyce Farmer and Lyn Chevli's "Tits & Clits Comix" all-female anthology debuted in 1972 as well.


title: Underground comix

text: By 1972–1973, the city's Mission District was "underground headquarters": living and operating out of The Mission in that period were Gary Arlington, Roger Brand, Kim Deitch, Don Donahue, Shary Flenniken, Justin Green, Bill Griffith & Diane Noomin, Rory Hayes, Jay Kinney, Bobby London, Ted Richards, Trina Robbins, Joe Schenkman, Larry Todd, Patricia Moodian and Art Spiegelman.


title: Underground comix

text: Mainstream publications such as "Playboy" and "National Lampoon" began to publish comics and art similar to that of underground comix. The underground movement also prompted older professional comic book artists to try their hand in the alternate press. Wally Wood published "witzend" in 1966, soon passing the title on to artist-editor Bill Pearson. In 1969, Wood created "Heroes, Inc. Presents Cannon", intended for distribution to armed forces bases. Steve Ditko gave full vent to his Ayn Rand-inspired philosophy in "Mr. A" and "Avenging World" (1973). In 1975, Flo Steinberg, Stan Lee's former secretary at Marvel Comics, published "Big Apple Comix", featuring underground work by ostensibly "mainstream" artists she knew from Marvel.


title: Underground comix

text: Film and television began to reflect the influence of underground comix in the 1970s, starting with the release of Ralph Bakshi's Crumb adaptation, "Fritz the Cat", the first animated film to receive an X rating from the MPAA. Further adult-oriented animated films based on or influenced by underground comix followed, including "The Nine Lives of Fritz the Cat" and "Down and Dirty Duck". The influence of underground comix has also been attributed to films such as "The Lord of the Rings" (1978) and "Forbidden Zone" (1980). The animation sequences – created by "Help!" contributor Terry Gilliam – and surrealistic humor of "Monty Python's Flying Circus" have also been partly attributed to the influence of the underground comix scene.


title: Underground comix

text: Despite the form's influence on the culture at large, however, by 1972 only four major underground publishers remained in operation: the Print Mint, Rip Off Press, Last Gasp, and Krupp Comic Works (Kitchen Sink Press). For much of the 1970s, Rip Off Press operated a syndication service, managed by cartoonist and co-owner Gilbert Shelton, that sold weekly comix content to alternative newspapers and student publications. Each Friday, the company sent out a distribution sheet with the strips it was selling, by such cartoonists as Shelton, Joel Beck, Dave Sheridan, Ted Richards, Bill Griffith, and Harry Driggs (as R. Diggs). The syndicate petered out by 1979; much of the material produced for it was eventually published in the company's long-running anthology "Rip Off Comix", which had debuted in 1977. Griffith's strip, "Zippy", which had debuted in 1976 as a weekly strip with the syndicate, was eventually picked up for daily syndication by King Features Syndicate in 1986.


title: Underground comix

text: Critics of the underground comix scene claimed that the publications were socially irresponsible, and glorified violence, sex and drug use. In 1973, the U.S. Supreme Court, in "Miller v. California", ruled that local communities could decide their own First Amendment standards with reference to obscenity. In the mid-1970s, sale of drug paraphernalia was outlawed in many places, and the distribution network for these comics (and the underground newspapers) dried up, leaving mail order as the only commercial outlet for underground titles.


title: Underground comix

text: In 1974, Marvel launched "Comix Book", requesting that underground artists submit significantly less explicit work appropriate for newsstands sales. A number of underground artists agreed to contribute work, including Spiegelman, Robbins and S. Clay Wilson. However, "Comix Book" did not sell well and lasted only five issues. In 1976, Marvel achieved success with "Howard the Duck", a satirical comic aimed at adult audiences that was inspired by the underground comix scene. While it did not depict the explicit content that was often featured in underground comix, it was more socially relevant than anything Marvel had previously published.


title: Underground comix

text: By the mid-1970s, independent publishers began to release book-length collections of underground comics. Quick Fox/Links Books released two important collections, "The Apex Treasury of Underground Comics", published in 1974, and "The Best of Bijou Funnies", released in 1975. The "Apex Treasury" featured work by Crumb, Deitch, Griffith, Spain, Shelton, Spiegelman, Lynch, Shary Flenniken, Justin Green, Bobby London, and Willy Murphy; while the "Bijou Funnies" book highlighted comics by Lynch, Green, Crumb, Shelton, Spiegelman, Deitch, Skip Williamson, Jay Kinney, Evert Geradts, Rory Hayes, Dan Clyne, and Jim Osborne. Similarly, and around this time, the publishing cooperative And/Or Press published "The Young Lust Reader" (1974), a "best-of" collection from Griffith and Kinney's "Young Lust" anthology, and Dave Sheridan and Fred Schrier's "The Overland Vegetable Stagecoach presents Mindwarp: An Anthology" (1975). And/Or Press later published the first paperback collections of Griffith's Zippy the Pinhead comics.


title: Underground comix

text: By this time, some artists, including Art Spiegelman, felt that the underground comix scene had become less creative than it had been in the past. According to Spiegelman, "What had seemed like a revolution simply deflated into a lifestyle. Underground comics were stereotyped as dealing only with Sex, Dope and Cheap Thrills. They got stuffed back into the closet, along with bong pipes and love beads, as Things Started To Get Uglier."


title: Underground comix

text: One of the last major underground titles was "", co-edited by Spiegelman and Bill Griffith. With the underground movement encountering a slowdown, Spiegelman and Griffith conceived of "Arcade" as a "safe berth," featuring contributions from such major underground figures as Robert Armstrong, Robert Crumb, Justin Green, Aline Kominsky, Jay Lynch, Spain Rodriguez, Gilbert Shelton, and S. Clay Wilson (as well as Griffith and Spiegelman). "Arcade" stood out from similar publications by having an editorial plan, in which Spiegelman and Griffith attempted to show how comics connected to the broader realms of artistic and literary culture. "Arcade" lasted seven issues, from 1975 to 1976.


title: Underground comix

text: Autobiographical comics began to come into prominence in 1976, with the premiere of Harvey Pekar's self-published comic "American Splendor", which featured art by several cartoonists associated with the underground, including Crumb. Comics critic Jared Gardner asserts that, while underground comix was associated with countercultural iconoclasm, the movement's most enduring legacy was to be autobiography.


title: Underground comix

text: In the late 1970s, Marvel and DC Comics agreed to sell their comics on a no-return basis with large discounts to comic book retailers; this led to later deals that helped underground publishers. During this period, underground titles focusing on feminist and Gay Liberation themes began to appear, as well as comics associated with the environmental movement. "Anarchy Comics" focused on left-wing politics, while Barney Steel's "Armageddon" focused on anarcho-capitalism. British underground cartoonists also created political titles, but they did not sell as well as American political comics.


title: Underground comix

text: Artists influenced by the underground comix scene, who were unable to get work published by better-known underground publications, began self-publishing their own small press, photocopied comic books, known as minicomics. The punk subculture began to influence underground comix.


title: Underground comix

text: In response to attempts by mainstream publishers to appeal to adult audiences, alternative comics emerged, focusing on many of the same themes as underground comix, as well as publishing experimental work. Artists formally in the underground comix scene began to associate themselves with alternative comics, including Crumb, Deitch, Griffith, Lynda Barry, and Justin Green.


title: Underground comix

text: In the 1980s, sexual comics came into prominence, integrating sex into storylines rather than utilizing sexual explicitness for shock value. The first of these features was "Omaha the Cat Dancer", which made its first appearance in an issue of the zine "Vootie". Inspired by "Fritz the Cat", "Omaha the Cat Dancer" focused on an anthropomorphic feline stripper. Other comix with a sexual focus included "Melody", based on the life story of Sylvie Rancourt and "Cherry", a comedic sex comic featuring art similar in style to that of "Archie Comics".


title: Underground comix

text: In 1985, Griffith's comic strip "Zippy the Pinhead" — which originally appeared in underground titles — was syndicated as a daily feature by King Features. Between 1980 and 1991 Spiegelman's graphic novel "Maus" was serialized in "Raw", and published in two volumes in 1986 and 1991. It was followed by an exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art and a Pulitzer Prize for Spiegelman in 1992. The novel originated from a three-page story first published in an underground comic, "Funny Aminals" ["sic"], (Apex Novelties, 1972).


