title: Kangaroo Island

text: Kangaroo Island separated from mainland Australia around 10,000 years ago, due to rising sea level after the last glacial period. Known as (Karta) Pintingga ('Island of the Dead') by the mainland Aboriginal peoples, the existence of stone tools and shell middens shows that Aboriginal people once lived on Kangaroo Island. It is thought that they occupied it as long ago as 16,000 years before the present and may have only disappeared from the island as recently as 2000 years ago. There is however evidence of the Kartan people on the mainland, for instance at Hallett Cove.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: "Long ago, Ngurunderi's two wives ran away from him, and he was forced to follow them. He pursued them and as he did so he crossed Lake Albert and went along the beach to Cape Jervis. When he arrived there he saw his wives wading half-way across the shallow channel which divided Naroongowie from the mainland. He was determined to punish his wives, and angrily ordered the water to rise up and drown them. With a terrific rush the waters roared and the women were carried back towards the mainland. Although they tried frantically to swim against the tidal wave they were powerless to do so and were drowned."


title: Kangaroo Island

text: On 23 March 1802, British explorer Matthew Flinders, commanding , named the land "Kanguroo "(sic)" Island", due to the endemic subspecies of the western grey kangaroo, "Macropus fuliginosus fuliginosus", after landing near Kangaroo Head on the north coast of the Dudley Peninsula. He was closely followed by the French explorer Commander Nicolas Baudin, who was the first European to circumnavigate the Island and who mapped much of the island (which is why so many areas have French names).


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Although the French and the British were at war at the time, the men met peacefully. They both used the fresh water seeping at what is now known as Hog Bay near Frenchman's Rock and the site of present-day Penneshaw. Baudin named the Island "Île Borda", in honour of Jean-Charles de Borda, although the French chart published by Louis de Freycinet after Baudin's death referred to the Island as "Île Decres".


title: Kangaroo Island

text: A community of sealers and escaped convicts existed on Kangaroo Island from 1802 to the time of South Australia's colonisation in 1836. A sealing gang led by Joseph Murrrell are reported landing at Harvey's Return in 1806–07, and they established a camp on the beach. The sealers were rough men and several kidnapped Aboriginal women from Tasmania and mainland South Australia. The women were kept prisoner as wives and virtual slaves. At least two contemporary accounts report of (Taplin 1867, Bull 1884) reputed crossings of Backstairs Passage from Kangaroo Island to the mainland by kidnapped women seeking to escape from their captors. 'A fine specimen of her race' was pointed out to J. W. Bull as having swum the passage in 1835, and a woman and her baby were found dead on the beach after a presumed crossing in 1871. In 1803, sealers from the American brig built the schooner , the first ship built in South Australia, at what is now American River.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: In 1812, Richard Siddins reached Kangaroo Island on the , which was engaged in salt harvesting on the island. When she was wrecked later that year, 30 tons of the mineral was recovered from her cargo.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Most ships of the "First Fleet of South Australia" that brought settlers for the new colony first stopped at Nepean Bay. The first was commanded by Captain Robert Clark Morgan on 27 or 28 July 1836; , under Robert Ross, arrived a day or two later. The arrival of the , under John Finlay Duff, in November that year, was notable for the deaths of E. W. Osborne and Dr. John Slater, who perished on an exploratory trek from Cape Borda to Kingscote.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: A number of shore-based bay whaling stations operated on the coast in the 1840s. These were located at Doyle’s Bay, D’Estrees Bay and Hog Bay.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Numerous ships have been wrecked on the Kangaroo Island coastline. The earliest was the cutter "William" (20 tons), which was wrecked while trying to enter Hog Bay on 23 August 1847. The largest vessel lost was "Portland Maru" (5,865 tons), which sank at Cape Torrens on 20 March 1935. The greatest loss of life occurred with the wreck of "Loch Sloy" on 24 April 1899 at Maupertuis Bay, when 31 people were drowned, and one initial survivor subsequently perished. Twenty-seven people drowned at West Bay in September 1905, when "Loch Vennachar" was wrecked.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The first lighthouse built was erected at Cape Willoughby in 1852; this was also the first lighthouse to be erected in South Australia. This was followed by the Cape Borda Lightstation in 1858, the Cape du Couedic Lighthouse in 1906 and Cape St Albans Lighthouse in 1908. All lighthouses continue to be operational.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The biggest town on Kangaroo Island is Kingscote. Originally established at Reeves Point on 27 July 1836, it is South Australia's first colonial settlement. It was later suggested that Kingscote could serve as the capital of South Australia, but the island's resources were insufficient to support such a large community, so the settlement of Adelaide was chosen.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: There are several smaller towns on the island. Penneshaw, the second largest town on Kangaroo Island, has a population of around 300 and is located on the north eastern tip of the Dudley Peninsula, on the eastern end of the island. It contains the ferry terminal, which brings most of the visitors to the island, along with all the necessary freight to sustain the local population. Parndana, in the centre of the island, has a population of about 150, but most do not live in the town; they are sprawled within a few kilometres. The historic area to the south-east of the township, known as the Research Centre to locals, was home to the research station that was set up in the 1940s and 1950s to research the viability of agriculture in the area and still has a small settlement of about 20 people.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: American River, on the north coast between Kingscote and Penneshaw, has about 300 residents. Penneshaw and Parndana each have basic facilities, including a general store and fuel and are home to hotels. Facilities such as banking and large supermarkets are available in Kingscote and Penneshaw.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: According to the 2021 Census, the island has a population of 4,894. Population growth has slowed in past years, with the attraction of mainland Australia for younger adults being the key factor. Censuses show the number of residents aged 55 and over increased from 24.1% in 2001 to 29.8% in 2006, 34.9% in 2011, 41% in 2016, and 43.5% in 2021.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The economy is mostly agricultural (grapes, honey, wool, meat and grain). Traditionally, sheep grazing has been the key element in agriculture on the Island; however, in recent times, more diverse crops, such as potatoes and canola, have been introduced. Cattle farming has grown as well, with good quality beef cattle being grown in the higher rainfall areas. Tourism and fishing also play significant roles, with the island experiencing over 186,000 visitors per annum, and some of the best southern rock lobster being sourced from the island's rugged south coast. Kangaroo Island has South Australia's only eucalyptus oil distillery, with oil distilled from the endemic Kangaroo Island narrow leaf mallee.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The future of over 19,000 hectares, which had been planted (or were due to be planted) with blue gum for future harvesting, is now in doubt, following the collapse of Great Southern Plantation Ltd. in May 2009.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The island has 30 wine growers and 12 wineries. The first vineyard was planted near Eastern Cove in 1976 and the first wine made in 1982. This was blended with Tolleys Barossa wine and sold from the cellar door of Eastern Cove Wine as KI-Barossa blend. The Florance vineyard was established under supervision of B. Hayes, who produced its first wine – Eastern Cove Cygnet – and introduced it at the University of South Australia in 1990. The wine carried a Kangaroo Island appellation label as first wine 100% of the region.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Kangaroo Island is noted for its honey and its Ligurian honey bees. The island has the world's only pure-bred and disease-free population of this type of bee. The exporting of pure-bred queen bees is a notable industry for the island. For this reason, there are significant quarantine restrictions on bringing bee products and bee-handling equipment onto the island.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: "The Advertiser", 24 December 1883, reported "A few weeks since the Chamber of Manufactures forwarded an order to Mr. Carroll, a bee master, near Brisbane, for a swarm of Ligurian bees." "The American Bee Journal", 25 November 1885, stated "Several pure colonies were reared from this one, [the first hive from Queensland] and two of them were sent to Kangaroo Island, where they appear to thrive well." An almost word perfect report in the "British Bee Journal", 1 November 1885, added "They came from the apiary of Mr. Chas. Fullwood."


title: Kangaroo Island

text: A. E. Bonney quickly commenced queen bee breeding near Adelaide at his Upper Kensington apiary in January 1884. In the "South Australian Advertiser", 7 March 1884, Bonney stated "About three weeks ago I divided the original colony, and the Chamber of Manufactures now possesses three good swarms of Ligurians; two of these will probably be ready to send out towards the end of the month." And on 9 May 1884 "To show that I think highly of the Ligurians, I may say that in March I imported two more colonies from Queensland. … During Easter holidays Mr Justice Boucaut took one queen [bred and mated in Adelaide] in a full colony to Mr Buick, of American River, Kangaroo Island." From the South Australian Advertiser, 1 August 1884 "On June 25 the original hive of Ligurian bees, imported by the chamber from Queensland, was sent safely to Mr Turner, at Smith's Bay, Kangaroo Island."


