title: Mayday Parade

text: The EP "Out Of Here" was released on October 16, 2020, comprises three new tracks – "Lighten Up, Kid," "First Train" and "I Can Only Hope".


title: Mayday Parade

text: On June 18, 2021, the band teased their new single "Kids Of Summer", which was released on June 22. On August 13 they teased a second single, named "Bad At Love" and released August 17. On September 23, they released a third single named "One For The Rocks And One For The Scary", while also announcing their 7th studio album, "What It Means To Fall Apart", alongside the album tracklist and song titles. On October 29, they released a fourth track named "Golden Days". On November 17, they released a fifth track named "Think Of You". The seventh studio album was released November 19, 2021, it includes 12 new songs, including the 5 songs previously mentioned.


title: Mayday Parade

text: Mayday Parade's musical style has been described as pop punk, pop rock, alternative rock, emo pop, emo, and rock. "A Lesson in Romantics" has been described as pop punk and emo. "Anywhere but Here" has been described as pop punk and pop rock. "Mayday Parade" has been described as pop punk and pop rock. "Monsters in the Closet" has been described as pop punk, pop rock and rock. "Black Lines" has been described as emo, emo pop, pop punk, and rock.


title: Mayday Parade

text: After Jason Lancaster parted ways he formed a new band called Go Radio on which he released two EP's and two studio albums, the band broke up on October 7, 2013. A few months later he announced that he would release solo music, having released a song on a Fearless Records compilation, and a solo album called "As You Are" released in June 2014.


title: Mayday Parade

text: In 2012, guitarist and bassist Brooks Betts and Jeremy Lenzo respectively announced their band "Truth or Consequence". The band consists of Betts on vocals, guitar, drums, pedal steel and banjo, Lenzo on bass and vocals, and Alexandra Kees on violin and vocals; studio members include Lee Dyess on cello and Mayday Parade's lead singer Derek Sanders on piano. The band released their debut EP titled "Second Fiddle" on December 25, 2013.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: Lays of Ancient Rome is an 1842 collection of narrative poems, or lays, by Thomas Babington Macaulay. Four of these recount heroic episodes from early Roman history with strong dramatic and tragic themes, giving the collection its name. Macaulay also included two poems inspired by recent history: "Ivry" (1824) and "The Armada" (1832).


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The "Lays" were composed by Macaulay in his thirties, during his spare time while he was the "legal member" of the Governor-General of India's Supreme Council from 1834 to 1838. He later wrote of them:


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The plan occurred to me in the jungle at the foot of the Neilgherry hills; and most of the verses were made during a dreary sojourn at Ootacamund and a disagreeable voyage in the Bay of Bengal.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The Roman ballads are preceded by brief introductions, discussing the legends from a scholarly perspective. Macaulay explains that his intention was to write poems resembling those that might have been sung in ancient times.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The "Lays" were first published by Longman in 1842. They became immensely popular, and were a regular subject of recitation, then a common pastime. The "Lays" were standard reading in British public schools for more than a century. Winston Churchill memorised them while at Harrow School, in order to show that he was capable of mental prodigies, notwithstanding his lacklustre academic performance.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The first poem, , describes how Publius Horatius and two companions, Spurius Larcius and Titus Herminius, hold the Sublician bridge, the only span crossing the Tiber at Rome, against the Etruscan army of Lars Porsena, King of Clusium. The three heroes are willing to die in order to prevent the enemy from crossing the bridge, and sacking the otherwise ill-defended city. While the trio close with the front ranks of the Etruscans, Roman engineers hurriedly work to demolish the bridge, leaving their enemies on the far side of the swollen river.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: As the span becomes unstable, Horatius urges Lartius and Herminius to retreat, while he fights on alone. His companions regain the Roman side before the bridge begins to collapse, but Horatius can no longer cross to safety, and therefore leaps into the river, still fully armoured. Macaulay writes,


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The next poem, , celebrates the Roman victory over the Latin League at the Battle of Lake Regillus. Several years after the retreat of Lars Porsena and the Etruscans, Rome was threatened by a Latin army led by the deposed Roman king, Lucius Tarquinius Superbus, together with his son, Titus Tarquinius, and his son-in-law, Octavius Mamilius, prince of Tusculum.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: This poem includes a number of finely described single-combats, in conscious imitation of Homer's "Iliad".


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The fighting described by Macaulay is fierce and bloody, and the outcome is only decided when the twin gods Castor and Pollux descend to the battlefield on the side of Rome.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The poem describes the tragedy of Virginia, the only daughter of Virginius, a poor Roman farmer. The wicked Appius Claudius, a member of one of Rome's most noble patrician families, and head of the college of decemvirs, desires the beautiful and virtuous Virginia. He initiates legal proceedings, claiming Virginia as his "runaway slave", knowing that his claim will be endorsed by the corrupt magistracy over which he and his cronies preside. Driven to despair, Virginius resolves to save his daughter from Claudius' lust by any means—even her death is preferable.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: Virginia's sacrifice stirs the plebeians to action: their violent outbursts lead to the overthrow of the decemvirs, and the establishment of the office of tribune of the plebs, to protect the plebeian interest from abuses by the established patrician aristocracy.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: narrates how when Romulus and Remus arrive in triumph at the house of their grandfather, Capys, the blind old man enters a prophetic trance. He foretells the future greatness of Romulus' descendants, and their ultimate victory over their enemies in the Pyrrhic and Punic wars.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: Originally composed in 1824, "Ivry" celebrates a battle won by Henry IV of France and his Huguenot forces over the Catholic League in 1590. Henry's succession to the French throne was contested by those who would not accept a Protestant king of France; his victory at Ivry against superior forces left him the only credible claimant for the crown, although he was unable to overcome all opposition until converting to Catholicism in 1593. Henry went on to issue the Edict of Nantes in 1598, granting tolerance to the French Protestants, and ending the French Wars of Religion.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: Written in 1832, this poem describes the arrival at Plymouth in 1588 of news of the sighting of the Spanish Armada, and the lighting of beacons to send the news to London and across England,


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The Armada was sent by Philip II of Spain with the goal of conveying an army of invasion to England, and deposing the Protestant Queen Elizabeth. The supposedly invincible fleet was thwarted by a combination of vigilance, tactics that took advantage of the size and poor maneuverability of the Armada's ships, and a series of other misfortunes.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: "Lays of Ancient Rome" has been reprinted on numerous occasions. An 1881 edition, lavishly illustrated by John Reinhard Weguelin, has frequently been republished. Countless schoolchildren have encountered the work as a means of introducing them to history, poetry, and the moral values of courage, self-sacrifice, and patriotism that Macaulay extolled.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: The "Lays" sold well in America and had a profound impact on the generation that would fight the Civil War. On June 27, 1864, Ohio Colonel Daniel McCook, Jr. prepared his brigade to advance toward Confederate positions at Kennesaw Mountain, Georgia by reciting the phrase from "Horatius" beginning "For how can man die better / Than facing fearful odds..." More than thirty years later, Lieutenant J. T. Holmes wrote "I recalled McCook's death song as he strode through the brigade and the actual work before us, of which we had been advised, began to dawn clearly on all minds. It was doubtless, a spontaneous quotation, but very appropriate to inspire the patriotic feeling and, if we had been Roman soldiery, a trust in the care of the gods. It was a heathen refrain, but impregnated with love of country and kith and kin and duty owed to them all."


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: As a teenager, Winston Churchill won a Harrow School award for memorising and declaiming all 1200 lines of Macaulay's text. In the films "Into The Storm" (2009) and "Darkest Hour" (2017), he is depicted reciting Horatius' speech while Prime Minister during the Second World War.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: Horatius' speech is included at the Chushul war memorial at Rezang La in memory of the 13th Battalion, Kumaon Regiment of the Indian Army. The phrase "how can man die better" was used by Benjamin Pogrund as the title of his biography of anti-apartheid activist Robert Sobukwe.


title: Lays of Ancient Rome

text: Quotations from "Horatius" are widely used in science fiction. Verses 32 and 50 of "Horatius" are used as epigraphs in Diane Duane's "Star Trek" novels, "My Enemy, My Ally" and "The Empty Chair". Horatius' speech appears in the final book of Kevin J Anderson's "The Saga of Seven Suns", is recited in an episode of "Doctor Who", and used as a plot device in the film "Oblivion" (2013).


title: George Roy Hill

text: George Roy Hill (December 20, 1921 – December 27, 2002) was an American film director. He is most noted for directing such films as "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" (1969) and "The Sting" (1973), both starring Paul Newman and Robert Redford.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill is also known for directing such films as "The World of Henry Orient" (1964), "Hawaii" (1966), "Thoroughly Modern Millie" (1967), "Slaughterhouse-Five" (1972), "The Great Waldo Pepper" (1975), "Slap Shot" (1977), "A Little Romance" (1979), "The World According to Garp" (1982) and his final film "Funny Farm" (1988). According to one obituary "few directors achieved such fame and success... even fewer enjoyed such eminence for such a short period of time."


title: George Roy Hill

text: He was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota, to George Roy and Helen Frances (née Owens) Hill, part of a well-to-do Roman Catholic family with interests in the newspaper business; the family owned the "Minneapolis Tribune". Hill was no relation to George W. Hill, director and cinematographer of numerous silent movies and early sound films in the 1920s and early 1930s. He was educated at The Blake School, one of Minnesota's most prestigious private schools, and at Yale University, class of 1943.


title: George Roy Hill

text: He had a love of flying. After school he liked to visit the airport, and his hobby was to memorize the records of World War I flying aces. He idolized pilot Speed Holman, who, Hill once explained, "used to make his approach to the spectators at state fairs flying past the grandstand upside down." Hill obtained his pilot's license at the age of sixteen. Airplanes featured prominently in his later films and are frequently crashed as well — in "Slaughterhouse-Five", "The World According to Garp" and especially "The Great Waldo Pepper" which showed the influence on Hill of pilots like Speed Holman.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill loved classical music, especially Bach, and as an undergraduate at Yale University studied music under notable composer Paul Hindemith, graduating in 1943. His film "The World of Henry Orient" contains a humorous spoof-like tease of Hindemith during the piano concerto scene of Henry Orient (Peter Sellers). While at Yale, Hill was a member of Delta Kappa Epsilon, the Scroll & Key Society and of The Spizzwinks(?) and The Whiffenpoofs, America's oldest collegiate, a cappella singing group.