title: Underground comix

text: Alternative cartoonist Peter Bagge was strongly influenced by underground comics, and was reciprocally admired by Crumb, for whom Bagge edited "Weirdo" magazine in the 1980s; he could be considered part of a "second generation" of underground-type cartoonists, including such notables as Mike Diana, Johnny Ryan, Bob Fingerman, David Heatley, Danny Hellman, Julie Doucet, Jim Woodring, Ivan Brunetti, Gary Leib, Doug Allen, and Ed Piskor. Many of these artists were published by Fantagraphics Books, which was founded in 1977 and through the 1980s and '90s became a major publisher of alternative and underground cartoonists' work.


title: Underground comix

text: As of the 2010s, reprints of early underground comix continue to sell alongside modern underground publications.


title: Underground comix

text: The 2010s "Foreskin Man", a comic book published to protest against circumcision, has been referred to as "comix" by some reviewers.


title: Underground comix

text: British cartoonists were introduced in the underground publications "International Times" ("IT"), founded in 1966, and "Oz" founded in 1967, which reprinted some American material. During a visit to London, American comics artist Larry Hama created original material for "IT".


title: Underground comix

text: The first UK comix mag was "Cyclops", started by "IT" staff members. In a bid to alleviate its ongoing financial problems, "IT" brought out "Nasty Tales" (1971), which was soon prosecuted for obscenity. Despite appearing before the censorious Old Bailey Judge Alan King-Hamilton, the publishers were acquitted by the jury.


title: Underground comix

text: In the wake of its own high-profile obscenity trial, "Oz" launched "cOZmic Comics" in 1972, printing a mixture of new British underground strips and old American work. When "Oz" closed down the following year "cOZmic Comics" was continued by fledgling media tycoon Felix Dennis and his company, Cozmic Comics/H. Bunch Associates, which published from 1972 to 1975.


title: Underground comix

text: While the American underground comix scene was beginning to decline, the British scene came into prominence between 1973 and 1974, but soon faced the same kind of criticism that American underground comix received. UK-based underground cartoonists included Chris Welch, Edward Barker, Michael J. Weller, Malcolm Livingstone, William Rankin (aka Wyndham Raine), Dave Gibbons, Joe Petagno, Bryan Talbot, and the team of Martin Sudden, Jay Jeff Jones and Brian Bolland.


title: Underground comix

text: The last UK comix series of note was "Brainstorm Comix" (1975), which featured only original British strips.


title: Underground comix

text: Hassle Free Press was founded in London in 1975 by Tony and Carol Bennett as a publisher and distributor of underground books and comics. Now known as Knockabout Comics, the company has a long-standing relationship with underground comix pioneers Gilbert Shelton and Robert Crumb, as well as British creators like Hunt Emerson and Bryan Talbot. Knockabout has frequently suffered from prosecutions from U.K. customs, who have seized work by creators such as Crumb and Melinda Gebbie, claiming it to be obscene.


title: Underground comix

text: The 1990s witnessed a renaissance in the genre in the United Kingdom, through titles like "Brain Damage", "Viz", and others.


title: Underground comix

text: After the death of King Features Syndicate editor Jay Kennedy, his personal underground comix collection was acquired by the Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum in Ohio.


title: Underground comix

text: The University of California, Berkeley's Bancroft Library has a large underground comix collection, especially related to Bay Area publications; much of it was built by a deposit account at Gary Arlington's San Francisco Comic Book Store. The collection also includes titles from New York, Los Angeles, and elsewhere.


title: Underground comix

text: The Rhode Island School of Design, Fleet Library acquired the thousand-item collection of underground comix through a donation by Bill Adler in 2021.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: High-altitude pulmonary edema (HAPE) is a life-threatening form of non-cardiogenic pulmonary edema that occurs in otherwise healthy people at altitudes typically above . However, cases have also been reported between in more vulnerable subjects.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Classically, HAPE occurs in persons normally living at low altitude who travel to an altitude above 2,500 meters (8,200 feet). Re-entry HAPE is also an entity that has been described in persons who normally live at high altitude but who develop pulmonary edema after returning from a stay at low altitude. It is severe presentation of altitude sickness.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: There are many factors that can make a person more susceptible to developing HAPE, including genetic factors, but detailed understanding is lacking and currently under investigation. HAPE remains the major cause of death related to high-altitude exposure, with a high mortality rate in the absence of adequate emergency treatment.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: The Lake Louise Consensus Definition for high-altitude pulmonary edema has set widely used criteria for defining HAPE symptoms.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Acute mountain sickness and high altitude cerebral edema may also be present in conjunction with HAPE, however these symptoms may be subtle or not present at all. The most reliable sign of HAPE is severe fatigue or exercise intolerance, especially in a climber that was previously not displaying this symptom.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: There are multiple factors that can contribute to the development of HAPE, including sex (male), genetic factors, prior development of HAPE, ascent rate, cold exposure, peak altitude, intensity of physical exertion, and certain underlying medical conditions (e.g., pulmonary hypertension). Anatomic abnormalities that are predisposing include congenital absence of pulmonary artery, and left-to-right intracardiac shunts (e.g., atrial and ventricular septal defects), both of which increase pulmonary blood flow. HAPE-susceptible (HAPE-s) individuals were also found to be four times more likely to have a patent foramen ovale (PFO) than those who were HAPE-resistant. There is currently no indication or recommendation for people with PFO to pursue closure prior to extreme altitude exposure.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: In studies performed at sea level, HAPE-s people were found to have exaggerated circulatory response to both hypoxia at rest and during exercise. In these individuals, the pulmonary artery pressure (PAP) and pulmonary vascular resistance (PVR) were shown to be abnormally high. Microneurographic recordings in these individuals developed a direct link between PAP rise and sympathetic nervous system over-activation, which could explain the exaggerated response to hypoxia in these persons.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Endothelial tissue dysfunction has also been linked to development of HAPE, including reduced synthesis of NO (a potent vasodilator), increased levels of endothelin (a potent vasconstrictor), and an impaired ability to transport sodium and water across the epithelium and out of the alveoli.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Data on the genetic basis for HAPE susceptibility is conflicting and interpretation is difficult. Genes implicated in the development of HAPE include those in the renin-angiotensin system (RAS), NO pathway, and hypoxia-inducible factor pathway (HIF). Future genomic testing could provide a clearer picture of the genetic factors that contribute to HAPE.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Though it remains a topic of intense investigation, multiple studies and reviews over the last several years have helped to elucidate the proposed mechanism of HAPE. The inciting factor of HAPE is the decrease in partial pressure of arterial oxygen caused by the lower air pressure at high altitudes (pulmonary gas pressures). The resultant hypoxemia is then thought to precipitate the development of:


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) occurs diffusely, leading to arterial vasoconstriction in all areas of the lung. This is evidenced by the appearance of "diffuse," "fluffy," and "patchy" infiltrates described on imaging studies of climbers with known HAPE.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Although higher pulmonary arterial pressures are associated with the development of HAPE, the presence of pulmonary hypertension may not in itself be sufficient to explain the development of edema; severe pulmonary hypertension can exist in the absence of clinical HAPE in subjects at high altitude.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: The diagnosis of HAPE is entirely based on symptoms and many of the symptoms overlap with other diagnoses. Before HAPE was understood it was commonly confused with pneumonia which resulted in inappropriate treatment.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: HAPE generally develops in the first 2 to 4 days of hiking at altitudes >2,500 meters (8,200 ft), and symptoms seem to worsen most commonly on the second night. Initial symptoms are vague and include shortness of breath, decreased exercise ability, increased recovery time, fatigue, and weakness, especially with walking uphill. People then develop a dry, persistent cough, and often cyanosis of the lips. Another cardinal feature of HAPE is the rapid progression to dyspnea at rest. The development of pink, frothy, or frankly bloody sputum are late features of HAPE. In some cases, people will develop concomitant neurological features such as poor coordination, altered consciousness, or cerebral edema (High-altitude cerebral edema).


