text: The recruits are given the opportunity to phone their next of kin and inform them of the recruit's safe arrival, are instructed as to items considered contraband and are given a "last chance" to dispose of such items without penalty. They are issued utility and physical training uniforms and toiletries. From here, the males receive their first military haircut, which leaves them essentially bald. Females are instructed in the authorized hairstyling, which allows hair to be short enough to not touch the collar or in a bun.


title: United States Marine Corps Recruit Training

text: The remainder of receiving involves completing paperwork, receiving vaccines and medical tests and storing civilian belongings under the eye of drill instructors set aside specifically for receiving. This takes approximately three days, usually without the opportunity to sleep, and ends with the Initial Strength Test (IST).


text: From this point, recruits experience "Black Friday", where they meet their permanent DIs. They also meet their company commander, usually a captain, who orders their DIs to train them to become Marines and has them recite the Drill Instructor's Creed. At this point, recruit training truly begins. Recruits are familiarized with incentive training as one of the consequences of disobedience or failure to perform to a DI's expectations. The DIs physically, psychologically and mentally harass the recruits, including yelling at maximum volume and intimidation, to elicit immediate compliance to instructions. The remainder of receiving is made as confusing and disorienting for the recruits as possible to help distance the recruits from civilian habits and to prepare them for Marine Corps discipline. The final "moment of truth" is offered to recruits who have been dishonest about their eligibility, such as drug use, judicial convictions or other disqualifying conditions.


text: Phase one lasts approximately four weeks including receiving. Discipline will begin to be instilled in recruits by disorienting them and effectively cutting them off from civilian habits and mindsets, as well as reinforcing the mental and physical standards needed to perform under stressful situations that will be simulated in subsequent phases and experienced in combat situations. Recruits are required to learn and strictly use language and terminology typical to the Marine Corps, often derived from naval terminology.


text: The purpose of the first phase is to psychologically break down the recruit. At this point, civilian thoughts and habits are considered detrimental to training, so they are squashed during this period by intense physical training, unchanging routines, strict discipline and heavy instruction. The process is designed to enable recruits to learn to survive in combat situations and generally to adapt and overcome any unexpected situation. One of the principal ideals learned during this period is that recruits are not to think of themselves as individuals—they are not permitted to use first person or second person pronouns. Instead, recruits are required to use third-person referrals, such as referring to themselves as "this recruit" and accomplish all tasks with teamwork. Any actions that put the benefit of an individual over the benefit of the other recruits are not permitted, and recruits are expected to conform to a standard that does not tolerate personal deviance or eccentricities. Speed, intensity and volume when speaking are valued as well.


text: The bulk of first-phase education consists of classes about the Marine Corps and its history and culture, first aid, rank structure and insignia, protocol, customs and courtesies, the 11 General Orders, aspects of the five paragraph order, prepare equipment for use (such as how to properly make a rack), regulations regarding uniforms, and other topics. Recruits learn through the use of rote memorization and mnemonics—recruits are expected to be able to recite a passage or quote in unison, without error and on demand.


text: Close order drill is an important factor in recruit training and begins from their first formation on the yellow footprints. In the first phase, they learn all of the basic commands and movements, memorizing the timing through the use of "ditties", or mnemonics, that help synchronize a recruit's movements with the rest of the platoon. Constant repetition and practice are used to facilitate muscle memory, so that any given movement can be rendered immediately and accurately upon order without hesitation. To aid in this development, drill movements are worked into other parts of daily life to help increase the platoon's synchronization and muscle memory—this same technique is used with other non-drill activities as well. For example, a recruit is instructed to hold his/her food tray in a similar fashion to holding the butt of a rifle during "shoulder arms".


text: During this phase, recruits are familiarized with their rifle. This weapon, never referred to as a "gun", stays with the recruit through the entirety of recruit training, being locked in an armory in the recruit's squad bay at night or when not in use. Platoons will stack their rifles and post a guard on them during situations where retaining them is impractical, such as during indoor classes or chow. Recruits must memorize the rifle's serial number, the four weapons safety rules, the four weapons conditions and go through preparatory lessons in marksmanship. In addition, recruits use the rifles in close order drill and will spend considerable time cleaning their weapons.


text: Recruits begin work toward earning their tan belt in the Marine Corps Martial Arts Program (MCMAP). Physical training gradually becomes more intense as recruits get stronger and their bodies are accustomed to the strain. Periodic fitness tests assess which recruits need more attention, and those who consistently fail to meet the minimum are in danger of being sent to the PCP. Recruits will conduct pugil stick bouts and are introduced to various courses, including, obstacle, combat and circuit. There is also training on combat care, to address how to care for individuals who become injured. The final week of first phase includes an inspection from the senior drill instructor and the initial drill competition against other platoons. By the end of the first phase, recruits can march, respond to orders, and keep up in physical fitness.


text: Swim week consists of four days of water survival qualifications exercises followed by MCMAP and pugil sticks, the first physical fitness test and an additional obstacle course. Recruits are taught swimming and water survival. This is the first event where failure to pass will result in a recruit being dropped to a different company to restart training and attempt to qualify again. If a recruit fails twice, he or she will be evaluated to see if a third chance is warranted, or if the recruit will be deemed unable to qualify and administratively separated from service. Certain MOS's require a more advanced swim qualification in boot camp; recruits who fail to achieve this qualification may be reclassified into a different MOS. Completion of Combat Water Survival training is necessary for graduation from recruit training.


text: Recruits will continue building physically throughout this week, by performing log drills and strength and endurance courses. They are given the opportunity to have their first uniform fittings and receive haircuts. The week ends with their first Combat Fitness Test and a 5-kilometer hike. Team week gives recruits the opportunity to complete other jobs unsupervised by drill instructor and instead with other Marines. These tasks help to build a team atmosphere that will benefit later in recruit training as well as in each recruit's career. Team week is accompanied by lessons in interior guard. These classes teach recruits the importance of guard duties. An example of this would be fire watch. These lessons include fundamentals and tasks to be accomplished while on guard, along with consequences that can occur if duties are not completed accordingly.


text: The week begins with the second of three Physical Fitness Tests. Recruits will learn to master the use of a bayonet, as well as complete the final pugil stick training. An inspection will be completed by a commander, and recruits will be given their first written exam on material they have learn thus far during recruit training. Recruits will learn to master the guide and brake in order to safely lower themselves down the 60-foot rappel tower. Recruits will be issued uniforms; this is the first time that the uniforms they wear will say U.S Marine Corps.


text: Because MCRD San Diego is located in the center of a dense urban area and adjacent to San Diego International Airport, it is impractical to conduct rifle qualification and field training there. Instead, recruits are sent to the Edson Range at Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton. This week is partly spent in a class setting to learn about marksmanship principles of the M16 rifle and how to shoot efficiently. When not in class, recruits are "snapping in," or practicing their firing positions. Recruits are taught how to shoot by a marksmanship instructor and must learn four positions: sitting, prone, kneeling, and standing. They spend nearly the entire week mastering these firing positions, learning to use the rifle combat optic (RCO) and being able to adjust to additional challenges such as weather. At the end of the week, recruits will complete an 8-kilometer hike.


text: Table I is to teach recruits to shoot from a distance. The distances are from 200, 300, and 500 yards. Half of the platoons will fire the standing, sitting, kneeling and prone positions—the other half will mark targets in the pits. After a break for lunch the roles are then reversed. Friday of that week is qualification day, where recruits must qualify with a minimum score in order to earn a marksmanship badge and continue training. Each shot will be given a score of 5, 4, 3, 2, or miss (0). After 50 shots, recruits will have the opportunity to receive a perfect score of 250 for Table I. The week ends with a 13-kilometer hike.


text: Week 9 begins with field week, where recruits will have to learn to navigate the land with only a map and compass. Table II is to follow field week; recruits will practice shooting at a much closer range of 25 yards and 100 yards. They will have 50 rounds and will be scored 2,1, or miss (0). They will be able to score a maximum of 100 points.


text: The recruits qualify for different levels of rifle qualifications, the score from Table I & Table II qualifications are added to meet the following levels:


text: At the beginning of week 10, recruits complete their second written exam, make travel arrangements to get home after graduation, and endure the Confidence Chamber. Recruits must enter an enclosed building filled with CS gas and perform various movements with their gas mask, including the removal of the gas mask. Recruits who attempt to flee the gas chamber are ordered back in—a failure to comply results in the recruit being dropped.


text: The Crucible is the final test in recruit training and represents the culmination of all of the skills and knowledge a Marine should possess. Designed in 1996 to emphasize the importance of teamwork in overcoming adversity, the Crucible is a rigorous 54-hour field training exercise demanding the application of everything a recruit has learned until that point in recruit training and includes a total of 48 miles of marching. It simulates typical combat situations with strenuous testing, hardship and the deprivation of food and sleep. Recruits are given two MREs (a self-contained, individual field ration). The recruits are only allowed six hours of sleep through the entire 54-hour event. Recruits are broken into squad-sized teams (possibly smaller) and placed under the charge of one drill instructor.


text: Throughout the Crucible, recruits are faced with physical and mental challenges that must be accomplished before advancing further. Teamwork is stressed, as the majority of tasks are impossible without it—each group must succeed or fail as a whole. The others will fail unless every recruit passes through together, requiring the team to aid their fellow recruits who struggle in the accomplishment of the given mission. Also stressed are the Corps' core values of "Honor, Courage, and Commitment"—events sometimes present a moral challenge. Many challenge events are named after Marine Medal of Honor or otherwise notable Marines, and drill instructors will often take the time to read the citation of the award and hold a guided discussion with the recruits to evaluate their moral development. Drill instructors are also vigilant for those recruits who succeed and fail in leadership positions.


text: Some of the challenges encountered during the Crucible are team and individual obstacle courses, day and night assault courses, land navigation courses, individual rushes up steep hills, large-scale martial arts challenges, and countless patrols to and from each of these. These challenges are often made even more difficult by the additions of limitations or handicaps, such as the requirement to carry several ammunition drums, not touching portions of an obstacle painted red to indicate simulated booby traps, and evacuating team members with simulated wounds.