title: George Roy Hill

text: During World War II, Hill served in the United States Marine Corps as a transport pilot with VMR-152 in the South Pacific. The outbreak of the Korean War resulted in his recall to active duty service for 18 months as a night fighter pilot, attaining the rank of major. After the war, he was stationed at the Marine Corps Air Station Cherry Point jet flight-training center in North Carolina.


title: George Roy Hill

text: After being discharged, Hill worked as a newspaper reporter in Texas, then took advantage of the GI Bill to do graduate work at Trinity College, Dublin, studying James Joyce's use of music in "Ulysses" and "Finnegans Wake". Some sources say he graduated in 1949 with a bachelor's degree in literature.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Other sources say his thesis was never completed because he became sidetracked by the Irish theater, making his stage debut as a walk-on part in 1947 at the Gaiety Theatre, Dublin, with Cyril Cusack's company in a production of George Bernard Shaw's "The Devil's Disciple". He had a leading role in "Raven of Wicklow" by Bridget G. MacCarthy in the same theater in February 1948.


title: George Roy Hill

text: On his return to the U.S., Hill studied theatre at HB Studio in New York City. He acted Off Broadway and toured with Margaret Webster's Shakespeare Repertory Company. He appeared on Broadway in "Richard II", "The Taming of the Shrew", and August Strindberg's "The Creditors" (with Bea Arthur).


title: George Roy Hill

text: In 1952 he featured in a supporting role in the Hollywood movie "Walk East on Beacon", and appeared in episodes of "Lux Video Theatre" including "The Doctor's Wife", "Man at Bay" and "Masquerade". He also acted in episodes of "Kraft Theatre" such as "The Golden Slate". He also acted on radio.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill used his Korean War experience as the basis for a TV drama, "My Brother's Keeper", which appeared on Kraft Television Theater, with Hill himself in the cast. During his military service at Cherry Point, he had had to be 'talked down' by a ground controller at Atlanta airport, an incident that led to his writing the screenplay. The episode was performed and transmitted live in 1953. After his demobilisation, he joined the Kraft Television Theater as a writer, one of his scripts included "Keep Our Honor Bright". He later directed episodes of "Ponds Theater" ("Time of the Drought"), and "Lux Video Theatre" ("The Creaking Gate", "Not All Your Tears", "The Happy Man".) Hill returned to Broadway in 1957 as director of the Pulitzer Prize-winning play "Look Homeward, Angel". Starring Jo Van Fleet and Anthony Perkins this ran for 564 performances.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill continued to direct television, most notably episodes of "Kraft Theatre" including "Eleven O'Clock Flight", "The Devil as a Roaring Lion", "Good Old Charlie Faye", "A Night to Remember", an adaptation of Walter Lord's book about the sinking of the Titanic (of which Hill also co-wrote the teleplay). In addition he did "Man on the White Horse", "Carnival", and "A Real Fine Cutting Edge" with George Peppard for "The Kaiser Aluminum Hour". Hill's work on "Night" earned him two Emmy nominations for writing and directing. He directed some famous episodes of "Playhouse 90" including "The Helen Morgan Story" (1957), "The Last Clear Chance" (1958), "Child of Our Time" (1958), and "Judgment at Nuremberg" (1959).


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill then focused on theatre, directing the Broadway productions of "The Gang's All Here" (1960) with Melvyn Douglas (132 performances), "Greenwillow" (1960) with Anthony Perkins (97 performances) and "Period of Adjustment" (1961) by Tennessee Williams, which ran for 132 performances. He replaced Elia Kazan for the latter.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill's success as a theatre director led to his first feature as director - the film version of "Period of Adjustment" (1962). Starring Jane Fonda and Jim Hutton, it was a box office success. He was meant to follow with an adaptation of "The Rise and Fall of the Third Reich" by William Shirer at MGM for producer John Houseman but it was not made. In light of that his next project was an adaptation of Lillian Hellman's "Toys in the Attic" (1963) starring Dean Martin. Hill's next step was a movie based on the novel "The World of Henry Orient" (1964). Hill and producer Jerome Hellman bought the rights for their own Pan Arts Company. The movie was critically acclaimed but was a commercial disappointment.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill was hired to direct the blockbuster "Hawaii" (1966) after Fred Zinnemann pulled out. Reportedly, when budget estimates reached $14 million, the producers attempted to replace Hill with Arthur Hiller, but abandoned the idea after hundreds of native Polynesians in the cast went on strike, declaring: "We can and will perform only for our friend, Monsieur Hill." The movie was a huge commercial success. Hill rebuilt his Hollywood reputation with the Julie Andrews musical "Thoroughly Modern Millie" (1967) produced by Ross Hunter. Hill was fired during the editing process because he wanted to make the film shorter, whereas Universal wanted to turn it into a roadshow production. However it was a solid box office hit.


title: George Roy Hill

text: He returned to Broadway to direct "Henry, Sweet Henry" (1967), a musical version of "The World of Henry Orient", but it only lasted for 80 performances. He was meant to follow that with a film called "Hamburger Dreams", about a screenwriter in 1930s Hollywood, but it was never made. Instead, Hill had a huge commercial success with "Butch Cassidy and the Sundance Kid" (1969), based on a script by William Goldman and starring Paul Newman and Robert Redford. The film received seven Academy Award nominations, including ones for Best Picture and Best Director, and won four, including for Best Song, "Raindrops Keep Fallin' on My Head." In 1970, he said a common theme of his films was innocence vs evil. Hill followed it with "Slaughterhouse-Five" (1972). "Most of the characters in my film are not too bright," he said in a 1972 interview.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill was reunited with Newman and Redford in "The Sting" (1973), which won seven Academy Awards, including Best Picture and Best Director. The success of "Butch Cassidy" and "The Sting" meant that, for a time, Hill was the only director in history to have made two of the top 10 money-making films. Hill disliked tardiness on set. Paul Newman said of his time (as Cassidy) on "Butch Cassidy": "If you weren’t on time, he’d take you up in his airplane. Scare the bejesus out of us."


title: George Roy Hill

text: "The Great Waldo Pepper"(1975) was based on a story by Hill, with a script by William Goldman and starring Robert Redford. However, it was a commercial disappointment. Around that time he said in an interview: "Just as I play nothing but Bach for pleasure, so do I read nothing but history for pleasure. I like to be able to sit back and pick out the most fascinating facets of an era. You have a better perspective. In the present, you get too caught up in the heat of the emotions of the moment."


title: George Roy Hill

text: In August 1974, Hill signed an exclusive five-year contract with Universal to make projects following "Pepper". "Why shouldn't we give George that kind of deal?" said studio executive Jennings Lang. "He's the complete filmmaker. He can put a blank piece of paper in the typewriter and make a movie out of it up to and including the music." Hill made "Slap Shot" (1977), a popular sports comedy with Paul Newman. His next film was "A Little Romance" (1979), and "The World According to Garp" (1982), with Robin Williams and Glenn Close, in her film debut. He also directed "The Little Drummer Girl" (1984) with Diane Keaton.


title: George Roy Hill

text: His last film was "Funny Farm" (1988) with Chevy Chase. Screenwriter Jeffrey Boam said, "George wanted to do a much classier version than I ever imagined it to be. I imagined it to be a little cruder, more low-brow humor, rougher and more like the movies Chevy was doing at the time, but George was a classy guy and he wasn’t going to do that ... I think a lot of Chevy’s fans were let down because it wasn’t as raucous and vulgar as they might have expected."


title: George Roy Hill

text: In the Margaret Webster theatre company, Hill met Louisa Horton, whom he married on April 7, 1951. They later divorced. Hill was survived by Horton, their two sons, including George Roy Hill III and John Hill, two daughters, and 12 grandchildren.


title: George Roy Hill

text: After his second return to civilian life, Hill bought an open-cockpit Waco biplane built in 1930, which he retained until about ten years before his death.


title: George Roy Hill

text: Hill died on December 27, 2002, at his home in New York City from complications of Parkinson's disease, one week after his 81st birthday.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: The 2014–15 La Liga season (known as the "Liga BBVA" for sponsorship reasons) was the 84th season of the premier association football league in Spain. The campaign began on 23 August 2014 and ended on 24 May 2015.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: Barcelona won its 23rd title on 17 May 2015 after defeating defending champions Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón Stadium, and also equalled the all-time record goal difference of +89 (110 goals scored and 21 conceded), originally set by Real Madrid in the 2011–12 season. Barcelona won the title with 94 points, two more than Real Madrid.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: A total of 20 teams contest the league, including 17 sides from the 2013–14 season and three promoted from the 2013–14 Segunda División. This includes the two top teams (Eibar and Deportivo La Coruña) from the Segunda División, and the winner of the play-offs, Córdoba.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: Eibar became the first club from Segunda División to achieve promotion to La Liga after its 1–0 victory over Alavés on 25 May 2014. Eibar made their La Liga debut in the 2014–15 season.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: Deportivo La Coruña won promotion back to La Liga after one season in Segunda División with a 1–0 victory over Real Jaén on 31 May 2014.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: On 2 May, Córdoba were relegated with three games left to play in the season, after losing 0–8 at home against Barcelona. Eight days later, Villarreal confirmed sixth place and an entry into the UEFA Europa League with Joel Campbell's winning goal against Elche.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: Barcelona, playing with a three-man attack of Lionel Messi, Neymar and Luis Suárez under new manager Luis Enrique, won the title on 17 May with a goal by Messi to defeat holders Atlético Madrid at the Vicente Calderón Stadium. It came exactly a year after Atlético had won their league title at Barcelona's Camp Nou. Real Madrid secured second place on the same day as Barcelona won the title, with a 1–4 win at Espanyol. In the end, Barcelona amassed 94 points, while Real Madrid finished just two points behind, with 92.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: The battle for the Champions League was settled in the last ten minutes of the season. Valencia, in fourth place with 74 points, went into the last match of the season at relegation-threatened Almería, facing all three possibilities of direct qualification to the group stage of the Champions League, qualification to the play-off round, or missing out on the Champions League altogether. Valencia won the match 3–2 to secure fourth place, as Atlético Madrid, three points ahead, drew at Granada. Sevilla, with a 3–2 win at Málaga, achieved a record 76 points total without Champions League qualification, finishing fifth. Sevilla however qualified for the Champions League by winning the 2015 UEFA Europa League Final.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: Earlier in the season, on 7 February, Atlético Madrid achieved a 4–0 victory over city rivals Real Madrid. It was Real's biggest loss since a 5–0 loss to Barcelona in November 2010.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: Despite finishing the season in the 13th position, on 5 June, Elche was relegated to Segunda División due to its financial struggles. Newcomers Eibar, who finished the season in the 18th position, took Elche's place in 2015–16 La Liga.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: The Pichichi Trophy is awarded by newspaper "Marca" to the player who scores the most goals in a season.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: The Zamora Trophy is awarded by newspaper "Marca" to the goalkeeper with least goals-to-games ratio. Keepers must play at least 28 games of 60 or more minutes to be eligible for the trophy.