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Kangaroo Island is one of South Australia's most popular tourist attractions, attracting over 140,000 visitors each year, with international visitors, primarily from Europe, accounting for more than 25% of these visits. There were 114 businesses operating in the sector in June 2016 and the visitor expenditure reached $123 million in December 2017. The expenditure is expected to reach the mark of $168 million by December 2020. Some of the most popular tourist spots are:


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Kangaroo Island is also considered to be one of South Australia's best locations for scuba diving, with many popular locations along the north coast. Many of South Australia's iconic marine species can be seen there, including the Leafy seadragon. Penneshaw jetty is known for its Gorgonian corals and there are many other timber jetties and shipwrecks that can be dived and enjoyed around the island.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The Kangaroo Island Council provides local government for the entire island and was formed in 1996, following amalgamation of the previous District Councils of Kingscote and Dudley. Kangaroo Island is in the federal Division of Mayo and in the state Electoral district of Mawson.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: A 2005 enquiry into the financial sustainability of local government in South Australia determined that 26 out of 68 councils in South Australia were considered unsustainable in the long term. Among these was Kangaroo Island Council, due to its large land area, extensive road network, low population and high tourism visitation. A long term financial plan adopted by council included a rate increase of 2% above CPI for the ten years from 2010.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: On 13 May 2010, a development plan was authorised, representing a comprehensive review of Kangaroo Island's planning regulations.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Safe swimming is possible on the northern beaches, such as Emu Bay, Stokes Bay or Snellings Beach, and at Island Beach on the Dudley Peninsula. The south coast has dangerous undertows and is more suitable for stronger and experienced swimmers only. An ocean pool with easy shore and pontoon access exists at Kingscote and is free to use.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The island is home to the Kangaroo Island Football League and has several other organised sporting competitions.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Kangaroo Island is connected to the main South Australian power grid by a pair of 33kV subsea cables across Backstairs Passage. The original 30-year-old 10,000 kVA cable was retained when the second cable, with double its capacity, was laid in 2018 at a cost of $45 million.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Before the new cable was commissioned, University of Technology Sydney conducted a study to assess the viability of renewable energy technology being used to independently generate the island's power with a combination of wind, solar and biomass. Although the study concluded that it was indeed possible for the island to sustainably produce its own power for around the same price as the new cable, SA Power Networks ultimately decided against the idea.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The Kangaroo Island power station has three 2MWe Caterpillar 3516B diesel generators capable of providing a combined 6MW through the Kingscote substation to provide stability of supply if the submarine cables are unavailable.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Kangaroo Island is reliant on ferry services for the majority of its transport to and from the mainland. Ferry services are currently provided by two companies, Kangaroo Island SeaLink which uses two ferries, the "Sealion 2000" and the "Spirit of Kangaroo Island", to provide freight and passenger services, and Kangaroo Island Connect, which commenced services in June 2018 and provides passenger services only.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: From 1907 to 1961, was the prime freight and passenger vessel operating between Port Adelaide and Kingscote.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Following withdrawal from service of "Karatta", RW Miller operated the MV "Troubridge", in later years as a joint venture with the South Australian Government. "Troubridge" was a roll on, roll off vessel of 1,996 tons, which used specially designed loading gantries at Port Adelaide, Port Lincoln and Kingscote.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: "Troubridge" operated until 1 June 1987, when it was replaced by the Government run A$23 million "Island Seaway". Built locally in Port Adelaide by Eglo Engineering, "Island Seaway" used the same loading platforms as "Troubridge". "Island Seaway" was severely criticised as being unsuitable for the Backstairs Passage crossing. Seventy-five sheep and cattle died on the inaugural trip due to carbon monoxide poisoning, and the ship was once described as 'steering like a shopping trolley'. The vessel subsequently underwent a A$1 million refit of its propulsion system in September 1989 which improved its reliability.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: "Island Seaway" began to experience competition from Kangaroo Island SeaLink which began services from Cape Jervis to Penneshaw in 1989. SeaLink acquired the ferry service originally introduced by Peter March. His "Philanderer Ferries" pioneered the crossing from Cape Jervis to Penneshaw, with "Philanderer 3" being a passenger and vehicle carrying catamaran style vessel. In the 1980s, two passenger only services, "Hydroflite H33", and "Islander", operated for a short time from Glenelg to Kingscote.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: SeaLink has outlasted several competing companies since it began operations. Boat Torque, a Western Australian company, operated "Superflyte" from 1994 until 1997, sailing from Glenelg to Kingscote. Kangaroo Island Ferries had a short-lived venture with "SeaWay", which travelled from Wirrina Cove to Kingscote from September 2004 until February 2005. "SeaWay" could not handle rough weather as well as SeaLink vessels which impacted the service's reliability. Under different proprietorship, "SeaWay" recommenced services in August 2007. However, in May 2008, the operator of "SeaWay" announced suspension of services until October 2008, citing increased fuel prices. In June 2008 the "SeaWay's" operating company was placed in administration and the vessel advertised for sale.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: With the introduction by SeaLink of the "Island Navigator", the fate of "Island Seaway" was sealed, with the service subsequently withdrawn and SeaLink drawing on Government subsidies to operate all freight services to and from the Island. SeaLink now holds a virtual monopoly on sea transport to Kangaroo Island, primarily due to its long term lease of the Cape Jervis berth. Sealink's agreement with the SA Government, expiring in 2024, precludes other operators from using the Cape Jervis facility for one hour before, and one hour after any scheduled SeaLink service. Kangaroo Island residents have expressed displeasure with the exclusive arrangement granted to SeaLink.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Guinea Airways operated the first commercial service to Kangaroo Island, commencing in the 1930s. In 1959, the airline was acquired by Airlines of South Australia (ASA), a subsidiary of Ansett. The airline's final service was on 4 April 1986. ASA primarily operated Convairs, Douglas DC-3 and Fokker F-27 aircraft. A Piaggio P166 was used infrequently in the 1970s, whilst Rossair operated Cessna 402s in an arrangement with ASA to replace the F27s in off-peak times.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Following the withdrawal of ASA, Kendell Airlines (another Ansett subsidiary), operated 19-seat Fairchild Metroliners and 34-seat SAAB aircraft to the Island. Upon Ansett's ultimate demise in 2002, Regional Express (Rex) acquired the Kendell aircraft and has continued services to Kingscote Airport.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: In competition with the larger aircraft, and generally with more flexible timetables, a succession of smaller airlines from the 1970s tried with varying success to maintain a 'second string' presence. Island Air and Pagas operated briefly in the 1970s, whilst the most successful, Emu Airways, commenced in 1980 and made its final flight in November 2005 . Emu flew Piper Chieftain aircraft to Kingscote, American River, Penneshaw and Parndana, before air regulations dictated abandonment of all airstrips except Kingscote. Air Kangaroo Island (formerly Air Transit), flew Cessna 402s to the Island in the 1990s .


