title: Kagiso Rabada

text: Kagiso Rabada (born 25 May 1995) is a South African international cricketer who plays all formats of the game. He is a right arm fast bowler. He made his international debut in November 2014 in limited-overs cricket before going on to make his Test debut in November 2015. By January 2018, he had topped both the ICC ODI bowler rankings and the ICC Test bowler rankings aged 22. In July 2018, he became the youngest bowler to take 150 wickets in Tests (23 years and 50 days).


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In July 2016, Rabada became the first cricketer to win six awards at Cricket South Africa's (CSA) annual dinner, including the prize for Cricketer of the Year. In June 2018, he again won six awards at CSA's annual dinner, including Cricketer of the Year, Test Cricketer and ODI Cricketer of the Year. In August 2018, "Wisden" named him the best young player in the world.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: Rabada made his debut for the Gauteng in the CSA Provincial One-Day Competition against Border in December 2013.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: Rabada was chosen to represent South Africa's Under-19 side for the 2014 ICC Under-19 Cricket World Cup. For the victorious South Africans, he was their best bowler claiming the 2nd most wickets (14) in the tournament at an economy rate of 3.10. He also claimed the best figures of the tournament: 6/25 against Australia A. This led to him being dubbed "the fastest and most feared bowler in the competition".


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: Rabada's performances in the Under-19 World Cup saw him catapulted into the Lions franchise for their last two games of the Sunfoil Series season. He took 7 wickets for 186 in these two matches.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In February 2015, Rabada took a record 14 wickets in a match for Lions against Dolphins, including 9 for 33 in the second innings. His 14 for 105 are the best figures in the franchise era of South African cricket.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In February 2016, it was announced that Rabada had signed a short-term deal to play county cricket for Kent County Cricket Club in June and July of the English domestic season, passing up the opportunity of an IPL contract to gain experience in English conditions. He played in two County Championship and six T20 matches for the county during his spell in England.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In October 2018, he was named Jozi Stars' squad for the first edition of the Mzansi Super League T20 tournament. In September 2019, he was named in the squad for the Jozi Stars team for the 2019 Mzansi Super League tournament. In April 2021, he was named in Gauteng's squad, ahead of the 2021–22 cricket season in South Africa.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In February 2017, Rabada was bought by the Delhi Daredevils team for the 2017 Indian Premier League for INR 50 million. In January 2018, he was bought again by Delhi (Delhi Capitals) in the 2018 IPL auction but was later ruled out of the season due to a back injury.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: He was retained again ahead of 2019 Indian Premier League by Delhi Capitals. He played 12 matches in the league stage before leaving for national duty. He picked up 25 wickets and become the highest wicket taker for DC and overall second highest wicket taker of that season. DC qualified for the playoffs for the first time since 2012 IPL season. In the 2020 Indian premier League, he become the highest wicket taker of the season by picking up 30 wickets in 17 matches he played. In both seasons, Rabada played a vital role in his team's success.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: Rabada made his One Day International debut for South Africa against Bangladesh on 10 July 2015, achieving best figures of 6/16 on debut. He also became only the second player, after Taijul Islam, to take a hat-trick on debut in an ODI match. He made his Test debut for South Africa against India on 5 November 2015. In the fourth Test of England's 2015–16 tour of South Africa, he finished with figures of 13/144 helping his team win the game. In the process, he became the youngest South African to take a ten-wicket haul in a Test, and the figures were his team's second best ever, after Makhaya Ntini's 13/132.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: Rabada's first ten-wicket haul in a Test match came in 2016 against England during the 4th Test at Centurion. He took 13 wickets in the match, including two five wicket hauls, and returned his best innings bowling figures of 7/112 in the England first innings. His second ten-wicket haul came in 2017 against Sri Lanka at Cape Town. During the first Test at Lord's in South Africa's 2017 tour of England, Rabada was suspended for the second Test at Trent Bridge following an altercation with Ben Stokes after using "inappropriate language" after dismissing Stokes on the first day.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: As well as the five-fors he took in the matches when he took ten wickets, he had taken a total of five five-wicket hauls in Test matches, the first of which was earlier in England's 2016 tour of South Africa. He repeated the feat in Australia in 2016 at the WACA. He was the man of the match in this fixture.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: Rabada took 4/39 in the third ODI match of the South African tour in England in 2017. Following his performance in the match, Rabada became top ranked ODI bowler in the world displacing countryman Imran Tahir as per the ICC ODI bowler rankings and became youngest player (aged 22) to top the ODI rankings since Saqlain Mushtaq in 1998.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: During the first test of India's tour of South Africa in 2018 at Newlands, Rabada took 3/34 and 2/41 in the first and second innings. Following his performance in the match, Rabada became top ranked Test bowler in the world as per the ICC Test bowler rankings displacing England bowler James Anderson.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In the second test match against Australia, Rabada took 11 wickets for 150 runs ultimately winning man of the match awards. This performance earned him top spot in ICC Test bowler rankings with 902 points, standing 15 points above James Anderson. He became the fourth South African bowler to cross 900 points after Vernon Philander, Shaun Pollock and Dale Steyn.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In July 2018 during the first test against Sri Lanka, Rabada surpassed the record of Harbhajan Singh to become the youngest ever bowler to take 150 wickets in Test cricket and also became the third fastest South African to reach 150 test wickets in terms of matches (31).


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In 2018, he took the most wickets in Tests by any bowler, with 52 dismissals. In March 2019, Rabada took his 100th wicket in ODIs in the second ODI against Sri Lanka. In April 2019, he was named in South Africa's squad for the 2019 Cricket World Cup. Rabada became only the 8th South African bowler to pick 200 Test wickets as Hasan Ali in the 1st Test of the South African tour of Pakistan in 2021.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In September 2021, Rabada was named in South Africa's squad for the 2021 ICC Men's T20 World Cup. On 6 November 2021, in South Africa's final match of the tournament, against England, Rabada became the first bowler for South Africa to take a hat-trick in T20I cricket. In January 2022, Rabada played in his 50th Test match, in the third match of the series against India. On Day 2 of the first test match of the series against England in August 2022, Rabada took his first five-for at Lord's which earned him a place on the coveted honours board. He is only the fourth South African bowler to achieve this feat since re-admission after Allan Donald, Makhaya Ntini and Vernon Philander.


title: Kagiso Rabada

text: In 2020 Kagiso Rabada and Cameron Scott founded Kingdom Kome Productions, their first project is a short film called "The Ring of Beasts".


title: Quique Setién

text: Enrique "Quique" Setién Solar (; born 27 September 1958) is a Spanish football manager and former player who played as a central midfielder. He is the current manager of La Liga club Villarreal.


title: Quique Setién

text: As a player, he was nicknamed "El Maestro", and was best known for his two spells with Racing de Santander, starting and finishing his 19-year professional career at the club. Over 15 seasons in La Liga, he played 374 matches and scored 58 goals. He also won three international caps for Spain.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién started a managerial career in 2001, going on to coach several teams including Racing. Starting in January 2020, he was in charge of Barcelona for seven months, being dismissed following an 8–2 loss against Bayern Munich in the UEFA Champions League.


title: Quique Setién

text: Born in Santander, Setién made his La Liga debut in 1977, with his hometown club Racing de Santander. During his first spell with the Cantabrians, although he played regularly, he was not yet a regular starter, and he missed the entire 1982–83 season as well as being relegated twice.


title: Quique Setién

text: Afterwards, Setién represented Atlético Madrid for three years. He enjoyed a good first two seasons, but appeared rarely in his last after some spats with elusive club chairman Jesús Gil.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién then moved to CD Logroñés in 1988 where, after a slow start, he was essential in helping the Riojans retain their top-tier status. The 34-year-old returned to Racing in 1992, and scored a career-best 11 goals in the first year in his second spell as the side returned to the top flight. He played three more years with the latter, and retired in June 1996 at nearly 38 after featuring for Levante UD in the Segunda División B play-offs, which also ended in promotion.


title: Quique Setién

text: In 2001, Setién was voted by Racing's fans as their best player of all time. He appeared in almost 600 official matches in nearly two decades of play, totalling 95 league goals.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién appeared three times for Spain and was selected for the 1986 FIFA World Cup squad, but did not leave the bench during the tournament in Mexico. His debut came on 20 November 1985 in a 0–0 friendly with Austria, in Zaragoza.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién began working as a manager on 5 October 2001, succeeding the dismissed Gustavo Benítez at a Racing side that had started poorly following relegation to Segunda División. He took the team from 17th to promotion as runners-up to Atlético, but left at the end of the season due to pressure and handed the reins to his former teammate Manuel Preciado.


title: Quique Setién

text: For the 2003–04 campaign, Setién returned to the second division with Polideportivo Ejido. He was dismissed on 17 November, with the team in the relegation zone.


title: Quique Setién

text: In 2005, Setién was appointed assistant coach to the Russia national beach soccer team. For three months during the following year, he was in charge of Equatorial Guinea. After that he moved to another team he played for, Logroñes in division three, being relieved of his duties midway through the 2007–08 campaign.


title: Quique Setién

text: In June 2009, Setién became CD Lugo's coach. He led the side to promotion to the second tier in his third year, a second-ever for the Galicians.


title: Quique Setién

text: On 19 October 2015, following the dismissal of Paco Herrera, Setién became the new manager of UD Las Palmas in the top flight. He arrived with them in the relegation zone, and led them to 11th place in his first season.


title: Quique Setién

text: On 18 March 2017, Setién announced that he would leave the Canary Islands club at the end of the campaign due to disputes with the board.


title: Quique Setién

text: On 26 May 2017, Setién was appointed manager of Real Betis on a three-year deal. He led the team to the sixth place in his first year, with the subsequent qualification to the group stage of the UEFA Europa League.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién was linked with a move to FC Barcelona in January 2019, but it did not materialise. On 19 May, he announced that he would leave the Estadio Benito Villamarín.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién signed as head coach of Barcelona on 13 January 2020, replacing the dismissed Ernesto Valverde on a contract lasting to June 2022. In his first match in charge, six days later, he managed a 1–0 home victory over Granada CF.