text: On the final day of the Crucible, recruits are awoken and begin their final march. The final destination and what the recruits read and are addressed on there varies by location:


text: After the address, the drill instructors will award the recruits the Eagle, Globe, and Anchor (EGA) emblem, signifying them as full-fledged Marines. Immediately after this, Marines hike back down The Reaper and are then offered the "Warrior's Breakfast", where they are permitted to eat as much as they like, even of previously forbidden foods, such as ice cream. During this meal, the new Marines have the opportunity to eat and talk with their drill instructors informally for the first time.


text: The new Marines will be given additional time with the drill instructor but are provided with the opportunity to now ask the questions they could not before. These new Marines will be responsible for themselves and be able to use what they have learned the over the past 10 weeks. During this week, Marines are instructed in some of the recruit behaviors that are no longer appropriate as Marines, such as referring to oneself in the third person. They will have their final uniform fitting, along with a blood drive, and a visit to the Marine Corps Museum on base at MCRD San Diego. Lastly, they will have an inspection by the company commander.


text: Week 12 begins with graduation practice, liberty, and a final commander inspection. The last full day before graduation is called Family Day. The public day begins early with a "Motivational Run", when the new Marines run (by company, then by platoon) yelling Marine Corps cadences past their families, circling the base and ending at the parade deck. After a brief ceremony explaining to the families what type of training they have gone through, the newest Marines are dismissed to on-base liberty with their families from late morning until early evening. During this time, they are free to roam about the base and show their families around, although they are not permitted in certain areas, nor are they permitted to leave the base. During the last night, some platoons allow the new Marines to host a show, where they perform skits regarding humorous moments during training, especially of their drill instructors.


text: The next morning, the new Marines form for their graduation ceremony, march across the parade deck, have their guidons retired, and are dismissed from recruit training by their senior drill instructors.


text: After this rigorous recruit training, these new Marines will receive ten days of leave and possibly more if they are assisting their local Marine recruiter with recruiting. The leave is a time to rest and reflect on what they have accomplished, as well as incorporate their newly found discipline into their civilian life. They are expected to conduct themselves during leave as a disciplined Marine would and maintain their physical and mental fitness. After the leave has expired, Marines will attend the School of Infantry (SOI); East Coast graduates will attend SOI East at Camp Geiger, while West Coast graduates return to Camp Pendleton for SOI West. Non-infantry Marines will attend a course called Marine Combat Training for 29 days, then proceed to the appropriate school for their Military Occupational Specialty (which vary in length). Infantry Marines attend the Infantry Training Battalion for 59 days. Then these newly trained Marines are assigned to their first unit in the operating forces.


text: The Marine Corps hosts Educator Workshops for high school teachers and influencers such as principals and counselors at both MCRD Parris Island and MCRD San Diego so that they are better able to advise students considering the Marine Corps about what Recruit Training includes and what opportunities the Marines offer. Each is a week-long interactive event that covers such Recruit Training events as receiving, a Black Friday drill instructor speech, PT and IT, obstacle courses and rifle range practice along with Q & A sessions with Marines and recruits.


text: Workshops may require no prior military service and no spousal military service within the last 10 years, but retired Marines have participated in the workshops as educators. Members of the media are also allowed into the workshops.


text: College educators, athletic coaches and music educators and directors have separate workshops at Recruit Command at Marine Corps Base Quantico.


text: There have been a number of recorded incidents of death and/or abuse during Marine Corps basic training.


text: On the night of 8 April 1956, Staff Sergeant Matthew McKeon, a junior drill instructor at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot Parris Island, marched his assigned platoon into Ribbon Creek, a swampy tidal creek. The incident resulted in the deaths of six Marine recruits. In the end, McKeon was found guilty of negligent homicide and drinking on duty. The sentence was nine months of confinement at hard labor, rank reduced to private, a $270 fine and a bad conduct discharge. After a review of the evidence and numerous high-profile Marines providing strong and positive testimony to McKeon's character, the Secretary of the Navy later reduced the sentence to three months in the brig, reduction to private with no discharge and no fine. McKeon went back on active duty. He was never able to regain his former rank and was medically retired from the Marine Corps in 1959 as a corporal because of a back injury.


text: On 3 January 1976, Private Henry W. Hiscock was shot through the hand by a round from an M16 rifle fired by Sergeant Robert F. Henson from fifty yards away. Henson, attempting to frighten Hiscock, had loaded a blank round into his rifle, stating that he was going to kill Hiscock and then firing the weapon at Hiscock as he ran away. Once firing the blank shot, Henson chambered another round believing it also to be blank, but in fact the round was live and struck Hiscock once fired. Later reports indicated that prior to firing the second round, Hiscock had been told by other drill instructors that Henson was seriously intending to kill him and that he had best "say goodbye" to his platoon.


text: After the incident, Henson and other drill instructors attempted to cover up what had happened, submitting false reports that Hiscock had cut his hand in the rifle range latrine and also had coerced other recruits who had been on the range that day to stay silent out of fear of reprisal. The coverup led to several criminal convictions.


text: Private Lynn E. McClure died in March 1976 after being beaten during a mock bayonet drill at the Marine Corps Recruit Depot San Diego, leading to accusations of boot camp brutality.


text: On 15 November 2007, Sergeant Jerrod M. Glass was sentenced to six months in the brig and was given a bad-conduct discharge for abusing 23 recruits. He also received a reduction in rank to private and pay forfeiture. He had faced a maximum sentence of 10 years of confinement, dishonorable discharge, reduction in rank and forfeiture of pay and benefits.


text: Earlier, the prosecutors recommended he spend two years in the brig and receive a bad-conduct discharge. Captain Christian Pappas, the lead prosecutor in the case, argued that Glass slapped, beat and ridiculed nearly all 40 recruits in his platoon for two months, showing a "complete disregard and contempt" for rules that ban such maltreatment. Pappas told the jury that Glass had struck recruits with flashlights and tent poles, choked a recruit, and made recruits drink water until they vomited.


text: In November 2017, Gunnery Sergeant Joseph Felix was convicted of multiple counts of abusing recruits, as well as violation of a lawful general order, dereliction of duty, making a false official statement, and drunk and disorderly conduct. He was sentenced to 10 years confinement, with reduction to grade E-1, total forfeitures and a dishonorable discharge. His abuse was mostly directed at Muslim recruits, and is believed to have led to the suicide of Pakistani-American recruit Raheel Siddiqui. Felix's appeal was denied in 2019.


title: Seiza

text: To sit "seiza"-style, one must first be kneeling on the floor, folding one's legs underneath one's thighs, while resting the buttocks on the heels. The ankles are turned outward as the tops of the feet are lowered so that, in a slight "V" shape, the tops of the feet are flat on the floor and big toes overlapped, the right always on top of the left, and the buttocks are finally lowered all the way down. Depending on the circumstances, the hands are folded modestly in the lap, or are placed palm down on the upper thighs with the fingers close together, or are placed on the floor next to the hips, with the knuckles rounded and touching the floor. The back is kept straight, though not unnaturally stiff. Traditionally, women sit with the knees together while men separate them slightly. Some martial arts, notably kendō, aikidō, and iaidō, may prescribe up to two fist widths of distance between the knees for men.


title: Seiza

text: Stepping into and out of "seiza" is performed mindfully. There are codified traditional methods of entering and exiting the sitting position depending on occasion and type of clothing worn.


title: Seiza

text: Prior to the Edo period, there were no standard postures for sitting on the floor. During this time, "seiza" referred to "correct sitting", which took various forms such as sitting cross-legged (胡坐, "agura"), sitting with one knee raised (立て膝, "tatehiza"), or sitting to the side (割座, "wariza"), while the posture commonly known as "seiza" today was called "kiza".


title: Seiza

text: People's social circumstances, clothing styles, and the places where they sat naturally brought about their manners of sitting. The development, in the Muromachi period, of Japanese architecture in which the floors were completely covered with "tatami" (thick straw mats), combined with the strict formalities of the ruling warrior class for which this style of architecture was principally designed, heralded the adoption of the sitting posture known today as "seiza" as the respectful way to sit. By the middle of the Edo period, it had become a convention for samurai to sit in this manner when meeting authority figures such as the Shogun as a symbol of obedience and loyalty. However, it probably was not until around the years surrounding the turn of the 18th century (the Genroku to Kyōhō eras in Japanese history) that the Japanese generally adopted this manner of sitting in their everyday lives and during the Meiji era, it had become firmly established as the proper sitting posture, as part of the "Japanese culture and tradition" purposefully created during this time.


title: Seiza

text: The posture serves as the standard floor sitting posture for most traditional formal occasions, and it is generally considered the respectful way to sit in the presence of superiors or elders unless otherwise permitted. There is a similar sitting posture in India called vajrasana. It would be done during a form of yoga and practiced during visiting temples and doing prayer in temples. Indians believe that this posture has health benefits.


title: Seiza

text: "Seiza" involves sitting down on the floor and not on a chair. In traditional Japanese architecture, floors in various rooms designed for comfort have "tatami" floors. "Seiza" thus is closely connected with "tatami" flooring. There are circumstances, however, when people sit "seiza"-style on carpeted and hardwood floors. In many martial arts, for instance, this sitting position generally takes place on hardwood floors. Depending on the formality of the occasion, the setting, and the relative status of the person, it is sometimes acceptable to sit on a special cushion called a "zabuton" (literally a "sitting futon").


title: Seiza

text: Sometimes stools are provided for elderly or injured people even when others are expected to sit "seiza"-style. It is advisable, particularly in formal situations, to at least try to sit "seiza"-style. Non-Japanese who have not grown up sitting in this posture may, however, have difficulty assuming it at all. Those unfamiliar with "seiza" will likely find that maintaining it for more than a minute or two tends to lead to paresthesia, whereby the compression of the nerves causes a loss of their blood flow, with the accompanying "pins and needles" feeling, followed by painful burning sensations, and then eventually complete numbness in the legs. However, the physical discomfort lessens with experience as the circulation of the blood improves. Experienced "seiza" practitioners can maintain the posture for forty minutes or more with minimal discomfort. Certain knee problems are made worse when assuming this position, specifically Osgood-Schlatter disease.