title: Kangaroo Island

text: From 1986 to 1990, Lloyd Aviation operated Embraer EMB 110 Bandeirante aircraft, before flying the Short 330. For several years in the 1980s, Commodore Airlines (eventually becoming State Air) offered another alternative service. QantasLink briefly operated a service after the demise of Emu Airways, commencing 18 December 2005, but withdrew less than six months later. QantasLink also operated direct flights from Kangaroo Island to Melbourne, the first time the route was operated. In January 2007, Air South commenced four services daily using Titan nine seat aircraft, but ceased flights in October 2009.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: In June 2017, Qantas announced direct Qantaslink flights to Kangaroo Island from Adelaide and Melbourne from December 2017, offering five flights a week from Adelaide over the peak summer months, reducing to three flights a week after Easter, and two flights a week from Melbourne over the peak tourist season in December and January. An $18 million upgrade of the Kingscote Airport was completed in May 2018.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Around 1938, the Salt Company on Kangaroo Island used a rail tractor built by W. Day & Sons of South Melbourne to transport salt on a short narrow gauge railway between its factory and the port in Muston. Salt was obtained from Muston Lake, White Lagoon, Salt Lagoon and smaller lagoons near Kingscote. It was sold to domestic and industrial users, e.g. for fish and meat preservation and tanning. The salt exports from Kangaroo Island to Adelaide rose from 13 tons in 1843 to 20,000 tons in 1913. Plans for further railway lines did not pass the planning stage.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Having a warm-summer Mediterranean climate ("Csb"), the winters between June and September are mild and wet, the summers usually warm and dry. Tempered by the ocean, particularly on the coastline, maximum temperatures in summer rarely exceed .


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Between May and September the island receives two-thirds of its annual rainfall, varying from in Kingscote to around near Roo Lagoon on the top of the central plateau. The wettest month is July.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Nearly half of the island has never been cleared of vegetation, and a quarter of it is conserved in National Parks, Conservation Parks, and five Wilderness Protection Areas. The main protected areas are:


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Because of its isolation from mainland Australia, foxes and rabbits are absent from and prohibited from entering the island.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The Kangaroo Island kangaroo, Rosenberg's sand goanna, southern brown bandicoot, tammar wallaby, common brushtail possum, short-beaked echidna, Australian sea lion and long-nosed fur seal are native to the island, as well as six bat and frog species. The sole endemic vertebrate species is a small marsupial carnivore, the Kangaroo Island dunnart.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Feral cats being a major threat to endangered endemic native fauna, including the Kangaroo Island dunnart, the


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Southern brown bandicoot, and also because of their ability to spread livestock diseases such as Sarcocystis and Toxoplasmosis, a program to eradicate an estimated population of between 3,000 and 5,000 cats within the next 15 years was started in 2016. With the then intention to eliminate all cats, Mayor Peter Clements said: "We have to reach a point where we don't have any cats on this island. The feral cat is an apex predator. It is ruining our species here on the island and we are totally committed to eliminating all cats." Registration and microchipping of cats is mandatory.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The koala, common ringtail possum and platypus have been introduced and still survive there. The introduced koalas have flourished, to the degree that their preferred food source, the manna gum, is at risk of local extinction. The idea of a cull of the burgeoning koala numbers is distasteful to the public, and the state government prefers to use sterilisation for population control. Although chlamydophila pneumoniae is widespread in most koala populations, the disease is not present on Kangaroo Island due to its isolation from other colonies.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Conservation interests have come into conflict with proponents of various development proposals made since the 2000s. These include a helipad in the island's south-western wilderness, a southern bluefin tuna pen on the north coast of the island (which resulted in the withdrawal of the proposal), The Cliffs Golf Resort near Pennington Bay (for which Crown land was considered for private sale or lease to developers) and a port proposal at Smith Bay to facilitate timber exports and cruise ship visitation.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: An endemic species of emu, the Kangaroo Island emu, became extinct between 1802 and 1836. The island is the last South Australian refuge of an endangered subspecies of the glossy black cockatoo ("Calyptorhynchus lathami halmaturinus").


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Kangaroo Island has been identified by BirdLife International as an Important Bird Area (IBA) because it supports populations of the vulnerable fairy tern, the near threatened bush stone-curlew, hooded plover and western whipbird, and the biome-restricted rock parrot and purple-gaped honeyeater. It also supports over 1% of the world populations of Cape Barren geese, black-faced cormorants, Pacific gulls and pied oystercatchers, and sometimes of musk ducks, blue-billed ducks, freckled ducks, Australian shelducks, chestnut teals and banded stilts.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Little penguin colonies at Penneshaw and Kingscote can be accessed by joining guided nocturnal tours. Both colonies are currently in decline. Several colonies elsewhere on the island are believed to now be extinct, or contain only 'a few' birds. Historic colonies on Kangaroo Island include Cape Gantheaume, Ravine des Casoars and Harvey's Return. In 1950 and 1972, author Mervinia Masterman claimed that little penguins could be found at Flinders Chase in "thousands". She described the population utilizing the limestone caves at Ravine de Casoars as "innumerable" and described watching "dozens" come ashore at Sandy Beach. Penguins were also present at Hanson Bay on the island's south coast in the 1950s.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The decline of penguin populations has prompted expanded monitoring regimes from 2011 to the present. The 2013 Kangaroo Island little penguin census revealed that numbers had decreased by 44 to 100 percent at all surveyed colonies over the prior two years. The census included eight survey sites.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Lightning strikes on Thursday 6 December 2007 caused several fires on the Island. Before being contained on 16 December 2007 over 20% of the Island had been burnt totaling , principally within National Park and Conservation Reserves.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The most serious outbreak occurred in Flinders Chase National Park, with 630 square kilometres (or 85% of the total park area) having been burnt.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: In January 2020 the island was one of many places nationwide affected by bushfire as part of the 2019–2020 Australian bushfire season.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Across Kangaroo Island, several fires burnt in excess of , about 52 percent of the island. A bushfire emergency warning was issued on 3 January 2020 as the fire advanced towards Vivonne Bay and the town of was evacuated. The fires were not declared contained until 21 January.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Two people died on Kangaroo Island due to the fires. A number of wildlife species, some unique to Kangaroo Island and some already endangered before the 2019–2020 bushfires, might be facing extinction in the wild as a result of the fires. Among these, an estimated 80% of the previously 50,000 koalas living on the island died in the fires.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The northern coast of Kangaroo Island contains important fossil-bearing deposits, dating from the late Lower Cambrian, such as the Emu Bay Shale (late Botomian, 517 million years old). A variety of primordial marine arthropods left their remains in this Burgess shale type preservation, but the larger grain size of the Emu Bay rock means that the quality of preservation is lower.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: A few genera of non-biomineralized arthropods, among them "Squamacula", "Kangacaris", and the megacheiran "Tanglangia", are known only from the Emu Bay Shale and Chengjiang. The site is also the source of magnificent specimens of trilobites such as "Redlichia takooensis", "Emuella polymera", "Balcoracania dailyi", "Megapharanaspis nedini", "Holyoakia simpsoni", and "Estaingia (=Hsuaspis) bilobata". "Balcoracania" and "Emuella" are the only known genera of the distinctive "Redlichiina" family "Emuellidae", known for possessing the greatest number of thoracic segments known for Trilobita as a whole (a record of 103 in one "Balcoracania" specimen), and so far entirely restricted to Australia and Antarctica.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: The depositional environment of the majority of Burgess-Shale-type assemblages is outer shelf, deeper water. The Emu Bay Shale in contrast, appears to represent deposition in restricted basins on the inner shelf, indicating that soft tissue preservation occurred in a range of environmental settings during the Cambrian. Some Emu Bay fossils display extensive mineralization of soft tissues, most often of blocky apatite or fibrous calcium carbonate, including the oldest phosphatized muscle tissue – along with records from Sirius Passet in Greenland, the first thus far reported from the Cambrian. Mid-gut glands are preserved three-dimensionally in calcium phosphate in the arthropods "Isoxys" and "Oestokerkus", as in related species from the Burgess Shale.