title: Quique Setién

text: The team eventually finished the domestic league in second position, behind Real Madrid. On 14 August 2020, they lost 8–2 to FC Bayern Munich in the quarter-finals of the UEFA Champions League, which was the first time in 74 years that the club had conceded eight goals in a game; it was also the first loss by a six-goal margin since 1951. He was officially dismissed three days later, subsequently confirming he would take legal actions as he felt the terms of his contract were not respected.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién returned to management on 25 October 2022, replacing Aston Villa-bound Unai Emery at the helm of Villarreal CF.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién's son, Laro, is also a footballer and a midfielder. His father-in-law José Antonio Lozano played in the Spanish second tier in the early 1960s, and all three relatives represented Racing Santander. In addition to his native Spanish, he also speaks English and Italian.


title: Quique Setién

text: Setién is a keen chess player with a FIDE rating of 2055. He played matches against former world champions Garry Kasparov and Anatoly Karpov, of which the results were not made public. He mentioned the game as an influence on his football tactics, which prioritised possession and midfield domination.


title: Quique Setién

text: Before being Barcelona manager, Setién lived in , 9km west of Santander, where there are a lot of cows; hence, he commented: "Yesterday I was walking past cows in my home town; today I was at Barcelona's training ground coaching the best players in the world, an enormous club". In April 2020, in an interview with TV3, he talked about winning La Liga and Champions League titles, when he said: "If it can be both, better. And of course I have dreamed of walking around Liencres with the cows while holding up the Champions League trophy and showing it to them."


title: Raul Meireles

text: Raul José Trindade Meireles (; born 17 March 1983) is a Portuguese former footballer who played as a midfielder.


title: Raul Meireles

text: After starting out at Boavista, he signed with Porto in 2004, going on to appear in 198 official games and win ten major trophies, including four Primeira Liga titles in a row. From 2010 to 2012 he competed in the Premier League, with Liverpool and Chelsea, winning the 2012 Champions League with the latter; he also spent several seasons in Turkey, with Fenerbahçe.


title: Raul Meireles

text: A Portugal international since 2006, Meireles represented the country in two World Cups and two European Championships, earning a total of 73 caps and scoring ten goals. He also played Olympic football in 2004.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles was born in Porto, and joined local Boavista FC's youth system at the age of seven. He spent two years on loan to C.D. Aves in the Segunda Liga, being presented on 8 July 2001.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles scored his first senior goal on 25 May 2003, in a 2–1 home win over C.F. União where he fired from 30 metres into the net. He finished that season with 26 appearances, helping his team to finish in sixth position.


title: Raul Meireles

text: For the 2003–04 campaign, Meireles returned to Boavista. He made his debut in the Primeira Liga on 17 August against S.L. Benfica, being chosen "Player of the match" of the 0–0 home draw by newspaper "Record".


title: Raul Meireles

text: On 7 July 2004, FC Porto signed Meireles on a five–year contract, being presented in a press conference held five days later. His first competitive match took place on 22 September against U.D. Leiria at the Estádio do Dragão, coming off the bench early into the first half on an eventual 1–1 league draw. On 18 February of the following year he made his first start, in an away victory over C.F. Os Belenenses. Five days later, he made his debut in the UEFA Champions League by featuring the full 90 minutes in a 1–1 home draw with Inter Milan in the round-of-16 first leg; he finished his first year with 15 appearances in all competitions (no goals).


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles started in Porto's first league fixture of 2005–06, against C.F. Estrela da Amadora, sustaining an ankle injury that sidelined him for one month. He returned to action in October, in a Taça de Portugal tie with F.C. Marco.


title: Raul Meireles

text: On 19 February 2006, Meireles scored his first goal for the Dragons in his 50th league appearance, giving a 1–0 home victory over C.S. Marítimo. He netted his second three matchdays later in a 2–0 defeat of Vitória de Setúbal, as the season ended with double conquest.


title: Raul Meireles

text: In the following four years, during which the domestic league was won three additional times, Meireles featured regularly in Porto's midfield, often partnering Fernando and Lucho González. He scored his first goal in the Champions League in the 2006–07 edition, a 1–1 last-16 home draw against Chelsea, coached by José Mourinho.


title: Raul Meireles

text: On 29 August 2010, Meireles moved to Liverpool for a fee of £11.5 million. He was awarded the No. 4 shirt, which was vacated by Alberto Aquilani who joined Juventus F.C. on loan. He made his Premier League debut on 12 September, playing 14 minutes in a 0–0 draw at Birmingham City, and his maiden appearance in the UEFA Europa League occurred four days later in the 4–1 group stage victory over FC Steaua București at Anfield where he played the entire game.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles was handed his first league start on 19 September 2010, in a 3–2 away loss against Manchester United. On 16 January 2011, he scored his first goal for his new team in the 2–2 home draw with Everton, which coincided with Kenny Dalglish's first home game back as manager. His second came six days later in a 3–0 win at Wolverhampton Wanderers, when he struck a dipping 25-yard volley into the top corner of the net in the 50th minute.


title: Raul Meireles

text: On 12 February 2011, Meireles netted his fifth league goal in seven games: he put the hosts ahead midway through the first half, but Wigan Athletic eventually tied it 1–1 as Liverpool attempted to reorganise following his replacement due a stomach bug. His scoring run was rewarded with the ESPN PFA Fans' Player of the Month trophy for February, being an essential figure as the Reds climbed up the table. He finished the season with 33 matches, helping to a final sixth place and being voted the PFA Fans' Player of the Year, beating Dimitar Berbatov, David Luiz, Samir Nasri and Fernando Torres.


title: Raul Meireles

text: In the second match of the 2011–12 campaign, away against Arsenal, Meireles played 19 minutes after replacing Dirk Kuyt, and provided the assist for Luis Suárez in a 2–0 win which marked the first time they had defeated the opposition on their ground in 11 years. On 31 August, however, he asked to be transfer listed.


title: Raul Meireles

text: With Chelsea in the market for a midfielder following a long-term injury to Michael Essien, and an unsuccessful bid to acquire Luka Modrić from Tottenham Hotspur, the former signed Meireles to a four-year deal on 31 August 2011, for an undisclosed fee reported to be in the region of £12 million. He chose the squad number 16, due to the fact he often wore it when on international duty, and later claimed he never wanted to leave Liverpool but that the chance to work with André Villas-Boas, with whom he had spent a short period of time at Porto, was too good an opportunity to turn down.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles made his debut on 10 September 2011 against Sunderland, which ended in a 2–1 away win with him setting up Daniel Sturridge's goal with a long pass. In the following month, he scored his first goal for the club during a Champions League group stage 5–0 defeat of K.R.C. Genk. On 12 December, he netted for the first time in the domestic league to contribute to a 2–1 home victory against league leaders Manchester City also at Stamford Bridge.


title: Raul Meireles

text: On 18 March 2012, Meireles scored a goal and provided two assists to Torres, who ended his 24-game goal drought in the 5–2 home triumph against Leicester City for the quarter-finals of the FA Cup. On 4 April, he scored a belter in the final minutes of a Champions League quarter-final 2–1 victory over Benfica, setting up a last-four tie with reigning champions FC Barcelona; he won his first title in English football on 5 May, after a 2–1 win against his former club Liverpool in the FA Cup final where he replaced Ramires for the last 15 minutes. He sat out the Champions League final against FC Bayern Munich by receiving a yellow card against Barcelona at Camp Nou, but was still given a medal for his participation after the 4–3 victory on penalties.


title: Raul Meireles

text: On 3 September 2012, Meireles was sold to Fenerbahçe SK for £8 million. He was to earn €3 million in his first season, in addition to a €10,000 per-match bonus. He scored his first goal for the Turkish club on 4 October, in a 4–2 victory at Borussia Mönchengladbach in the Europa League group stage. His first in the Süper Lig came on 25 November, in a 4–1 win against Gençlerbirliği.


title: Raul Meireles

text: In December 2012, Meireles was handed an eleven-match ban by the Turkish Football Federation for spitting at a referee. The alleged actions were followed by accusations of homophobic remarks after he received a second yellow card in the second half of a 1–2 away defeat to rivals Galatasaray SK. However, the ban was reduced on appeal to four games after it was ruled that he could not have spat at the referee, being only guilty of verbal abuse.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles scored once from 20 appearances in 2013–14, helping his team win the national championship after a three-year wait. During his spell in Istanbul, he shared teams with compatriots Bruno Alves, Nani and Vítor Pereira.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles represented the Portuguese under-16 team at the 2000 UEFA European Championship, which was won in Israel after a 2–1 defeat of the Czech Republic. He subsequently participated in the 2001 Meridian Cup with the under-17s, starting three times in an eventual third-place finish.


title: Raul Meireles

text: In November 2001, Meireles was named in the under-19 squad for the 2003 European Championship qualifying tournament, scoring in a 1–2 loss to Belarus but helping his country qualify. On 2 June 2003, he was selected by the under-20 side for the Toulon Tournament, winning the competition and being voted its second-best player.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles featured regularly in the qualifying phase for the 2004 European Under-21 Championship, including a play-off tie against France where the played the full 90 minutes in a 4–1 penalty shootout victory. He was then selected by coach José Romão for the finals, appearing in four of five games to help the country qualify for the Summer Olympics– he missed the semi-finals against Italy due to suspension; in the ensuing Olympic tournament in Athens, he started twice and appeared as a second-half substitute against Iraq, as Portugal exited in the group stage with three points.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles' first game for the Portuguese senior team took place on 15 November 2006, when he played the entire 3–0 win over Kazakhstan for the UEFA Euro 2008 qualifiers. He was picked for the final stages in Austria and Switzerland, marking his debut in a major international competition with a goal in the 2–0 group stage victory against Turkey (also his first), after entering the pitch in the 83rd minute. He then started alongside several reserve players in the final group clash, a 2–0 defeat to Switzerland; four days later, he replaced João Moutinho during the first half of an eventual 3–2 quarter-final loss to Germany.