title: Seiza

text: Special "seiza" stools are available in Japan. They are folding stools, small enough to be carried in a handbag, which are placed between the feet and on which one rests the buttocks when sitting seiza-style. They allow one to maintain the appearance of sitting seiza while discreetly taking pressure off the heels and feet.


title: Seiza

text: A law that came into effect in April 2020 recognizes "seiza" for extended periods of time as a morally unacceptable form of punishment according to Japan's Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare.


title: Seiza

text: Doing "seiza" is an integral and required part of several traditional Japanese arts, such as certain Japanese martial arts and tea ceremony (a table-style version of tea ceremony known as "ryūrei" was invented in the 19th century). "Seiza" is also the traditional way of sitting while doing other arts such as "shodō" (calligraphy) and ikebana (flower arranging), though with the increasing use of western-style furniture it is not always necessary nowadays.


title: Seiza

text: Many theatres for traditional performing arts such as kabuki and sumo still have audience seating sections where the spectators sit in "seiza" style.


title: Seiza

text: Walking on the feet and knees while in the "seiza" posture, known as , is considered more polite than standing up and walking regularly. "Shikkō" is today quite rare, but is found in some traditional formal restaurants and "ryokan", and is practiced in the martial art of aikido, where practitioners learn to defend themselves while moving in "shikkō".


title: Seiza

text: To perform this knee-walking movement correctly the heels must be kept close together, and the body must move as a whole unit. Movement in "shikkō" forces one to engage the hips in a way that is considered valuable for aikido training.


title: Seiza

text: Sitting cross-legged, "agura", is considered informal: it is appropriate for certain situations but not others. It is common in informal situations, such as eating at a low table in a casual restaurant, and allowed in formal situations especially for those for whom "seiza" is difficult, such as elderly or non-Japanese people.


title: Seiza

text: Some sitting postures (e.g. "agura", "tatehiza", etc.) are impossible to do in skirts or certain types of women's traditional clothing (such as the premodern kimono) without risk of exposure, so an alternative informal sitting posture has both legs off to one side, with one side of the hips on the floor, termed .


title: Seiza

text: Another informal sitting posture for women is called which resembles "seiza" posture, whereby the buttocks are on the floor and the lower legs are bent off to their respective sides.


title: Seiza

text: To sit in "seiza" requires coming to a kneeling position momentarily, with the heels propped up; if one remains seated on the heels with the balls of the feet touching the floor and toes flexed forward, it is called . If one then lowers the tops of the feet to the floor, one then will be in the "seiza" position. In some schools of "iaido", practitioners stand up to draw the sword and cut after momentarily assuming "kiza", so as not to sprain the instep jumping up directly from "seiza".


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: The Late Period of ancient Egypt refers to the last flowering of native Egyptian rulers after the Third Intermediate Period in the 26th Saite Dynasty founded by Psamtik I, but includes the time of Achaemenid Persian rule over Egypt after the conquest by Cambyses II in 525 BC as well. The Late Period existed from 664 BC until 332 BC, following a period of foreign rule by the Nubian 25th Dynasty and beginning with a short period of Neo-Assyrian suzerainty, with Psamtik I initially ruling as their vassal. The period ended with the conquests of the Persian Empire by Alexander the Great and establishment of the Ptolemaic dynasty by his general Ptolemy I Soter, one of the Hellenistic diadochi from Macedon in northern Greece. With the Macedonian Greek conquest in the latter half of the 4th century BC, the age of Hellenistic Egypt began.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: The Twenty-Sixth Dynasty, also known as the Saite Dynasty after its seat of power the city of Sais, reigned from 672 to 525 BC, and consisted of six pharaohs. It started with the unification of Egypt under Psamtik I c. 656 BC, itself a direct consequence of the Sack of Thebes by the Assyrians in 663 BC. Canal construction from the Nile to the Red Sea began.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: Egypt seems to have expanded into the Near East early in this period. A wide range of archaeological finds from the Levant shows an Egyptian occupation and control in the late decades of the 7th century BC. These include various Egyptian objects from several sites, ostraca and documents showing a tribute/tax system, and evidence from the fortress of Mezad Hashavyahu. Egyptian influence reached to the Euphrates area in places such as Kimuhu and Quramati. Later they were pushed back by the defeat at Carcemish, although Egyptian intervention in the Near East seems to have continued after this battle.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: Amasis II followed a new policy and directed his interests toward the Greek world. He annexed Cyprus during his reign. to the south, Psamtik II led a great military expedition that reached deep into upper Nubia and inflicted a heavy defeat on them. A demotic papyrus from the reign of Ahmose II describes a small expedition into Nubia, the character of which is unclear. There is archaeological evidence of an Egyptian garrison at Dorginarti in lower Nubia during the Saite period.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: One major contribution from the Late Period of ancient Egypt was the Brooklyn Papyrus. This was a medical papyrus with a collection of medical and magical remedies for victims of snakebites based on snake type or symptoms.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: Artwork during this time was representative of animal cults and animal mummies. This image shows the god Pataikos wearing a scarab beetle on his head, supporting two human-headed birds on his shoulders, holding a snake in each hand, and standing atop crocodiles.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: The First Achaemenid Period (525–404 BC) began with the Battle of Pelusium, which saw Egypt ( "Mudrāya") conquered by the expansive Achaemenid Empire under Cambyses, and Egypt become a satrapy. The Twenty-seventh Dynasty of Egypt consists of the Persian emperors - including Cambyses, Xerxes I, and Darius the Great - who ruled Egypt as Pharaohs and governed through their satraps, as well as the Egyptian Petubastis III (522–520 BC) (and possibly the disputed Psammetichus IV), who rebelled in defiance of the Persian authorities. The unsuccessful revolt of Inaros II (460-454), aided by the Athenians as part of the Wars of the Delian League, aspired to the same object. The Persian satraps were Aryandes (525–522 BC; 518–c.496 BC) - whose rule was interrupted by the rebel Pharaoah Petubastis III, Pherendates (c.496–c.486 BC), Achaemenes (c.486–459 BC) - a brother of the emperor Xerxes I, and Arsames (c.454–c.406 BC).


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: The Twenty-Eighth Dynasty consisted of a single king, Amyrtaeus, prince of Sais, who successfully rebelled against the Persians, inaugurating Egypt's last significant phase of independence under native sovereigns. He left no monuments with his name. This dynasty reigned for six years, from 404 BC–398 BC.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: The Twenty-Ninth Dynasty ruled from Mendes, for the period from 398 to 380 BC. King Hakor of this dynasty was able to defeat a Persian invasion during his reign.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: The Thirtieth Dynasty took their art style from the Twenty-Sixth Dynasty. A series of three pharaohs ruled from 380 to 343 BC. The first king of the dynasty, Nectanebo I, defeated a Persian invasion in 373 BC. His successor Teos subsequently led an expedition against the Achaemenid Empire in the Near East. The expedition was beginning to meet with some success and made its way to Phoenicia without particular problems. unfortunately for Teos, his brother Tjahapimu was plotting against him. Tjahapimu convinced his son Nectanebo II to rebel against Teos and to make himself pharaoh. The plan was successful and the betrayed Teos had no alternative but to flee and the expedition disintegrated. The final ruler of this dynasty, and the final native ruler of Egypt, was Nectanebo II who was defeated in battle leading to the re-annexation by the Achaemenid Empire.


title: Late Period of ancient Egypt

text: The Second Achaemenid Period saw the re-inclusion of Egypt as a satrapy of the Persian Empire under the rule of the Thirty-First Dynasty, (343–332 BC) which consisted of three Persian emperors who ruled as Pharaoh - Artaxerxes III (343–338 BC), Artaxerxes IV (338–336 BC), and Darius III (336–332 BC) - interrupted by the revolt of the non-Achaemenid Khababash (338–335 BC). Persian rule in Egypt ended with the defeat of the Achaemenid Empire by Alexander the Great, who accepted the surrender of the Persian satrap of Egypt Mazaces in 332 BC, marking the beginning of Hellenistic rule in Egypt which stabilized after Alexander's death into the Ptolemaic Kingdom.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Maxfield Parrish (July 25, 1870 – March 30, 1966) was an American painter and illustrator active in the first half of the 20th century. He is known for his distinctive saturated hues and idealized neo-classical imagery. His career spanned fifty years and was wildly successful: the National Museum of American Illustration deemed his painting "Daybreak" (1922) to be the most successful art print of the 20th century.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Maxfield Parrish was born in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, to painter and etcher Stephen Parrish and Elizabeth Bancroft. His given name was Frederick Parrish, but he later adopted Maxfield, his paternal grandmother's maiden name, as his middle, then finally as his professional name. He was raised in a Quaker society. As a child he began drawing for his own amusement, showed talent, and his parents encouraged him. Between 1884 and 1886, his parents took Parrish to Europe, where he toured England, Italy, and France, was exposed to architecture and the paintings by the old masters, and studied at the Paris school of Dr. Kornemann.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: He attended the Haverford School and later studied architecture at Haverford College for two years beginning in 1888. To further his education in art, from 1892 to 1895 he studied at the Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts under artists Robert Vonnoh and Thomas Pollock Anshutz. After graduating from the program, Parrish went to Annisquam, Massachusetts where he and his father shared a painting studio. A year later, with his father's encouragement, he attended the Drexel Institute of Art, Science & Industry where he studied with Howard Pyle.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish entered into an artistic career that lasted for more than half a century, and which helped shape the Golden Age of illustration and American visual arts. During his career, he produced almost 900 pieces of art including calendars, greeting cards, and magazine covers. Parrish's early works were mostly in black and white.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: In 1885, his work was on the Easter edition of "Harper’s Bazaar." He also did work for other magazines like "Scribner's Magazine." One of his posters for "The Century Magazine" was published in Les Maîtres de l'Affiche.He also illustrated a children's book in 1897, "Mother Goose in Prose" written by L. Frank Baum. By 1900, Parrish was already a member of the Society of American Artists. In 1903, he traveled to Europe again to visit Italy.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish's commercial art included many prestigious projects, among which were Eugene Field's "Poems of Childhood" in 1904, and such traditional works as "Arabian Nights" in 1909. Books illustrated by Parrish are featured in "A Wonder Book and Tanglewood Tales" in 1910, "The Golden Treasury of Songs and Lyrics" in 1911, and "The Knave of Hearts" in 1925.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: In 1910 Parrish received a commission to create 18 panels to go into the Girls Dining Room of the Curtis Publishing Company building, then under construction at 6th and Walnut in Philadelphia. It would take him six years to finish the monumental project. In 1914, before the murals were completed, Curtis commissioned Parrish to design a mural for the building lobby. Tiffany Studios constructed a favrile glass mosaic mural titled "The Dream Garden", which is now a part of Pennsylvania Academy of the Fine Arts collection.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish worked with popular magazines throughout the 1910s and 1920s, including "Hearst's" and "Life". He also created advertising for companies like Wanamaker's, Edison-Mazda Lamps, Colgate and Oneida Cutlery. Parrish worked with "Collier's" from 1904 to 1913. He received a contract to deal with them exclusively for six years. He also painted advertisements for D.M. Ferry Seed Company in 1916 and 1923, which helped him gain recognition in the eye of the public. His most well-known art work is "Daybreak" which was produced in 1923. It features female figures in a landscape scene. The painting also has undertones of Parrish blue. In the 1920s, however, Parrish turned away from illustration and concentrated on painting.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: In his forties, Parrish began working on large murals instead of just focusing on children's books. His works of art often featured androgynous nudes in fantastical settings. He made his living from posters and calendars featuring his works. Beginning in 1904, Susan Lewin (1889-1978) posed for many works, and became Parrish's longtime assistant. From 1918 to 1934, Parrish worked on calendar illustrations for General Electric.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: In 1931, Parrish declared to the Associated Press, "I'm done with girls on rocks", and opted instead to focus on landscapes. By 1935, Parrish exclusively painted landscapes. Though never as popular as his earlier works, he profited from them. He would often build scale models of the imaginary landscapes he wished to paint, using various lighting setups before deciding on a preferred view, which he would photograph as a basis for the painting (see for example, "The Millpond"). He lived in Plainfield, New Hampshire, near the Cornish Art Colony, and painted until he was 91 years old. He was also an avid machinist, and often referred to himself as "a mechanic who loved to paint".