title: Kangaroo Island

text: Fossilised footprints indicate Australian megafauna, such as the Diprotodon, Sthenurinae, and Thylacine were once distributed on the island.


title: Tesla valve

text: A Tesla valve, called a valvular conduit by its inventor, is a fixed-geometry passive check valve. It allows a fluid to flow preferentially in one direction, without moving parts. The device is named after Nikola Tesla, who was awarded in 1920 for its invention. The patent application describes the invention as follows:


title: Tesla valve

text: The interior of the conduit is provided with enlargements, recesses, projections, baffles, or buckets which, while offering virtually no resistance to the passage of the fluid in one direction, other than surface friction, constitute an almost impassable barrier to its flow in the opposite direction.


title: Tesla valve

text: Tesla illustrated this with the drawing, showing one possible construction with a series of eleven flow-control segments, although any other number of such segments could be used as desired to increase or decrease the flow regulation effect.


title: Tesla valve

text: With no moving parts, Tesla valves are much more resistant to wear and fatigue, especially in applications with frequent pressure reversal such as a pulsejet.


title: Tesla valve

text: The Tesla valve is used in microfluidic applications and offers advantages such as scalability, durability, and ease of fabrication in a variety of materials. It is also used in macrofluidic applications.


title: Tesla valve

text: One computational fluid dynamics simulation of Tesla valves with two and four segments showed that the flow resistance in the blocking (or reverse) direction was about 15 and 40 times greater, respectively, than the unimpeded (or forward) direction. This lends support to Tesla's patent assertion that in the valvular conduit in his diagram, a pressure ratio "approximating 200 can be obtained so that the device acts as a slightly leaking valve".


title: Tesla valve

text: Steady flow experiments, including with the original design, however, show smaller ratios of the two resistances in the range of 2 to 4. It has also been shown that the device works better with pulsatile flows.


title: Tesla valve

text: The valves are structures that have a higher pressure drop for the flow in one direction (reverse) than the other (forward). This difference in flow resistance causes a net directional flow rate in the forward direction in oscillating flows. The efficiency is often expressed in diodicity formula_1, being the ratio of directional resistances.


title: Tesla valve

text: The flow resistance is defined, analogously to Ohm's law for electrical resistance, as the ratio of applied pressure drop and resulted flow rate:


title: Tesla valve

text: formula_2 where formula_3 is the applied pressure difference between two ends of the conduit, and formula_4 the flow rate.


title: Tesla valve

text: where formula_8 is the reverse flow pressure drop, and formula_9 the forward flow pressure drop for flow rate formula_10.


title: Tesla valve

text: Equivalently, diodicity could also be defined as ratio of dimensionless Hagen number or Darcy friction factor at the same Reynolds number.


title: Adam Mosseri

text: Adam Mosseri (born January 23, 1983) is an American businessman and the head of Instagram. He formerly served as an executive at Facebook.


title: Adam Mosseri

text: Mosseri was born in New York City and raised in Chappaqua, New York. He is Jewish. He is the older brother of composer Emile Mosseri. He attended New York University's Gallatin School of Individualized Study to study media and information design. He graduated with a bachelor's degree in information design in 2005.


title: Adam Mosseri

text: In 2003, while studying at NYU, Mosseri started his own design consultancy called Blank Mosseri, which focused on graphic, interaction, and exhibition design. His company had offices in New York and San Francisco. In 2007, he joined TokBox as the company's first designer.


title: Adam Mosseri

text: Mosseri joined Facebook as a product designer in 2008. In 2009, Mosseri became a product design manager, and in 2012 became the design director for the company's mobile apps. From 2012 to 2016, Mosseri oversaw Facebook's News Feed section, and from 2016 to May 2018 served as vice president of product for Facebook. During his tenure at Facebook, he additionally oversaw Facebook Home, the company's unsuccessful attempt at bringing a mobile homescreen to Android devices.


title: Adam Mosseri

text: After the 2016 presidential election, Mosseri took it upon himself to become the spokesperson for Facebook's stance on "fake news." During the 2018 Cambridge Analytica scandal, Mosseri was one of the few Facebook executives who was vocal about Facebook's role in providing security and trustworthy news.


title: Adam Mosseri

text: In May 2018, Mosseri was named Instagram's vice president of product. On October 1, 2018, Facebook announced that Mosseri would assume as the new head of Instagram, following the resignation of the photo-sharing app's founders Kevin Systrom and Mike Krieger in September 2018. Mosseri's title as head of Instagram differs from the title of former leadership as CEO as Facebook reserves CEO titles for company founders. As company head, Mosseri is expected to hire a new executive team and oversee "all functions of the business".


title: Adam Mosseri

text: In 2018, Mosseri spoke alongside Campbell Brown on behalf of Facebook's news features at Recode's Code Media conference.


title: Adam Mosseri

text: Mosseri lives in San Francisco with his wife, Monica Mosseri. They have three sons. The Mosseri family is active in local philanthropic causes including the Shanti Project. Mosseri has dual U.S. and Israeli citizenship, as his father is Israeli.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: Oscar Tshiebwe (born 27 November 1999) is a Congolese college basketball player for the Kentucky Wildcats of the Southeastern Conference (SEC). He previously played for the West Virginia Mountaineers. In 2021, Tshiebwe was the consensus national player of the year.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: Tshiebwe grew up in Lubumbashi, Democratic Republic of the Congo. He played soccer as a child but was encouraged to start basketball because of his above-average height. Tshiebwe trained by running on hills and on a mountain near his hometown. He later attended a basketball camp led by Congolese National Basketball Association (NBA) player Bismack Biyombo, who helped advance his career. Tshiebwe did not start playing basketball until May 2014.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: Tshiebwe moved to the United States in November 2015, before his freshman year of high school, attending Mountain Mission School in Grundy, Virginia. Entering his junior year, he transferred to Kennedy Catholic High School in Hermitage, Pennsylvania. As a junior, Tshiebwe averaged 21.1 points per game and led his team to a Pennsylvania Interscholastic Athletic Association (PIAA) Class 1A title. He earned Class 1A All-State first team honors. In his senior season, Tshiebwe averaged 23.4 points, 18 rebounds, and five blocks per game, leading Kennedy Catholic to a 24–3 record and the PIAA Class 6A championship. He was a Class 6A All-State first team pick and was named Pennsylvania Gatorade Player of the Year. He averaged 21.6 points, 11.8 rebounds, and 3.1 blocks per game playing for ITPS Wildcats Select on the Adidas Gauntlet. Tshiebwe played in the McDonald's All-American Game and Nike Hoop Summit.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: He was considered a five-star recruit by Rivals and 247Sports and a four-star recruit by ESPN. On October 20, 2018, he committed to play college basketball for West Virginia.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: In his second college game, Tshiebwe had a double-double with 20 points and 17 rebounds at Pittsburgh. As a result, he was named Big 12 Newcomer of the Week. Tshiebwe had 19 points and 18 rebounds against Wichita State in the Cancun Challenge championship game, leading his team to victory and earning MVP honors. He was again named Big 12 Newcomer of the Week on December 2, 2019. At the conclusion of the regular season, Tshiebwe was named to the Second Team All-Big 12 and the All-Newcomer Team. Tshiebwe averaged 11.2 points and 9.3 rebounds per game as a freshman while shooting 55% from the field.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: As a sophomore, he averaged 8.5 points and 7.8 rebounds through 10 games before leaving West Virginia for personal reasons.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: On January 10, 2021, Tshiebwe transferred to Kentucky, after considering Miami, NC State and Illinois. In his debut for Kentucky, Tshiebwe tallied 17 points and 20 rebounds in a 79–71 loss to Duke. On December 22, he scored 14 points and grabbed a Rupp Arena-record 28 rebounds in a 95–60 win against Western Kentucky.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: At the close of the season, Tshiebwe was named the "Sporting News" National Player of the Year, as well as the unanimous Southeastern Conference Player of the Year.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: Tshiebwe is a Christian. After Tshiebwe began attending Kennedy Catholic High School, Jeff Kollar and his wife, who live near the school, became his legal guardians. Kollar and his wife were previously guardians of brothers Mohamed and Sagaba Konate, who both played basketball for Kennedy Catholic. Sagaba Konate also played college basketball for West Virginia.