title: Raul Meireles

text: On 18 November 2009, Meireles scored an important goal in the 1–0 away victory over Bosnia and Herzegovina in the second play-off game, thus securing qualification for the 2010 FIFA World Cup. He was named in Carlos Queiroz's 23-men squad, and was a starter throughout the entire tournament, netting in the 7–0 group stage rout of North Korea in Cape Town.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles also appeared for Portugal at the Euro 2012 (five starts for the semi-finalists) and 2014 World Cup (two games, group stage exit) tournaments.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles could play in any position in the midfield, but preferred to operate as a central midfielder. He was capable of being deployed in both a defensive and attacking role, depending on the players available and coaches' strategies. At Porto, he was used initially as a defensive midfielder, but tactical factors saw him switch to attacking midfielder; in an opposite approach, when Paulo Bento was appointed as the Portuguese head coach in 2010, the player was eventually played in a more defensive position after starting out in attacking midfield.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Under his Liverpool manager Roy Hodgson, Meireles was also deployed as a deep-lying playmaker on occasion. A versatile, tactically astute and mobile player, his main traits were his passing and tackling, although he was also known for his work-rate and powerful long–range shooting abilities.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles' father, Raul Meireles Sr., worked with Boavista as a masseur and encouraged his son to play football in that club when he was only six. In 2008 he married Ivone, with whom he had been in a relationship for several years. The couple met while he was a youth player, and their wedding ceremony was held at Martim Church in Barcelos, with several guests including Porto teammates Bruno Alves, José Bosingwa, Pedro Emanuel, Nuno Espírito Santo, Lucho González, Mariano González, Lisandro López and Pepe; the couple's clothes were designed by Fátima Lopes, and the christening of their daughter Lara was also performed there.


title: Raul Meireles

text: On 17 February 2009, the couple opened a clothes shop in Ermesinde, and Ivone declared that the idea made sense because both she and Meireles were interested in fashion. In January 2019, his rendition of António Variações' "O Corpo é que Paga" in the premiere of "Lip Sync Portugal" received critical acclaim.


title: Raul Meireles

text: Meireles was a fan of tattoos since he was 18 years old. Numerous images adorned his body, including those of Ivone and Lara. He also had a large design of a black and red Chinese-style dragon, drawn in two stages and sprawling across his back, and a huge necklace tattoo with a skull, drawn one week after his twenty-eighth birthday.


title: Raul Meireles

text: After moving to Anfield, during an interview with Liverpool's official website, Meireles jokingly said that he wanted to win the "ink championship" against teammates Daniel Agger and Martin Škrtel, due to their shared affection for tattoos.


title: Dardanelles Gun

text: The Basillica or Great Turkish Bombard ( or simply "Şahi") is a 15th-century siege cannon, specifically a super-sized bombard, which saw action in the 1807 Dardanelles operation. It was built in 1464 by Ottoman military engineer Munir Ali and modelled after the Orban bombard that was used for the Ottoman besiegers of Constantinople in 1453.


title: Dardanelles Gun

text: The Dardanelles Gun was cast in bronze in 1464 by Munir Ali with a weight of 16.8 tonnes and a length of , being capable of firing stone balls of up to ). The powder chamber and the barrel are connected by the way of a screw mechanism, allowing easier transport of the unwieldy device.


title: Dardanelles Gun

text: Such super-sized bombards had been employed in Ottoman warfare and in Western European siege warfare since the beginning of the 15th century. According to Paul Hammer and Gábor Ágoston, the technology could have been introduced from other Islamic countries which had earlier used cannons. The Ottoman army successfully deployed large bombards at the siege of Salonica in 1430, and against the Hexamilion wall at the Isthmus of Corinth in 1446.


title: Dardanelles Gun

text: At the siege of Constantinople in 1453, the Ottomans employed a number of cannons, anywhere from 12 to 62. They were built at foundries that employed Turkish cannon founders and technicians, most notably Saruca, in addition to at least one foreign cannon founder, Orban. Most of the cannons at the siege were built by Ottoman engineers, including a large bombard by Saruca, while one cannon was built by Orban, who also contributed a large bombard. Orban was from Brassó, Kingdom of Hungary, before working for the Ottoman army in 1453. Ali's piece is assumed to have closely followed the outline of the large bombards used at the siege of Constantinople.


title: Dardanelles Gun

text: Along with other huge cannons, the Dardanelles Gun was still present for duty more than 340 years later in 1807, when a Royal Navy force appeared and commenced the Dardanelles Operation. Turkish forces loaded the ancient relics with propellant and projectiles, then fired them at the British ships. The British squadron suffered 28 casualties from this bombardment. A spherical round made of full iron, of diameter, has a weight of .


title: Dardanelles Gun

text: The gun was being considered for scrapping by 1850 but this was held off after John Henry Lefroy tried to get it added to the collection of Britain’s Royal Military Depository. In 1866, on the occasion of a state visit, Sultan Abdulaziz gave the Dardanelles Gun to Queen Victoria as a present. It became part of the Royal Armouries collection and was displayed to visitors at the Tower of London. In 1989, it was moved to Fort Nelson, Hampshire, overlooking Portsmouth.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Scott Harry Nathaniel Arfield (born 1 November 1988) is a professional association footballer who plays as a midfielder for Scottish Premiership club Rangers.


title: Scott Arfield

text: He began his career at Falkirk before moving to the English leagues for eight years with Huddersfield Town and Burnley. Born and raised in Scotland, Arfield represented his nation of birth at international youth levels before switching to Canada in 2016.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield came up through the Falkirk Youth Academy and earned promotion to the first team squad. He made his Falkirk debut on 4 August 2007, in their 4–0 win away at Gretna on the opening day of the 2007–08 season. His first goal came in Falkirk's 4–2 defeat at Inverness Caledonian Thistle. He then scored twice in a 4–0 win over St Mirren. He won the Scottish Premier League "Young Player of the Month" award for December 2007. Arfield signed a new five-year contract with Falkirk in February 2008. He finished the season with three goals in 35 SPL appearances.


title: Scott Arfield

text: During the 2008–09 season Arfield won his second Young Player of the Month award, this time winning for September 2008. He was in the Falkirk side that were Scottish Cup runners-up, losing 1–0 to Rangers in the Final at Hampden Park. Arfield scored 10 goals in the 2008–09 season, seven of them coming in the league.


title: Scott Arfield

text: He was given the number 10 jersey, previously worn by Steven Pressley, for the 2009–10 season. Hamilton Academical offered £100,000 for Arfield in August 2009, but this was rejected by Falkirk, who commented that they "thought they had missed out a zero in the figure they offered".


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield's first appearance of the 2009–10 season came in a 1–0 home win over FC Vaduz in the UEFA Europa League, the club's first ever match in European competition. He finished the season with three goals from 36 appearances as the club were relegated from the SPL.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Speculation began to grow that Arfield was to leave Falkirk following their relegation from the SPL. On 17 May 2010, it was confirmed that Arfield was having talks with Huddersfield Town and was to have a medical at the club. Falkirk had already turned down offers from Hamilton Academical, Hibernian, Hearts and Southampton.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield left Falkirk after playing 108 games, scoring 13 times between 2007 and 2010. He made his last appearance for Falkirk in the 0–0 draw with Kilmarnock that confirmed relegation on the last day of the season.


title: Scott Arfield

text: On 21 May 2010, it was reported that Arfield had signed for Huddersfield Town for a reported fee initially in the region of £400,000 but potentially rising to over £600,000 after a certain number of appearances. The move was confirmed three days later, after the club and the player had agreed personal terms. He made his Huddersfield debut in the 3–0 win over Notts County at Meadow Lane on 7 August 2010. On 11 September 2010, he scored his first goal for the "Terriers" at Brisbane Road against Leyton Orient, where "Town" won 2–1. A week later, he scored his first goal at the Galpharm Stadium against Yeovil Town, in a 4–2 win for the home side.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield was a regular in the Huddersfield side, making 38 appearances and scoring twice in all competitions as they finished the season as Play-off champions and gained promotion to the Championship after beating Sheffield United on penalties in the Wembley final, Arfield scoring his penalty to make it 2–1 as Huddersfield won by 8–7. Arfield made fewer appearances in Town's first season in the Championship, and at the end of the season was released along with Tom Clarke and Alan Lee.


title: Scott Arfield

text: After leaving Huddersfield, Arfield went on trial with Burnley and scored in the 3–0 win over Cork City on 15 July 2013, before signing a two-year deal 4 days later with the "Clarets". Arfield selected the number 37 shirt in memory of fellow Falkirk youth player Craig Gowans, who wore the same squad number when he was tragically killed in a training ground accident in 2005. He scored his first professional goal for Burnley on 6 August 2013, in a 4–0 win against York City in the League Cup. Arfield scored 9 goals in 49 competitive appearances for Burnley during the 2013–14 season. Burnley won promotion to the Premier League and Arfield signed a three-year contract with the club in July 2014. Arfield scored on his Premier League debut for Burnley against Chelsea in the 14th minute of their opening game of the season.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield returned to Scotland and signed a four-year deal with Rangers on 14 May 2018. He made his debut for the club on 12 July 2018 in a Europa League qualification tie against FK Shkupi of Macedonia, and made his Scottish Premiership debut a few weeks later on 5 August, against Aberdeen.


title: Scott Arfield

text: On 7 April 2019, Arfield scored his first professional hat-trick in a 3–0 victory against Motherwell.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield represented Scotland at under-19, under-21 and B international levels. He made his debut for Scotland under-19 in a 3–1 away friendly victory over Austria. His second and last outing for the under-19s came four days later in the 2–1 home win over Norway, coming on as a substitute for Alex Pearce in the 65th minute of the game.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield was then a member of the Scotland under-21 squad, being called up for the first time in October 2007. His debut came in a 4–0 defeat against Netherlands on 16 October 2007. He was a regular in Billy Stark's squad throughout the 2009 and 2011 European qualifying campaigns. Arfield's first goal for the under-21s came in a 2–2 draw with Ukraine on 6 February 2008.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield received his first cap for Scotland B against Northern Ireland at the Excelsior Stadium in Airdrie on 6 May 2009. Scotland won the game 3–0.


title: Scott Arfield

text: Arfield also qualified to play for Canada, because his father was born in Toronto. In February 2016, it was widely reported that Arfield was prepared to file his one-time switch paperwork with FIFA, which was needed for him to join the Canada squad. In March 2016, Arfield was included in Canada's 23-man squad for their World Cup Qualification match against Mexico. He made his debut on 25 March as a second half substitute for Tosaint Ricketts in a 3–0 home defeat to Mexico at BC Place. Arfield was named to Canada's squad for the 2017 CONCACAF Gold Cup on 27 June 2017. His first goal for Canada came in the tournament opener against French Guiana on 7 July.