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: On physical exam, increased breathing rates, increased heart rates, and a low-grade fever 38.5 (101.3 F) are common. Listening to the lungs may reveal crackles in one or both lungs, often starting in the right middle lobe. Imaging studies such as X-ray and CT imaging of the chest may reveal thoracic infiltrates that can be seen as opaque patches. One distinct feature of HAPE is that pulse oximetry saturation levels (SpO) are often decreased from what would be expected for the altitude. People typically do not appear as ill as SpO and chest X-ray films would suggest. Giving extra oxygen rapidly improves symptoms and SpO values; in the setting of infiltrative changes on chest X-ray, this is nearly pathognomonic for HAPE.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: The severity of HAPE is graded. The grades of mild, moderate, or severe HAPE are assigned based upon symptoms, clinical signs, and chest x-ray results for individuals. The symptoms that are taken in to account while evaluation the severity of HAPE are difficulty breathing while exerting or while at rest, the presence of a cough and the quality of that cough, and the level of fatigue of the patient. On physical exam of a suspected HAPE patient the exam findings used to grade the severity are the heart rate, respiratory rate, signs of cyanosis, and severity of lung sounds. Both symptoms and signs on physical exam can be used to evaluate a patient in the field. Chest X-rays are also used to evaluate the severity of HAPE when they are available.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: The primary recommendation for the prevention of HAPE is gradual ascent. The suggested rate of ascent is the same that applies to the prevention of acute mountain sickness and high-altitude cerebral edema.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: In the event that adherence to these recommendations is limited by terrain or logistical factors, the WMS recommends rest days either before or after days with large gains. Overall, WMS recommends that the average ascent rate of the entire trip be less than per day.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: The most studied and preferred medication for prevention of HAPE is nifedipine, a pulmonary vasodilator which prevents the altitude induced pulmonary hypertension. The recommendation for its use is strongest for individuals with a history of HAPE. According to published data, treatment is most effective if given one day prior to ascent and continued for four to five days, or until descent below 2,500 meters (8,200 ft).


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Additional medications that are being considered for prevention but require further research to determine efficacy and treatment guidelines include acetazolamide, salmeterol, tadalafil (and other PDE5 inhibitors), and dexamethasone. Acetazolamide has proven to be clinically effective, but formal studies are lacking. Salmeterol is considered an adjunctive therapy to nifedipine, though only in highly susceptible climbers with clearly demonstrated recurrence of HAPE. Tadalafil was found to be effective at preventing HAPE in HAPE-s individuals during rapid ascent, but optimal dosing and frequency has yet to be established. Use of dexamethasone is currently indicated for the treatment of moderate-to-severe acute mountain sickness, as well as high-altitude cerebral edema. It has also been found to prevent HAPE, but its routine use is not yet recommended.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Notably, each of these medications acts to block hypoxic pulmonary hypertension, lending evidence to the proposed pathophysiology of HAPE outlined above.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: The recommended first line treatment is descent to a lower altitude as quickly as possible, with symptomatic improvement seen in as few as 500 to 1,000 meters (1,640 feet to 3,281 feet). However, descent is not mandatory in people with mild HAPE and treatment with warming techniques, rest, and supplemental oxygen can improve symptoms. Giving oxygen at flow rates high enough to maintain an SpO at or above 90% is a fair substitute for descent. In the hospital setting, oxygen is generally given by nasal cannula or face mask for several hours until the person is able to maintain oxygen saturations above 90% while breathing the surrounding air. In remote settings where resources are scarce and descent is not feasible, a reasonable substitute can be the use of a portable hyperbaric chamber, which simulates descent, combined with additional oxygen and medications.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: As with prevention, the standard medication once a climber has developed HAPE is nifedipine, although its use is best in combination with and does not substitute for descent, hyperbaric therapy, or oxygen therapy. Though they have not formally been studied for the treatment of HAPE, phosphodiesterase type 5 inhibitors such as sildenafil and tadalafil are also effective and can be considered as add-on treatment if first-line therapy is not possible; however, they may worsen the headache of mountain sickness. There is no established role for the inhaled beta-agonist salmeterol, though its use can be considered.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Dexamethasone has a potential role in HAPE, though there are currently no studies to support its effectiveness as treatment. However, as outlined in the 2014 WMS Practice Guidelines, its use is recommended for the treatment of people with concomitant HAPE and HACE at the treatment doses recommended for HACE alone. Additionally, they support its use in HAPE with neurologic symptoms or hypoxic encephalopathy that cannot be distinguished from HACE.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: Rates of HAPE differs depending on altitude and speed of ascent. In general, there is about a 0.2 to 6 percent incidence at , and about 2 to 15 percent at . The higher incidence of 6% has been seen when climbers ascend at a rate > 600m/day. It has been reported that about 1 in 10,000 skiers who travel to moderate altitudes in Colorado develop HAPE; one study reported 150 cases over 39 months at a Colorado resort located at . About 1 in 50 climbers who ascended Denali [] developed pulmonary edema, and as high as 6% of climbers ascending rapidly in the Alps []. In climbers who had previously developed HAPE, re-attack rate was up to 60% with ascent to in a 36-hour time period, though this risk was significantly reduced with slower ascent rates. It is believed that up to 50% of people suffer from subclinical HAPE with mild edema to the lungs but no clinical impairment.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: HAPE was recognized by physicians dating back to the 19th century but was originally attributed to “high altitude pneumonia”. The first documented case of pulmonary edema, confirmed by autopsy, was probably that of Dr Jacottet who died in 1891 in the Observatoire Vallot below the summit of Mont Blanc. After participating in a rescue on the mountain, the doctor refused to return. Instead, he spent further two nights at an altitude of with obvious AMS symptoms and died on the second night.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: This condition was subsequently noticed in otherwise healthy climbers who would die shortly after arriving at high altitudes. It was not until 1960 that Charles Houston, an internal medicine physician in Aspen, published a case report of 4 individuals participating in high elevation activities that he had diagnosed with “edema of the lungs”. He described chest X-rays with edema and non-specific changes on EKG. Even though these cases had been termed high altitude pneumonia in the past, Houston indicated that these cases were “acute pulmonary edema without heart disease”.


title: High-altitude pulmonary edema

text: To help understand factors that make some individuals susceptible to HAPE, the International HAPE Database was set up in 2004. The database is administered by APEX, a high altitude medical research charity. A few cases support the possibility of reascent following recovery and acclimatization after an episode of HAPE precipitated by rapid ascent.


title: Harry Greenwood (actor)

text: Greenwood has appeared in feature films "The Nightingale" (2018) and "True History of the Kelly Gang" (2019), and in television series including "Gallipoli" and "Bad Mothers".


title: Harry Greenwood (actor)

text: He is also a stage actor, appearing in "Cat on a Hot Tin Roof" at the Roslyn Packer Theatre, and Sydney Theatre Company's "Cloud Nine".


title: Harry Greenwood (actor)

text: Greenwood stars in Sean Lahiff's debut film as director, "Carnifex". A science fiction / horror film with large-scale special effects, the film also stars Alexandra Park and Sisi Stringer, and is due to premiere at the Adelaide Film Festival in October 2022.


title: Harry Greenwood (actor)