title: 2014–15 La Liga

text: La Liga's governing body, the Liga Nacional de Fútbol Profesional, honoured the competition's best players and coach with the La Liga Awards.


title: Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)

text: The Ministry of Civil Aviation in India is the nodal ministry responsible for the formulation of national policies and programmes for the development and regulation of civil aviation. It devises and implements schemes for the orderly growth and expansion of civil air transport in the country. Its functions also extend to overseeing airport facilities, air traffic services and carriage of passengers and goods by air. The ministry also administers the implementation of the Aircraft Act, 1934, Aircraft Rules, 1937 and is administratively responsible for the Commission of Railway Safety.


title: Ministry of Civil Aviation (India)

text: The ministry is under the charge of Union Minister Jyotiraditya Scindia and Minister of State V. K. Singh. The secretary, an IAS officer, is administrative the head of the ministry and is assisted by one additional secretary and financial adviser, three joint secretaries, seven officers of the level of director/deputy secretary / financial controller and ten officers of the level of undersecretary. It is located at Rajiv Gandhi Bhavan, Safdarjung Airport, New Delhi.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Urnfield culture ( 1300 BC – 750 BC) was a late Bronze Age culture of Central Europe, often divided into several local cultures within a broader Urnfield tradition. The name comes from the custom of cremating the dead and placing their ashes in urns, which were then buried in fields. Over much of Europe, the Urnfield culture followed the Tumulus culture and was succeeded by the Hallstatt culture. Some linguists and archaeologists have associated this culture with the Proto-Celtic language, or a pre-Celtic language family.


title: Urnfield culture

text: It is believed that in some areas, such as in southwestern Germany, the Urnfield culture was in existence around 1200 BC (beginning of Hallstatt A or Ha A), but the Bronze D Riegsee-phase already contains cremations. As the transition from the middle Bronze Age to the Urnfield culture was gradual, there are questions regarding how to define it.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Urnfield culture covers the phases Hallstatt A and B (Ha A and B) in Paul Reinecke's chronological system, not to be confused with the Hallstatt culture (Ha C and D) of the following Iron Age. This corresponds to the Phases Montelius III-IV of the Northern Bronze Age. Whether Reinecke's Bronze D is included varies according to author and region.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The existence of the Ha B3-phase is contested, as the material consists of female burials only. As can be seen by the arbitrary 100-year ranges, the dating of the phases is highly schematic. The phases are based on typological changes, which means that they do not have to be strictly contemporaneous across the whole distribution. All in all, more radiocarbon and dendro-dates would be highly desirable.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Urnfield culture grew from the preceding Tumulus culture. The transition is gradual, in the pottery as well as the burial rites. In some parts of Germany, cremation and inhumation existed simultaneously (facies Wölfersheim). Some graves contain a combination of Tumulus-culture pottery and Urnfield swords (Kressbronn, Bodenseekreis) or Tumulus culture incised pottery together with early Urnfield types (Mengen). In the North, the Urnfield culture was only adopted in the HaA2 period.


title: Urnfield culture

text: 16 pins deposited in a swamp in Ellmoosen (Kr. Bad Aibling, Germany) cover the whole chronological range from Bronze B to the early Urnfield period (Ha A). This demonstrates a considerable ritual continuity. In the Loire, Seine, and Rhône, certain fords contain deposits from the late Neolithic onward up to the Urnfield period.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The origins of the cremation rite are commonly believed to be in Hungary, where it was widespread since the first half of the second millennium BC. The neolithic Cucuteni–Trypillia culture of modern-day northeastern Romania and Ukraine were also practicing cremation rituals as early as approximately 5500 BC. Some cremations begin to be found in the Proto-Lusatian and Trzciniec culture.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Urnfield culture was located in an area stretching from western Hungary to eastern France, from the Alps to near the North Sea.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Sometimes the distribution of artifacts belonging to these groups shows sharp and consistent borders, which might indicate some political structures, like tribes. Metalwork is commonly of a much more widespread distribution than pottery and does not conform to these borders. It may have been produced at specialised workshops catering for the elite of a large area.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Important French cemeteries include Châtenay and Lingolsheim (Alsace). An unusual earthwork was constructed at Goloring near Koblenz in Germany.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The central European Lusatian culture forms part of the Urnfield tradition, but continues into the Iron Age without a notable break.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Piliny culture in northern Hungary and Slovakia grew from the Tumulus culture, but used urn burials as well. The pottery shows strong links to the Gáva culture, but in the later phases, a strong influence of the Lusatian culture is found. In Italy the late Bronze Age Canegrate and Proto-Villanovan cultures and the early Iron Age Villanovan culture show similarities with the urnfields of central Europe. Urnfields are found in the French Languedoc and Catalonia from the 9th to 8th centuries. The change in burial custom was most probably influenced by developments further east.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Golasecca culture in northern Italy developed with continuity from the Canegrate culture. Canegrate represented a completely new cultural dynamic to the area expressed in pottery and bronzework, making it a typical western example of the Urnfield culture, in particular the Rhine-Switzerland-Eastern France (RSFO) Urnfield culture. The Lepontic Celtic language inscriptions of the area show the language of the Golasecca culture was clearly Celtic making it probable that the 13th-century BC language of at least the RSEF area of the western urnfields was also Celtic or a precursor to it.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Placename evidence has also been used to point to an association of the Urnfield materials with a Proto-Celtic language group in central Europe, and it has been argued that it was the ancestral culture of the Celts.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Urnfield layers of the Hallstatt culture, Ha A and Ha B, are succeeded by the Iron Age "Hallstatt period" proper (Ha C and Ha D, 8th-6th centuries BC), associated with the early Celts; Ha D is in turn succeeded by the La Tène culture, the archaeological culture associated with the Continental Celts of antiquity.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The influence of the Urnfield culture spread widely and found its way to the northeastern Iberian coast, where the nearby Celtiberians of the interior adapted it for use in their cemeteries. Evidence for east-to-west early Urnfield (Bronze D-Hallstatt A) elite contacts such as rilled-ware, swords and crested helmets has been found in the southwest of the Iberian peninsula. The appearance of such elite status markers provides the simplest explanation for the spread of Celtic languages in this area from prestigious, proto-Celtic, early-Urnfield metalworkers.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The numerous hoards of the Urnfield culture and the existence of fortified settlements (hill forts) were taken as evidence for widespread warfare and upheaval by some scholars.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Written sources describe several collapses and upheavals in the Eastern Mediterranean, Anatolia and the Levant around the time of the Urnfield origins:


title: Urnfield culture

text: Some scholars, among them Wolfgang Kimmig and P. Bosch-Gimpera have postulated a Europe-wide wave of migrations. The so-called Dorian invasion of Greece was placed in this context as well (although more recent evidence suggests that the Dorians moved in 1100 BC into a post Mycenaean vacuum, rather than precipitating the collapse). Better methods of dating have shown that these events are not as closely connected as once thought.


title: Urnfield culture

text: More recently Robert Drews, after having reviewed and dismissed the migration hypothesis, has suggested that the observed cultural associations may be in fact partly explained as the result of a new kind of warfare based upon the slashing Naue II sword, and with bands of infantry replacing chariots in warfare. Drews suggests that the political instability that this brought to centralised states based upon maryannu chariotry caused the breakdown of these polities.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The variety of regional groups belonging to this culture makes it possible to exclude the presence of ethnic uniformity. Marija Gimbutas connected the various Central European regional groups to as many proto-populations: proto-Celts, proto-Italics, proto-Veneti, proto-Illyrians and proto-Phrygians (as well as proto-Thracians and proto-Dorians), who would establish themselves later, through migrations, in their historic locations. This migration (disputed by some) occurred during the period called late Bronze Age collapse and was perhaps caused by climate changes. Communities of peasants and herders, led by a warrior aristocracy, introduced the new rite of cremation, new ceramic styles and the mass production of metal objects as well as a new religion and Indo-European languages in various regions of Western and Southern Europe.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The number of settlements increased sharply in comparison with the preceding Tumulus culture. Few of them have been comprehensively excavated. Fortified settlements, often on hilltops or in river-bends, are typical for the Urnfield culture. They are heavily fortified with dry-stone or wooden ramparts. Excavations of open settlements are rare, but they show that large 3-4 aisled houses built with wooden posts and wall of wattle and daub were common. Pit dwellings are known as well; they might have served as cellars.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Fortified hilltop settlements become common in the Urnfield period. Often a steep spur was used, where only part of the circumference had to be fortified. Depending on the locally available materials, dry-stone walls, gridded timbers filled with stones or soil or plank and palisade type "pfostenschlitzmauer" fortifications were used. Other fortified settlements used river-bends and swampy areas.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Metal working is concentrated in the fortified settlements. On the Runder Berg near Urach, Germany, 25 stone moulds have been found.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Hillforts are interpreted as central places. Some scholars see the emergence of hill forts as a sign of increased warfare. Most hillforts were abandoned at the end of the Bronze Age.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Examples of fortified settlements include the , Ehrenbürg, Heunischenburg, Hesselberg, Bürgstadter Berg, , , , Glauberg and in Germany, Burgstallkogel, Thunau am Kamp and the Oberleiserberg in Austria, Corent in France, Hořovice and in the Czech Republic, Biskupin in Poland, Corneşti-Iarcuri, Sântana and Teleac in Romania, Gradište Idoš in Serbia, and Velem and Csanádpalota–Földvár in Hungary.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The 30.5 ha plateau of the in Germany was the site of a "large, walled, city-like" settlement in the later Urnfield period. Excavations have revealed a dense settlement across the whole plateau, including courtyard-type buildings located on artificially raised terraces. The fortified settlement on the Ehrenbürg, also covering about 30 ha and surrounded by a "pfostenschlitzmauer"-type wall, was another regional centre during the Urnfield period and the residence of a regional elite. At the hill fort of Hořovice near Beroun (Czech Republic), 50 ha were surrounded by a stone wall. Most settlements were much smaller.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Corneşti-Iarcuri in Romania was the largest prehistoric settlement in Europe, at almost 6 km across, with four fortification lines and an inner settlement with a diameter of c. 2 km. Magnetic mapping and excavations have suggested the existence of a dense, well-organised settlement of urban character during the Urnfield period. An estimated 824,00 tonnes of earth had to be moved for the construction of the fortification walls alone.