title: Scott Arfield

text: In 2018, at the opening of Canada's Nations League campaign, Arfield was named captain of the squad in their match against U.S. Virgin Islands. In May 2019, Arfield was named to the squad for the 2019 CONCACAF Gold Cup. During an unofficial training match prior to the 2019 Gold Cup on 10 June, he scored both goals in a 2–0 win against Trinidad and Tobago.


title: Scott Arfield

text: In October 2020 Rangers coach Steven Gerrard suggested that Arfield had retired from international duty. Arfield later refuted the claim in an interview with Rangers TV, stating that his continued involvement with Canada would be up to coach John Herdman. After missing Canada's 2022 World Cup qualifiers in March and June 2021, Arfield was named to the provisional 60-man squad for the 2021 CONCACAF Gold Cup, but did not make the final 23-man team.


title: Neighborhoods in New York City

text: The neighborhoods in New York City are located within the five boroughs of the City of New York. Their names and borders are not officially defined, and they change from time to time.


title: Neighborhoods in New York City

text: New York City is split up into five boroughs: the Bronx, Brooklyn, Manhattan, Queens, and Staten Island. Each borough has the same boundaries as a county of the state. The county governments were dissolved when the city consolidated in 1898, along with all city, town, and village governments within each county. The term "borough" was adopted to describe a unique form of governmental administration for each of the five fundamental constituent parts of the newly consolidated city.


title: Iswarya Menon

text: Iswarya Menon's family hails from Chendamangalam, Kerala, but she was born and brought up in Erode, Tamil Nadu.She completed her Instrumentation engineering from SRM Institute Of Science and Technology


title: Iswarya Menon

text: Iswarya Menon debuted in Tamil cinema in "Kadhalil Sodhappuvadhu Yeppadi". She debuted as Akshara in the Kannada industry with "Dasavala" which was directed by M S Ramesh. She was cast opposite Prem, of "Jogi" fame. The film released on 11 October 2013 and her performance as a mentally challenged girl was generally well received.


title: Iswarya Menon

text: Menon's next release was the Tamil film "Apple Penne". It was based on a mother and daughter relationship, with Iswarya as the daughter, and Roja Selvamani as her mother. She next appeared in the Kannada horror comedy "Namo Bhootatma".


title: Iswarya Menon

text: Co-starring Fahadh Faasil, she made her next Malayalam debut in the romance film "Monsoon Mangoes", in which she portrays Rekha, a "practical and independent young woman". She then appeared in CS Amudhan's "Tamizh Padam 2".


title: Clan MacLeod

text: Clan MacLeod (; ) is a Highland Scottish clan associated with the Isle of Skye. There are two main branches of the clan: the MacLeods of Harris and Dunvegan, whose chief is MacLeod of MacLeod, are known in Gaelic as ("seed of Tormod"); the Clan MacLeod of Lewis and Raasay, whose chief is MacLeod of The Lewes (), are known in Gaelic as ("seed of Torcall"). Both branches claim descent from Leòd, who lived in the 13th century.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: Today, Clan MacLeod of The Lewes, Clan MacLeod of Raasay, and Clan MacLeod are represented by "Associated Clan MacLeod Societies", and the chiefs of the three clans. The association is made up of ten national societies across the world including: Australia, Canada, England, France, Germany, New Zealand, Scotland, South Africa, Switzerland, and the United States.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The surname MacLeod means 'son of Leod'. The name Leod is an Anglicization of the Scottish Gaelic name Leòd, which is thought to have been derived from the Old Norse. "Clann" means "children of the family, offspring, descendants, clan", while "mhic" is the genitive of "mac", the Gaelic for "son", and "Leòid" is the genitive of Leòd. The whole phrase "Clan McLeod" therefore means "The children/offspring/descendants of the son of Leod".


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The Clan MacLeod of Lewis claims its descent from Leod, who according to MacLeod tradition was a younger son of Olaf the Black, King of Mann (r.1229–1237). However, articles have been published in the Clan MacLeod magazine which suggest an alternative genealogy for Leod, one in which he was not son of Olaf, but a 3rd cousin (some removed) from Magnus the last King of Mann. In these alternative genealogies, using the genealogy of Christina MacLeod, great granddaughter of Leod, who married Hector Reaganach (McLean/McLaine). These articles suggest that the relationship to the Kings of Mann was through a female line, that of Helga of the beautiful hair. The dating of Christina's genealogy and the ability to line it up with known historical facts lend a great deal of authenticity to the claims of the authors.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: MacLeod tradition is that Leod, who had possession of Harris and part of Skye, married a daughter of the Norse seneschal of Skye, MacArailt or Harold's son who held Dunvegan and much of Skye. Tradition stated that Leod's two sons, Tormod and Torquil, founded the two main branches of the Clan MacLeod, "Siol Tormod" and "Siol Torquil". Torquil was actually a grandson of Tormod; Torquil's descendants held the lands of the Isle of Lewis until the early seventeenth century when the Mackenzies successfully overthrew the Lewismen, partly with the aid of the Morrisons, and the MacLeods of Harris (Siol Tormod). Younger branches of Siol Torquil held the mainland lands of Assynt and Cadboll longer, and the Isle of Raasay until 1846. Siol Tormod held Harris and Glenelg on the mainland, and also the lands of Dunvegan on the Isle of Skye.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: Leod, according to tradition, died around 1280 and was buried on the holy island of Iona, where six successive chiefs of the clan found a last resting-place after him.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: Tormod, son of Leod, does not appear in contemporary records; though according to MacLeod tradition preserved in the 19th century "Bannatyne manuscript", he was a noted soldier of his era and was present at the Battle of Bannockburn. Tormod's son and successor, Malcolm, is the first of the clan to appear in contemporary record when both he and his kinsman, Torquil, are recorded as "Malcolme, son to Tormode M'Cloyde", and "Torkyll M'Cloyd", in a royal charter dating to about 1343, during the reign of David II (r. 1329–1371).


title: Clan MacLeod

text: Malcolm was succeeded by his eldest child, Iain Ciar, as fourth chief of the clan. R.C. MacLeod dated this event to about 1330. Iain Ciar appears in MacLeod tradition as the most tyrannical chief of the clan; his wife is also said to have been just as cruel as he. Clan tradition states that he was wounded in an ambush on Harris, and soon after died from these wounds at the church at Rodel. R.C. MacLeod dated his death to 1392. Tradition has it that the Lord of the Isles made another attack on Skye in 1395, but Iain's grandson William MacLeod met the MacDonalds at Sligachan (Sligichen) and drove them back to Loch Eynort (Ainort). There they found that their galleys had been moved offshore by the MacAskills, and every invader was killed. The spoils were divided at Creag an Fheannaidh ('Rock of the Flaying') or Creggan ni feavigh ('Rock of the Spoil'), sometimes identified with the Bloody Stone in Harta Corrie.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The Battle of Harlaw was fought in 1411 where the MacLeods fought as Highlanders in support of Domhnall of Islay, Lord of the Isles, chief of Clan Donald.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The Battle of Bloody Bay was fought in 1481 where the Clan MacLeod supported John of Islay, Earl of Ross, chief of Clan Donald against his bastard son Angus Og Macdonald. William Dubh MacLeod, chief of Clan MacLeod was killed in the battle.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: In 1588 William MacLeod of Dunvegan, the 13th chief, bound himself and his heirs in a bond of manrent to ""assist, maintain, and defend, and concur with Lachlan Mackintosh of Dunachton, Captain and Chief of the Clan Chattan, and his heirs.""