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish's art is characterized by vibrant colors; the color "Parrish blue" was named after him. He achieved such luminous color through glazing. This process involves applying layers of translucent paint and oil medium (glazes) over a base rendering. Parrish usually used a blue and white monochromatic underpainting.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: His paintings/illustrations were unique in that they depicted a highly idealized fantasy world that was accessible to the general public. Although you will rarely see a glimpse of that color in reality, he was and still is linked with a particularly bright shade of blue that coated the skies of his landscapes. And it was not an easy task for him to complete. He invented a time-consuming process that involved a cobalt blue base and white undercoating, which he then coated with a series of thin alternating coatings of oil and varnish. When exposed to ultraviolet light, the resins he employed, known as Damar, floresce a shade of yellow-green, giving the painted sky its distinctive turquoise tint.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish used many other innovative techniques in his paintings. He would take pictures of models in black and white geometric prints and project the image onto his works. This technique allowed for his figures to be clothed in geometric patterns, while accurately representing distortion and draping. Parrish would also create his paintings by taking pictures, enlarging, or projecting objects. He would cut these images out and put them onto his canvas. He would later cover them with clear glaze. Parrish's technique gave his paintings a more three-dimensional feel.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: The outer proportions and internal divisions of Parrish's compositions were carefully calculated in accordance with geometric principles such as root rectangles and the golden ratio. In this Parrish was influenced by Jay Hambidge's theory of Dynamic Symmetry.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish's works continue to influence pop culture. The cover of the 1985 Bloom County cartoon collection "Penguin Dreams and Stranger Things" comprises elements of "Daybreak", "The Garden of Allah", and "The Lute Players". The poster for "The Princess Bride" was inspired by "Daybreak". In 2001, Parrish was featured in a United States Post Office commemorative stamp series honoring American illustrators, including Parrish.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: The 1986 television commercial announcing Nestle's Alpine White chocolate bar, entitled "Sweet Dreams," staged live-action representations of Parrish's "Ecstasy", "Dinky Bird", and "Daybreak".


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: The Elton John album "Caribou" has a Parrish-inspired background. The Moody Blues album "The Present" uses a variation of the Parrish painting "Daybreak" for its cover. In 1984, Dali's Car, the British New Wave project of Peter Murphy and Mick Karn, used "Daybreak" as the cover art of their only album, "The Waking Hour". The Irish musician Enya has been inspired by the works of Parrish. The cover art of her 1995 album "The Memory of Trees" is based on his painting "The Young King of the Black Isles". A number of her music videos include Parrish imagery, including "Caribbean Blue".


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: In the 1995 music video "You Are Not Alone", Michael Jackson and his then wife Lisa Marie Presley appear semi-nude in emulation of "Daybreak". The Italian singer-songwriter Angelo Branduardi's fourth album "La pulce d'acqua" of 1977 featured nine inlay full colour print reproductions of painter Mario Convertino's works; one of them is clearly inspired by Parrish's "Stars".


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: The original painting of "Daybreak" sold in 2006 for US$7.6 million. The National Museum of American Illustration claims the largest body of his work in any collection, with sixty-nine works by Parrish including the 1910 Curtis Publishing Company’s 18 panel mural commission. Some of his works are located at the Hood Museum of Art in Hanover, New Hampshire, and a few at the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York. The San Diego Museum of Art organized and toured a collection of his work in 2005.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: In Alan Moore's 32 run comic series Promethea, the cover of Issue #13 was noted by the artist on the cover as "after Parrish", imitating his style.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: While studying at Drexel, Parrish met his future wife, Lydia Ambler Austin, who was a drawing teacher. The couple were married on June 1, 1895 and moved to Philadelphia. They would go on to have four children together. In 1898, Parrish moved to Cornish, New Hampshire with his family and built a home that was later nicknamed "The Oaks". The home and an adjacent studio were surrounded by beautiful landscapes that inspired Parrish's drawings.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish suffered from tuberculosis for a time in 1900. While sick, he discovered how to mix oils and glazes to create vibrant colors.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: From 1900 to 1902, Parrish painted in Saranac Lake, New York, and Castle Hot Springs, Arizona to further recover his health.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish’s youngest child, Jean, posed for "Ecstasy" just before leaving for Smith College. Jean was the only child to follow her parents’ profession.


title: Maxfield Parrish

text: Parrish developed arthritis. He accepted his last commission in the late 1950s. By 1960 his arthritis prevented him from painting. His last years were spent in a wheelchair. He died on March 30, 1966 in Plainfield, New Hampshire, at the age of 95.


title: Boygenius

text: Boygenius (stylized in all lowercase) is an American indie rock supergroup formed in 2018 by Julien Baker, Phoebe Bridgers, and Lucy Dacus. Their self-titled debut EP "boygenius" was written and recorded at Sound City Studios in Los Angeles.


title: Boygenius

text: Bridgers has called the formation of the group "kind of an accident," wherein each of the members were simply fans of each other's work and then became friends. Both Dacus and Bridgers had opened for Baker on separate tours in 2016, and they all ran in similar circles as young up-and-coming performers navigating the indie scene.


title: Boygenius

text: The three became close, and they shared frustration at constantly being compared to each other as "women in rock" despite their considerably different musical styles. Dacus has commented that the idea of women in music "should not be remarkable whatsoever," with Bridgers adding, "it's not a genre." Each has spoken on the tendency of the music industry to pit women against each other, and the group was formed in part to reject this idea. "I hope people see the three of us and know there isn't competition," Dacus has said. "You don't have to compete with your contemporaries. You can make something good with people you admire."


title: Boygenius

text: Baker had joked to Dacus years before about a "pipe dream" that they could one day all form a band. The three decided to book a co-headlining tour in early 2018, and they originally planned to record a single or a cover so that they could perform something together on stage. Upon meeting up that summer, however, they found themselves overwhelmed with ideas, and they ended up forming the band, writing, recording, and self-producing the "Boygenius" EP in four days, with the process involving almost exclusively women.


title: Boygenius

text: Each brought one full song and one incomplete idea with them to the group. They sought to create an environment free of the competitiveness and "bravado" they had often encountered in previous experiences, and they have remarked that the absence of adult men in the process proved significant, allowing them to relate to each other openly without constantly having to explain themselves. The record was met with universal acclaim from critics and audiences alike; it was named the 12th best album of 2018 by NPR Music, despite being only an EP. Their subsequent tour that November saw them performing all across the U.S., as well as on "Late Night with Seth Meyers" and the Tiny Desk.


title: Boygenius

text: The group was slated to perform in summer 2019 at Woodstock 50, before its cancellation due to a series of production issues. In 2020, they were featured on Hayley Williams' "Roses/Lotus/Violet/Iris" from her EP "Petals for Armor II", and also reunited on backing vocals for numerous songs from each other's solo projects: "Graceland Too" and "I Know the End" from Bridgers' Grammy-nominated "Punisher", Baker's "Little Oblivions" single "Favor," and Dacus's "Please Stay" and "Going Going Gone" on "Home Video". With the releases scattered throughout the year, all of these were actually recorded on the same day, a process Dacus said "had the same atmosphere as when we recorded the "boygenius" EP[...] a natural result of being together, easy as can be."


title: Boygenius

text: In July 2020, the trio released a handful of demos from their "Boygenius" recording sessions on Bandcamp to raise money for charitable organizations in their respective hometowns, raising over $23,000 for the Downtown Women's Center of Los Angeles, OUTMemphis, and Mutual Aid Distribution Richmond.


title: Boygenius

text: After reuniting on stage for occasional surprise appearances at one another's solo tours throughout fall 2021, the group performed their first full show together since 2018 as the headliner of Bread and Roses Presents' annual benefit concert in San Francisco on November 19.