title: Urnfield culture

text: "Mega forts" such as Corneşti-Iarcuri (and Gradište Idoš in Serbia) were surrounded by numerous smaller settlements, including fortified sites. They formed part of a general movement towards large fortified sites across Europe in the Late Bronze Age, possibly in response to new styles of warfare. The general uniformity in design, material culture, and the density of settlements in Romania and Serbia at this time is "indicative of one or more multilocal societies which must have been organized under a common political framework." Kristiansen and Suchowska-Ducke (2015) describe these mega-sites as "part of a political centralisation process, a complex chiefdom, or archaic state".


title: Urnfield culture

text: Urnfield period houses were one or two-aisled. Some were quite small, 4.5 m × 5 m at the Runder Berg (Urach, Germany), 5-8m long in Künzig (Bavaria, Germany), others up to 20 m long. They were built with wooden posts and walls of wattle and daub. At the Velatice-settlement of Lovčičky (Moravia, Czech Republic) 44 houses have been excavated. Large bell shaped storage pits are known from the Knovíz-culture. The settlement of Radonice (Louny) contained over 100 pits. They were most probably used to store grain and demonstrate a considerable surplus-production.


title: Urnfield culture

text: On lakes of southern Germany and Switzerland, numerous pile dwellings were constructed. They consist either of simple houses made of wattle and daub, or log-built. The settlement at Zug, Switzerland, was destroyed by fire and gives important insights into the material culture and the settlement organisation of this period. It has yielded a number of dendro-dates as well.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The pottery is normally well made, with a smooth surface and a normally sharply carinated profile. Some forms are thought to imitate metal prototypes. Biconical pots with cylindrical necks are especially characteristic. There is some incised decoration, but a large part of the surface was normally left plain. Fluted decoration is common. In the Swiss pile dwellings, the incised decoration was sometimes inlaid with tin foil.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Pottery kilns were already known (Elchinger Kreuz, Bavaria), as is indicated by the homogeneous surface of the vessels as well.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Other vessels include cups of beaten sheet-bronze with riveted handles (type Jenišovice) and large cauldrons with cross attachments. Wooden vessels have only been preserved in waterlogged contexts, for example from Auvernier (Neuchâtel), but may have been quite widespread.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The early Urnfield period (1300 BC) was a time when the warriors of central Europe could be heavily armored with body armor, helmets and shields all made of bronze, most likely borrowing the idea from Mycenaean Greece.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The leaf-shaped Urnfield sword could be used for slashing, in contrast to the stabbing-swords of the preceding Tumulus culture. It commonly possessed a ricasso. The hilt was normally made from bronze as well. It was cast separately and consisted of a different alloy. These solid hilted swords were known since Bronze D (Rixheim swords). Other swords have tanged blades and probably had a wood, bone, or antler hilt. Flange-hilted swords had organic inlays in the hilt. Swords include Auvernier, Kressborn-Hemigkofen, Erbenheim, Möhringen, Weltenburg, Hemigkofen and Tachlovice-types.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Protective gear like shields, cuirasses, greaves and helmets are rare and almost never found in burials. The best-known example of a bronze shield comes from Plzeň in Bohemia and has a riveted handhold. Comparable pieces have been found in Germany, Western Poland, Denmark, Great Britain and Ireland. They are supposed to have been made in upper Italy or the Eastern Alps and imitate wooden shields. Irish bogs have yielded examples of leather shields (Clonbrinn, Co. Wexford). Bronze cuirasses are known since Bronze D (Čaka, grave II, Slovakia).


title: Urnfield culture

text: Complete bronze cuirasses have been found in Saint Germain du Plain, nine examples, one inside the other, in Marmesse, Haute Marne (France), fragments in Albstadt-Pfeffingen (Germany). Bronze dishes (phalerae) may have been sewn on a leather armour. Greaves of richly decorated sheet-bronze are known from Kloštar Ivanić (Croatia) and the Paulus cave near Beuron (Germany).


title: Urnfield culture

text: About a dozen wagon-burials of four wheeled wagons with bronze fittings are known from the early Urnfield period. They include Hart an der Altz (Kr. Altötting), Mengen (Kr. Sigmaringen), Poing (Kr. Ebersberg), Königsbronn (Kr. Heidenheim) from Germany and St. Sulpice (Vaud), Switzerland. In Alz, the chariot had been placed on the pyre, pieces of bone are attached to the partially melted metal of the axles. Bronze (one-part) bits appear at the same time. Two-part horse bits are only known from late Urnfield contexts and may be due to eastern influence. Wood- and bronze spoked wheels are known from Stade (Germany), a wooden spoked wheel from Mercurago, Italy. Wooden dish-wheels have been excavated at Courcelettes, Switzerland and the , Germany (diameter 80 cm). In Milavče near Domažlice, Bohemia, a four-wheeled miniature bronze wagon bearing a large cauldron (diameter 30 cm) contained a cremation. This exceptionally rich burial was covered by a barrow. The wagon from (Bavaria) comes from a male burial.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Such wagons are known from the Nordic Bronze Age as well. The , Denmark, contained a cremation as well. At (Kr. Schwerin) in Mecklenburg a cauldron-wagon and other rich grave goods accompanied an inhumation under a barrow (Montelius III/IV). Another example comes from Ystad in Sweden. South-eastern European examples include Kanya in Hungary and Orăştie in Romania. Clay miniature wagons, sometimes with waterfowl were known there since the middle Bronze Age (Dupljaja, Vojvodina, Serbia).


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Lusatian chariot from (Brandenburg, Germany) has three wheels on a single axle, on which waterfowl perch. The grave of Gammertingen (Kr. Sigmaringen, Germany) contained two socketed horned applications that probably belonged to a miniature wagon comparable to the Burg example, together with six miniature spoked wheels.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Bronze spoked wheels from and (in Germany) have been described as "the most ambitious craft endeavour of all Bronze Age bronze objects", representing "the highest achievement of prehistoric bronze casters in non-Greek Europe ... In terms of casting technique, they are on a par with the casting of a Greek bronze statue."


title: Urnfield culture

text: Hoards are very common in the Urnfield culture. The custom is abandoned at the end of the Bronze Age. They were often deposited in rivers and wet places like swamps. As these spots were often quite inaccessible, they most probably represent gifts to the gods. Other hoards contain either broken or miscast objects that were probably intended for reuse by bronze smiths. As Late Urnfield hoards often contain the same range of objects as earlier graves, some scholars interpret hoarding as a way to supply personal equipment for the hereafter. In the river Trieux, Côtes du Nord, complete swords were found together with numerous antlers of red deer that may have had a religious significance as well.


title: Urnfield culture

text: An iron knife or sickle from Ganovce in Slovakia, possibly dating to the 18th century BC, may be the earliest evidence of smelted iron in Central Europe. Another early find is an iron ring from Vorwohlde (Kr. Grafschaft Diepholz, Germany) dating to c. the 15th century BC (Reinecke B). During the late Bronze Age, Iron was used to decorate the hilts of swords (Schwäbisch-Hall-Gailenkirchen, Unterkrumbach, Kr. Hersbruck), knives (Dotternhausen, Plettenberg, Germany), pins and some other ornaments. The Carpathian Basin was an early centre of iron technology, with iron artefacts dating from the 10th century BC, and possibly as early as the 12th century BC. Regular use of iron for weapons and tools in Central Europe began with the Hallstatt culture.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Cattle, pigs, sheep and goats were kept, as well as horses, dogs and geese. The cattle were rather small, with a height of 1.20 m at the withers. Horses were not much bigger with a mean of 1.25 m.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Forest clearance was intensive in the Urnfield period. Probably open meadows were created for the first time, as shown by pollen analysis. This led to increased erosion and sediment-load of the rivers. New crops and more intensive agrarian regimes are introduced, transforming landscapes on a large scale.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Wheat and barley were cultivated, together with pulses and the horse bean. Poppy seeds were used for oil or as a drug. Millet and oats were cultivated for the first time in Hungary and Bohemia, rye was already cultivated, further west it was only a noxious weed. Flax seems to have been of reduced importance, maybe because mainly wool was used for clothes.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Hazel nuts, apples, pears, sloes and acorns were collected. Some rich graves contain bronze sieves that have been interpreted as wine-sieves (Hart an der Alz). This beverage would have been imported from the South, but supporting evidence is lacking.


title: Urnfield culture

text: In the lacustrine settlement of Zug, remains of a broth made of spelt and millet have been found. In the lower-Rhine urnfields, leavened bread was often placed on the pyre and burnt fragments have thus been preserved.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Wool was spun (finds of spindle whorls are common) and woven on the warp-weighted loom; bronze needles ("Unteruhldingen") were used for sewing.


title: Urnfield culture

text: There is some suggestion that the Urnfield culture is associated with a wetter climatic period than the earlier Tumulus cultures. This may be associated with the diversion of the mid-latitude winter storms north of the Pyrenees and the Alps, possibly associated with drier conditions in the Mediterranean basin.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Large hoards of sickles dating from the Bronze Age have been excavated across central Europe which feature a range of cast markings. An analysis of the Frankleben hoard and other sickle hoards from Germany dating from the Urnfield period found that markings on the sickles constitute a numeral system related to the lunar calendar. According to the Halle State Museum of Prehistory:


title: Urnfield culture

text: The sickles also feature other marks or symbols which Sommmerfeld (1994) suggests may represent 'conceptual signs', or a type of proto-writing. Markings on sickles and tools from across Bronze Age Europe have been interpreted by other authors as ownership marks, sign systems, number systems or "units of information" of unknown meaning.