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The Battle of Coire Na Creiche in 1601 on Skye saw the MacLeods defeated by Clan MacDonald of Sleat on the northern slopes of the Cuillin hills. In 1608 after a century of feuding which included battles between the MacDonalds, the Clan Mackenzie and Clan MacLean, all of the relevant Chiefs were called to a Lee lr meeting with Lord Ochiltree who was the King's representative. Here they discussed the future Royal intentions for governing the Isles. The Chiefs did not agree with the King and were all thrown into prison. Donald the Chief of the Clan MacDonald of Sleat was incarcerated in the Blackness Castle. His release was granted when he at last submitted to the King. Donald died in 1616 and then Donald Gorm Org MacDonald, 9th Chief, 1st Baronet of Sleat, his nephew succeeded as the chief and became the first Baronet of Sleat. Clan MacDonald of Sleat continues to hold title to Trotternish and Sleat on Skye from that day until the present.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: During the Civil War, after the Battle of Carbisdale in 1650 the defeated James Graham, 1st Marquess of Montrose surrendered himself to Neil MacLeod of Assynt at Ardvreck Castle. MacLeod' wife, Christine Munro, tricked Montrose into the castle dungeon and sent for troops of the Covenanter Government, and as a result Montrose was captured and executed.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The MacLeods having supported the Jacobite rising of 1715, General Wade's report on the Highlands in 1724, estimated the clan strength at 1,000 men.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: During the Jacobite rising of 1745 the chief of the Clan MacLeod, Norman MacLeod of Dunvegan, did not support the Jacobites and instead raised several Independent Highland Companies in support of the Government forces. The chief led 500 men of the MacLeod Independent Highland Companies in support of the Government at the Battle of Inverurie, on 23 December 1745, where they were defeated.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The Macleods of Raasay, a branch of the MacLeods of Lewis, fought at the Battle of Culloden as part of the Glengarry Regiment, in retribution, the MacLeods of Dunvegan, under their chief, Norman MacLeod, burned and pillaged the Island of Raasay, harassing its inhabitants for many weeks in the late summer of 1746. As a result, Norman MacLeod became known as "The Wicked Man". In 1745, MacLeod of Dunvegan was said to have been able to "bring out" 700 men.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The eldest son of Norman MacLeod of MacLeod (1812–1895), Norman Magnus (1839–1929), succeeded as the 26th chief. The 26th chief died without male issue. Norman MacLeod of MacLeod's second eldest son, Torquil Olave (1841–1857) had earlier died without issue as well. Norman Magnus MacLeod of MacLeod was, therefore, succeeded by Norman MacLeod of MacLeod's third son, Sir Reginald MacLeod of MacLeod (1847–1935), as the 27th chief of Clan MacLeod. Sir Reginald MacLeod of MacLeod had no sons, but two daughters. Dame Flora MacLeod succeeded her father and was followed by her grandson John MacLeod. In 2007, Hugh Magnus MacLeod became the 30th Chief of the Clan MacLeod. For the following events see Chiefs of Clan MacLeod.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: There are ten clan societies affiliated with the Associated Clan MacLeod Societies (ACMS), based in Edinburgh, Scotland. The ACMS is international body which coordinates the ten affiliated national societies around the world. The national societies are Australia (established 1912; re-established 1951), Canada (est. 1936), England (est. 1937), France (est. 1981), Germany (est. 2003), Switzerland ( est. 2013), New Zealand (est. 1954), Scotland (est. 1891), South Africa (est. 1960) and The United States of America (est. 1954). Membership to many of these societies are open to anyone who bears the surname Macleod; anyone who is descended from people bearing the surname MacLeod, connected by marriage; anyone who is a member of the septs of the clan; anyone with an interest in the affairs of the clan, whether or not they are related to the MacLeods. In some societies, memberships are available at a price; with yearly memberships to 15-year memberships (Scotland). Every four years members of the national societies gather together at a clan parliament. The last clan parliament was held at the end of July 2014 and took place at Dunvegan.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: There are several notable heirlooms belonging to the chiefs of the clan and held at their seat of Dunvegan Castle. Possibly the best known is the Fairy Flag which has numerous traditions attributed its origins and supposed magical powers. It was said to have had the power, when unfurled, to save the clan on three separate occasions. Another heirloom is a wooden and silver ceremonial cup, known as the Dunvegan Cup, which was made in Ireland and dates back to 1493. The cup is thought to have passed into the possession of the Macleods sometime in the 16th or 17th century, during which time the Macleods sent aid to certain Irish chieftains in their warring against English-backed forces. Another heirloom is Sir Rory Mor's Horn, named after the 15th chief of the clan. Clan tradition states that the male heir of the clan must quaff a drink from the horn in one go.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: Members of Clan Macleod are entitled to wear a crest badge to show their allegiance to their clan chief. Macleod of Lewis Dress Tartan Kilt is selected a range of some of the most popular Macleod of Lewis Tartans, As it is usually available in variations in which ancient and modern are most popular. This crest badge contains the heraldic crest and heraldic motto of the clan chief. These elements, like the chief's coat of arms, are the heraldic property of the chief alone. The crest within the crest badge is blazoned "a bull's head cabossed sable, horned Or, between two flags gules, staved at the first"; and the motto is "hold fast". Members of Clan Macleod of The Lewes are entitled to wear a different crest badge, derived from the arms of the chief of that clan.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: Members of Clan Macleod may also wear a sprig of juniper, as a clan badge. Clan badges are usually worn on a bonnet behind the crest badge, or attached at the shoulder of a lady's tartan sash.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: Septs are clans or families who were under the protection of a more powerful clan or family. Scottish clans were largely collections of different families who held allegiance to a common chief. The following names, according to the Associated Clan MacLeod Societies, are attributed as septs of Clan Macleod (of Dunvegan and Harris); there are also a number of other septs attributed to Clan Macleod of The Lewes.