text: For his role in "Wakefield" he was nominated for the 2021 AACTA Award for Best Guest or Supporting Actor in a Television Drama.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat S.p.A., or "Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino" (Italian Automobile Factory of Turin), was an Italian holding company whose original and core activities were in the automotive industry, and that was succeeded by Fiat Chrysler Automobiles NV (FCA). The Fiat Group contained many brands such as Ferrari, Maserati, Fiat, Alfa Romeo, the Chrysler Group, and many more. On 29 January 2014, it was announced that Fiat S.p.A. (the former owner of Fiat Group) was to be merged into a new Netherlands-based holding company Fiat Chrysler Automobiles NV (FCA), taking place before the end of 2014. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles became the new owner of Fiat Group. On 1 August 2014, Fiat S.p.A. received necessary shareholder approval to proceed with the merger (which followed board approval). The merger became effective 12 October 2014.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat was founded in 1899 by a group of investors, including Giovanni Agnelli. During its more than century-long history, Fiat has also manufactured railway engines and carriages, military vehicles, farm tractors, and aircraft. In 2013, Fiat (together with Chrysler) was the second largest European automaker by volumes produced, and the seventh in the world ahead of Honda, PSA Peugeot Citroën, Suzuki, Renault, and Daimler AG.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Over the years, Fiat has acquired numerous other automakers: it acquired Lancia in 1968, became a shareholder of Ferrari in 1969, took control of Alfa Romeo from the Italian government in 1986, purchased Maserati in 1993, and became the full owner of Chrysler Group LLC in 2014. Fiat Group currently produces vehicles under twelve brands: Abarth, Alfa Romeo, Chrysler, Dodge, Ferrari, Fiat, Fiat Professional, Jeep, Lancia, Maserati, Ram Trucks, and SRT.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1970, Fiat employed more than 100,000 in Italy when its production reached the highest number, 1.4 million cars, in that country. As of 2002, Fiat built more than 1 million vehicles at six plants in Italy and the country accounted for more than a third of the company's revenue.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat-brand cars are built in several locations around the world. Outside Italy, the largest country of production is Brazil, where the Fiat brand is the market leader. The group also has factories in Argentina, Poland and Mexico (where Fiat-brand vehicles are manufactured at plants owned and operated by Chrysler for export to the U.S., Brazil, Italy and other markets) and a long history of licensing manufacture of its products in other countries. It also has numerous alliances and joint ventures around the world, the main ones being located in Serbia, France, Turkey, India and China.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Gianni Agnelli, the grandson of founder Giovanni Agnelli, was Fiat's chairman from 1966 until 1996; he then served as honorary chairman from 1996 until his death on 24 January 2003, during which time Cesare Romiti served as chairman. He was succeeded briefly by Paolo Fresco, who served as chairman, and Paolo Cantarella, as CEO. Umberto Agnelli then took over as chairman from 2003 to 2004. After Umberto Agnelli's death on 28 May 2004, Luca Cordero di Montezemolo was named chairman, with Agnelli heir John Elkann becoming vice chairman (at the age of 28), and other family members also serving on the board. On 1 June 2004, Giuseppe Morchio was replaced by Sergio Marchionne as CEO.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Giovanni Agnelli, with several investors, founded the Fabbrica Italiana Automobili Torino (F.I.A.T.) società per azioni (S.p.a.), "Italian Automobile Factory of Turin", in 1899. Its acronymous name was changed to upper- and lower-case "Fiat" in 1906. Agnelli led the company until his death in 1945, while Vittorio Valletta administered the firm's daily activities. Its first car the 3 ½ CV (of which only 24 copies were built, all bodied by Alessio of Turin) strongly resembled contemporary Benz, and had a boxer twin engine. In 1903, Fiat produced its first truck. In 1908, the first Fiat was exported to the US. That same year, the first Fiat aircraft engine was produced. Also around the same time, Fiat taxis became popular in Europe.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: By 1910, Fiat was the largest automotive company in Italy — a position it has retained since. That same year, a new plant was built in Poughkeepsie, NY, by the newly founded American F.I.A.T. Automobile Company. Owning a Fiat at that time was a sign of distinction. The cost of a Fiat in the US was initially $4,000 and rose up to $6,400 in 1918, compared to $825 for a Ford Model T in 1908, and $525 in 1918, respectively. During World War I, Fiat had to devote all of its factories to supplying the Allies with aircraft, engines, machine guns, trucks, and ambulances. Upon the entry of the US into the war in 1917, the factory was shut down as US regulations became too burdensome. After the war, Fiat introduced its first tractor, the 702. By the early 1920s, Fiat had a market share in Italy of 80%.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1921, workers seized Fiat's plants and hoisted the red flag of communism over them. Agnelli responded by quitting the company. However, the Italian Socialist Party and its ally organization, the Italian General Confederation of Labour, in an effort to effect a compromise with the centrist parties ordered the occupation ended. In 1922, Fiat began to build the famous Lingotto car factory—then the largest in Europe—which opened in 1923. It was the first Fiat factory to use assembly lines; by 1925, Fiat controlled 87% of the Italian car market. In 1928, with the 509, Fiat included insurance in the purchase price.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat made military machinery and vehicles during World War II for the Army and "Regia Aeronautica" and later for the Germans. Fiat made obsolete fighter aircraft like the biplane CR.42 Falco, which was one of the most common Italian aircraft, along with Savoia-Marchettis, as well as light tanks (obsolete compared to their German and Soviet counterparts) and armoured vehicles. The best Fiat aircraft was the G.55 fighter, which arrived too late and in too limited numbers. In 1945—the year Mussolini was overthrown—the National Liberation Committee removed the Agnelli family from leadership roles in Fiat because of its ties to Mussolini's government. These were not returned until 1963, when Giovanni's grandson, Gianni, took over as general manager until 1966, as chairman until 1996.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Among the younger Agnelli's first steps after gaining control of Fiat was a massive reorganization of the company management, which had previously been highly centralized, with little provision for the delegation of authority and decision-making. Such a system was effective in the past, but lacked the responsiveness and flexibility needed by Fiat's steady expansion, and the growth of its international operations in the 1960s. The company was reorganized on a product-line basis, with two main product groups—one for passenger cars, the other for trucks and tractors—and a number of semi-independent division and subsidiaries. Top management, freed from responsibility for day-by-day operations of the company, was able to devote its efforts to more far-reaching goals. In 1967, Fiat made its first acquisition when it purchased Autobianchi; with sales amounting to $1.7 billion, it outstripped Volkswagen, its main European competitor, and in 1968 produced some 1,750,000 vehicles while its sales volume climbed to $2.1 billion. According to "Newsweek" in 1968, Fiat was "the most dynamic automaker in Europe...[and] may come closest to challenging the worldwide supremacy of Detroit." Then, in 1969, it purchased controlling interests in Ferrari and Lancia. At the time, Fiat was a conglomerate, owning Alitalia, toll highways, a typewriter and office machine manufacturer, electronics and electrical equipment firms, a paint company, a civil engineering firm, and an international construction company. Following up on an agreement Valletta had made with Soviet officials in 1966, Agnelli constructed the AvtoVAZ plant in the new city of Togliattigrad on the Volga. This began operation in 1970, producing a local version of the Fiat 124 as the Lada. On his initiative, Fiat automobile and truck plants were also constructed in industrial centers of Yugoslavia, Poland, Bulgaria, and Romania. In 1973, Fiat established Comau, an industrial automation company out of the various suppliers which had equipped the AvtoVAZ plant in Russia. Comau became an industry pioneer in the use of Robotics for vehicle assembly – a technology with which Fiat would become synonymous for in the 1970s, with its "Robogate" system for bodyshell manufacture, and the later FIRE family of robot-assembled engines in the 1980s.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Despite offering a relatively competitive range of cars, Fiat was not immune from the financial pressures that the auto industry confronted following the 1973 oil price shock. Towards the end of 1976 it was announced that the Libyan government was to take a 9.6% shareholding in the company in return for a capital injection worth an equivalent of £250 million. The size of the Libyan investment is apparent when it is compared to the £310 million IMF loan that the Italian government was trying to negotiate at the time. Other aspects of the Libyan agreement included the construction of a truck and bus plant at Tripoli. Chairman Agnelli candidly described the deal as "a classic petro-money recycling operation which will strengthen the Italian reserves, provide Fiat with fresh capital and give the group greater tranquility in which to carry out its investment programmes". Equally noteworthy was the fact that despite the dilutive effect of the Libyan investment on existing shareholders, the company's largest shareholder, the Agnelli family, retained a 30% stake in the recapitalised business.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1979, the company became a holding company when it spun off its various businesses into autonomous companies, one of them being Fiat Auto. That same year, sales reached an all-time high in the US, corresponding to the Iranian Oil Crisis. However, when gas prices fell again after 1981, Americans began purchasing sport utility vehicles, minivans, and pickup trucks in larger numbers (marking a departure from their past preference for large cars). Also, Japanese automakers had been taking an ever-larger share of the car market, increasing at more than half a percent a year. Consequently, in 1984, Fiat and Lancia withdrew from the United States market. In 1989, it did the same in the Australian market, although it remained in New Zealand.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1986, Fiat acquired Alfa Romeo from the Italian government. Also, in 1986 15% of Fiat company stock was still owned by Libya, an investment dating back to the mid-seventies. US foreign policy under President Reagan's administration canceled a Pentagon contract to produce earth movers with Fiat and pressured the company into brokering a buyout of the Libyan investment. In 1992, two top corporate officials in the Fiat Group were arrested for political corruption.<ref name="query.nytimes.com/gst"></ref> A year later, Fiat acquired Maserati. In 1995 Alfa Romeo exited the US market. Maserati re-entered the US market under Fiat in 2002. Since then, Maserati sales there have been increasing briskly.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Paolo Fresco became chairman of Fiat in 1998 with the hope that the veteran of General Electric would bring more emphasis on shareholder value to Fiat. By the time he took power, Fiat's market share in Italy had fallen to 41% from around 62% in 1984. However, a Jack Welch-like management style would be much harsher than that used by the Italians (e.g., precarious versus lifetime employment). Instead, Fresco focused on offering more incentives for good performance, including compensation using stock options for top and middle management.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: However, his efforts were frustrated by union objections. Unions insisted that pay raises be set by length of tenure, rather than performance. Another conflict was over his preference for informality (the founder, Giovanni Agnelli, used to be a cavalry officer). He often referred to other managers by their first name, although company tradition obliged one to refer to others using their titles (e.g., "Chairman Fresco"). The CEO of the company, Paolo Cantarella, ran the day-to-day affairs of the company, while Fresco determined company strategy and especially acted as a negotiator for the company. In 1999, Fiat formed CNH Global by merging New Holland NV and Case Corporation.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 2003, Fiat shed its insurance sector, which it was operating through Toro Assicurazioni to the DeAgostini Group. In the same year, Fiat sold its aviation business, FiatAvio to Avio Holding. In February 2004, the company sold its interest in Fiat Engineering, as well as its stake in Edison.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Sergio Marchionne was appointed CEO of Fiat in 2004 and initially he impressed investors. At the end of the 2005 financial year, the company saw its first profit in 17 quarters of €196M for the first 9 months of FY2006.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Marchionne reduced Fiat's managerial bureaucracy refocused the business on markets and profit. While chairman, Luca di Montezemolo, dealt with politicians and unions, Marchionne rebuilt the car business. The success of the Grande Punto model was in large part responsible for the turnaround in Fiat's fortunes, but the award-winning 500 cemented it. Fiat formed a joint venture with India's TATA Motors, which has subsequently ended, and with China's Chery Motors which didn't conclude. In 2005 Fiat courted Ford, and returned to China with a joint venture GAC Fiat created in 2010. Under Marchionne Fiat also re-entered several large markets that it had exited years before, such as Mexico and Australia.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In December 2008, Marchionne announced Fiat had to become one of the top five automakers to survive in the long run. Under Marchionne's leadership, Fiat returned to Canadian and American markets with the new 500. However, since 2009, Marchionne has presided over a business that has experienced a loss in European market share from 9.3 to 6.2 percent. In December 2013, Marchionne announced that he intended to discontinue the Grande Punto so that the company could focus on "cool, high margin" Fiat 500 (2007) variants and the Fiat Panda.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 2010, John Elkann became the Chairman of Fiat SpA and shareholders approved a plan to demerger Fiat's capital goods businesses. Agricultural and construction equipment manufacturer CNH Global NV, truck maker Iveco, and the industrial and marine division of Fiat Powertrain Technologies were spun off into a new group on 1 January 2011. The parent company, Fiat Industrial S.p.A., was listed on the Milan stock exchange on 3 January 2011.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 2010, credit rating agency Fitch cut Fiat's debt rating to BB- after it had accumulated a debt of around . In 2013, Fiats debt rating was cut again, this time by Moody's, to Ba3 over concerns European demand was lower and debt was falling slower than expected. The "Financial Times" estimate of Fiat's debt at the time was almost .