title: Oscar Tshiebwe

text: Tshiebwe has become a leading figure in name, image, and likeness (NIL) deals, despite being unable to take full advantage of his celebrity due to holding a student visa. While he is allowed to sign sponsorship deals, he cannot make paid personal appearances (including autograph signings and commercial shoots) while in the U.S. with that visa status. Tshiebwe's advisers are currently trying to change his visa status to "extraordinary ability", which would enable him to fully monetize his celebrity. In August 2022, he was temporarily freed from the restrictions of his visa when the Wildcats went on a week-long preseason exhibition tour to The Bahamas. When the team's plane landed in The Bahamas, Tshiebwe's first phone call was reportedly to his agent, asking "Where do you need me?", and he did promotional work for four companies before fully settling into his hotel room. During the Wildcats' down time on that tour, Tshiebwe made numerous photo shoots and advertising reads, and signed large quantities of memorabilia. UK head coach John Calipari was apparently unfazed by Tshiebwe's off-court work in The Bahamas, reportedly telling "The Athletic", "He can’t do this stuff in the States. Oscar, you weren’t there today, but we all get why you’re doing what you’re doing." By the end of the tour, he had reportedly made $500,000, bringing his total NIL money to $2.75 million in about 6 months. He used his first batch of NIL money to buy his mother a five-bedroom house, and has established a charitable foundation for the benefit of children in his homeland that is funded in large part by his NIL deals.


title: Table (furniture)

text: A table is an item of furniture with a raised flat top and is supported most commonly by 1 or 4 legs (although some can have more), used as a surface for working at, eating from or on which to place things. Some common types of table are the dining room table, which is used for seated persons to eat meals; the coffee table, which is a low table used in living rooms to display items or serve refreshments; and the bedside table, which is commonly used to place an alarm clock and a lamp. There are also a range of specialized types of tables, such as drafting tables, used for doing architectural drawings, and sewing tables.


title: Table (furniture)

text: The word "table" is derived from Old English , derived from the Latin word ('a board, plank, flat top piece'), which replaced the Old English ; its current spelling reflects the influence of the French .


title: Table (furniture)

text: Some very early tables were made and used by the Ancient Egyptians around 2500 BC, using wood and alabaster. They were often little more than stone platforms used to keep objects off the floor, though a few examples of wooden tables have been found in tombs. Food and drinks were usually put on large plates deposed on a pedestal for eating. The Egyptians made use of various small tables and elevated playing boards. The Chinese also created very early tables in order to pursue the arts of writing and painting, as did people in Mesopotamia, where various metals were used.


title: Table (furniture)

text: The Greeks and Romans made more frequent use of tables, notably for eating, although Greek tables were pushed under a bed after use. The Greeks invented a piece of furniture very similar to the guéridon. Tables were made of marble or wood and metal (typically bronze or silver alloys), sometimes with richly ornate legs. Later, the larger rectangular tables were made of separate platforms and pillars. The Romans also introduced a large, semicircular table to Italy, the "mensa lunata". Plutarch mentions use of "tables" by Persians.


title: Table (furniture)

text: Furniture during the Middle Ages is not as well known as that of earlier or later periods, and most sources show the types used by the nobility. In the Eastern Roman Empire, tables were made of metal or wood, usually with four feet and frequently linked by x-shaped stretchers. Tables for eating were large and often round or semicircular. A combination of a small round table and a lectern seemed very popular as a writing table. In western Europe, the invasions and internecine wars caused most of the knowledge inherited from the classical era to be lost. As a result of the necessary movability, most tables were simple trestle tables, although small round tables made from joinery reappeared during the 15th century and onward. In the Gothic era, the chest became widespread and was often used as a table.


title: Table (furniture)

text: Refectory tables first appeared at least as early as the 17th century, as an advancement of the trestle table; these tables were typically quite long and wide and capable of supporting a sizeable banquet in the great hall or other reception room of a castle.


title: Table (furniture)

text: Tables come in a wide variety of materials, shapes, and heights dependent upon their origin, style, intended use and cost. Many tables are made of wood or wood-based products; some are made of other materials including metal and glass. Most tables are composed of a flat surface and one or more supports (legs). A table with a single, central foot is a pedestal table. Long tables often have extra legs for support.


title: Table (furniture)

text: Table tops can be in virtually any shape, although rectangular, square, round (e.g. the round table), and oval tops are the most frequent. Others have higher surfaces for personal use while either standing or sitting on a tall stool.


title: Table (furniture)

text: Many tables have tops that can be adjusted to change their height, position, shape, or size, either with foldable, sliding or extensions parts that can alter the shape of the top. Some tables are entirely foldable for easy transportation, e.g. camping or storage, e.g., TV trays. Small tables in trains and aircraft may be fixed or foldable, although they are sometimes considered as simply convenient shelves rather than tables.


title: Table (furniture)

text: Tables can be freestanding or designed for placement against a wall. Tables designed to be placed against a wall are known as Pier tables or s (, "support bracket") and may be bracket-mounted (traditionally), like a shelf, or have legs, which sometimes imitate the look of a bracket-mounted table.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: The murder of Kyle Dinkheller took place on Monday, January 12, 1998, when Dinkheller, a deputy in the Laurens County, Georgia, sheriff's office, pulled over motorist and Vietnam War veteran Andrew Howard Brannan for speeding. A verbal confrontation escalated to a shootout resulting in Brannan murdering Dinkheller. The murder continues to receive national attention because the traffic stop and shootout were captured on a personal video recorder Dinkheller had placed on his patrol car dashboard and activated when he stopped Brannan. The recording is widely used for training purposes in U.S. police academies.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: In the shootout, Dinkheller was armed with his semi-automatic pistol while Brannan was armed with an Iver Johnson M1 Carbine. Dinkheller shot and wounded Brannan. Despite this, Brannan fired the rifle, reloaded it, fired a lethal shot into Dinkheller's eye, and fled the scene in his Toyota pickup truck. The next morning, police found Brannan still in Laurens County, hiding in a sleeping bag beneath a camouflage tarp. Police arrested him for the murder of Dinkheller.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Brannan pleaded not guilty by reason of insanity, claiming in part that he suffered from posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) stemming from his military service in Vietnam. Because Dinkheller's video recorded most of Brannan's actions, the jury found he murdered the deputy in a premeditated, torturous, and cruel manner. Two years following the murder, on January 28, 2000, the jury convicted Brannan. On January 30, he was sentenced to death. Seventeen years and one day after the murder, on January 13, 2015, Brannan was executed by lethal injection.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: On January 12, 1998, near the end of his shift, Deputy Kyle Wayne Dinkheller of the Laurens County, Georgia, sheriff's office, encountered a speeding Toyota pickup truck near Dudley, Georgia, United States, which he checked at around . The deputy pulled the truck over on Whipple Crossing Road, adjacent to Interstate 16. The traffic stop at first appeared to be routine, with both Dinkheller and the driver, Andrew Brannan, exiting their vehicles and exchanging greetings. Brannan, however, placed both hands into his pockets, at which point Dinkheller instructed him to remove his hands and keep them in plain view.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: At this point, Brannan became belligerent and yelled at the deputy to shoot him. He then began to dance and wave his arms in the middle of the road. Dinkheller radioed the dispatcher for assistance and issued commands for Brannan to cease his behavior and approach the cruiser. When Brannan saw that Dinkheller was calling for other units, he ran toward the deputy in an aggressive manner. Dinkheller retreated while issuing commands and utilized his baton to keep Brannan at bay. On Dinkheller's dashcam video, Brannan was heard shouting that he was a "goddamned Vietnam combat veteran."