title: Urnfield culture

text: 'Counting marks' have also been identified on bronze armrings and ingots from the Urnfield period, possibly related to trade. Similar markings found on pottery have been interpreted as serving a calendar function.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Four elaborate cone-shaped hats made from thin sheets of gold have been found in Germany and France, dated to 1400-800 BC. It is thought that they may have been worn as ceremonial hats by "king-priests" or oracles.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The gold hats are covered in bands of ornaments along their whole length and extent. The ornaments – mostly disks and concentric circles, sometimes wheels, crescents, pointed oval shapes and triangles – were punched using stamps, rolls or combs. An analysis of the Berlin Gold Hat found that its ornaments form systematic patterns, representing the Metonic cycle of a lunisolar calendar. According to : “The symbols on the hat are a logarithmic table which enables the movements of the sun and the moon to be calculated in advance.” Similar ornaments are found on the gold bowls of the Eberswalde hoard, some of which also contain calendrical information. Astronomical and calendrical interpretations have also been proposed for gold items from the in Germany, the gold diadem and roundels from Velem in Hungary, and the Trundholm sun chariot from Denmark. The conical gold hats have been linked to the Casco de Leiro from Spain and the Comerford Crown from Ireland, which also bear similar symbols.


title: Urnfield culture

text: In his analysis of the Velem diadem, archaeologist Gabor Ilon writes: "high-ranking members of the elite in Bronze Age Europe were proud owners of gold foil-covered costume adornments and symbols of status and power as well as of golden vessels, objects of social display, decorated with an identical set of symbols ... embodying what was presumably an identical and coherent spiritual background." According to the Musée d'Archaeologie Nationale, "these precious and remarkably executed objects evoke a complex society, undoubtedly strictly hierarchical, with advanced technical and astronomical knowledge, organized around work in the fields".


title: Urnfield culture

text: In the Tumulus period, multiple inhumations under barrows were common, at least for the upper levels of society. In the Urnfield period, inhumation and burial in single flat graves prevails, though some barrows exist.


title: Urnfield culture

text: In the earliest phases of the Urnfield period, man-shaped graves were dug, sometimes provided with a stone lined floor, in which the cremated remains of the deceased were spread. Only later, burial in urns became prevalent. Some scholars speculate that this may have marked a fundamental shift in people's beliefs or myths about life and the afterlife.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The size of the urnfields is variable. In Bavaria, they can contain hundreds of burials, while the largest cemetery in Baden-Württemberg in Dautmergen has only 30 graves.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The dead were placed on pyres, covered in their personal jewellery, which often shows traces of the fire and sometimes food-offerings. The cremated bone-remains are much larger than in the Roman period, which indicates that less wood was used. Often, the bones have been incompletely collected.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Most urnfields are abandoned with the end of the Bronze Age, only the Lower Rhine urnfields continue in use in the early Iron Age (Ha C, sometimes even D).


title: Urnfield culture

text: The cremated bones could be placed in simple pits. Sometimes the dense concentration of the bones indicates a container of organic material, sometimes the bones were simply shattered.


title: Urnfield culture

text: If the bones were placed in urns, these were often covered by a shallow bowl or a stone. In a special type of burial (bell-graves) the urns are completely covered by an inverted larger vessel. As graves rarely overlap, they may have been marked by wooden posts or stones.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The urn containing the cremated bones is often accompanied by other, smaller ceramic vessels, like bowls and cups. They may have contained food. The urn is often placed in the centre of the assemblage. Often, these vessels have not been placed on the pyre. Metal grave gifts include razors, weapons that often have been deliberately destroyed (bent or broken), bracelets, pendants and pins. Metal grave gifts become rarer towards the end of the Urnfield culture, while the number of hoards increase.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Burnt animal bones are often found, they may have been placed on the pyre as food. The marten bones in the grave of may have belonged to a garment (pelt).


title: Urnfield culture

text: Upper-class burials were placed in wooden chambers, rarely stone cists or chambers with a stone-paved floor and covered with a barrow or cairn. The graves contain especially finely made pottery, animal bones, usually of pigs, sometimes gold rings or sheets, and in exceptional cases miniature wagons.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Some of these rich burials contain the remains of more than one person. In this case, women and children are normally seen as sacrifices. Until more is known about the status distribution and the social structure of the late Bronze Age, this interpretation should be viewed with caution, however.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Towards the end of the Urnfield period, some bodies were burnt in situ and then covered by a barrow, reminiscent of the burial of Patroclus as described by Homer and the burial of Beowulf (with the additional ship burial element). The (9th c. BC) has been described as a "Homeric burial" due to its close similarity to contemporary elite burials in Greece and Italy. In the early Iron Age, inhumation became the rule again.


title: Urnfield culture

text: An obsession with waterbirds is indicated by numerous pictures and three-dimensional representations. Combined with the hoards deposited in rivers and swamps, it indicates religious beliefs connected with water. This has led some scholars to believe in serious droughts during the late Bronze Age.


title: Urnfield culture

text: Sometimes the water-birds are combined with circles, the so-called sun-barque-motif. Moon-shaped clay fire dogs are thought to have a religious significance, as well as crescent shaped razors.


title: Urnfield culture

text: The Kyffhäuser caves in Thuringia contain headless skeletons and animal bones that have been interpreted as sacrifices. Other deposits include grain, knotted vegetable fibres and hair and bronze objects (axes, pendants and pins). The Ith-caves (Lower Saxony) have yielded comparative material.


title: Urnfield culture

text: A genetic study published in "Nature" in March 2015 examined the remains of an Urnfield male buried in Halberstadt, Germany ca 1100-1000 BC. He was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup R1a1a1b1a2 and the maternal haplogroup H23.


title: Urnfield culture

text: A genetic study published in "Science" in March 2019 found a significant increase in north-central European ancestry in Iberia during the transition from the Bronze Age to the Iron Age. The authors of the study suggested that the spread of the Urnfield culture was associated with this transition, during which the Celtiberians may have emerged. A Celtiberian male examined in the study was found to be a carrier of the paternal haplogroup I2a1a1a.


title: Urnfield culture

text: A genetic study published in "Science" in November 2019 examined the remains of a female from the Proto-Villanovan culture buried in Martinsicuro, Italy between ca. 900 BC and 800 BC. She carried the maternal haplogroup U5a2b.


title: Rāja yoga

text: In Sanskrit texts, Rāja yoga (; राजयोग) was both the goal of yoga and a method to attain it. The term also became a modern name for the practice of yoga in the 19th-century when Swami Vivekananda gave his interpretation of the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali in his book "Raja Yoga". Since then, Rāja yoga has variously been called aṣṭāṅga yoga, royal yoga, royal union, sahaja marg, and classical yoga.


title: Rāja yoga

text: Rāja (Sanskrit: राज) means "chief, best of its kind" or "king". Rāja yoga thus refers to "chief, best of yoga".


title: Rāja yoga

text: The historical use of the term "Rāja yoga" is found in other contexts, quite different from its modern usage. In ancient and medieval Sanskrit texts, it meant the highest state of yoga practice (one reaching "samadhi"). The "Hatha Yoga Pradipika", for example, states that Hatha yoga is one of the ways to achieve Rāja yoga.


title: Rāja yoga

text: Rāja yoga is discussed in the "Yogatattva Upanishad". It is then mentioned in a 16th-century commentary on a specific step in the "Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali". The medieval era Tantric work "Dattātreyayogaśāstra" explains in 334 shlokas the principles of four yogas: Mantra yoga, Hatha yoga, Laya yoga and Raja yoga. Alain Daniélou states that "Rāja yoga" was, in the historic literature of Hinduism, one of five known methods of yoga, with the other four being "Hatha yoga", "Mantra yoga", "Laya yoga" and "Shiva yoga". Daniélou translates it as "Royal way to reintegration of Self with Universal Self (Brahman)".


title: Rāja yoga

text: The term became a modern retronym in the 19th-century when Swami Vivekananda equated raja yoga with the Yoga Sūtras of Patañjali. This meaning is different from that in the "Hatha Yoga Pradīpikā", a text of the Natha sampradaya.


title: Rāja yoga

text: The Brahma Kumaris, a new religious movement, teaches a form of meditation it calls "Raja yoga" that has nothing to do with either the precepts of Hatha Yoga or Patañjali's "Yoga Sūtras".


title: Rāja yoga

text: Modern interpretations and literature that discuss "Raja yoga" often credit Patañjali's "Yogasūtras" as their textual source, but many neither adopt the teachings nor the philosophical foundations of the Yoga school of Hinduism. This mixing of concepts has led to confusion in understanding historical and modern Indian literature on Yoga.


title: Rāja yoga

text: The Shaiva Yoga text, "Amanaska", dated from the 12th century CE or earlier, is a dialogue between Vamadeva and the deity Shiva. In the second chapter, the text mentions Raja yoga. It states that it is so named because it enables the yogin to reach the illustrious king within oneself, the supreme self. Raja yoga is declared as the goal where one experiences nothing but the bliss of the undisturbed, the natural state of calm, serenity, peace, communion within and contentment.


title: Rāja yoga

text: The Raja yoga goal and state are synonymous with various terms, such as "Amanaska", "Unmani" and "Sahaj". The "Hatha Yoga Pradipika" (literally, "A Little Light on Hatha Yoga") asserts this as follows,


title: Rāja yoga

text: Some medieval Indian texts on Yoga list Rajayoga as one of many types of yoga. For example, the 17th-century Sarvanga yoga pradipikå, a Braj-bhashya commentary by Sundardas, teaches three tetrads of Yogas. The first group is Bhakti yoga, Mantra yoga, Laya yoga, and Carcha yoga; the second is Hatha yoga, Raja yoga, Laksha yoga, and Ashtanga yoga; the third is Samkhya yoga, Jñana yoga, Brahma yoga, and Advaita yoga. Of the twelve, Sundardas states that Rajayoga is the best yoga.


title: Rāja yoga

text: One meaning of Raja yoga is as a modern retronym introduced by Swami Vivekananda, when he equated raja yoga with the Yoga Sutras of Patanjali. After its circulation in the first half of the 1st millennium CE, many Indian scholars reviewed it, then published their "Bhāṣya" (notes and commentary) on it. Together, they form a canon called the "Pātañjalayogaśāstra" ("The Treatise on Yoga of Patañjali").