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: On 20 January 2009, Fiat S.p.A. and Chrysler LLC announced their intention to form a global alliance. Under the terms of the agreement, Fiat would take a 20% stake in Chrysler and gain access to its North American distribution network in exchange for providing Chrysler with technology and platforms to build smaller, more fuel-efficient vehicles in the US and providing reciprocal access to Fiat's global distribution network.<ref name="autonews.com/"></ref><ref name="italiaspeed.com/2009"></ref> Agreements were signed on 30 April 2009, with Fiat's future shareholding capped at 49% until all government loans had been repaid.<ref name="fiatgroup.com/en-us/mediacentre"></ref>


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In addition, the proposed agreement would entitle Fiat to receive a further 15% (without cash consideration) through the achievement of specific product and commercial objectives. No cash or financial support was required from Fiat under the agreement. Instead it would obtain its stake mainly in exchange for covering the cost of retooling a Chrysler plant to produce one or more Fiat models for in the US. Fiat would also provide engine and transmission technology to enable Chrysler to introduce smaller, fuel-efficient models in the NAFTA market.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The deal was engineered by Fiat chief Sergio Marchionne. The principal objective of the partnership was to provide both groups with significantly enhanced economies of scale and geographical reach at a time when they were struggling to compete with larger and more global rivals such as Toyota, Volkswagen and alliance partners Renault S.A. and Nissan.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat would not have to pay any money for its 20% of Chrysler. On 7 June 2009, the Indiana State Police Pension Fund, the Indiana Teacher's Retirement Fund, and the state's Major Moves Construction Fund asked the US Supreme Court to delay the sale of Chrysler to Fiat while they challenge the deal. The funds argued that the sale went against US bankruptcy law because it unlawfully rewarded unsecured creditors ahead of secured creditors. On 9 June 2009, the Supreme Court lifted the temporary hold, clearing the way for Fiat to acquire Chrysler.<ref name="online.wsj.com/article"></ref> See Indiana State Police Pension Trust v. Chrysler for more information. On 10 June, the Supreme Court announced that Fiat was now an owner of the new Chrysler a.k.a. Chrysler Group LLC.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Marchionne was appointed CEO of Chrysler following its emergence from bankruptcy proceedings. Under his leadership, Chrysler has taken on a structure similar to that of Fiat and has released, in quick succession, a large number of completely redesigned or refreshed vehicles. Fiat launched its 500, which had been available in Europe since 2007, in the United States and Canada in 2011, marking the company's return to the American auto market, which it had been absent from since 1984. Prior to this, Fiat's main presence on the continent was Mexico, where it offers a greater variety of products than in the United States and Canada.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: On 10 January 2011, Fiat announced that it had increased its share in Chrysler from 20% to 25% following the achievement of the first of three performance objectives. On 11 April 2011, it announced achievement of the second performance objective, increasing its stake a further 5% to 30%. On 24 May 2011, Fiat announced that it had paid Chrysler US$1,268 million for a further 16% interest, increasing its stake total stake to 46% (fully diluted). The transaction coincided with Chrysler refinancing its debt to the U.S. and Canadian governments. On 25 May autonews.com reported that Fiat could buy government stakes in Chrysler as soon as the end of July 2011, increasing its total stake to 54%.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In May 2011, it emerged that Fiat could actually increase its stake in Chrysler Group to more than 70 percent through the exercise of further options.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In a regulatory filing dated 22 July 2011, the Michigan-based automaker reported that Fiat held a 53.5% interest (fully diluted). Fiat and Chrylser have both stated that they expect that interest to reach 58.5% by the end of 2011 as result of achievement of the third of the three performance objectives. On 5 January 2012 Fiat released press info that the ownership has increased to 58.5%. The stake was further increased to 68.49% in July 2013. On 1 January 2014, Fiat announced it would be acquiring the remaining shares of Chrysler owned by the VEBA worth $3.65 billion. The deal was completed by 21 January.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: On 29 January 2014, it was announced that Fiat S.p.A. would be merged into a new company, Fiat Chrysler Automobiles NV, incorporated in the Netherlands with tax domicile in the UK. Fiat Chrysler Automobiles will become the owner of Fiat Group. On 1 August 2014, Fiat S.p.A. received necessary shareholder approval to proceed with the merger (which followed board approval). FCA will be listed on the New York Stock Exchange with an additional listing on the Mercato Telematico Azionario in Milan to follow.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The group's activities were initially focused on the industrial production of cars, industrial and agricultural vehicles. Over time it has diversified into many other fields, and the group now has activities in a wide range of sectors in industry and financial services. It is Italy's largest industrial concern. It also has significant worldwide operations, operating in 61 countries with 1,063 companies that employ over 223,000 people, 111,000 of whom are outside Italy.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat's main shareholders include 30.1% by Exor S.p.A. (controlled by the Agnelli family), 24.9% by EU institutional investors, 11.2% by outside EU institutional investors and 2.6% by Baillie Gifford & Co., a Scottish investment management company.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat's principal operating subsidiaries (direct and indirect) include: Fiat Group Automobiles S.p.A. (FGA), Chrysler Group LLC, Fiat Automoveis, S.A. (subsidiary of FGA); FGA Capital S.p.A. (a JV held 50% by FGA and 50% by Crédit Agricole CF), Ferrari S.p.A., Maserati S.p.A., Magneti Marelli S.p.A., Teksid S.p.A., Comau S.p.A., Itedi-Italiana Edizioni S.p.A. (see 2010 Annual Report)


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat has undertaken numerous joint ventures and alliances. Commencing in 1978, the Type Four platform was an alliance between Alfa Romeo, Fiat, Lancia and Saab and resulting in a range of cars on sale in the mid-1980s.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 2000 a number of joint ventures were established with General Motors following GM buying 20% of Fiat while Fiat bought 6% of GM. Complications with the relationship saw these JVs being wound back by 2005. Resulting projects included the GM Fiat Small platform and Fiat-GM Powertrain.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 2005, Fiat formed an alliance with Ford to create a new small car, resulting in the Fiat 500 and Ford Ka.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 2012, Fiat formed an alliance with Mazda to develop and build a new rear wheel drive roadster for the Alfa Romeo and Mazda brands.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat is the largest vehicle manufacturer in Italy, with cars ranging from small Fiat city cars to sports cars made by Ferrari, and vans and trucks such as the Ducato. Besides Fiat Group Automobiles S.p.A., Fiat Group automotive companies include Chrysler Group LLC and Maserati S.p.A. The Fiat Group Automobiles S.p.A. companies include: Abarth & C. S.p.A., Alfa Romeo Automobiles S.p.A., Fiat Automobiles S.p.A., Fiat Professional and Lancia Automobiles S.p.A.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Ferrari S.p.A. is 90% owned by the Fiat Group. The company also owns Autobianchi but the marque has been dormant since 1995, and Innocenti, which ceased production in 1996.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The European Car of the Year award, Europe's premier automotive trophy for the past 50 years, has been awarded twelve times to the Fiat Group, more than any other manufacturer, most recently with the Fiat 500 in 2008.<ref name="telegraph.co.uk/motoring"></ref>


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Previous Fiat Group models which have won European Car of the Year: Fiat 124 (1967), Fiat 128 (1970), Fiat 127 (1972), Lancia Delta (1980), Fiat Uno (1984), Fiat Tipo (1989), Fiat Punto (1995), Fiat Bravo/Brava (1996), Alfa Romeo 156 (1998), Alfa Romeo 147 (2001) and the Fiat Panda (2004).