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Despite commands issued by Dinkheller, Brannan walked back to his pickup truck and drew an Iver Johnson M1 Carbine from underneath the driver's seat, taking cover near the driver side door. Dinkheller positioned himself near the passenger door of his cruiser and gave Brannan commands for approximately forty seconds before Brannan stepped away from his pickup truck, pointed his rifle at Dinkheller and fired several shots. Dinkheller fired the first shot at Brannan but missed, leading some to speculate that it might have been a warning shot. Dinkheller did not strike the suspect initially and thus was forced to reload.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: At this point, Brannan ran from his truck toward Dinkheller and began to fire again, hitting the deputy in exposed areas such as the arms and legs. Brannan then began to reload his weapon as the now-injured Dinkheller tried to position himself near the driver side door of his cruiser. Brannan appeared to go back to his car to retreat before another shot from Dinkheller was heard. This enraged Brannan, who began advancing and firing at the deputy, hitting him numerous times. Before being disabled from gunfire, Dinkheller was able to inflict a gunshot wound to Brannan's stomach. Dinkheller had been shot nine times when Brannan took careful aim, said, "Die, fucker," and fired a final fatal shot into Dinkheller's right eye. Brannan then retreated into his truck and fled the scene.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Brannan was arrested the next morning without incident; he told the investigating authorities that "they can hang me". He was found guilty on January 28, 2000, for the murder of Dinkheller and was sentenced to death. On January 2, 2015, the Georgia Department of Corrections announced that an execution date of January 13 had been set for Brannan. On January 6, a clemency hearing was set for January 12, at which the Georgia State Board of Pardons and Paroles voted to deny clemency. On January 13, Brannan was executed by lethal injection, the first person in the U.S. to be executed in 2015.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: In August 1968, Brannan joined the United States Army and received his induction training at Fort Benning in Georgia. In February 1969, he entered the artillery officer candidate school at Oklahoma's Fort Sill and was commissioned as an artillery officer in July 1969. While he was still in the U.S., Brannan served with the 82nd Airborne Division. In July 1969, he was ordered to service in the Vietnam War, where he served in the Field Artillery Branch as a forward observer and executive officer with the 23rd Infantry Division at Chu Lai, South Vietnam, until July 1971.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: During his service, Brannan witnessed an officer being killed after stepping on a landmine, an incident he later recalled during a psychiatric interview in 1989. He also assumed command of a company on two occasions, after its commander was killed. Afterwards, Brannan arrived at Washington state's Fort Lewis, where he transferred to the United States Army Reserve, in which he served, periodically, for two weeks at a time until being discharged in June 1975.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: During his time in the Army, Brannan was awarded the Bronze Star and two instances of the Army Commendation Medal. While in the military, his superiors spoke favorably of him, saying that he was an "outstanding" and "exemplary" officer.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Brannan's defense was that he suffered from post traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) as the result of serving in battle. In 1975, he was married, although the couple divorced six years later as a result of Brannan's violent behavior stemming from his PTSD. A psychologist for the defense indicated that the bizarre encounter with Dinkheller in January 1998 "was likely the result of a flashback to Brannan's time in combat." In 1994, the Department of Veterans Affairs had declared Brannan 100% disabled for experiencing depression and bipolar disorder.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Although Brannan's lawyers tried to get his death sentence commuted on the grounds that he was not criminally responsible for his conviction by reason of insanity, both the Georgia Supreme Court and the United States Supreme Court refused to intervene on his behalf on the day his execution was scheduled to take place. Brannan was executed by lethal injection at 8:33 p.m. (EST) on January 13, 2015, the first person executed in the U.S. in 2015. He was 66 years old at the time of his death at the Georgia Diagnostic and Classification State Prison near Jackson, Georgia.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Brannan made a final statement, in which he said, "I extend my condolences to the Dinkheller family, especially Kyle's parents and his wife and his two children" and, "I feel like my status was slow torture for the last fifteen years. I had to say that with them here. I have to tell the truth. I'm certainly glad to be leaving." A pastor then delivered a prayer and Brannan was executed. He was executed one day after the 17-year anniversary of the shooting.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Kyle Wayne Dinkheller was a deputy with the Laurens County Sheriff's Office (LCSO) in the U.S. state of Georgia. After his death, he was named the 1998 Deputy Sheriff of the Year by the Georgia Sheriffs' Association.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Dinkheller was born on June 18, 1975, in San Diego, California to Kirk Dinkheller. He graduated from California's Quartz Hill High School in 1993. He joined the LCSO as a jailer in March 1995 and became a certified police officer with the State of Georgia in 1996. He was 22 years old when he was murdered.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: Dinkheller and his wife, Angela, had children Ashley and Cody, the latter of whom was born eight months after his father's death; Ashley was twenty-two months old. Dinkheller is buried in the Garden of Remembrance at Fountainhead Memorial Park in Brevard County, Florida.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: The video recording of the murder, known as the "Dinkheller video", has become ubiquitous in U.S. police academies.


title: Murder of Kyle Dinkheller

text: The video has, for instance, been adapted to include an interactive sequence in which trainees encounter Brannan before he kills Dinkheller. Police trainers use this setup to test officers' willingness to use deadly force, and to impart to them that "there could be a time... when pulling the trigger is the only way".


title: Homocysteine

text: Homocysteine is a non-proteinogenic α-amino acid. It is a homologue of the amino acid cysteine, differing by an additional methylene bridge (-CH-). It is biosynthesized from methionine by the removal of its terminal C methyl group. In the body, homocysteine can be recycled into methionine or converted into cysteine with the aid of certain B-vitamins.


title: Homocysteine

text: High levels of homocysteine in the blood (hyperhomocysteinemia) is regarded as a marker of cardiovascular disease, likely working through atherogenesis, which can result in ischemic injury. Therefore, hyperhomocysteinemia is a possible risk factor for coronary artery disease. Coronary artery disease occurs when an atherosclerotic plaque blocks blood flow to the coronary arteries, which supply the heart with oxygenated blood.


title: Homocysteine

text: Hyperhomocysteinemia has been correlated with the occurrence of blood clots, heart attacks, and strokes, although it is unclear whether hyperhomocysteinemia is an independent risk factor for these conditions. Hyperhomocysteinemia also has been associated with early-term spontaneous abortions and with neural tube defects.