title: Clan MacLeod

text: The Clan MacLeod is featured prominently in the "Highlander" franchise, with four major characters - Connor, Duncan, Colin and Quentin MacLeod - all being members.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The history of the Jews in England goes back to the reign of William the Conqueror. Although it is likely that there had been some Jewish presence in the Roman period, there is no definitive evidence, and no reason to suppose that there was any community during Anglo-Saxon times. The first written record of Jewish settlement in England dates from 1070. The Jewish settlement continued until King Edward I's Edict of Expulsion in 1290. After the expulsion, there was no overt Jewish community (as opposed to individuals practising Judaism secretly) until the rule of Oliver Cromwell. While Cromwell never officially readmitted Jews to the Commonwealth of England, a small colony of Sephardic Jews living in London was identified in 1656 and allowed to remain.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The Jewish Naturalisation Act of 1753, an attempt to legalise the Jewish presence in England, remained in force for only a few months. Historians commonly date Jewish Emancipation to either 1829 or 1858, while Benjamin Disraeli, born Jewish but converted to Anglicanism, had been elected twice as the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom in 1868 and in 1874. At the insistence of Irish leader Daniel O'Connell, in 1846 the British law "De Judaismo", which prescribed a special dress for Jews, was repealed. Due to the rarity of anti-Jewish violence in Britain in the 19th century, it acquired a reputation for religious tolerance and attracted significant immigration from Eastern Europe. By the outbreak of World War II, about half a million European Jews fled to England to escape the Nazis, but only about 70,000 (including almost 10,000 children) were granted entry.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Jews faced antisemitism and stereotypes in Britain, and antisemitism "in most cases went along with Germanophobia" during World War I to the extent that Jews were equated with Germans, despite the British royal family having partial German ethnic origins. This led many Ashkenazi Jewish families to Anglicise their often German-sounding names.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Jews in the UK now number around 275,000, with over 260,000 of these in England, which contains the second largest Jewish population in Europe (behind France) and the fifth largest Jewish community worldwide. The majority of the Jews in England live in and around London, with almost 160,000 Jews in London itself and a further 20,800 in nearby Hertfordshire, primarily in Bushey (4,500), Borehamwood (3,900), and Radlett (2,300). The next most significant population is in Greater Manchester with a community of slightly more than 25,000, primarily in Bury (10,360), Salford (7,920), Manchester itself (2,725), and Trafford (2,490). There are also significant communities in Leeds (6,760), Gateshead (3,000), Brighton (2,730), Liverpool (2,330), Birmingham (2,150), and Southend (2,080). It is generally believed that Jews are undercounted in censuses due to a disinclination on the parts of some community members to reveal their ethnoreligious background and practice, so these numbers may be low estimates.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: It is probable that there were Jews in Roman Britain under the Roman Empire, perhaps as soldiers, slaves, silversmiths or traders. However there is little or no definitive evidence. One piece of circumstantial evidence is from a tradition in Caerleon (in Wales), a major legionary base, of two Roman era Christian martyrs, Julius and Aaron, with the name Aaron suggesting Jewish origin.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: There is little reason to think that there was any settled Jewish presence in Anglo-Saxon England, although there is considerable discussion of the nature of Jewish religion and its relationship to Christianity in literature. The few references in the Anglo-Saxon Church laws relate to Jewish practices about Easter.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: William of Malmesbury states that William the Conqueror brought Jews from Rouen to England during the Norman Conquest. William the Conqueror's object may be inferred: his policy was to get feudal dues paid to the royal treasury in coin rather than in kind, and for this purpose it was necessary to have a body of men scattered through the country who would supply quantities of coin.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Prior to their expulsion in 1290, the status of Jews in England was completely dependent on the will of the Crown. English Jews were legally under the jurisdiction of the king, who offered them protection in return for their economic function. As "royal serfs", they were allowed freedom of the king's highways, exemption from tolls, the ability to hold land directly from the king, and physical protection in the vast network of royal castles built to assert Norman authority.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The Jews of London were the responsibility of the Constable of the Tower and for this reason they were able to seek refuge in the Tower of London when at risk of mob violence. This was resorted to on a number of occasions, with large numbers staying there, sometimes for months at a time. There are records of a body of Jewish men-at-arms forming part of the garrison of the Tower in 1267, during a civil war.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: A clause to that effect was inserted under Henry I in some manuscripts of the so-called "Leges Edwardi Confessoris" ("Laws of Edward the Confessor"). Henry granted a charter to Rabbi Joseph, the chief Rabbi of London, and his followers. Under this charter, Jews were permitted to move about the country without paying tolls, to buy and sell, to sell their pledges after holding them a year and a day, to be tried by their peers, and to be sworn on the Torah rather than on a Christian Bible. Special weight was attributed to a Jew's oath, which was valid against that of twelve Christians. The sixth clause of the charter was especially important: it granted to Jews the right to move wherever they wanted, as if they were the king's own property ("sicut res propriæ nostræ"). As the king's property, English Jews could be mortgaged whenever the monarch needed to raise revenue and could be taxed without the permission of Parliament, eventually becoming the main taxpaying population.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: English Jews experienced a "golden age" of sorts under Henry II in the late 12th century due to huge economic expansion and increased demand for credit. Major Jewish fortunes were made in London, Oxford, Lincoln, England, Bristol, and Norwich. The Crown, in turn, capitalized on the prosperity of its Jews. In addition to many arbitrary taxes, Richard I established the Ordinance of the Jewry in 1194 in an attempt to organize the Jewish community. It ensured that mandatory records would be kept by royal officials for all Jewish transactions. Every debt was recorded on a chirography to allow the king immediate and complete access to Jewish property. Richard also established a special exchequer to collect any unpaid debts due after the death of a Jewish creditor. The establishment of the Exchequer of the Jews eventually made all transactions of the English Jewry liable to taxation by the king in addition to the 10% of all sums recovered by Jews with the help of English courts. So, while the First and Second Crusades increased anti-Jewish sentiments, Jews in England went relatively unscathed beyond occasional fines and special levies. Though they did not experience the same kind of social mobility and cultural advancements that Jews under Muslim rule did, the Jews of England's population and prosperity increased under the protection of the king.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The status of Jews in England dramatically worsened with the consolidation of governmental authority as well as the deepening of popular piety in the late 12th century; further isolating Jews from the greater English community. Though rulers of both church and state exploited and monopolized on the advancements in commerce and industry of English Jews, popular anti-Jewish sentiments grew as a result of their prosperity and relationship with the king and the courts. External pressures such as the circulating myth of the blood libel, the religious tensions in light of the Crusades, and the interference of Pope Innocent III in the late 12th century created an increasingly violent environment for English Jews. Mob violence increased against the Jews in London, Norwich, and Lynn. Entire Jewries were murdered in York. Because of their financial utility, however, English Jews were still offered royal protection, and Richard I continued to renew orders to protect the Jews, formalizing the Exchequer and designating "archae", or centralized record chests monitored by panels of local Christian and Jewish key holders to better protect records of all Jewish transactions.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The incompetence of King John in the early 13th century depleted even the wealthiest Jews, and though they had more than a decade to recover, Henry III's equally mismanaged finances pressed roughly 70,000 pounds out of a population of only 5,000. To do so, they had to sell off many of their mortgage bonds to wealthy nobles. The Jews then became a focal point of those debtors' hatred and mass violence spiked again in the mid-13th century. Their legal status, however, did not change until Henry's son, Edward I, took control of the Jewries. He issued restrictive statutes, forbidding them from taking any more property into bond, the means by which they could lend money and how they lived. With almost all means of income denied them and property being confiscated, the Jewish population diminished. New waves of crusading zeal in the 1280s in conjunction with debt resentment pressured Edward into the expulsion of the depleted Jewish community in 1290.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Gentile-Jewish relations in England were disturbed under King Stephen, who burned down the house of a Jew in Oxford (some accounts say with a Jew in it) because he refused to pay a contribution to the king's expenses. In 1144 came the first report in history of the blood libel against Jews; it came up in the case of William of Norwich (1144). Anthony Julius finds that the English were endlessly imaginative in inventing antisemitic allegations against the Jews. He says that England became the "principal promoter, and indeed in some sense the inventor of literary anti-Semitism." In his book, Julius argues that blood libel is the key, because it incorporates the themes that Jews are malevolent, constantly conspiring against Christians, powerful, and merciless. Variations include stories about Jews poisoning wells, twisting minds, and buying and selling Christian souls and bodies.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: While the Crusaders were killing Jews in Germany, outbursts against Jews in England were, according to Jewish chroniclers, prevented by King Stephen.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: With the restoration of order under Henry II, Jews renewed their activity. Within five years of his accession Jews were found at London, Oxford, Cambridge, Norwich, Thetford, Bungay, Canterbury, Winchester, Stafford, Windsor, and Reading. Yet they were not permitted to bury their dead elsewhere than in London, a restriction which was not removed till 1177. Their spread throughout the country enabled the king to draw upon their resources as occasion demanded. He repaid them with demand notes on the sheriffs of the counties, who accounted for payments thus made in the half-yearly accounts on the pipe rolls (see Aaron of Lincoln). Strongbow's conquest of Ireland (1170) was financed by Josce, a Jew of Gloucester; and the king accordingly fined Josce for having lent money to those under his displeasure. As a rule, however, Henry II does not appear to have limited in any way the financial activity of Jews. The favourable position of English Jews was shown, among other things, by the visit of Abraham ibn Ezra in 1158, by that of Isaac of Chernigov in 1181, and by the immigration to England of Jews who were exiled from the king's properties in France by Philip Augustus in 1182, among them probably being Judah Sir Leon of Paris.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: In 1168, when concluding an alliance with Frederick Barbarossa, Henry II seized the chief representatives of the Jews and sent them to Normandy, and imposed a tallage on the rest of the community of 5,000 marks. When, however, he asked the rest of the country to pay a tithe for the Crusade against Saladin in 1188, he demanded a quarter of all Jewish chattels. The so-called "Saladin tithe" was reckoned at £70,000, the quarter at £60,000. In other words, the value of the personal property of Jews was regarded as one-fourth that of the whole country. It is improbable, however, that the whole amount was paid at once, as for many years after the imposition of the tallage, arrears were demanded from the recalcitrant Jews.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Aaron of Lincoln is believed to have been the wealthiest man in 12th century Britain. It is estimated that his wealth may have exceeded that of the king. The king had probably been led to make this large demand on English Jewry's money by the surprising windfall which came to his treasury at Aaron's death in 1186. All property obtained by usury, whether by Jew or by Christian, fell into the king's hands on the death of the usurer; Aaron of Lincoln's estate included £15,000 worth of debts owed to him. Besides this, Aaron's large fortune passed to King Henry but much of it was lost on the journey to the royal coffers in Normandy. A special branch of the treasury, known as "Aaron's Exchequer", was established in order to deal with this large account.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: During the earlier years of Henry II's reign Jews lived on good terms with their non-Jewish neighbours, including the clergy. They entered churches freely, and took refuge in the abbeys in times of commotion. Some Jews lived in opulent houses, and helped to build many of the abbeys and monasteries of the country. However, by the end of Henry's reign they had incurred the ill-will of the upper classes. Anti-Jewish sentiment, fostered by the Crusades during the latter part of the reign of Henry, spread throughout the nation.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The persecution of England's Jews was brutal, and massacres were recorded in London, Northampton and York during the crusades in 1189 and 1190. The massacre at York was mentioned by William of Newburgh that it was carried out less for religious reasons, but instead for greed. In 1269, Henry III made blasphemy by Jews a hanging offence, and when Edward returned from Crusade, he passed the Statute of Jewry in 1275. The number of Jews were around 2,000 in England.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: To finance his war against Wales in 1276, Edward I of England taxed Jewish moneylenders. When the moneylenders could no longer pay the tax, they were accused of disloyalty. Already restricted to a limited number of occupations, Edward abolished their "privilege" to lend money, restricted their movements and activities and forced Jews to wear a yellow patch. The heads of Jewish households were then arrested with over 300 being taken to the Tower of London and executed. Others were killed in their homes.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: On 17 November 1278 all Jews of England, believed to have numbered around 3,000, were arrested on suspicion of coin clipping and counterfeiting, and all Jewish homes in England were searched. At the time, coin clipping was a widespread practice, which both Jews and Christians were involved in, and a financial crisis resulted, and according to one contemporary source, the practice reduced the currency's value to half of its face value. In 1275, coin clipping was made a capital offence, and in 1278, raids on suspected coin clippers were carried out. According to the Bury Chronicle, "All Jews in England of whatever condition, age or sex were unexpectedly seized … and sent for imprisonment to various castles throughout England. While they were thus imprisoned, the innermost recesses of their houses were ransacked." Some 680 were detained in the Tower of London. More than 300 are believed to have been executed in 1279. Those who could afford to buy a pardon and had a patron at the royal court escaped punishment.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Edward I increasingly showed antisemitism as in 1280 he granted a right to levy a toll on the rivulet bridge at Brentford "for the passage of goods over it, with a special tax at the rate of 1d. each for Jews and Jewesses on horse, 0.5d. each on foot from which all other travellers were exempt". This antipathy eventually culminated in his legislating for the expulsion of all Jews from the country in 1290. Most were only allowed to take what they could carry. A small number of Jews favoured by the king were permitted to sell their properties first, though most of the money and property of these dispossessed Jews was confiscated. Almost all evidence of a Jewish presence in England would have been wiped out if it had not been for the efforts of one monk, Gregory of Huntingdon, who purchased all the Jewish texts he could to begin translating them.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: From then until 1655, there is no official record of Jews in England outside the Domus Conversorum, with a few exceptions such as Jacob Barnet, who was ultimately arrested and exiled.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Over the course of his reign, Henry VIII showed interest in Judaism. During his attempt to annul his marriage to Catherine of Aragon, Henry's representatives consulted with notable Italian Jews, and he attempted to justify his annulment using laws from the Old Testament. Later in Henry's reign Hebrew was first printed in England, and in 1549 Henry allowed Hebrew to be used in private worship.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: From the beginning of the 16th century, in the wake of the Spanish Inquisition, Jews began to return to England. Although Jews had to conceal their religion for fear of raising discourse, they needed only to conceal it loosely, and many Jews in England became known as Jews, despite their attempts to conceal their faith. Many hidden Jews made names for themselves while in England. One Marrano from Spain, Hector Nunes, played a vital role in English espionage by relaying intelligence from Spain to Queen Elizabeth's spymaster, Sir Francis Walsingham, on his merchant vessels. This information was instrumental in England's defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1588. Another Jew who made a name for himself in England was Joachim Gaunse of Bohemia, who came to England as a metallurgist and metal engineer to aid in their defeat of Spain. Because of his work, Sir Walter Raleigh invited Gaunse to sail with him on an expedition to North America, where he became the first Jew to set foot on North American soil.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Another Marrano gained attention in England for less patriotic reasons. Roderigo Lopez, who became personal physician to Elizabeth I, was bribed by the Spanish Crown to poison the Queen, and he was executed after the plan was discovered. This prompted a wave of anti-Jewish sentiment in England which had not been seen since the Jews' expulsion. In the wake of his trial, famous plays like William Shakespeare's "The Merchant of Venice" and Christopher Marlowe's "The Jew of Malta" were written, both of which depict Jews in negative, stereotypical manners.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Toward the middle of the 17th century a considerable number of Marrano merchants settled in London and formed there a secret congregation, at the head of which was Antonio Fernandez Carvajal and Samuel Maylott, a French merchant, who has many descendants in England. They conducted a large business with the Levant, East and West Indies, Canary Islands, and Brazil, and above all with the Netherlands and Spain.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Francis Drake's quartermaster in his circumnavigation of the globe was named as "Moses the Jew". There is evidence of Jews resident in Plymouth in the 17th century.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Prior to their resettlement, a growing philo-Semitism in England had turned the environment there into a more hospitable one for Jews. In the wake of the English Reformation, it became more popular for Anglicans to identify their practices and traditions with Jewish ones over Catholic ones. In 1607, Cambridge University received its first rabbi to teach Hebrew to students, and many of these students went on to translate the King James Bible. This translation of the Bible, for the first time, began to "dehellenize" biblical names For example, Elias, as he had been called previously, became Elijah to sound more like the Hebrew pronunciation. Many Puritans showed great appreciation for these Old Testament names, and Puritan children were often named using the new Hebrew spellings. Puritans furthered the English appreciation of Judaism by adopting Jewish practices like strict observation of the Sabbath. When they challenged Anglican practices as being too similar to Catholic ones, Richard Hooker, a well-known Anglican theologian, was cunning enough to tie these practices to Jewish ones rather than Catholic ones in an attempt to silence the Puritan reformers' attacks. At the turn of the 17th century, Englishmen like Edwin Sandys and Laurence Aldersey began to show interest in Jewish culture, traveling to Jewish ghettos, visiting synagogues on the Sabbath, and comparing Jewish and Anglican practices in popular writings upon their returns. Oliver Cromwell believed the English to be one of the Ten Lost Tribes of Israel, and therefore entitled to the blessings promised in the Old Testament. Under his rule after the English Civil War, philo-Semitism flourished, making the climate right for Jews to propose their official readmission.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: In the 1650s, Menasseh Ben Israel, a rabbi and leader of the Dutch Jewish community, approached Cromwell with the proposition that Jews should at long-last be readmitted to England. He agreed, and although he could not compel a council called for the purpose in December 1655 to consent formally to readmission, he made it clear that the ban on Jews would no longer be enforced. In the years 1655–56, the controversy over the readmission of Jews was fought out in a pamphlet war. The issue divided religious radicals and more conservative elements within society. The Puritan William Prynne was vehemently opposed to permitting Jews to return, the Quaker Margaret Fell no less passionately in favour, like John Wemyss, a minister of the Church of Scotland. In the end, Jews were readmitted in 1655, and, by 1690, about 400 Jews had settled in England. Emblematic of the progress in the social status of Jews was the knighting by William III of England in 1700 of Solomon de Medina, the first Jew to be so honoured.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The Jewish Naturalisation Act received royal assent from George II on 7 July 1753 but was repealed in 1754 due to widespread opposition to its provisions.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: During the Jacobite rising of 1745, the Jews had shown particular loyalty to the government. Their chief financier, Samson Gideon, had strengthened the stock market, and several of the younger members had volunteered in the corps raised to defend London. Possibly as a reward, Henry Pelham in 1753 brought in the Jew Bill of 1753, which allowed Jews to become naturalised by application to Parliament. It passed the Lords without much opposition, but on being brought down to the House of Commons, the Tories made a great outcry against this "abandonment of Christianity", as they called it. The Whigs, however, persisted in carrying out at least one part of their general policy of religious toleration, and the bill was passed and received the royal assent (26 Geo. II., cap. 26).