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat Industrial Vehicles ("Fiat Veicoli Industriali") was Fiat's truck and bus division. It was created in 1903 with the launch of the 24HP model. By 1908 the company produced around 120 trucks, and by the end of 1918 production had grown to 17,000.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: On 17 April 2007, Fiat Automobiles' light commercial vehicle unit "Fiat Veicoli Commerciali" was rebranded as Fiat Professional. Some of Fiat's light commercial vehicle products include the Fiat Ducato, Fiat Scudo and Fiat Doblò Cargo.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: "For Fiat branded Agricultural & Construction equipments from 1917 to 1991, see Fiat Trattori and from 1992 to 2014, see CNH Global".


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The major Italian component maker Magneti Marelli is owned by Fiat, and it in turn owns other brands such as AL-Automotive Lighting, Carello, Cromodora, Cofap, Ergom Automotive, Jaeger, Mako Elektrik, Paraflu, Seima, Siem SpA, Solex, Veglia Borletti, Vitaloni and Weber.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat owns Teksid S.p.A., the largest iron foundry group in the world with a production capacity of approximately 600,000 tons annually. The company was established in December 1978, and designs and produces cylinder blocks, cylinder heads, exhaust manifolds, drive shafts, camshafts and other components for automobiles and commercial vehicles.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Teksid, which is specialized in casting and processing iron, has plants in France, Portugal, Poland, Brazil, Mexico and China.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Since 2007, Teksid S.p.A. runs also Teksid Aluminum S.r.l. a company specialized in casting and producing auto components from aluminum alloys.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Production systems are made mainly through Comau S.p.A. (now Comau Systems), which bought the American Pico, Renault Automation and Sciaky and produces industrial automation systems. In the 1970s and 1980s, the company became a pioneer in the use of industrial robotics for the assembly of motor vehicles. Fiat assembly plants are among the best automated and advanced in the world.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: An insurance company, Toro Assicurazioni, allowed Fiat to control a relevant part of this market (also with minor companies like Lloyd Italico) and to interact with some associated banks. Toro Assicurazioni was acquired by the giant insurance company Assicurazioni Generali and is no longer part of the Fiat Group.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Ingest Facility and Fiat Engineering work in various fields of construction, while IPI is a mediation company that also deals with the management of real estate properties.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat Group is present in IT fields and in communications with ICT—Information & Communication Technology, Global Value, TeleClient, London and Atlanet.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat Group also has interests in several major publishing houses and national and local newspapers, such as "La Stampa" (created in 1926), Itedi, and Italiana Edizioni. A specialised advertising space reseller is Publikompass, supported by the Consorzio Fiat Media Center. Fiat is also has one of the largest shareholdings in RCS MediaGroup.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat Gesco, KeyG Consulting, Sadi Customs Services, Easy Drive, RM Risk Management and Servizio Titoli are minor companies that work for public services, delivering services in economics and financial fields. Other activities include industrial securitisation (Consorzio Sirio), treasury (Fiat Geva), Fiat Information & Communication Services.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat supports the "Fondazione Giovanni Agnelli", an important foundation for social and economic research. Palazzo Grassi, a well-known historic building in Venice, now a museum and formerly supported by Fiat, was eventually sold to the French businessman François Pinault in January 2005.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat, as Fiat Aviazione, was an important aircraft manufacturer, focused mainly on military aviation. After World War I, Fiat consolidated several Italian small aircraft manufacturers, like Pomilio and Ansaldo. Most famous were Fiat biplane fighter aircraft of the 1930s, Fiat CR.32 and Fiat CR.42. Other notable designs were fighters CR.20, G.50, G.55 and a bomber, the Fiat BR.20. In the 1950s, the company designed the G.91 light ground attack plane. In 1969, Fiat Aviazione merged with Aerfer to create Aeritalia.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1959, Piaggio came under the control of the Agnelli family. In 1964, the aeronautical and motorcycle divisions split to become independent companies. The aeronautical division was named IAM Rinaldo Piaggio. Today the aeronautical company Piaggio Aero is controlled by the family of Piero Ferrari, which also holds 10% of the carmaker Ferrari.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The motorcycle division, Vespa, thrived until 1992, when Giovanni Alberto Agnelli became CEO—but Agnelli was already suffering from cancer, and died in 1997. In 1999, Morgan Grenfell Private Equity acquired Piaggio.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: "Società Anonima Fabbrica Armi Torino" (SAFAT) was a wholly owned subsidiary of FIAT in the 1930s, designing and manufacturing weapons for the Italian armed forces. After losing a competition to produce a series of new machine-guns for the Regia Aeronautica, SAFAT was sold to the winning competitor – Società Italiana Ernesto Breda, forming Breda-SAFAT.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat Ferroviaria's history goes back to before World War II, when Fiat provided motive power used for both Diesel and electric locomotives and railcars ("littorine") not only in Italy, but other parts of Europe, and in South America. Fiat produced, among the rest, the successful Pendolino tilting trains, the first working prototype four-car set being run in the mid-1970s.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The Fiat Group owned the Sestriere skiing facilities; the village in the Alps is a creation of the Agnelli family. The Sestriere skiing facilities were sold by the group in 2006.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat was a key player in developing motor industries for a number of countries from the 1950s, particularly in Eastern Europe, Spain, Egypt, Ethiopia and Turkey. The AutoVAZ state works Lada products in Tolyatti (Togliatti), Russia, were Fiat based, as were SEAT products of Spain. Lada is now controlled by Renault, and SEAT by Volkswagen. A small number of Fiats were built in Bulgaria. Among Fiat's earliest foreign assembly plants was one in Poughkeepsie, New York, between 1910 and 1917.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The American F.I.A.T. Automobile Company was founded by American licensees in 1909 as a response to 45 percent tariffs on imported automobiles. The plant was finished in the spring of 1910 and the first car rolled off the production line in September 1910; all Poughkeepsie Fiats were built with parts shipped from Italy although they usually received locally made bodywork by companies like Holbrook, Quinby, or Fleetwood. American F.I.A.T. focused on the larger and more luxurious end of the range, with the smaller Types 51 and 52 ("Tipo" 1 and 2) only available to order as fully built-up imports.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The first model offered was the Type 54, corresponding to the European "Tipo 4." This has a four-cylinder engine (itself called "Tipo 54A") and rode on a wheelbase; it was manufactured until 1914 or 1915. This was joined by the large and expensive Type 56 in 1912, a seven-passenger touring car reserved for the American market. This model has a six-cylinder version of the Type 54 engine, displacing and mounted in a chassis with a wheelbase. In 1913 the Type 55 arrived (although some Type 55s appear to have been sold in 1912), slightly shorter than the Type 56 with a wheelbase but with a massive four-cylinder engine. This car was largely identical to the European "Tipo 5" and was also manufactured for export. In 1914 the fourth and final American Fiat was introduced, the smaller Type 53 - the equivalent of the Italian "Tipo 3 Ter." This has a four-cylinder engine and a wheelbase. The Tipo 53 was built until 1916, while the 55 and 56 were manufactured until 1917, although late 55s seem to have been sold as "1918s" and they did appear in new-car catalogues that year. Fiat Italy took over the American operation in 1917 and reduced the lineup to the Type 55, now sitting on a wheelbase. NACC tax horsepower figures were 30 hp for the Type 54, 45 for the Type 56, 42 for the Type 55, and 25 hp for the Type 53. Actual outputs were higher, ranging from for the Type 53 to for the big Types 55 and 56.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Output was never very large, Fiats being very expensive cars at the time, with annual production averaging around 350 cars. Once the United States entered the war, no more car parts were arriving from Italy and production was halted. There were plans for restarting production after the war but they came to naught and the plant was sold to Duesenberg in February 1918. Duesenberg proceeded to transfer the machinery to their plant in Elizabeth, NJ, to build aircraft engines. At the beginning of 1928 the facilities changed hands again, now belonging to truck manufacturers Larrabee Motor Truck Co. who transferred their activities there from Binghamton. The building went on to serve various functions, being part of the Marist College campus for a while, and was torn down in 1997.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat Automóveis S.A., a subsidiary of Fiat S.p.A., began making automobiles in Brazil in 1976 beginning with the production of the Fiat 147, the Brazilian version of the Italian Fiat 127, produced until 1986. More than 10,000,000 units have been produced in Fiat Automóveis factory in Betim since 1976, plus 232,807 units in the Fiat Argentina plant of Córdoba. The original factory, located in the city of Belo Horizonte, cost $250 million to build. The state of Minas Gerais had a 10–20% stake in the company and also provided special economic benefits to Fiat.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Launched in July 1979, the 147 was the first mass-produced car that ran on ethanol as fuel instead of petrol. The performance slightly increased and fuel consumption was 30% higher but the cost of the alcohol was a quarter of the gasoline because, at that time, petrol had become expensive as a consequence of the 1979 oil crisis. This version was nicknamed "cachacinha" (little cachaça) because it had the scent of that Brazilian drink.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In October 1984 Fiat Automóveis introduced the Fiat Uno, which continued on sale until the end of 2013 as the renamed Fiat Mille, resulting in total production of 3.6 million vehicles. Production of the Fiat Palio world car began in 1996.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: After the successful 2003 introduction of flexible-fuel vehicles in the Brazilian market, Fiat Automóveis launched its first flex model in March 2004, the Fiat Palio, followed by the Siena and Palio Weekend. Fiat sold 665,514 vehicles in Brazil in 2008, allowing the carmaker to continue as the market leader for seven years in a row. Flex fuel automobiles represented almost 100 percent of the car sales in 2008, and 92 percent of all light-duty trucks sold.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 2006 Fiat introduced the Fiat Siena Tetra fuel, a four-fuel car developed under Magneti Marelli of Fiat Brazil. This automobile can run as a flex-fuel on 100% ethanol (E100); or on E20-E25 blend, Brazil's normal ethanol gasoline blend; on pure gasoline (though no longer available in Brazil since 1993, it is still used in neighboring countries); or just on natural gas (CNG). The Siena Tetrafuel was engineered to switch from any gasoline-ethanol blend to CNG automatically, depending on the power required by road conditions.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat has been present in Argentina since the beginning of the 20th century. There was a Fiat manufacturing plant in Córdoba at least as far back as 1954 when Fiat entered into a joint venture with two local companies to manufacture tractors. The company was known as Fiat-Concord until 1980. In 1959 the construction of a car plant in Caseros was approved, and 1960 saw the production there of the first Argentinian produced Fiat passenger car, a Fiat 600, after the Fiat 1100 Export and after in 1963 the Fiat 1500. In 1977 appears the Fiat 133, just a rebadged Seat 133 but made in Argentina. By 1978 a car manufacturing facility was well established in Córdoba, producing Fiat 128s as well as two models which from the Italian perspective belonged in earlier decades, the 125 (with some derivates) and the 600R.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1980 a joint venture with PSA called Sevel Argentina S.A. was begun, which lasted until 1995. The current day automobile manufacturing started with a new factory opened in Córdoba on 20 December 1996. From April 1997 the Siena and Palio models production started.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Production was suspended in the early 2000s as the Argentinean economy went downhill. In 2008 Fiat invested new money and the production of Fiat Siena saloon and the Fiat Palio was started. In October 2009, a Fiat Siena HLX becomes the 2 million unit produced by Fiat in Argentina. The Fiat Auto Argentina S.A. is Fiat S.p.A. owned company.<ref name="reuters.com/article"></ref>