title: Rāja yoga

text: According to Axel Michaels, the "Yoga Sutras" are built upon fragments of texts and traditions from ancient India. According to Feuerstein, the "Yoga Sutras" are a condensation of two different traditions, namely "eight limb yoga" (ashtanga yoga) and action yoga ("kriya yoga"). The "kriya yoga" part is contained in chapter 1, chapter 2 verse 1-27, chapter 3 except verse 54, and chapter 4. The "eight limb yoga" is described in chapter 2 verse 28-55, and chapter 3 verse 3 and 54.


title: Rāja yoga

text: There are numerous parallels in the ancient Samkhya, Yoga and Abhidharma schools of thought, particularly from the 2nd century BCE to the 1st century AD, notes Larson. Patanjali's Yoga Sutras may be a synthesis of these three traditions. From the Samkhya school of Hinduism, Yoga Sutras adopt the "reflective discernment" ("adhyavasaya") of "prakrti" and "purusa" (dualism), its metaphysical rationalism, and its three epistemic methods to gaining reliable knowledge. From Abhidharma Buddhism's idea of "nirodhasamadhi", suggests Larson, Yoga Sutras adopt the pursuit of an altered state of awareness. However, unlike Buddhism, which believes that there is neither self nor soul, Yoga is physicalist and realist, like Samkhya, in believing that each individual has a self and soul. The third concept that Yoga Sutras synthesizes into its philosophy is the ancient ascetic traditions of isolation, meditation and introspection, as well as the yoga ideas from the 1st millennium BCE Indian texts such as Katha Upanishad, Shvetashvatara Upanishad and Maitri Upanishad.


title: Rāja yoga

text: In early 11th century, the Persian scholar Al Biruni visited India, lived among Hindus for 16 years, and with their help translated several significant Sanskrit works into Arabic and Persian. One was Patanjali's Yogasutras. Along with generally accurate translations, Al Biruni's text has significant differences from Yogasutra manuscripts discovered in India during the 19th century. Al Biruni's record has helped modern scholars establish that Patanjali's "Yogasutras" manuscript existed in India in many versions, each with multiple commentaries by Hindu scholars. Some of these versions and commentaries are either lost or undiscovered. Al Biruni's translation preserved many of the core themes of Yoga philosophy of Hinduism; however, certain sutras and analytical commentaries were restated, making them more consistent with Islamic monotheistic theology. Al Biruni's version of Yoga Sutras reached Persia and Arabian peninsula by about 1050 AD.


title: Rāja yoga

text: In Indian historical timeline, marking with the arrival of Islam in India in twelfth century, further development and literature on Yoga philosophy of Hinduism went into decline. By the sixteenth century, Patanjali's Yoga philosophy was nearly extinct. Yoga was preserved by sadhus (ascetics, sannyasis) of India. Some of the Hindu yoga elements were adopted by Sufi sect of Muslims in India. The Sufi Muslims at times adopted and protected the Yoga tradition of Hindus during the Islamic rule of India, and at other times helped the persecution and violence against those Hindus. The Mughal Emperor Akbar, known for his syncretic tolerance, was attracted to and patronized Yoga philosophy of Hinduism.


title: Rāja yoga

text: The yoga scholar Stephen Cope identifies the following similarities between Raja yoga and Buddhism. He notes that the two philosophies are not the same, but are strikingly similar, having shared a long period of interchange up to about 500 CE.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: "Ex nihilo nihil fit" means that nothing comes from nothing. In ancient creation myths the universe is formed from eternal formless matter, namely the dark and still primordial ocean of chaos. In Sumerian myth this cosmic ocean is personified as the goddess Nammu "who gave birth to heaven and earth" and had existed forever; in the Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elish pre-existent chaos is made up of fresh-water Apsu and salt-water Tiamat, and from Tiamat the god Marduk created Heaven and Earth; in Egyptian creation myths a pre-existent watery chaos personified as the god Nun and associated with darkness, gave birth to the primeval hill (or in some versions a primeval lotus flower, or in others a celestial cow); and in Greek traditions the ultimate origin of the universe, depending on the source, is sometimes Okeanos (a river that circles the Earth), Night, or water.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: To these can be added the account of the Book of Genesis, which opens with God separating and restraining the waters, not creating the waters themselves out of nothing. The Hebrew sentence which opens Genesis, "Bereshit bara Elohim et hashamayim ve'et ha'aretz", can be interpreted in at least three ways:


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: It has been known since the Middle Ages that on strictly linguistic and exegetical grounds option 1 is not the preferred translation. Our society sees the origin of matter as a question of crucial importance, but for ancient cultures this was not the case, and the authors of Genesis wrote of creation they were concerned with God bringing the cosmos into operation by assigning roles and functions.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: "Creatio ex nihilo", in contrast to "ex nihilo nihil fit", is the idea that matter is not eternal but was created by God at the initial cosmic moment. In the second century a new cosmogony arose, articulated by Plotinus, that the world was an emanation from God and thus part of God. This view of creation was repugnant to Christian church fathers as well as to Arabic and Hebrew philosophers, and they forcefully argued for the otherness of God and his creation and that God created all things from nothing by the word of God. The first articulation of the notion of creation "ex nihilo" is found in the 2nd century writing "To Autocylus" (2.10) authored by Theophilus of Antioch. By the beginning of the 3rd century the tension was resolved and creation "ex nihilo" had become a fundamental tenet of Christian theology. Theophilus of Antioch is the first post New Testament author to unambiguously argue for an ontological ex nihilo creation from nothing, contrasting it to the views of Plato and Lucretius who asserted clearly that matter was preexistent.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: In modern times some Christian theologians argue that although the Bible does not explicitly mention creation "ex nihilo", various passages suggest or imply it. Others assert that it gains validity from having been held by so many for so long; and others find support in modern cosmological theories surrounding the Big Bang. Some examine alternatives to "creatio ex nihilo", such as the idea that God created from his own self or from Christ, but this seems to imply that the world is more or less identical with God; or that God created from pre-existent matter, which at least has biblical support, but this implies that the world does not depend on God for its existence.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: Theologians and philosophers of religion point out that it is explicitly stated in Jewish literature from the first century BCE or earlier depending on the dating of 2 Maccabees:


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: I beseech you, my child, to look at the heaven and the earth and see everything that is in them, and recognize that God did not make them out of things that existed.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: In the first century, Philo of Alexandria, a Hellenized Jew, lays out the basic idea of ex nihilo creation, though he is not always consistent, he rejects the Greek idea of the eternal universe and he maintains that God has created time itself. In other places it has been argued that he postulates pre-existent matter alongside God. But other major scholars such as Harry Austryn Wolfson see that interpretation of Philo's ideas differently and argue that the so-called pre-existent matter was created.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: Saadia Gaon introduced ex nihilo creation into the readings of the Jewish bible in the 10th century CE in his work "Book of Beliefs and Opinions" where he imagines a God far more awesome and omnipotent than that of the rabbis, the traditional Jewish teachers who had so far dominated Judaism, whose God created the world from pre-existing matter. Today Jews, like Christians, tend to believe in creation "ex nihilo," although some Jewish scholars recognise that Genesis 1:1 recognises the pre-existence of matter to which God gives form.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: Most scholars of Islam share with Christianity and Judaism the concept that God is First Cause and absolute Creator; He did not create the world from pre-existing matter.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: However, some scholars, adhering to a strict literal interpretation of the Quran such as Ibn Taimiyya whose sources became the fundament of Wahhabism and contemporary teachings, hold that God fashioned the world out of primordial matter, based on Quranic verses.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: The Chandogya Upanishad 6.2.1 says before the world was manifested, there was only existence, one without a second (sat eva ekam eva advitīyam). Swami Lokeshwarananda commented this passage by saying "something out of nothing is an absurd idea".


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: The Big Bang theory, by contrast, is a scientific theory; it offers no explanation of cosmic existence but only a description of the first few moments of that existence.


title: Creatio ex nihilo

text: An expansion of the first cause argument is the Kalam cosmological argument, which also requires "creatio ex nihilo":


title: Demographics of North Macedonia

text: Demographic features of the population of North Macedonia include population density, ethnicity, education level, health of the populace, economic status, religious affiliations and other aspects of the population.


title: Demographics of North Macedonia

text: The latest population census was held in 2002 due to ethnic issues between Albanians and Macedonians, therefore demographic information may be unreliable as it is based on estimates. According to Apostol Simovski, the director of the State Statistical Office, the population of North Macedonia is around 1.5 million.


title: Demographics of North Macedonia

text: According to statistics from the European Union, the actual population has been reduced by at least 230,000 people who emigrated into European Union member states between 1998 and 2011. Further Albanian news sources estimated at October 2012 that the real population is closer to the sum of 1,744,237 people who are accounted within all of the health funds of the country. According to Bozhidar Dimitrov, the Bulgarian authorities have granted 87,000 to many of those emigrants a Bulgarian passport, as of 2012, which requires that they declare to be ethnic Bulgarians. Since Bulgaria's entry into the European Union, and under pressure from fellow European Union members, Bulgaria imposed more stringent rules and measures for the acquisition of a Bulgarian citizenship and passport.


title: Demographics of North Macedonia

text: The provisions of the Ohrid agreement to elevate any minority language if the minority in question is above 20% of the population of any municipality into a co-official language for that municipality has created friction within the government, and between officials of different political and ethnic interests, resulting in the indefinite postponement of the census for almost twenty years until it was finally conducted in 2021.


title: Demographics of North Macedonia

text: The process of industrialization and urbanization after the Second World War that caused the population growth to decrease involved the ethnic Macedonians to a greater extent than Muslims. Rates of increase were very high among rural Muslims: Turks and Torbesh (Macedonian Muslims) had rates 2.5 times those of the Macedonian majority, while Roma had rates 3 times as high. In 1994, Macedonians had a TFR of 2.07, while the TFR of others were: Albanian (2.10), Turkish (3.55), Roma (4.01), Serb (2.07), Vlachs (1.88) and Others (3.05). The TFR by religions was: Christian (2.17, with 2.20 for Catholics and 2.06 for Orthodox), Islam (4.02) and others (2.16).