title: Boygenius

text: The group has been vocal about the origins of their name, which began as a joke and a way to encourage each other in the studio. All three had shared negative experiences with overconfident male collaborators—as Baker puts it, "the archetype of the tortured genius, [a] specifically male artist who has been told since birth that their every thought is not only worthwhile but brilliant." "Men are taught to be entitled to space and that their ideas should be heard because they're great ideas, and women are taught […] that they should listen instead of speak," Bridgers has explained.


title: Boygenius

text: Dacus describes the "boy genius" trope as "boys and men we know who've been told that they are geniuses since they could hear, basically," and detailed how they attempted to channel that energy while making the EP. "If one person was having a thought—'I don't know if this is good, it's probably terrible'—it was like, 'No! Be the boy genius! Your every thought is worthwhile, just spit it out.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Louis Joseph Freeh (born January 6, 1950) is an American attorney and former judge who served as the fifth Director of the Federal Bureau of Investigation from September 1993 to June 2001.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Graduated from Rutgers University and New York University School of Law, Freeh began his career as a special agent in the FBI, and was later an Assistant United States Attorney and United States district judge of the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York. A Republican, he was later appointed as FBI director by President Bill Clinton. He is now a lawyer and consultant in the private sector.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Freeh was born January 6, 1950, in Jersey City, New Jersey, the son of Italian-American parents Bernice (née Chinchiolo), a former bookkeeper, and William Freeh Sr., a real estate broker. Freeh, a native of North Bergen, graduated from St. Joseph's High School in West New York, NJ in 1967, where he was taught by Christian Brothers. He then graduated Phi Beta Kappa from Rutgers University–New Brunswick with a Bachelor of Arts degree in 1971, and received a Juris Doctor degree from Rutgers School of Law–Newark in 1974 and a Master of Laws degree in criminal law from New York University School of Law in 1984. Freeh was an FBI Special Agent from 1975 to 1981 in the New York City field office and at FBI Headquarters in Washington, D.C. In 1981, he joined the U.S. Attorney's Office for the Southern District of New York as an Assistant United States Attorney. Subsequently, he held positions there as Chief of the Organized Crime Unit, Deputy United States Attorney, and Associate United States Attorney. He was also a first lieutenant in the United States Army Reserve.


title: Louis Freeh

text: As a youth, Freeh became an Eagle Scout in 1963 and in 1995 was awarded the Distinguished Eagle Scout Award by the Boy Scouts of America.


title: Louis Freeh

text: A notable case Freeh was associated with was the "Pizza Connection" investigation, in which he was lead prosecutor. The case, prosecuted in the mid-1980s, involved a drug trafficking operation in the United States by Sicilian organized crime members who used pizza parlors as fronts. After a 16-month trial, 17 of 19 defendants were convicted, of which 16 were sentenced. The "Pizza Connection" case was, at the time, the most complex criminal investigation ever undertaken by the U.S. government.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Another notable case Freeh was associated with was the murder trial of Walter Moody, accused of the pipe bomb assassination of federal judge Robert Smith Vance in Birmingham, Alabama and attorney Robert E. Robinson in Savannah, Georgia. Freeh was appointed Special Prosecutor in the case alongside Howard Shapiro.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Vance was assassinated on December 16, 1989, at his home in Mountain Brook, Alabama, when he opened a package containing a mail bomb sent by serial bomber Walter Moody. Vance was killed instantly and his wife Helen, was seriously injured and hospitalized. Moody had mistakenly thought Judge Vance had denied his appeal of another case.


title: Louis Freeh

text: The Department of Justice charged Moody with the murders of Judge Vance and of Robinson, a black civil-rights attorney who had been killed in a separate explosion at his office. "Roy" Moody was also charged with mailing bombs that were defused at the Eleventh Circuit's headquarters in Atlanta and at the Jacksonville office of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP).


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 1991, Moody was sentenced to seven federal life terms, plus 400 years. He was subsequently tried by the state in 1996 for the murders and was executed by the state of Alabama in 2018 when he was 83 years old.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Freeh was nominated by President George H. W. Bush on April 9, 1991, to a seat on the United States District Court for the Southern District of New York vacated by Judge Richard J. Daronco. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on May 24, 1991, and received commission on May 30, 1991. His service terminated on August 31, 1993, due to resignation.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Shortly before and during Freeh's tenure, the FBI was involved in a number of high-profile incidents and internal investigations. Writing about Freeh in 2011, Reuters wrote that Freeh "faced widespread criticism for a series of high-profile blunders" during his tenure as FBI Director.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Among other Justice Department officials (including Attorney General Reno), Freeh was named a co-defendant in "Zieper v. Metzinger", a 1999 federal court case. The American Civil Liberties Union assisted the plaintiffs who sued due to the FBI's conduct in investigating "Military Takeover of New York City", a short (fictional) film made in October 1999 that discussed riots and a military takeover of Times Square on New Year's Eve, 1999.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In May 2000, he reached an agreement with Rep. José Serrano, then Puerto Rican Independence Party senator Manuel Rodríguez Orellana and then Puerto Rico Senate Committee on Federal Affairs chairman Kenneth McClintock, the islands' current Senate President, to release FBI files on Puerto Rican political activists. Nearly 100,000 pages have been released and are being catalogued by the Office of Legislative Services of Puerto Rico.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In testimony to the Senate Judiciary Committee, Freeh said that the widespread use of effective encryption "is one of the most difficult problems for law enforcement as the next century approaches". He considered the loss of wiretapping to law enforcement as a result of encryption to be dangerous and said that the "country [would] be unable to protect itself" against terrorism and serious crimes.


title: Louis Freeh

text: An investigation of the August 1992 incident at Ruby Ridge, Idaho, in which an FBI sharpshooter killed the wife of Randy Weaver, was ongoing when Freeh became director. An FBI unit, the Hostage Rescue Team, was present at the incident; Freeh later said that had he been director, he would not have involved the HRT. FBI sniper Lon Horiuchi was later charged with manslaughter; Freeh said that he was "deeply disappointed" at the charges, filed by a county prosecutor and later dropped.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Freeh was not censured for alleged managerial failures in the investigation of the incident, although a Justice Department inquiry had made such a recommendation.


title: Louis Freeh

text: An investigation of the events of April 19, 1993, when Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, and Firearms (ATF) special agents served a warrant on the Branch Davidian compound at Waco, Texas was ongoing during Freeh's tenure. While the event had taken place before he became Director, a highly controversial investigation ensued, including allegations of a cover-up by the FBI, and tensions developed between Freeh and Janet Reno, then-Attorney General. Reno, who had herself been blamed for mishandling of the confrontation and investigation, sent United States Marshals to FBI headquarters to seize Waco-related evidence. Freeh took a neutral position during the investigations to distance himself from the tide of criticism.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Shortly before 10 a.m. on June 25, 1996, members of a terrorist group detonated a truck bomb outside building 131 (also known as Khobar Towers) of the King Abdul Aziz Air Base.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Inside the building were almost exclusively members of the US Air Force who were there to patrol the southern Iraqi no-fly zone enacted after the Gulf War.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In the attack, 19 US military personnel and a Saudi local were killed and 372 were wounded, making it the most deadly terrorist attack on Americans abroad since the 1983 Beirut barracks bombing.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Louis Freeh said in his book "My FBI" that he felt the deepest about the Khobar Towers investigation, and it was not until his last day in office, June 21, 2001, a federal grand jury in Alexandria, Virginia returned a 46-count indictment against 14 defendants charged with the Khobar Towers attack. The indictments came just before some of the counts would have expired due to a five-year statute of limitations.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In his book, Freeh maintains that he was obstructed by the Clinton Administration for political reasons in investigating the bombing and bringing the terrorists to justice.


title: Louis Freeh

text: On July 17, 1996, TWA Flight 800 exploded and crashed into the Atlantic Ocean, killing all 230 persons on board. The following day, the FBI commenced a parallel investigation in spite of the National Transportation Safety Board having "priority over any investigation by another department, agency, or instrumentality of the United States Government", as stated in .


title: Louis Freeh

text: Subsequently, FBI agents blocked attempts by the NTSB to interview witnesses, according to a copy of a safety board report obtained by "Aviation Week & Space Technology". One month after the explosion, chemists at the FBI crime laboratory in Washington found traces of PETN, an explosive component of bombs and surface-to-air missiles.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Nevertheless, on November 18, 1997, the FBI closed its investigation by announcing that "no evidence has been found which would indicate that a criminal act was the cause of the tragedy of TWA flight 800."


title: Louis Freeh

text: Almost three years later, in August 2000, the NTSB published its final report which stated that "the probable cause of the TWA flight 800 accident was an explosion of the center wing fuel tank (CWT), resulting from ignition of the flammable fuel/air mixture in the tank."


title: Louis Freeh

text: The U.S. Senate Subcommittee on Terrorism, Technology and Government Information heard testimony from Freeh regarding the leaking of Richard Jewell's name to the media in connection with the bombing at the 1996 Olympic Games. Freeh testified that he did not know how the name of Jewell, who had been falsely accused in the bombings, had been leaked to the media.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In March 1996, Freeh and the FBI were praised for the handling of the 81-day standoff between law enforcement agents and the Montana Freemen, a fringe political group. Director Abraham Foxman of the Anti-Defamation League, which had issued reports critical of the Freemen and encouraged their prosecution, commended the "peaceful conclusion" to the standoff.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Theodore Kaczynski, the "Unabomber," was apprehended in 1996 after his , "Industrial Society and its Future", was published in the "New York Times" and "Washington Post". Freeh and Attorney General Reno recommended publication, acceding to Kaczynski's offer to "renounce terrorism" if it was published. A tip from the bomber's brother David, who recognized the writing style, assisted the FBI in his capture.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Robert Hanssen, a 25-year veteran of the FBI, was arrested in 2001 and charged with spying for the Soviet Union and Russia, beginning in 1985. Hanssen had attended Mass at the same church as Freeh. Freeh called the security breach "exceptionally grave" and appointed a panel, led by former FBI and Central Intelligence Agency head William Webster, to review the damage done by Hanssen's espionage.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 1999, Los Alamos National Laboratory scientist Wen Ho Lee was fired from his job, arrested, and held without trial for 278 days while his handling of sensitive nuclear information was investigated. Freeh accused him of downloading a "portable, personal trove" of US nuclear secrets.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Ultimately, Lee pled guilty to one of the fifty-nine counts brought against him, after which, he was freed from jail.