title: Homocysteine

text: Homocysteine is biosynthesized naturally via a multi-step process. First, methionine receives an adenosine group from ATP, a reaction catalyzed by S-adenosyl-methionine synthetase, to give "S"-adenosyl methionine (SAM-e). SAM-e then transfers the methyl group to an acceptor molecule, (e.g., norepinephrine as an acceptor during epinephrine synthesis, DNA methyltransferase as an intermediate acceptor in the process of DNA methylation). The adenosine is then hydrolyzed to yield -homocysteine. -Homocysteine has two primary fates: conversion via tetrahydrofolate (THF) back into -methionine or conversion to -cysteine.


title: Homocysteine

text: Mammals biosynthesize the amino acid cysteine via homocysteine. Cystathionine β-synthase catalyses the condensation of homocysteine and serine to give cystathionine. This reaction uses pyridoxine (vitamin B) as a cofactor. Cystathionine γ-lyase then converts this double amino acid to cysteine, ammonia, and α-ketobutyrate. Bacteria and plants rely on a different pathway to produce cysteine, relying on "O"-acetylserine.


title: Homocysteine

text: Homocysteine can be recycled into methionine. This process uses N5-methyl tetrahydrofolate as the methyl donor and cobalamin (vitamin B)-related enzymes. More detail on these enzymes can be found in the article for methionine synthase.


title: Homocysteine

text: Homocysteine can cyclize to give homocysteine thiolactone, a five-membered heterocycle. Because of this "self-looping" reaction, homocysteine-containing peptides tend to cleave themselves by reactions generating oxidative stress.


title: Homocysteine

text: It has been proposed that both homocysteine and its thiolactone may have played a significant role in the appearance of life on the early Earth.


title: Homocysteine

text: Common levels in Western populations are 10 to 12 μmol/L, and levels of 20 μmol/L are found in populations with low B-vitamin intakes or in the elderly (e.g., Rotterdam, Framingham).


title: Homocysteine

text: It is decreased with methyl folate trapping, where it is accompanied by decreased methylmalonic acid, increased folate, and a decrease in formiminoglutamic acid. This is the opposite of MTHFR C677T mutations, which result in an increase in homocysteine.


title: Homocysteine

text: The ranges above are provided as examples only; test results always should be interpreted using the range provided by the laboratory that produced the result.


title: Homocysteine

text: Abnormally high levels of homocysteine in the serum, above 15 μmol/L, are a medical condition called hyperhomocysteinemia. This has been claimed to be a significant risk factor for the development of a wide range of diseases, including thrombosis, neuropsychiatric illness, and fractures. It also is found to be associated with microalbuminuria, which is a strong indicator of the risk of future cardiovascular disease and renal dysfunction. Vitamin B deficiency, when coupled with high serum folate levels, has been found to increase overall homocysteine concentrations as well.


title: Homocysteine

text: Typically, hyperhomocysteinemia is managed with vitamin B, vitamin B, and vitamin B supplementation. However, supplementation with these vitamins does not appear to improve cardiovascular disease outcomes.


title: Once and Again

text: Once and Again is an American family drama television series that aired on ABC from September 21, 1999, to April 15, 2002. It depicts the family of a single mother and her romance with a single father. It was created by Marshall Herskovitz and Edward Zwick.


title: Once and Again

text: One of the show's unique aspects was the "interview" sequences filmed in black and white and interspersed throughout each episode, where the characters would reveal their innermost thoughts and memories to the camera.


title: Once and Again

text: Lily Manning (Sela Ward) is a suburban soccer mom in her forties, who lives in Deerfield, Illinois. Recently separated from her philandering husband Jake (Jeffrey Nordling), Lily is raising her two daughters, insecure, anxiety-ridden 14-year-old Grace (Julia Whelan), and precocious nine-year-old Zoe (Meredith Deane). For support, she turns to her more free-spirited younger sister, Judy (Marin Hinkle), with whom she works at their bookstore called My Sister's Bookstore (renamed Booklovers later in the series).


title: Once and Again

text: Lily's life changes when, during the pilot episode, she meets Rick Sammler (Billy Campbell) in the principal's office of Grace's school, Upton Sinclair High School.


title: Once and Again

text: Rick is a single father and co-head of an architectural firm, Sammler/Cassili Associates, which is located in downtown Chicago. Rick has been divorced from his uptight ex-wife Karen (Susanna Thompson) for three years and has two children, Eli (Shane West), a 16-year-old basketball player at Sinclair High who suffers from a learning disability, and sensitive 12-year-old Jessie (Evan Rachel Wood), who longs for the days before her family's disintegration.


title: Once and Again

text: Lily and Rick share an immediate mutual attraction and begin dating. Their budding relationship causes problems in both of their respective families. Grace strongly objects to Lily and Rick's relationship as she still hopes to see her parents get back together. Karen, a public interest attorney at the downtown law firm of Harris, Riegert, and Sammler, is worried about the toll Rick's new relationship would take on their children, particularly Jessie, who is shy and emotionally fragile. She is also working through her own feelings of jealousy that Rick is moving on to a new relationship.


title: Once and Again

text: In addition to Lily and Rick's relationship, the show also focused to a lesser degree on their exes, Jake and Karen, and their own struggles to move on in a post-divorce environment.


title: Once and Again

text: Lily is in the process of divorcing her restaurateur husband, Jake. She is reluctant to begin dating again due to the sensitivities of her daughters, who are still emotional about the divorce. She meets and is instantly attracted to divorced architect Rick Sammler. However, their new relationship is complicated by Lily's many remaining emotional and financial issues with Jake. Grace and Eli become close when she becomes his tutor. Judy has a relationship with Rick's friend, Sam Blue (Steven Weber) before discovering Sam is married.


title: Once and Again

text: Lily and Jake's divorce is finalized and she hopes to spend more time with Rick. However, Rick becomes sidetracked by difficulties at work and has to begin working with unscrupulous developer Miles Drentell (David Clennon, reprising his role from the series "thirtysomething"). Things become difficult for Lily when Rick's project runs into legal difficulties and his ex-wife Karen is hired to represent the opposition. Jessie flirts with an eating disorder and begins to address her problems with the help of a therapist (played by show producer Edward Zwick). Jake's girlfriend Tiffany announces she is pregnant. At the end of season two, Rick has to dissolve his architectural firm, and Lily and Rick get married.


title: Once and Again

text: Rick resumes his partnership with Sam Blue, now divorced, to design a hotel for a new client. Sam and Judy try to be friends but eventually resume their romantic relationship. Jake and Tiffany have a baby girl and eventually decide to get married. Grace develops a crush on her English teacher, Mr. Dimitri (Eric Stoltz); although their relationship never became sexual, an investigation eventually forces Mr. Dimitri to leave the school. Meanwhile, Jessie discovers she is attracted to another girl: upperclassman Katie Singer (Mischa Barton), and after Katie acknowledges her own romantic feelings towards Jessie with a love letter, the two girls quietly begin dating while hiding their romance from everyone, in what became the first teen lesbian romance on American network television. Karen deals with her depression; just as she is starting to make progress, she is hit by a car, leading to months of painful rehabilitation where she meets physical therapist Henry Higgins (D. B. Woodside). Lily faces more painful domestic struggles when her mother begins to show signs of Alzheimer's disease and her brother Aaron (Patrick Dempsey), who is schizophrenic, wants to move in with his girlfriend. By the end of the season, Rick and Lily face big decisions when he is offered a job in Australia and she is offered a nationally syndicated radio show. Their decisions are never shown, but in the last moments of the series finale, Lily reveals she is pregnant and everyone comes together to attend Jake and Tiffany's wedding.


title: Once and Again

text: The series was filmed at the Century Studio Corporation sound stages in Culver City, California, and also on location in the Los Angeles area.