title: Demographics of North Macedonia

text: However, it is unlikely that this high minority TFR has continued since then in North Macedonia, as Balkan fertility elsewhere (Albania, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Kosovo) has dropped sharply toward the European average. A more recent survey pegs Muslim fertility in North Macedonia at 1.7, versus 1.5 for non-Muslims.


title: Demographics of North Macedonia

text: In 2017, 21,754 children were born in North Macedonia. The ethnic affiliation of these newborns was: 11,260 (51.76%) Macedonian; 7,404 (34.03%) Albanian; 940 (4.32%) Turkish; 1,276 (5.87%) Roma; 40 (0.18%) Vlach; 129 (0.59%) Serbian; 213 (0.98%) Bosniaks; 492 (2,26%) other ethnic affiliation and unknown. In the school year 2016/2017 there were 192 715 students in elementary schools from which 104,756 (55%) were Macedonian, and 60,971 (32%) were Albanian, and in High schools there were 72 482 students from which 43,658 (60.1%) were Macedonian and 22 419 (30.9%) were Albanians. Furthermore, in 1999 Albanians accounted for 34.6% of newborns and 26.1% of students who finished high school in 2016, which was regulated by the Ministry of Education.


title: Clarence Carter

text: Clarence George Carter (born January 14, 1936) is an American singer, songwriter, musician and record producer. His most successful songs include "Slip Away", "Back Door Santa" (both released 1968), "Patches" (1970) and "Strokin" (1986).


title: Clarence Carter

text: Born blind in Montgomery, Alabama on January 14, 1936, Carter attended the Alabama School for the Blind in Talladega, Alabama, and Alabama State University in Montgomery, graduating in August 1960 with a Bachelor of Science degree in music.


title: Clarence Carter

text: His professional music career began with friend Calvin Scott, signing to the Fairlane label to release "I Wanna Dance But I Don't Know How", as Clarence & Calvin, the following year. After the 1962 release of "I Don't Know (School Girl)," the pair joined Duke Records, renaming themselves the C & C Boys and releasing four singles for the label, though none were commercially successful. In 1965, the duo recorded "Step by Step" at Rick Hall's FAME Studios in Muscle Shoals; it was released on the Atlantic Records' subsidiary Atco label, but it also failed to chart.


title: Clarence Carter

text: The duo performed regularly in clubs in Birmingham, Alabama in 1966. After Scott was seriously injured in an auto accident, Carter continued as a solo singer, and recorded for the Fame label. In 1967 he recorded "Tell Daddy", which reached number 35 on the "Billboard" R&B chart and inspired Etta James' answer record, "Tell Mama", for which Carter was credited as writer. At the end of 1967, Carter joined Atlantic Records. He then began a string of hits on the R&B and pop charts, starting with "Slip Away" (number 2 R&B, number 6 pop), which has been described as "a superior cheating ballad spotlighting his anguished, massive baritone alongside the remarkably sinuous backing of Fame's exemplary backing band", and "Too Weak To Fight" (number 3 R&B, number 13 pop). Both of the preceding Atlantic singles were certified Gold by the Recording Industry Association of America. At the end of 1968, he had a seasonal pop hit with the raunchy and funky "Back Door Santa" (number 4 Christmas pop), and toured nationally. His backing singers included Candi Staton; they married in 1970 and produced a son, Clarence Carter Jr., before divorcing in 1973.


title: Clarence Carter

text: Carter continued to have hits in 1969 and 1970, with "Snatching It Back", "The Feeling Is Right", "Doin' Our Thing", and "I Can't Leave Your Love Alone" all reaching both the US pop and R&B charts. The B-side of "Snatching It Back" was a remake of a remake of James Carr's "The Dark End of the Street", entitled "Making Love (At the Dark End of the Street". Carter's biggest hit came in 1970 with his version of "Patches", first recorded by Chairmen of the Board, which was a UK number 2 hit and a US number 4. The record sold over one million copies, and received a gold disc awarded by the R.I.A.A. in September 1970, just two months after its release, and won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Song in 1971. Following "Slip Away" and "Too Weak to Fight", it was Carter's third million-seller. However, Carter's later record releases were less successful, and he left Atlantic at the end of 1971 to rejoin the Fame label. In 1975 he signed to ABC Records, releasing three albums including "Loneliness and Temptation". According to writer Brian Ward, Carter "virtually made a career from tales of unbridled love and illicit sex..."


title: Clarence Carter

text: With the advent of disco in the mid-1970s, Carter's career suffered. After the birth of another son, Herbert Deon Wilkerson in 1981, he signed for Ichiban Records in 1985 and found a new audience with songs such as "Strokin'" and "Dr. C.C." in the 1980s and 1990s. "Strokin'" was reputedly deemed too ribald for a public release or radio play, so the record company placed the records in jukeboxes, where bar patrons discovered the song. "Strokin'" was given further acclaim when it was used in the Eddie Murphy remake of "The Nutty Professor". It was most recently used in William Friedkin's film "Killer Joe". Carter's soul sound also found an audience within the then-nascent hip-hop community. Most notably, the horn break from "Back Door Santa" is sampled in the Run-D.M.C. Christmas song "Christmas in Hollis".


title: Clarence Carter

text: Carter's later songs continue to appeal to a primarily African-American working-class audience that is also interested in contemporary blues artists such as Denise LaSalle, Bobby Rush, Marvin Sease and Sir Charles Jones. He has continued recording, releasing six albums for the Ichiban label and, since 1996, establishing his own Cee Gee Entertainment label. He has also continued to tour regularly in the Southern states and internationally.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: In statistics, nonlinear regression is a form of regression analysis in which observational data are modeled by a function which is a nonlinear combination of the model parameters and depends on one or more independent variables. The data are fitted by a method of successive approximations.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: relates a vector of independent variables, formula_2, and its associated observed dependent variables, formula_3. The function formula_4 is nonlinear in the components of the vector of parameters formula_5, but otherwise arbitrary. For example, the Michaelis–Menten model for enzyme kinetics has two parameters and one independent variable, related by formula_4 by:


title: Nonlinear regression

text: This function is nonlinear because it cannot be expressed as a linear combination of the two "formula_5"s.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: Systematic error may be present in the independent variables but its treatment is outside the scope of regression analysis. If the independent variables are not error-free, this is an errors-in-variables model, also outside this scope.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: Other examples of nonlinear functions include exponential functions, logarithmic functions, trigonometric functions, power functions, Gaussian function, and Lorentz distributions. Some functions, such as the exponential or logarithmic functions, can be transformed so that they are linear. When so transformed, standard linear regression can be performed but must be applied with caution. See Linearization§Transformation, below, for more details.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: In general, there is no closed-form expression for the best-fitting parameters, as there is in linear regression. Usually numerical optimization algorithms are applied to determine the best-fitting parameters. Again in contrast to linear regression, there may be many local minima of the function to be optimized and even the global minimum may produce a biased estimate. In practice, estimated values of the parameters are used, in conjunction with the optimization algorithm, to attempt to find the global minimum of a sum of squares.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: The assumption underlying this procedure is that the model can be approximated by a linear function, namely a first-order Taylor series:


title: Nonlinear regression

text: The nonlinear regression statistics are computed and used as in linear regression statistics, but using J in place of X in the formulas. The linear approximation introduces bias into the statistics. Therefore, more caution than usual is required in interpreting statistics derived from a nonlinear model.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: The best-fit curve is often assumed to be that which minimizes the sum of squared residuals. This is the ordinary least squares (OLS) approach. However, in cases where the dependent variable does not have constant variance, a sum of weighted squared residuals may be minimized; see weighted least squares. Each weight should ideally be equal to the reciprocal of the variance of the observation, but weights may be recomputed on each iteration, in an iteratively weighted least squares algorithm.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: Some nonlinear regression problems can be moved to a linear domain by a suitable transformation of the model formulation.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: with parameters "a" and "b" and with multiplicative error term "U". If we take the logarithm of both sides, this becomes


title: Nonlinear regression

text: where "u" = ln("U"), suggesting estimation of the unknown parameters by a linear regression of ln("y") on "x", a computation that does not require iterative optimization. However, use of a nonlinear transformation requires caution. The influences of the data values will change, as will the error structure of the model and the interpretation of any inferential results. These may not be desired effects. On the other hand, depending on what the largest source of error is, a nonlinear transformation may distribute the errors in a Gaussian fashion, so the choice to perform a nonlinear transformation must be informed by modeling considerations.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: of 1/"v" against 1/["S"] has been much used. However, since it is very sensitive to data error and is strongly biased toward fitting the data in a particular range of the independent variable, ["S"], its use is strongly discouraged.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: For error distributions that belong to the exponential family, a link function may be used to transform the parameters under the Generalized linear model framework.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: The "independent" or "explanatory variable" (say X) can be split up into classes or segments and linear regression can be performed per segment. Segmented regression with confidence analysis may yield the result that the "dependent" or "response" variable (say Y) behaves differently in the various segments.


title: Nonlinear regression

text: The figure shows that the soil salinity (X) initially exerts no influence on the crop yield (Y) of mustard, until a "critical" or "threshold" value ("breakpoint"), after which the yield is affected negatively.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: Aaron William Cresswell (born 15 December 1989) is an English professional footballer who plays as a left-back for Premier League club West Ham United.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: Cresswell made his first-team debut for Tranmere Rovers in 2008 and made 70 league appearances for the club before signing for Ipswich Town in 2011, following a tribunal to agree the value of the transfer. He made 138 appearances for Ipswich scoring six goals, before joining West Ham United in July 2014. He made his international debut for England in November 2016 in a friendly against Spain at Wembley Stadium.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: Cresswell started his career with Liverpool, working his way through the academy before being released at the age of 15. Following his release from Liverpool he joined the Tranmere Rovers youth system before signing his first professional contract in July 2008. He made his first-team debut on 1 November 2008 in a League One match with Milton Keynes Dons which ended in a 1–0 loss.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: Although he was offered a new contract by the club at the end of the 2010–11 season, Tranmere manager Les Parry expected Cresswell to turn down the contract offer saying "Aaron has got four or five Championship clubs trying to sign him; if I had to guess I would say Aaron might be leaving us this summer."