title: Louis Freeh

text: At Lee's sentencing hearing, District Judge James A. Parker scolded the US government for its treatment of Lee, saying that the top decision makers in the case "have embarrassed this entire nation and each of us who is a citizen of it" and that they had been "led astray" by US government officials.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Parker apologized to Lee, saying, "Dr. Lee, you were terribly wronged by being held in pretrial custody in demeaning and unnecessarily punitive conditions. I am truly sorry."


title: Louis Freeh

text: A Justice Department report of the investigation of Lee said that Director Freeh was not fully informed about the investigation until over a year after it began, and that the FBI as a whole "bungled" the case.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In February 1997, the media announced that Freeh personally blocked the sharing of intelligence information regarding China's alleged plot to influence US elections with the White House.


title: Louis Freeh

text: The following month, Freeh testified before Congress that his investigation into campaign finance irregularities of the 1996 U.S. presidential and Congressional campaigns was not focusing on individual criminal acts, but on a possible conspiracy involving China.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Later that year, Freeh wrote a memorandum to Attorney General Janet Reno calling for an Independent Counsel to investigate the fundraising scandal. In his memo he wrote: "It is difficult to imagine a more compelling situation for appointing an Independent Counsel". Reno rejected his request.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Other cases handled by the FBI during Freeh's tenure included the death of White House counsel Vince Foster (in 1993), allegations of incompetence at the FBI crime laboratory, investigation of the Oklahoma City bombing (1995) and the capture and prosecution of Timothy McVeigh.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 2000, the editorial staff of "Business Week" called for the resignation of Freeh, citing the Carnivore communications-monitoring system, the alleged Waco cover-up, and insubordination to Attorney General Reno as reasons.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Freeh was accused of malpractice several times during his time at the FBI. In the case of the Oklahoma City bombing, Freeh failed to hand over 3,000 pages of evidence to Timothy McVeigh's lawyers. Freeh also received backlash for not looking into whether Moscow had recruited someone in the FBI, despite being warned by senior investigator Thomas Kimmel. It would later come out 2 years later in 2001 that Robert Hanssen had been recruited by the Russians to be a spy for them. In 1994 after it was discovered that Aldrich Ames was a spy for the Russians, Freeh was advised to require routine polygraph tests for FBI agents; no action was taken by him.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 1997 FBI agent Frederic Whitehurst was suspended by Freeh not long after making allegations that FBI lab techniques resulted in contaminated evidence. Just days after Whitehurst was put on administrative leave, a report was delivered to the FBI that supported Whitehurst's claims that evidence in cases may have been contaminated. On March 5, Freeh was called before Congress, he said that he suspended Whitehurst on recommendations from Inspector general Michael Bromwich. But Bromwich said that he never made such a recommendation. Freeh admitted that his testimony was incomplete, but denied he deliberately misled congress. Whitehurst would later accuse Freeh of covering up mistakes made by forensic analysts.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Attorney general Janet Reno testified that information that could have prevented the September 11 attacks was mishandled by the FBI at the time Freeh was the director of the FBI.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In June 2001, he resigned amid criticism that the FBI needed stronger leadership, particularly after allegations of spying by Robert Hanssen. Upon his resignation, he was praised by Attorney General John Ashcroft, who called him "a model law enforcement officer".


title: Louis Freeh

text: He was replaced by Thomas J. Pickard, who served as acting FBI Director for 71 days until being replaced by Robert Mueller.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Freeh approached acting New Jersey Governor Donald DiFrancesco, and offered to serve, without salary, as the state's anti-terrorism "czar". Di Francesco approached both major-party candidates for governor to secure their approval; Bret Schundler, the Republican candidate, agreed "in principle". However, Democrat Jim McGreevey, who won the gubernatorial election, turned down Freeh in favor of Golan Cipel. It was later discovered that McGreevey and Cipel had been involved in a sexual relationship. McGreevey was heavily criticized for giving the post to Cipel rather than Freeh or another experienced individual.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In September 2001, Freeh was appointed to the board of directors of credit card issuer MBNA; he also served as the bank's general counsel, as well as corporate secretary and ethics officer. Likewise, Bristol-Myers Squibb elected him to its board of directors.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Freeh is also a member of the board of consultants of the Gavel Consulting Group, formed by current and former federal judges and high-ranking government officials to provide advice and counseling to the private sector.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Beginning in 2004 Freeh began teaching as an adjunct law professor for Widener University School of Law. Drawing on his years of experience, he has taught White Collar Crime.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 2007, Freeh formed Freeh Group International Solutions, a consulting and investigative firm headquartered in Wilmington, Delaware with regional offices in Washington DC and New York. Affiliated firms include Freeh Group Europe and the law firm Freeh, Sporkin & Sullivan, LLP. The latter firm includes Eugene R. Sullivan, a retired Federal Judge in Washington D.C. and Eugene R. Sullivan II amongst partners and Stanley Sporkin as senior counsel. Sporkin is a retired Federal judge who earlier served as head of the Securities and Exchange Commission's Division of Enforcement and as general counsel to the Central Intelligence Agency.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Freeh was hired by Nasser Kazeminy to conduct an independent investigation into alleged financial improprieties in the relationship between Kazeminy and former Senator Norm Coleman that surfaced during the final week of the 2008 Minnesota Senate race. At the time, Freeh was serving on the board of the National Ethnic Coalition of Organizations (NECO), whose chairman was Kazeminy. Although Coleman had received roughly $100,000 in gifts from Kazeminy over the years, Freeh's investigation cleared both Coleman and Kazeminy of any wrongdoing in 2011. The Intercept, questioning Freeh's impartiality, reported that nine days after Freeh's investigation cleared Kazeminy of wrongdoing, Freeh's wife received a one half ownership stake from Kazeminy in a Palm Beach property valued at $3 million.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 2009, Louis Freeh was hired by Saudi Arabian Prince Bandar bin Sultan as his legal representative on issues surrounding the Al-Yamamah arms deal, appearing April 7, 2009, on the PBS series "Frontline"'s episode "Black Money".


title: Louis Freeh

text: In late May 2011, Freeh was retained as an independent investigator by the FIFA Ethics Committee in the bribery scandal centering on Mohammed bin Hammam and Jack Warner. However, the Court of Arbitration of Sports subsequently rejected Freeh's report as consisting of little more than speculation.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In November 2011, Pennsylvania State University announced that Freeh would lead an internal investigation into the Penn State child sex abuse scandal involving Jerry Sandusky and several high-ranking university officials. He announced that the team assisting him in his investigation would include former FBI agents and federal prosecutors. As the Sandusky trial proceeded toward conviction in June 2012, the university said Freeh would report in the summer and the report would "be released to the trustees and the public simultaneously without being reviewed by the school's general counsel's office". The report was released on July 12, 2012. The 267-page report from Freeh's law firm was characterized as deeply critical of the administration of former university president Graham Spanier, athletic director Tim Curley, late coach Joe Paterno and former university vice president Gary Schultz. A commentary at "Sports Illustrated"'s website characterized the report's accusations against Paterno as "damning and sweeping" and the findings about Spanier, including a 2001 e-mail in the wake of the 2001 shower incident purportedly witnessed by graduate assistant Mike McQueary, as "most damning". A number of sources have questioned if not outright disputed the accuracy of Freeh's findings, pointing to the lack of hard evidence to support his "reasonable conclusions." A year after the report's issuance, the chairman of the Penn State Board of Trustees, which had originally commissioned the report, said that Freeh's conclusions amounted to "speculation." In a January 2015 interview with the Associated Press, Penn State President Eric Barron said, "I have to say, I'm not a fan of the report. There's no doubt in my mind, Freeh steered everything as if he were a prosecutor trying to convince a court to take the case."


title: Louis Freeh

text: On February 10, 2013, a report authored by former United States Attorney General and former Governor of Pennsylvania Dick Thornburgh, whom the Paterno family retained to conduct its own investigation, concluded that the Freeh report was "seriously flawed, both with respect to the process of [its] investigation and its findings related to Mr. Paterno". Graham Spanier is suing Freeh for defamation and tortious interference and Penn State University for breach of contract.


title: Louis Freeh

text: The Freeh Report had far-reaching outcomes for Penn State. The NCAA used the Freeh Report in lieu of its own investigation to impose sanctions on the Penn State football program. On July 23, 2012, the NCAA imposed a $60 million fine, four-year postseason ban, scholarship reductions, and vacated all victories from 1998 to 2011. These sanctions were considered to be among the most severe ever imposed on an NCAA member school. NCAA President Mark Emmert stated that the sanctions were levied "not to be just punitive, but to make sure the university establishes an athletic culture and daily mindset in which football will never again be placed ahead of educating, nurturing and protecting young people." The Big Ten Conference subsequently imposed an additional $13 million fine.


title: Louis Freeh

text: An investigation led by former U.S. Attorney General Richard Thornburgh, who was retained by the Paterno family to review the Freeh report, concluded that the report that placed so much blame on Penn State and Paterno was a "rush to injustice" that could not be relied upon. He found that not only did the evidence "fall far short" of showing Paterno attempted to conceal the Sandusky scandal, but rather that "the contrary is true". In January 2013, State senator Jake Corman and state treasurer Rob McCord launched a lawsuit against the NCAA to overturn the sanctions on Penn State on the basis that Freeh had been actively collaborating with the NCAA and that due process had not been followed. In November 2014, State senator Corman released emails showing "regular and substantive" contact between NCAA officials and Freeh's investigators, suggesting that the Freeh conclusions were orchestrated. As part of the settlement, the NCAA reversed its decision on January 16, 2015, and restored the 111 wins to Paterno's record.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In August 2018, Freeh hired attorney Rudy Giuliani to lobby the Romanian government calling for amnesty for Freeh's clients in a corruption probe.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 2019 Freeh and his friend Alan Dershowitz lobbied the U.S. government of behalf of Israeli billionaire Dan Gertler. Gertler was accused of corruption by the U.S. government and was facing sanctions by the Trump administration for his business deals with the Dominican Republic. In the last days of Trump's presidency, the sanctions were lifted.


title: Louis Freeh

text: In November 2011, Freeh was named trustee for the MF Global bankruptcy case, the largest Wall Street bankruptcy since Lehman Brothers' in September 2008. He was appointed by U.S. Trustee Tracy Hope Davis working under the authority of U.S. Bankruptcy Court Judge Martin Glenn.


title: Louis Freeh

text: On February 5, 2013, Freeh was named Chair of the law firm Pepper Hamilton LLP. He resigned the chairmanship earlier than slated, in October 2014.


title: Louis Freeh

text: An editorial by Louis Freeh critical of the 9/11 Commission appeared in the November 17, 2005, edition of the "Wall Street Journal".