title: History of the Jews in England

text: In 1798 Nathan Mayer von Rothschild established a business in Manchester, and later N M Rothschild & Sons bank in London, having been sent to the UK by his father Mayer Amschel Rothschild (1744–1812). The bank funded Wellington in the Napoleonic Wars, financed the British government's 1875 purchase of Egypt's interest in the Suez Canal and funded Cecil Rhodes in the development of the British South Africa Company. Beyond banking and finance, members of the Rothschild family in UK became academics, scientists and horticulturalists with worldwide reputations.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Some English ports, such as Hull started to receive immigrants and trading "port Jews" from around 1750.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: With Catholic Emancipation in 1829, the hopes of the Jews rose high; and the first step toward a similar alleviation in their case was taken in 1830 when William Huskisson presented a petition signed by 2,000 merchants and others of Liverpool. This was immediately followed by a bill presented by Robert Grant on 15 April of that year which was destined to engage the Parliament in one form or another for the next thirty years.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: In 1837, Queen Victoria knighted Moses Haim Montefiore; four years later, Isaac Lyon Goldsmid was made a baronet, the first Jew to receive a hereditary title. The first Jewish Lord Mayor of London, Sir David Salomons, was elected in 1855, followed by the 1858 emancipation of the Jews. On 26 July 1858, Lionel de Rothschild was finally allowed to sit in the British House of Commons when the law restricting the oath of office to Christians was changed; Benjamin Disraeli, a baptised Christian of Jewish parentage, was already an MP. In 1868, Disraeli became Prime Minister having earlier been Chancellor of the Exchequer. In 1884, Nathan Mayer Rothschild, 1st Baron Rothschild became the first Jewish member of the British House of Lords; again Disraeli was already a member. (Though born a Jew, Disraeli's baptism as a child qualified him as eligible for political aspirations, presenting no restrictions regarding a mandated Christian oath of office.) Disraeli as a leader of the Conservative Party, with its ties to the landed aristocracy, used his Jewish ancestry to claim an aristocratic heritage of his own. His biographer Jonathan Parry argues: Disraeli convinced himself (wrongly) that he derived from the Sephardi aristocracy of Iberian Jews driven from Spain at the end of the fifteenth century...Presenting himself as Jewish symbolized Disraeli’s uniqueness when he was fighting for respect, and explained his set-backs. Presenting Jewishness as aristocratic and religious legitimized his claim to understand the perils facing modern England and to offer ‘national’ solutions to them. English toryism was ‘copied from the mighty [Jewish] prototype’ ("Coningsby," bk 4, chap. 15). Disraeli was thus able to square his Jewishness with his equally deep attachment to England and her history.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Nevertheless, Todd Endelman points out that, "The link between Jews and old clothes was so fixed in the popular imagination that Victorian political cartoonists regularly drew Benjamin Disraeli (1804–81) as an old clothes man in order to stress his Jewishness." He adds, "Before the 1990s...few biographers of Disraeli or historians of Victorian politics acknowledged the prominence of the antisemitism that accompanied his climb up the greasy pole or its role in shaping his own singular sense of Jewishness.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: By 1880 the flourishing Jewish community in Birmingham was centred on its synagogue. The men organised collective action to defend the reputation and promote the interests of the community. Rituals regarding funerals and burials brought together the rich and the poor, the men and the women. Intermarriage outside the community was uncommon. However, the arrival of East European Jews after 1880 caused a split between the older, assimilated, middle-class Anglicized Jews and the generally much poorer new immigrants who spoke Yiddish.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: By 1882, 46,000 Jews lived in England and, by 1890, Jewish emancipation was complete in every walk of life. Since 1858, Parliament has never been without practising Jewish members. At this time many of the Jews of the East End moved to more prosperous parts of East London such as Hackney (including Dalston and Stamford Hill), or to North London districts such as Stoke Newington and Canonbury.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Synagogues were built openly, occasionally across the country as large, architecturally elaborate classical, romanesque, Italianate or Victorian gothic buildings such as Singers Hill Synagogue, in Birmingham. However, not all grand examples survive: for instance Dalston Synagogue (counter-intuitively not in Dalston, but in Newington Green, North London) in the last-mentioned style was in poor repair so its congregation sold its land for building of an apartment block and relocated in 1970.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The invasion scare of 1857 saw the creation of the Volunteer Force which included both Engineer and Rifle Volunteer Corps. These units were raised by local communities with the permission of their local Lord Lieutenant.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The Lord Lieutenant of the Tower Hamlets, an area larger than the modern borough and which stretched from Stepney to Stamford Hill, was the Constable of the Tower. With his permission, Jews from East London formed the "East Metropolitan Rifle Volunteers (11th Tower Hamlets)".


title: History of the Jews in England

text: "The Jewish Chronicle" reported on the 165 Jewish volunteers, marching along with fife and drum as "a sight never before seen in Britain, and very rarely if ever since the rising of Bar Cocba"


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Like most of the Volunteer Force units, the "East Metropolitan Rifle Volunteers" only existed for a short time before being merged with other (integrated) Tower Hamlets units, but their establishment stimulated debate in the Jewish community, at the time and subsequently, as to whether separate or integrated military units were more desirable.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: From the 1880s through the early part of the 20th century, massive pogroms and the May Laws in Russia caused many Jews to flee the Pale of Settlement. Of the East European Jewish emigrants, 1.9 million (80 percent) headed to the United States, and 140,000 (7 percent) to Britain. The chief mechanism was chain migration in which the first successful member(s) of the chain send information, local currency (and sometimes tickets or money for tickets) to later arrivals. These Ashkenazi Jews were funnelled by the railways of Europe to its North Sea and Baltic ports, and entered England via London, Hull, Grimsby and Newcastle. The Jewish communities of the Northern ports were swelled both by transient and temporary migrants, bound for New York, Buenos Aires, the Cape, as well as London and other British cities.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: In 1917, Walter Rothschild, 2nd Baron Rothschild set up the conditions for the Balfour Declaration, which promised a homeland in Palestine for Jews in a new Zionist State.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The Jewish population increased from 46,000 in 1880 to about 250,000 in 1919. They lived primarily in the large industrial cities, especially London, Manchester and Leeds. In London, many Jews lived in Spitalfields and Whitechapel, close to the docks, and hence the East End became known as a Jewish neighbourhood. Manchester, and neighbouring Salford, were also areas of Jewish settlement, particularly the Strangeways, Cheetham and Broughton districts. Unlike much of the Jewish community in Poland, the Jewish community in England generally embraced assimilation into wider English culture. They started Yiddish and Hebrew newspapers and youth movements such as the Jewish Lads' Brigade. Immigration was eventually restricted by the Aliens Act 1905, following pressure from groups such as the British Brothers' League. The 1905 legislation was followed by the Aliens Restriction (Amendment) Act 1919.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The Marconi scandal brought issues of antisemitism into the political arena, on the basis that senior ministers in the Liberal government had secretly profited from advanced knowledge of deals regarding wireless telegraphy. Some of the key players were Jewish. Historian Todd Endelman identifies Catholic writers as central critics:


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Historian Frances Donaldson says, "If Belloc's feeling against the Jews was instinctive and under some control, Chesterton's was open and vicious, and he shared with Belloc the peculiarity that the Jews were never far from his thoughts."