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: In June 2011, the media reported that Ipswich Town had won the race to sign the player beating the likes of West Brom and Doncaster Rovers for his signature, although the clubs had failed to agree a fee and resolution of this was expected to go to a transfer tribunal. A three-year contract was later announced to have been signed.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: He made his debut for the club on 6 August 2011, starting in a 0–3 away win over Bristol City at Ashton Gate. He scored his first goal for the club on 17 March, netting a late winner in a 3–2 home win over Peterborough United at Portman Road. He made 46 appearances in all competitions during his first season at Portman Road, scoring once. He won the club's Player of the Year award for the 2011–12 season.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: In the summer of 2012, fine performances for Ipswich Town, led to Cresswell being linked with Premier League clubs such as Aston Villa.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: He continued to keep his place as a first team regular during the 2012–13 season. He scored his first goal of the season in a 3–1 win over Bristol Rovers in a League Cup first round tie. He made 49 appearances over the course of the season, scoring 4 goals. He also won the club's goal of the season award for his strike in a 3–0 win over Crystal Palace on 16 April.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: He scored his first goal of the 2013–14 season on 17 September, scoring the winning goal in a 2–1 win over Yeovil Town. He made 43 appearances during the season, scoring 2 goals and earning a place in the PFA Championship Team of the Year.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: On 3 July 2014, Cresswell joined West Ham United on a five-year contract for an undisclosed fee believed to be in the region of £3.75 million, plus add on clauses. He made his West Ham debut on 16 August 2014 in a 1–0 home defeat to Tottenham Hotspur. On 29 November he scored his first goal for the club, in the 1–0 victory over Newcastle United at the Boleyn Ground. In May 2015, Cresswell was named Hammer of the Year and Player's Player of the Year. Cresswell played all 38 league matches and all four FA Cup matches for West Ham in 2014–15. In June 2015, Cresswell signed a new contract which would keep him with West Ham until 2020, with the option for a further two years.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: Cresswell made the highest number of appearances of any West Ham player in 2015–16, playing in 47 matches. He featured in 37 of the possible 38 Premier League matches scoring two goals, away to Aston Villa on 26 December, and at eventual champions Leicester City in a 2–2 draw on 17 April.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: In July 2016, Cresswell was injured in a 3–0 pre-season victory over Karlsruher SC. Suffering a knee-ligament injury, Cresswell was initially expected to be out of action for four months. Cresswell recovered in time to make his return in West Ham's 1–0 victory away at Crystal Palace on 15 October, assisting Manuel Lanzini for the winning goal, however his comeback was cut short after he was sent-off for two yellow cards within a minute.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: In September 2019, Cresswell scored a 25-yard free kick against Manchester United to seal a 2–0 victory. Less than a week later Cresswell scored the final goal in a 2–2 draw against AFC Bournemouth. He scored in consecutive league appearances for the first time in his professional career. In October 2019 he signed a new contract until 2023 with West Ham. In November 2019, he scored a late winner against Chelsea, to seal West Ham a 1–0 away victory.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: On 11 December 2020, Cresswell made his 200th Premier League appearance for the club in a 2–1 away win against Leeds United, during which he recorded an assist for Angelo Ogbonna's winning header. On 21 March 2021, in a 3–3 draw with Arsenal, Cresswell recorded his 217th Premier League appearance, becoming West Ham's second highest Premier League appearance maker, behind club captain Mark Noble. Cresswell recorded a total of eight assists for West Ham during the 2020–21 season, one more than right-back Vladimír Coufal. The duo recorded the most assists for a full-back pairing during the 2020–21 Premier League season.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: On 8 April 2022, during West Ham's UEFA Europa League match against Lyon, Cresswell was sent off for his challenge on Moussa Dembélé just before half-time. Referee Felix Zwayer's decision to send Cresswell off was criticised online, with West Ham fans and manager David Moyes convinced that Dembélé had dived. Less than a month later, Cresswell was sent off once again in West Ham's semi-final match against Eintracht Frankfurt, after bringing down Jens Petter Hauge. He was originally given a yellow card which was upgraded to a red upon review. The team went on to lose 1–0 (3–1 on aggregate) to Frankfurt.


title: Aaron Cresswell

text: On 7 November 2016, Cresswell received his first international call-up to the England squad for the 2018 FIFA World Cup qualifier with Scotland and a friendly with Spain, following Danny Drinkwater's withdrawal from the squad due to injury. He made his debut on 15 November, replacing Danny Rose in a 2–2 draw with Spain at Wembley Stadium.


title: Success

text: Success is the state or condition of meeting a defined range of expectations. It may be viewed as the opposite of failure. The criteria for success depend on context, and may be relative to a particular observer or belief system. One person might consider a success what another person considers a failure, particularly in cases of direct competition or a zero-sum game. Similarly, the degree of success or failure in a situation may be differently viewed by distinct observers or participants, such that a situation that one considers to be a success, another might consider to be a failure, a qualified success or a neutral situation. For example, a film that is a commercial failure or even a box-office bomb can go on to receive a cult following, with the initial lack of commercial success even lending a cachet of subcultural coolness.


title: Success

text: It may also be difficult or impossible to ascertain whether a situation meets criteria for success or failure due to ambiguous or ill-defined definition of those criteria. Finding useful and effective criteria, or heuristics, to judge the failure or success of a situation may itself be a significant task.


title: Success

text: DeVitis and Rich link the success to the notion of the American Dream. They observe that "[t]he ideal of success is found in the American Dream which is probably the most potent ideology in American life" and suggest that "Americans generally believe in achievement, success, and materialism." Weiss, in his study of success in the American psyche, compares the American view of success with Max Weber's concept of the Protestant work ethic.


title: Success

text: Natural selection is the variation in successful survival and reproduction of individuals due to differences in phenotype. It is a key mechanism of evolution, the change in the heritable traits characteristic of a population over generations. Charles Darwin popularized the term "natural selection", contrasting it with artificial selection, which in his view is intentional, whereas natural selection is not. As Darwin phrased it in 1859, natural selection is the "principle by which each slight variation [of a trait], if useful, is preserved". The concept was simple but powerful: individuals best adapted to their environments are more likely to survive and reproduce. As long as there is some variation between them and that variation is heritable, there will be an inevitable selection of individuals with the most advantageous variations. If the variations are heritable, then differential reproductive success leads to a progressive evolution of particular populations of a species, and populations that evolve to be sufficiently different eventually become different species.


title: Success

text: A student's success within an educational system is often expressed by way of grading. Grades may be given as numbers, letters or other symbols. By the year 1884, Mount Holyoke College was evaluating students' performance on a 100-point or percentage scale and then summarizing those numerical grades by assigning letter grades to numerical ranges. Mount Holyoke assigned letter grades "A" through "E," with "E" indicating lower than 75% performance. The "A"–"E" system spread to Harvard University by 1890. In 1898, Mount Holyoke adjusted the grading system, adding an "F" grade for failing (and adjusting the ranges corresponding to the other letters). The practice of letter grades spread more broadly in the first decades of the 20th century. By the 1930s, the letter "E" was dropped from the system, for unclear reasons.


title: Success

text: Educational systems themselves can be evaluated on how successfully they impart knowledge and skills. For example, the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA) is a worldwide study by the Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) intended to evaluate educational systems by measuring 15-year-old school pupils' scholastic performance on mathematics, science, and reading. It was first performed in 2000 and then repeated every three years.


title: Success

text: Carol Dweck, a Stanford psychologist, primarily researches motivation, personality, and development as related to implicit theories of intelligence, her key contribution to education the 2006 book "Mindset: The New Psychology of Success." Dweck's work presents mindset as on a continuum between fixed mindset (intelligence is static) and growth mindset (intelligence can be developed). Growth mindset is a learning focus that embraces challenge and supports persistence in the face of setbacks. As a result of growth mindset, individuals have a greater sense of free will and are more likely to continue working toward their idea of success despite setbacks.


title: Success

text: Malcolm Gladwell's 2008 book "Outliers: The Story of Success" suggests that the notion of the self-made man is a myth. Gladwell argues that the success of entrepreneurs such as Bill Gates is due to their circumstances, as opposed to their inborn talent.


title: Success

text: Andrew Likierman, former Dean of London Business School, argues that success is a relative rather than an absolute term: success needs to be measured against stated objectives and against the achievements of relevant peers: he suggests Jeff Bezos (Amazon) and Jack Ma (Alibaba) have been successful in business "because at the time they started there were many companies aspiring to the dominance these two have achieved". Likierman puts forward four propositions regarding company success and its measurement


title: Success

text: Scientific theories are often deemed successful when they make predictions that are confirmed by experiment. For example, calculations regarding the Big Bang predicted the cosmic microwave background and the relative abundances of chemical elements in deep space (see Big Bang nucleosynthesis), and observations have borne out these predictions. Scientific theories can also achieve success more indirectly, by suggesting other ideas that turn out correct. For example, Johannes Kepler conceived a model of the Solar System based on the Platonic solids. Although this idea was itself incorrect, it motivated him to pursue the work that led to the discoveries now known as Kepler's laws, which were pivotal in the development of astronomy and physics.


title: Success

text: The fields of probability and statistics often study situations where events are labeled as "successes" or "failures". For example, a Bernoulli trial is a random experiment with exactly two possible outcomes, "success" and "failure", in which the probability of success is the same every time the experiment is conducted. The concept is named after Jacob Bernoulli, a 17th-century Swiss mathematician, who analyzed them in his "Ars Conjectandi" (1713). The term "success" in this sense consists in the result meeting specified conditions, not in any moral judgement. For example, the experiment could be the act of rolling a single die, with the result of rolling a six being declared a "success" and all other outcomes grouped together under the designation "failure". Assuming a fair die, the probability of success would then be formula_1.


title: Furlough

text: A furlough (; from , "leave of absence") is a temporary leave of employees due to special needs of a company or employer, which may be due to economic conditions of a specific employer or in society as a whole. These furloughs may be short or long term.


title: Furlough

text: In the United States, involuntary furloughs concerning federal government employees may be of a sudden and immediate nature. Such was the case in February 2010, when a single United States Senate objection prevented emergency funding measures from being implemented. As a result, 2,000 federal workers for the Department of Transportation were immediately furloughed as of March 1, 2010. The second-longest such shutdown was December 16, 1995, to January 6, 1996, which affected all non-essential employees, shutting down many services including National Institutes of Health, visa and passport processing, parks, and many others. This happened again on October 1, 2013, and on January 19, 2018.