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Its first enterprise came in 1955, when it agreed to a deal with Yugoslav carmaker Zastava to assemble Fiats for Eastern Europe. The first cars produced by Zastava were its versions of the Fiat 1300 and Fiat 1400. By 1970, Zastava was producing parts for the newer Fiat 124 and Fiat 125 models, which were assembled in Poland. The Zastava 750, launched in 1962, was Zastava's version of the iconic Fiat 600 minicar. It outlived the car on which it was based, with production lasting until 1981. Zastavas were not popular outside of Eastern Europe before the 1980s, although they were exported to the US and several European countries under the Yugo brand during the 1980s.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The most famous product launched by Zastava is the Zastava 101, a front-wheel drive car based on the Fiat 128, also available as a hatchback version never sold in Italy. With the demise of the Zastava 750 in 1981, the minicar gap in the Zastava range was filled by the Zastava Koral, which was best known in Britain and America as the Yugo Tempo or Yugo 45/55. It was based on the 1971 Fiat 127, which was due to be replaced by the Fiat Uno in 1983. Hostility towards Yugoslavia in the wake of the 1992 civil unrest saw a swift ending of imports to both Britain and America. The Zastava factory in Kragujevac was later bombed, but was rebuilt after the war ended, and production continued at another factory in Kragujevac.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1987, Zastava came up with a new car design. The Zastava Florida — also known as a Yugo, and in other markets as the Yugo Sana — was styled by Giorgetto Giugiaro at the ItalDesign studio, later featured a range of more modern Peugeot engines. Sales continued in its homeland, with an update at the end of the 1990s. Zastava did not launch another new car for another 16 years. The 2003 Zastava 10 model was another Fiat design—this time the second generation Punto, and in 2009 was renamed Fiat Punto Classic