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 2005, Freeh (with Howard Means) published a book about his career in the FBI entitled "My FBI: Bringing Down the Mafia, Investigating Bill Clinton, and Fighting the War on Terror". It is highly critical of both President Clinton and former counter-terrorism advisor Richard A. Clarke. On October 19, 2005, Freeh made an appearance on "The Daily Show" to promote the book. A "New York Times" review called it "A strangely shallow offering by a man who is anything but...".


title: Louis Freeh

text: In 1980, Freeh began dating Marilyn Coyle, then a paralegal in the FBI's civil rights division. They married in 1983 and had six children. Freeh is a devout Roman Catholic. Contrary to rumors, he is not a member of the Opus Dei prelature. According to "The Bureau and the Mole", a book by David A. Vise, one of Freeh's sons was enrolled at The Heights School in Potomac, Maryland, which Vise describes as "an Opus Dei academy". Several of his sons graduated from Archmere Academy, a Catholic school in Claymont, Delaware. One of his sons attended Georgetown University, a Jesuit university in Washington, D.C.


title: Louis Freeh

text: Shortly after noon on August 25, 2014, Freeh was headed south on Vermont 12, in his 2010 GMC Yukon, when he drove off the east side of the road. The vehicle struck a mailbox at 2762 Vermont 12, Barnard, Vermont, and a row of shrubs, before stopping against a tree, police said. Freeh told police he fell asleep at the wheel. The Wilmington, Delaware, resident was flown from Barnard to Dartmouth-Hitchcock Medical Center in Lebanon, New Hampshire, where he was admitted under armed guard.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: Ryan Fraser (born 24 February 1994) is a Scottish professional footballer who plays as a winger for Premier League club Newcastle United and the Scotland national team. He has previously played for Aberdeen, AFC Bournemouth and Ipswich Town. He represented the Scotland under-19 and under-21 team, and made his full international debut in June 2017.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: Fraser signed for Aberdeen in May 2010, aged 16, after leaving Kincorth Academy. He made his debut for the first team against Heart of Midlothian in October 2010. Fraser made a significant impression in the Aberdeen first team during the early part of the 2012–13 Scottish Premier League season, winning the Young Player of the Month award for September and October 2012. Aberdeen manager Craig Brown expressed concerns at this time that opposing teams were targeting Fraser with tough tackling. Fraser rejected a contract extension with Aberdeen on 7 December 2012.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: Fraser signed a three-year contract with League One club AFC Bournemouth on 18 January 2013. Bournemouth paid Aberdeen a transfer fee of £400,000 to complete the deal. During his first season, Fraser helped Bournemouth gain promotion to the Championship. After Bournemouth were promoted to the Premier League in 2015, Fraser was loaned to Championship club Ipswich Town for the 2015–16 season.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: Fraser scored his first Premier League goal on 4 December 2016, in a 4–3 win against Liverpool. He entered the game as a second-half substitute, when Bournemouth trailed 2–0. Fraser won a penalty kick for the first Bournemouth goal, scored the second and provided an assist for the third goal.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: Fraser scored both Bournemouth goals in a 2–1 win against Everton on 30 December 2017. He ranked highly in the assists chart during the 2018–19 Premier League season with 14 assists and 7 goals, leading to transfer speculation linking him with a move to Arsenal. No summer move materialised and Fraser admitted in January 2020 that this speculation had caused a decline in his performances during the 2019–20 season. With his contract due to expire on 30 June 2020, Fraser rejected the offer of a short-term extension to play the rest of Bournemouth's matches in the 2019–20 season, which was interrupted by the coronavirus pandemic, as he did not want to risk injury. Manager Eddie Howe later confirmed that Fraser would not play for the club again.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: On 7 September 2020, Fraser joined Newcastle United on a five-year contract. He made his debut for the club on 15 September 2020, scoring the winner in a 1–0 victory over Blackburn Rovers in the EFL Cup.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: Fraser was first called up to the senior Scotland squad in March 2017. He made his international debut in June 2017, appearing as a substitute in a 2–2 draw with England.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: In March 2019, Fraser missed a UEFA Euro 2020 qualifying match against Kazakhstan due to the Kazakhs using an artificial playing surface. Scotland lost 3–0, and Fraser was criticised by former Scotland player Darren Fletcher for showing a lack of commitment to the national team. Fraser said he had previously suffered two serious injuries while playing on artificial surfaces, and that the decision not to play had been agreed with both the national team and his club side Bournemouth. In November 2019 he was one of three Scotland players to withdraw from the national squad due to injury.


title: Ryan Fraser

text: Primarily deployed as a winger on the left flank, Fraser is a right-footed player described by his compatriot Charlie Nicholas as an "old-fashioned type of player" and a "little pocket dynamo" for the muscular physique he has developed to "take the knocks and kicks that come his way." Fraser has occasionally played in the right-back position for both club and country. He had previously been utilised in a central midfield role for Newcastle, but has most recently been played by manager Eddie Howe as a winger on the right flank, in a 4-3-3 formation.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: Karen Kilgariff (born May 11, 1970 in Petaluma, California) is an American writer, comedian, singer, author, actress, television producer, and podcast host. She began her career as a stand up comedian in the early 1990s and later became a television actress, most notably as a cast member on "Mr. Show". She has written for many comedy television shows, including being the head writer on "The Rosie Show", "The Ellen Degeneres Show" and "The Pete Holmes Show".


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: Since 2016 she has co-hosted the true crime comedy podcast "My Favorite Murder" along with Georgia Hardstark. In 2018, she and Hardstark co-founded the podcast network Exactly Right. Along with Hardstark, Kilgariff wrote the non-fiction book "Stay Sexy and Don't Get Murdered," which was released on May 28, 2019.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: Karen Kilgariff grew up outside Petaluma, California with her mother, Patricia (née Knight) who died in 2016, her father Jim, and an older sister. Both of Karen's parents worked; her father was a San Francisco firefighter and her mother was a head psychiatric nurse at the Langley Porter Psychiatric Institute. She attended St. Vincent de Paul High School in Petaluma.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: Karen Kilgariff started out as a stand-up comedian in Sacramento in the 1990s. She went on to land comedy roles on television, including being a cast member on seasons 3 and 4 of "Mr. Show". She would later appear in the 2015 reboot, "W/ Bob & David", as well. She played the role of Jean Pettengill for five episodes of "The Book Group" in 2003.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: In 2015, Kilgariff teamed up with Drennon Davis to record a live album of comedy songs titled "I Don't Care, I Like It".


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: In 2003 Kilgariff was hired by Ellen DeGeneres to help write for her comedy special, "". Kilgariff later toured with DeGeneres as her opening act. Kilgariff was then named head writer for the day time talk show "The Ellen DeGeneres Show", which launched in September 2003. She occasionally appeared on screen in sketches and other segments. She was also part of a comic duo (with Mary Lynn Rajskub) called Girls Guitar Club.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: Kilgariff served as the head writer for "The Rosie Show," which aired on the Oprah Winfrey Network. She later served as the head writer for "The Pete Holmes Show," which aired on TBS.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: She also wrote for and starred in truTV's "Talk Show: The Game Show" and produced "Making History" on FOX Broadcasting Company.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: The podcast originally took place entirely in a car, where Karen and Chris would speak to their guest while driving around. Citing safety concerns, however, they now occasionally record at the Exactly Right Studios.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: In 2016, Kilgariff and Georgia Hardstark started the true-crime podcast "My Favorite Murder", in which they discuss various infamous murders and serial killers. Since its inception, the podcast has garnered a large fan base, totaling over 19 million listeners. They have also toured the United States and internationally performing "My Favorite Murder" live shows. In 2018 she and Hardstark co-founded the podcast network Exactly Right, which now produces their podcast along with ten others. In April 2019, the network's first original podcast "Jensen and Holes: The Murder Squad" debuted at number one.


title: Karen Kilgariff

text: Kilgariff does not drink alcohol, and has been open about her past struggles with abuse of amphetamines and diet pills. In an interview with Marc Maron for his WTF podcast, she said she stopped using drugs and alcohol completely after she began having seizures, fearing her drug use had been the cause. Karen now lives in Studio City, California with her dogs, Frank and Blossom. Kilgariff married at age 32 and is now divorced.


title: Erriyon Knighton

text: Erriyon Knighton (born January 29, 2004) is an American sprinter specializing in the 100 meters and 200 meters. At the age of 18, he won the bronze medal in the 200 m at the 2022 World Athletics Championships, becoming the youngest ever individual sprint medalist in Championships history.


title: Erriyon Knighton

text: Knighton holds the world under-18 best in the 200 m of 19.84 seconds, set on June 27, 2021, and world U20 record with a time of 19.69 seconds, set on June 26, 2022. His best mark of 19.49 s (not ratified) makes him the fifth-fastest athlete in history over the distance, only surpassed by Usain Bolt, Yohan Blake, Noah Lyles and Michael Johnson. It was also the fastest season opener ever.


title: Erriyon Knighton

text: In 2022, Knighton became the first athlete in history to win a second World Athletics Male Rising Star of the Year award.