title: History of the Jews in England

text: About 50,000 Jews served in the British Armed Forces during World War I, and around 10,000 died on the battlefield, while Britain's first all-Jewish regiment, the Jewish Legion fought in Palestine. An important consequence of the war was the British conquest of the Palestinian Mandate, and the Balfour Declaration, making an agreement between the British Government and the Zionist Federation of Great Britain and Ireland to strive to set up a homeland for Jews in Palestine.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The Eastern European Jews brought with them a long history as skilled entrepreneurial middlemen. They were much more likely to become entrepreneurs than their gentile neighbours, with a heavy concentration in the garment industry as well as in retailing, entertainment and real estate. London provided excellent financing opportunities for entrepreneurs.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Antisemitism was a serious handicap for Britain's Jews, especially the widespread stereotype to the effect that Jews were weak, effeminate and cowardly. The Zionist social critic Max Nordau promoted the term "muscle Jew" as a rebuttal to the stereotype. Challenging that stereotype was an important motivation for wartime service in the Boer war and in the First World War. It was also motivation for sports that appealed to the largely working-class Jewish youth element.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: From the 1890s to the 1950s, British boxing was dominated by Jews whose families had migrated from Russia or the Austro-Hungarian Empire. Jews were heavily involved in boxing as professional and amateur fighters, managers, promoters, coaches and spectators—as well as gamblers and a certain criminal element that tried to fix fights. Their high visibility in a prestigious sport among the British working class helped reduce antisemitism and increased their acceptance in British society. The Jewish establishment worked hard to promote boxing among the youth, as a deliberate "Anglicisation" campaign designed to speed their adoption of British character traits and cultural values. The youth themselves eagerly participated, although the rising middle class status after the Second World War led to a sharp falloff of interest in younger generations.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: The most celebrated of the Jewish athletes in Britain was Harold Abrahams (1899–1978)-– the man made famous by the film "Chariots of Fire" for winning the gold medal in the 100 metre sprint in the 1924 Paris Olympics. Abrahams was thoroughly Anglicised, and his cultural integration went hand-in-hand with his sporting achievements. He became a hero to the British Jewish community. However, Abrahams' quest to enter upper class British society increasingly dominated his career, as his Jewishness meant less and less to him and his associates.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Though there was some growing antisemitism during the 1930s, it was counterbalanced by strong support for British Jews in their local communities leading to events such as the Battle of Cable Street where antisemitism and fascism was strongly resisted by socialists, trade unionists, Jews and their neighbours, who were successful in preventing a British Union of Fascists rally through a heavily Jewish area, despite police efforts to clear a path.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Consistent with its complex history, Britain was not particularly receptive to Jewish refugees fleeing the Nazi regime in Germany, and the other fascist states of Europe. Approximately 40,000 Jews from Austria and Germany were eventually allowed to settle in Britain before the War, in addition to 50,000 Jews from Italy, Poland, and elsewhere in Eastern Europe. Despite the increasingly dire warnings coming from Germany, Britain refused at the 1938 Evian Conference to allow further Jewish refugees into the country. The notable exception allowed by Parliament was the Kindertransport, an effort on the eve of war to transport Jewish children (their parents were not given visas) from Germany to Britain. Around 10,000 children were saved by the Kindertransport, out of a plan to rescue five times that number.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: During the Nazi occupation of the Channel Islands three Jews from Guernsey—Marianne Grunfeld, Therese Steiner, and Auguste Spitz—were deported to Saint-Malo, Nazi-occupied France, and eventually killed at Auschwitz concentration camp. They would be the only Jews deported from British soil and killed in the Holocaust.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: With the declaration of war, 74,000 German, Austrian and Italian citizens in the UK were interned as enemy aliens. After individual consideration by tribunal, the majority, largely made up of Jewish and other refugees, were released within six months.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Even more important to many Jews was the permission to settle in the British-controlled Mandatory Palestine. In order to try to maintain peace between the Jewish and Arab populations, especially after the 1936–1939 Arab revolt in Palestine, Britain strictly limited immigration. This limitation became nearly absolute after the White Paper of 1939 all but stopped legal immigration. During the War, Zionists organised an illegal immigration effort, conducted by "Hamossad Le'aliyah Bet" (the precursor of the Mossad) that rescued tens of thousands of European Jews from the Nazis by shipping them to Palestine in rickety boats. Many of these boats were intercepted and some sank with great loss of life. The efforts began in 1939, and the last immigrant boat to try to enter Palestine before the end of the war was MV "Struma", torpedoed in the Black Sea by a Soviet Navy submarine in February 1942. The boat sank with the loss of nearly 800 lives.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: Many Jews joined the British Armed Forces, including some 30,000 Jewish volunteers from Palestine alone, some of whom fought in the Jewish Brigade. Many formed the core of the Haganah after the war.


title: History of the Jews in England

text: By July 1945, 228,000 troops of the Polish Armed Forces in the West, including Polish Jews, were serving under the high command of the British Army. Many of these men and women were originally from the Kresy region of eastern Poland and were deported by Soviet First Secretary Joseph Stalin to Siberia 1939–1941. They were then released from the Soviet Gulags to form the Anders Army and marched to Iran to form the II Corps (Poland). The Polish II Corps then advanced to the British Mandate of Palestine, where many Polish Jews, including Menachem Begin, deserted to work on forming the state of Israel, in a process known as the 'Anders Aliyah'. Other Polish Jews remained in the Polish Army to fight alongside the British in the North Africa and Italy campaigns. Around 10,000 Polish Jews fought under the Polish flag – and British High Command – at the Battle of Monte Cassino. All of them were eligible to settle in the UK after the Polish Resettlement Act 1947, Britain's first mass immigration law.


title: Sour Patch Kids

text: Sour Patch Kids (known as Very Bad Kids in France, and known as Maynards Sour Patch Kids in Canada and previously in the UK) are a brand of soft candy with a coating of invert sugar and sour sugar (a combination of citric acid, tartaric acid, and sugar). The slogans "Sour Then Sweet" and "Sour. Sweet. Gone." refer to the candy's sour-to-sweet taste.


title: Sour Patch Kids

text: Sour Patch Kids were originally created by Frank Galatolie of Jaret International, under the name of Mars Men in the early 1970s. In the late 1970s, Cadbury and the Smeera Blyton Licorice Company of Sweden formed the Allen Candy Company in Hamilton, Ontario, to produce them. In 1985 they re-branded to Sour Patch Kids, but it is now owned by Santi. The name was likely changed to capitalize on the popularity of Cabbage Patch Kids.


title: Sour Patch Kids

text: World Gone Sour is a 2011 video game based on Sour Patch Kids. It was developed by Playbrains and published by Capcom. It was released on December 20, 2011, for PC, April 10, 2012, for PlayStation Network, and April 11, 2012, for Xbox Live Arcade (XBLA).


title: Adán Sánchez

text: Adán Santos Sánchez Vallejo (April 14, 1984 – March 27, 2004), known professionally as Adán Chalino Sánchez in honour to his father, was an American-Mexican singer and composer. Like his father, he specialized in Regional Mexican music.


title: Adán Sánchez

text: Sánchez was born in Torrance, California, the son of singer Chalino Sánchez. He was eight years old when his father was kidnapped and killed in the Mexican state of Sinaloa in 1992. His father's popularity skyrocketed after his death in 1992, giving way to a long series of compilation records, postmortem releases, and dedications. Raised by his mother in Paramount, California, he took up singing adopting his father nickname, "Chalino", and gained a strong local fan base among Mexican-American teenagers.


title: Adán Sánchez

text: Sánchez recorded his first full-length album in 1994, entitled "Soy el Hijo de Chalino", notable for the 10-year-old's brash and assertive vocals; the album's rousing title track evokes the style of celebrated singers from Mexico's Golden Age. As he grew into his teens, the majority of Sánchez's album titles began to revolve around the loss of his father, i.e. "La Corona de Mi Padre" and "Homenaje a Mi Padre". He was also able to widen the genre's popularity even further to teenage girls, thanks to his teen idol persona and focus on contemporary romantic ballads.


title: Adán Sánchez

text: On March 20, 2004, Sánchez gave a concert and made history when he became the youngest headliner and first Regional-Mexican recording artist to sell out the Kodak Theatre in Hollywood. The songs he performed during his concert were "Necesito un amor" (I need a love), "Morenita" (Little dark one), "Paloma negra" (Black dove), "Fui tan feliz" (I was so happy), "Y dicen" (And they say), "Me canse De morir por tu amor" (I'm tired of dying for your love) and a medley of some of his father Chalino’s greatest hits, accompanied by images of him projected on large screens above the stage.


title: Adán Sánchez

text: One week after the concert, on March 27, 2004, Sánchez embarked on a promotional road-based tour through his father's home state of Sinaloa, Mexico. He was on his way to a concert in Tuxpan, Nayarit, Mexico, on the highway between Rosario and Escuinapa, when the 1990 Lincoln Town Car, owned by his father, blew a tire. According to police, the driver lost control and the vehicle rolled into a ditch. The performer sustained severe head injuries and was found dead at the scene, 18 days shy of his 20th birthday. More than 10,000 fans filled the streets outside the Los Angeles church where his funeral mass was held.


title: Adán Sánchez

text: Sánchez's remains were returned to the United States, where his family scheduled a public wake on April 1, 2004, at the St. John of God Church in Norwalk, California. The event drew national media attention for sparking civil unrest in the neighborhood surrounding the church that evening. As Sánchez was not well known among English-speaking authorities, local law enforcement vastly underestimated his fan-base, and were unprepared when more than 15,000 young people jammed the streets to attend the service. As the day wore on, the crowd of mourners grew out of control – Police were brought in to disperse the crowd, wearing riot gear and carrying pellet guns. Their appearance incited anger among members of the crowd, who surged into the streets, overturning portable toilets and rocking cars. It was reported that Sánchez's aunt, Juanita Sánchez, wept about the crowd's behavior. "Adan wouldn't have wanted people to act like this. It just causes more pain to the family", she said.


title: Adán Sánchez

text: In 2005, a memorial statue was built for Adan in front of La Que Buena radio station in Burbank, California.


title: Adán Sánchez

text: In 2009, "Always & Forever" a stage play by Michael Patrick Spillers, dramatized the impact of Sánchez's death on a group of young people in South Los Angeles. The play examines various aspects of Mexican-American culture (such as quinceañeras and Jesus Malverde).


title: The Goodies

text: The Goodies were a trio of British comedians: Tim Brooke-Taylor (17 July 1940–12 April 2020), Graeme Garden (b. 18 February 1943) and Bill Oddie (b. 7 July 1941). The trio created, wrote for and performed in their eponymous television comedy show from 1970 until 1982, combining sketches and situation comedy.


title: The Goodies

text: The three actors met each other while undergraduates at the University of Cambridge, where Brooke-Taylor (Pembroke) was a law student, Garden (Emmanuel) was studying medicine and Oddie (Pembroke) was doing English. Their contemporaries included Graham Chapman, John Cleese and Eric Idle, who later became members of Monty Python, and with whom they became close friends. Brooke-Taylor and Cleese studied together and swapped lecture notes, for they were both law students, but at different colleges within the university. All three Goodies became members of the Cambridge University Footlights Club, with Brooke-Taylor becoming president in 1963, and Garden succeeding him as president in 1964.


title: The Goodies

text: In 1965, Eric Idle succeeded Garden as Footlights Club president. Idle had initially become aware of the Footlights when he auditioned for a "smoker concert" at Pembroke College in front of Brooke-Taylor and Oddie.