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: A new memorandum of understanding between Fiat and the Serb ministry of economic and regional development about the acquisition of Zastava's Kragujevac plant in 2008 led to a new company being set up in which the Italians would have a 70 percent stake and the Serb government 30 percent.<ref name="forbes.com/feeds"></ref> The factory was renamed from "Zastava Automobili Srbija" to "Fiat Automobili Srbija". In 2010 and 2011, FAS (Fiat Automobili Srbija) underwent large-scale reconstruction for production of the Fiat 500L in 2012.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat automobiles have been made in Poland since 1920. In 1932, the Polskie Zakłady Inżynieryjne (Polish Engineering Works, PZInż) started the production of Fiat 508, produced until 1939 also as a military vehicle. In 1936 the licence was extended to include the Fiat 518 model. In 1965, the Polish communist government signed a deal with Fiat to produce selected Fiat models in Poland at the FSO factory in Warsaw that had been built in 1951. Production of the new car—the Polski Fiat 125p—began in 1967. It was visually identical to the Fiat 125, but it made use of older Fiat mechanicals which dated back to 1960. The car sold well in its homeland and was soon exported to Western Europe. 1978 saw the appearance of a new five-door hatchback, the FSO Polonez, that made use of Fiat 125p running gear. After 1982, Fiat withdrew its licence; since then FSO badge was reinstated with the Polski Fiat 125p surviving until 1991, and the Polonez production ending in 2002. FSO was taken over by Daewoo of South Korea in 1995, and become independent again in late 2000, after Daewoo went bankrupt and was taken over by General Motors.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fabryka Samochodów Małolitrażowych (FSM) in Bielsko-Biała and Tychy was a joint venture between FSO and Fiat, and manufactured the Fiat 126(p) in 1973 and the Cinquecento in 1991. In 1992 Fiat owned 90% of FSM (called Fiat Auto Poland, since 1993) and since then it produced Cinquecento, Uno, Seicento, Siena and Palio Weekend models with the capacity up to 200.000 cars a year. In 2003, FSM become the sole producer of Fiat Panda, and in 2007, the Fiat 500 and the related Ford Ka. Capacity was increased with production reaching over 600,000 in 2009, but dropped below 300,000 in 2013, resulting in the workforce being cut by a third.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1966, Fiat helped USSR state industries build a new car factory (AvtoVAZ) on the Volga river. A planned city called Tolyatti (named after Palmiro Togliatti, former Italian Communist Party Secretary) was developed around the factory, which started producing a "people's car" similar to the Volkswagen Beetle and Citroën 2CV of Germany and France. The new Soviet car, called the Lada, was a more spacious offering, in four-door saloon and five-door estate variants. Fiat installed British machine tools supplied by Herbert-BSA of Birmingham for the manufacture of many Lada parts. The 124's design was mechanically upgraded to survive treacherous Russian driving conditions and extremely cold winters. Imports to Western Europe, Canada, and some third world countries sold well owing to their low price. This car was upgraded to become the Lada Riva (marketing name in some markets) in 1980. Lada has gone on to develop some of its own models. The four-wheel drive Lada Niva uses some Fiat based components, e.g. engine and gearbox, but the body and four-wheel drive system are VAZ designs.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Tofaş is joint venture owned by Fiat SpA and Koç Holding (37.8% Fiat Group Automobiles, 37.8% Koc and 24.3% others). The Fiat 124 was produced under licence by Tofaş as the Tofaş Murat. This was replaced by a version of the Fiat 131, known as the Tofaş Şahin. Today the Fiat Linea car is amongst those manufactured by the Fiat-Tofas joint venture in Turkey, and the company has 12.1% of the Turkish car market as of 2007.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In Spain, SEAT—Sociedad Española de Automóviles de Turismo (Spanish Touring Car Company)—was established with Fiat assistance in 1950, producing Fiat models under its own brand name until 1981, when Fiat withdrew its support. In 1982 SEAT signed a cooperation agreement with the German manufacturer Volkswagen and by the end of 1986 after a purchase of a majority stake SEAT had become part of the Volkswagen Group. However, production of some Fiat-based models continued, ending with the Fiat-based Marbella in 1998.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Following the Egyptian Revolution of 1952, President Gamal Abdel Nasser ordered the EGID (General Intelligence Agent) to establish a state owned automobile company. Nasr was founded in 1960 in Helwan, Egypt. It began producing some Fiat based models, but later produced the Tofaş Şahin under license by Tofaş. The last Fiat 128 model was built in 2008, while the Şahin is still in production in Egypt.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Currently the "El-Mashreq Company", a part of the Seoudi Group is the main manufacturer of Alfa Romeo and Fiat vehicles for the Egyptian market. Arab American Vehicles (AAV) also manufactured Fiats in Egypt. They assembled the Fiat Ritmo at the behest of Nasr.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat India Automobiles Private Limited (FIAPL) is a joint venture between Fiat and Mumbai based Tata Motors, founded in 1997. Fiat builds the Palio Stile, Linea and Punto. The Fiat plant is situated in Ranjangaon near Pune in Maharashtra and also manufactures the Tata Indica.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Although not a subsidiary of Fiat, Premier Automobiles of Mumbai was licensed to manufacture versions of the Fiat 500 for the Indian market. This was followed by the Fiat 1100 in 1954. In 1973, the Fiat label was replaced with the Premier name.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Raja Motors are the authorized manufacturers of Fiat motor vehicles in Pakistan since 1948. The manufacturing started with VESPA scooters in 1948. The project was expanded in 2001 to facilitate assembly-cum-manufacturing of the Fiat Uno. The production facility is located in Landhi Industrial Area, Karachi, Pakistan.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: In 1973, entrepreneur Upali Wijewardena's Upali Motor Company began assembly of the local variant of Fiat 128, known as UMC-Fiat 128. Production ended with the introduction of the open-market economy in 1978.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: The North Korean car manufacturer and dealer Pyeonghwa Motors assembles two Fiat models under licence since 2002: Hwiparam (whistle)—based on the Fiat Siena, Bbeokgugi (owl)—based on the Fiat Doblò.


title: Fiat S.p.A.

text: Fiat entered into a 50:50 joint venture with GAC Group in 2010 to create GAC Fiat Automobiles Co, with a factory in Changsha completed in 2012 producing a localised version of the Dodge Dart sold as the Fiat Viaggio.


title: Edward Low

text: Edward "Ned" Low (also spelled Lowe or Loe; 16901724) was a notorious pirate of English origin during the latter days of the Golden Age of Piracy, in the early 18th century. Low was born into poverty in Westminster, London, and was a thief from an early age. He moved to Boston, Massachusetts, as a young man. His wife died in childbirth in late 1719. Two years later, he became a pirate, operating off the coasts of New England and the Azores, and in the Caribbean.


title: Edward Low

text: Low captained a number of ships, usually maintaining a small fleet of three or four. Low and his pirate crews captured at least a hundred ships during his short career, burning most of them. Although he was active for only three years, Low remains notorious as one of the most vicious pirates of the age with a reputation for violently torturing his victims before murdering them.


title: Edward Low

text: Sir Arthur Conan Doyle described Low as "savage and desperate," and a man of "amazing and grotesque brutality." "The New York Times" called him a torturer, whose methods would have "done credit to the ingenuity of the Spanish Inquisition in its darkest days." The circumstances of Low's death, which took place around 1724, have been the subject of much speculation.


title: Edward Low

text: According to Charles Johnson's "A General History of the Pyrates", Edward Low was born in Westminster, London, England, in 1690.


title: Edward Low

text: As a young man, he was said to be a pickpocket and gambler, playing games of chance with the footmen of the nearby House of Commons.


title: Edward Low

text: Most of his family appear to have been thieves. While young, his brother, Richard, was small for his age and is said to have been carried around in a basket on a friend's back; in a crowd, Richard would snatch the hats and wigs of passers-by. Richard later took to other forms of criminal activity and ended up hanged at Tyburn in 1707 for the burglary of a house in Stepney.


title: Edward Low

text: As he advanced in age, Low tired of pickpocketing and thievery and turned to burglary. Eventually, he left England, and traveled alone to the New World around 1710. He spent three to four years in various locations, before settling in Boston, Massachusetts. On 12 August 1714, he married Eliza Marble at the First Church of Boston. They had a son, who died when he was an infant, and then a daughter named Elizabeth, born in the winter of 1719.


title: Edward Low

text: Eliza died in childbirth, leaving Low with his daughter. The loss of his wife had a profound effect on Low: in his later career of piracy, he would often express regret for the daughter he left behind, and refused to press-gang married men into joining his crews. He would also allow women to return to port safely. At first working honestly as a rigger, in early 1722 he joined a gang of twelve men on a sloop headed for Honduras, where they planned to collect a shipment of logs for resale in Boston.


title: Edward Low

text: Low was employed as a patron, supervising the loading and carrying of the logs. One day, he returned to the ship when hungry, but was told by the captain he would have to wait to eat, and that he and his men would have to be satisfied with a ration of rum. At this, Low "took up a loaded musket and fired at the captain but missed him, [and] shot another poor fellow through the throat".


title: Edward Low

text: Following this failed mutiny, Low and his friends were forced to leave the boat. A day later, Low led the twelve-man gang—which included Francis Farrington Spriggs, who went on to become a notorious pirate in his own right—in taking over a small sloop off the coast of Rhode Island. Killing one man during the theft, Low and his crew turned pirate, determined "to go in her, make a black Flag, and declare War against all the World."


title: Edward Low

text: Low, using his newly captured ship, lay in wait on the popular shipping route between Boston and New York. Within a few days, he and his crew seized a sloop out of Rhode Island and plundered it. His crew cut the rigging away to prevent the sloop returning too quickly to port to raise the alarm. He then captured a number of unarmed merchantmen near Port Rosemary.


title: Edward Low

text: Low headed south and began operating in the waters of Grand Cayman, with a period as lieutenant to the established pirate George Lowther, who captained the "Happy Delivery", a 100-ton Rhode Island sloop with eight cannon and ten swivel guns. When she was "destroyed by Indians", Lowther and his crew transferred to a sloop named the "Ranger". Lowther's crew was constantly expanded by desperate sailors willing to join him. Fast acquiring a taste for cruelty, Low taught Spriggs a torture technique which involved tying a victim's hands with rope between their fingers and setting it alight, burning their flesh down to the bones.


title: Edward Low

text: Following a number of successful raids, Lowther eventually captured a large 6-gun brigantine (named "Rebecca") on 28 May 1722. He gave it to Low to captain. With a crew of 44, Low amicably dissolved his partnership with Lowther.


title: Edward Low

text: In one notable raid in June 1722, Low and his crew attacked thirteen New England fishing vessels sheltering at anchor in Port Roseway, Shelburne, Nova Scotia. Although outnumbered, Low hoisted his Jolly Roger flag and declared that no mercy would be given to the fishermen if any resisted. The fleet submitted and Low's men robbed every vessel. Low chose the largest, an 80-ton schooner which he renamed "The Fancy" and armed with 10 guns, to become his flagship. He sank the other ships of the fleet and abandoned the "Rebecca".