title: Erriyon Knighton

text: Erriyon Knighton started participating in track and field in 2019 as a freshman at Hillsborough High School in Tampa, Florida. During his time there, he ran the second fastest time over 200 meters for an under-18 athlete in world history, clocking 20.33 seconds in the final at the 2020 USA Track & Field Junior Olympics in Satellite Beach, Florida. He also played for Hillsborough's football team as a wide receiver; rated a four-star recruit by 247Sports.com, he received scholarship offers from schools including Alabama, Auburn, Florida State, and Florida.


title: Erriyon Knighton

text: At age 16 in January, Knighton signed a sponsorship deal with Adidas in his junior year of high school, forgoing his remaining two years of amateur competition at Hillsborough High. On May 2, he broke the 10-second barrier over 100 meters at the PURE Athletics Sprint Elite Meet in Clermont, Florida, with a time of 9.99 seconds, but the wind was over the +2.0 meters per second velocity limit (+2.7) for record consideration.


title: Erriyon Knighton

text: On May 31, the 17-year-old set the world under-18 best in the boys' 200 meters in a time of 20.11 seconds, breaking Usain Bolt's best by two hundredths of a second. At the US Olympic Trials he would improve that time to 20.04 s in the first round on June 25, and then again to 19.88 s in the semi-finals the following day, breaking Bolt's world U20 record by five hundredths of a second. He then improved his own record to 19.84 seconds in the final on June 27, qualifying for the postponed 2020 Tokyo Summer Olympics.


title: Erriyon Knighton

text: At the Tokyo Games, Knighton became the youngest male to represent the United States in track and field since Jim Ryun in 1964. On August 3, he finished first in his 200-meter Olympic semi-final heat and qualified for an automatic spot in the final to be run the next day. In the final he finished in fourth with a time of 19.93 seconds.


title: Erriyon Knighton

text: On April 30, Knighton set an unratified world junior record in the 200 m at the LSU Invitational in Baton Rouge running a time of 19.49 seconds. He achieved 19.69 s at the USA Outdoor T&F Championships in June. Knighton later on went on to win the bronze medal in the event at the World Athletics Championships held in Eugene, Oregon with a time of 19.80 s, becoming the youngest ever individual sprint medalist in Championship history. He also became the youngest winner of a Diamond League race with his 200 m victory on September 2 in Brussels.


title: Autobahn (album)

text: Autobahn is the fourth studio album by German electronic music band Kraftwerk, released in November 1974 by Philips Records. The album marked several personnel changes in the band, which was initially a duo consisting of Florian Schneider and Ralf Hütter; later, the group added Klaus Röder on guitar and flute, and Wolfgang Flür on percussion. The album also completed the group's transition from the experimental krautrock style of their earlier work to an electronic pop sound consisting mostly of synthesizers and drum machines. Recording started at the group's own Kling Klang facility, but was predominantly made at Conny Plank's studio. "Autobahn" also includes lyrics and a new look for the group that was suggested by Emil Schult, an associate of Schneider and Hütter.


title: Autobahn (album)

text: Most of the album is taken up by the 22-minute "Autobahn", featuring lyrics by Schneider, Hütter, and Schult. The song was inspired by the group's joy of driving on Germany's autobahns, and recorded music that reflected a trip emulating the sounds of a vehicle. The album's release in West Germany saw little press attention. "Autobahn" was released as a single and received airplay at a Chicago radio station, leading it to spread across the United States. In 1975, the song became an international hit and Kraftwerk's first release of their music in the US. "Autobahn" success led to the band touring the United States with new member Karl Bartos, who would replace Roeder, followed by a tour of the United Kingdom.


title: Autobahn (album)

text: Initial reception to "Autobahn" was mixed; it received negative reviews from "Rolling Stone" and "Village Voice"s critic Robert Christgau who felt the music was inferior to earlier electronic music from Wendy Carlos and Mike Oldfield. Other critics found the track "Autobahn" hypnotic and arresting for its imagery of driving on the autobahn. Critics from the "Fort Worth Star-Telegram" and "Newsday" included the album in their "Honorable Mentions" sections of their year-end lists. Later reception was unanimously enthusiastic; Simon Witter wrote in "NME" the album is of "enormous historical significance" and Simon Reynolds said the album is where Kraftwerk's music really starts to matter. Musicians of the 1970s and 1980s, including David Bowie, cited the album as a major influence.


title: Autobahn (album)

text: Prior to the release of "Autobahn", Kraftwerk consisted of Florian Schneider and Ralf Hütter, who had released an album titled "Ralf and Florian" in October 1973. Prior to "Autobahn", electronic music did not develop a popular following in the United States with a few exceptions such as Michael Oldfield's "Tubular Bells" and the works of fellow German band Tangerine Dream. According to critic Lynn Van Matre of the "Chicago Tribune" in 1975, "far too often much of what has been profferred has been either boring, painfully self-indulgent, or just plain painful". In comparison, Van Matre found "Autobahn" to be "what you might call middle-of-the-road electronics". Comparing the albums sounds to the group's earlier work, Michael Hooker of the "Los Angeles Times" noted the music of "Ralf and Florian" is more traditional compared to that of "Autobahn", noting its resemblance to the works of composers Morton Subotnik and Edgar Froese rather than the "monotonous pulse" of "Autobahn". Kraftwerk became more conscious of their visual image and, under the guidance of their associate Emil Schult, they began redesigning their look. Schult, who had studied under Joseph Beuys, consulted the band on their themes and image. This led to Kraftwerk having small, carefully staged promotional images for the rest of their career. In a 1975 interview published in "Melody Maker", Karl Dallas noted Kraftwerk's music and look were "as far as you get from the Gothic romanticism of Tangerine Dream" and that "visually they also present a completely different image", comparing Tangerine Dream's Froese's "untidy red locks", and bandmates Peter Baumann's and Christopher Franke's "long, lank tresses".


title: Autobahn (album)

text: In early 1974, like their German contemporaries, Kraftwerk purchased a Minimoog synthesizer, which they used alongside customized version of the Farfisa Rhythm Unit 10 and Vox Percussion King drum machines on the album. "Autobahn" was recorded at the group's home studio Kling Klang and at Conny Plank's new studio in a farmhouse outside Cologne. The majority of "Autobahn" was made on Plank's equipment. Accompanying Schneider and Hütter on the album are Klaus Roeder on violin and guitar, and Wolfgang Flür on percussion. Roeder, who was a member of Düsseldorf's music scene, had built an electronic violin that intrigued Schneider. Flür was an interior design student who had drummed for a Düsseldorf band called The Beathovens. Flür stated he found initial jam sessions with the group somewhat strange but soon developed a rapport with his bandmates. Conny Plank is credited as the engineer on the album but he had a key contribution to its sound. Roeder later stated; "Plank played a decisive role. He mixed everything and assembled individual sounds into a whole. That was, I believe the last time that Conny did that. He then told me he did know what Kraftwerk would sound like when he was no longer there."


title: Autobahn (album)

text: In the book "Kraftwerk: Music Non-Stop", Carsten Brocker said with "Autobahn", Kraftwerk completed the transition from their earlier style of experimental krautrock to electronic pop music. The album was recorded primarily on synthesizer and drum machine, with occasional flute and guitar. Brocker commented on the group's simple melodies and harmonies suggest pop music. According to Bartos, the group's change in style occurred because Hütter and Schneider came from a classical music background and they moved to pop music by adding lyrics because "There is no pop music without lyrics apparently". The change in musical direction was influenced by Schult, who was not trained as a musician but has an ear for melody and chose effective parts of improvised sessions, and led Hütter and Schneider to explore by simplifying their own musical sessions. There are very few vocals on "Autobahn"; critic Van Matre described the album as "simply an impression of the sounds and sensory perceptions of the road".


title: Autobahn (album)

text: Hütter repeatedly described Kraftwerk's music as "Industrielle Volksmusik" (), specifically referencing a modern version of German regional musical traditions rather than the industrial music sound of groups like Throbbing Gristle. In Britain, electronic music was popularly known as ""Doctor Who" music", referencing Ron Grainer's pioneering electronic soundtrack to the television series. Hütter stated in 1975 Kraftwerk got the idea for the album by driving on the autobahn, stating it was an "exciting experience that makes you run through a huge variety of feelings. We tried to convey through music what it felt like." Flür later described "Autobahn" as a journey from Düsseldorf to Hamburg, and said the route included musical pieces such as the industrial sounds of the Ruhr valley, the conveyor belts of the mining towns such as Bottrop and Castrop-Rauxel, and the rural Münster region, which is symbolized by the flute in the song. Other sounds of road travel are heard throughout the song; according to Hütter, the group included "car sounds, horns, basic melodies and tuning motors. Adjusting the suspension and tyre pressure, rolling on the asphalt, that gliding sound—phhhwwtphhhwwt—when the wheels go onto those painted stripes. It's sound poetry, and also very dynamic."


title: Autobahn (album)

text: "Autobahn" was co-written by Schult, whom Hütter asked to write some lyrics. The song's lyrics are in German; Schneider reflected on this, stating; "Part of our music is derived from the feeling of our language ... our method of speaking is interrupted, hard-edged if you want; a lot of consonants and noises". According to Hütter, their language was used like a musical instrument; he said; "we are not singers in the sense of Rod Stewart, we use our voices as another instrument. Language is just another pattern of rhythm, it is one part of our unified sound." In a 1991 interview, Hütter stated there was no expectations for the release of "Autobahn", and that "We played it to our friends, and a few of them said 'Fahren auf der Autobahn!? You've gone crazy!'. We just put records out and see what happens, otherwise we'd end up over-calculating this or that." The album's four other tracks are shorter electro-acoustic pieces. "Kometenmelodie" ("Comet Melody") was inspired by Comet Kohoutek, which passed by Earth in 1973. Hütter said "Morgenspaziergang" ("Morning Walk") was influenced by the group's early morning walk when leaving their studio after late-night sessions, when they observed the silence of their surroundings. The two part "Kometenmelodie" were described as "post-psychedelic kosmische" by Chris Power in "Drowned in Sound".