title: Once and Again

text: Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment (formerly Buena Vista Home Entertainment) released Season 1 on November 5, 2002, mere months after the series finale. However, it took three more years and numerous petition drives for season two to be released, which occurred on August 23, 2005. A little over a month later, on September 30, 2005, news broke about the release of the third and final season, which was slated to occur on January 10, 2006. Mock-up photos of the packaging were even released. However, by October 2005 the title was delayed indefinitely with no explanation and was never released.


title: Once and Again

text: It was almost two years before another official word was uttered on the subject and in July 2007, it was reported that Buena Vista's license on the program was soon to expire. As a result, a new company could acquire the distribution rights to the title and potentially release the third season.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanoukville (; , ), also known as Kampong Som (, ), is a coastal city in Cambodia and the capital of Preah Sihanouk Province, at the tip of an elevated peninsula in the country's south-west on the Gulf of Thailand. The city is flanked by an almost uninterrupted string of beaches along its entire coastline and coastal marshlands bordering the Ream National Park in the east. The city has one navigable river, the mangrove lined Ou Trojak Jet running from Otres Pagoda to the sea at Otres. A number of thinly inhabited islands – under Sihanoukville's administration – are near the city, where in recent years moderate development has helped to attract a sizable portion of Asia's individual travelers, students, and backpackers.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The city, which was named in honour of former king Norodom Sihanouk, had a population of around 89,800 people and approximately 66,700 in its urban center in 2008. Sihanoukville city encompasses the greater part of six communes ("Sangkats") of Sihanoukville Province. A relatively young city, it has evolved in parallel with the construction of the Sihanoukville Autonomous Port, which commenced in June 1955, as the country's gateway to direct and unrestricted international sea trade. The only deep water port in Cambodia includes an oil terminal and a transport logistics facility. As a consequence, the city grew to become a leading national center of trade, commerce, transport, and process manufacturing.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanoukville's many beaches and nearby islands make it Cambodia's premier seaside resort with steadily rising numbers of national visitors and international tourists since the late-20th century.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: As a result of its economic diversity, the region's natural environment, and the recreational potential, an increasing number of seasonal and permanent foreign residents make Sihanoukville one of the most culturally varied and dynamic population centers in Cambodia. tourism remains insignificant in comparison with neighboring Thailand. Sihanoukville's future will largely be defined by the authorities' ability to successfully manage natural resources on the one hand and the necessities of urban and insular development, increasing visitor numbers, expanding infrastructure, the industrial sector and population growth, on the other.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Despite being the country's premier sea side destination, after decades of war and upheaval the town and its infrastructure remain very much disjointed and architecturally unimpressive. Infrastructure problems persist, in particular related to water and power supply, while international standard health facilities remain limited.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanoukville also faces challenges related to crime, security, and safety with the city frequently being the focus of scandals linked to serious organized crime, petty crime, and corruption.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: In recent years, Sihanoukville has seen unprecedented levels of Chinese investment into the city with numerous casinos having opened up throughout the city. Demographically, the city's ethnic make up has changed with nearly 80,000 mainland Chinese workers, developers and investors accounting for 90% of the city's expat population as of 2019. Mandarin signage is increasingly replacing Khmer and English signage in the city and crime in the form of drunken violence and organized crime are increasing. Sihanoukville is one of the major cities on China's One Belt One Road Initiative.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The official name of the city in Khmer is: "krong" ('city'), "preah" ('holy') "Sihanouk" (name of the former king), which adds up to: 'City of the holy Sihanouk'


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: or 'Honorable Sihanouk City'. King Norodom Sihanouk (reigned 1941–1955, 1993–2004) was and still is revered as father of the (modern) nation. The name "Sihanouk" is derived from Sanskrit through two Pali words: "siha" ('lion'), and "hanu" ('jaws').


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The alternative name, "Kompong Saom" (also romanized as "Kompong Som" and "Kampong Som"), () means 'Port of the Moon' or 'Shiva's Port'. "Saom" is derived from the Sanskrit word "saumya", the original (Rig Vedic) meaning of which was "Soma", the 'juice or sacrifice of the moon-god', but evolved into Pali 'moon', 'moonlike' 'name of Shiva'. The word "kampong" or "kompong" is of Malay origin and means 'village' or 'hamlet'. Its meaning underwent extension towards 'pier' or river 'landing bridge'.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Prior to the ports' and city's foundation works of 1955, the port of Kompong Som must have been only of regional significance due to the absence of navigable waterways that connect the port with the kingdom's settlement centers. During the many centuries of pre-Angkorian and Angkorian history – from Funan to Chenla and during the Khmer Empire, regional trade was centered at O Keo (Vietnamese: Óc Eo) in the Mekong Delta, now the province of Rạch Giá in Vietnam. The township of Prei Nokor (Saigon) was a commercial center of the Khmer Empire.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The "Chronicle of Samtec Cauva Vamn Juon", one of the 18th and 19th century Cambodian Royal Chronicles, briefly mentions the region as the country was split into three parts during a nine-year civil war from 1476 to 1485: "In 1479, Dhammaraja took on the throne at Chatomuk (Phnom Penh) and controlled the provinces of Samraong Tong, Thbong, Kompong Saom, Kampot up to the Bassak, Preah Trapeang, Kramuon Sah, Koh Slaket and Peam" (mouth of the Mekong).


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: From the end of the 17th century, Cambodia lost control of the Mekong River route as Vietnamese power expanded into the lower Mekong. During the Nguyen-Siamese War (1717–1718) a Siamese fleet burned the port of Kompong Som in 1717 but was defeated by the Vietnamese at Banteay Meas/Ha Tien. A Cambodian king of the late-18th century, Outey-Reachea III allied with a Chinese pirate, Mac-Thien-Tu, who had established an autonomous polity based in Ha Tien and controlled the maritime network in the eastern part of the Gulf of Thailand. Ha Tien was at a point where a river linking to the Bassac River flows into the Gulf of Thailand. Landlocked Cambodia tried to keep its access to maritime trade through Ha Tien. In 1757 Ha Tien acquired the ports of Kampot and Kompong Som as a reward for Mac's military support to the King of Cambodia. Until its destruction in 1771 the port developed into an independent duty-free entrepôt linked with several Chinese trading networks.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Alexander Hamilton, who traveled to the Gulf of Thailand in 1720, wrote that "Kompong Som and Banteay Meas (later Ha Tien) belonged to Cambodia, as Cochin-China was divided from Cambodia by a river (Bassac River) of three leagues broad." and "King Ang Duong constructed a road from his capital of Oudong to Kampot". Kampot remained the only international seaport of Cambodia. "The traveling time between Udong and Kampot was eight days by oxcart and four days by elephants." French Résident Adhemard Leclère wrote: "...Until 1840s, the Vietnamese governed Kampot and Péam [Mekong Delta], but Kompong Som belonged to Cambodia. The Vietnamese constructed a road from Ha Tien to Svai village, on the border with Kompong-Som, via Kampot."


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The British Empire followed a distinct policy by the 1850s, seeking to consolidate its influence. Eyewitness reports give rare insights, as Foreign Secretary Lord Palmerston's agent John Crawfurd reports: "Cambodia was...the Keystone of our policy in these countries, - the King of that ancient Kingdom is ready to throw himself under the protection of any European nation...The Vietnamese were interfering with the trade at Kampot, and this would be the basis of an approach..." Palmerston concluded: "The trade at Kampot - one of the few remaining ports, could never be considerable, in consequence of the main entrance to the country, the Mekong, with all its feeders flowing into the Sea through the territory of Cochin China The country, too, had been devastated by recent Siam - Vietnam wars. Thus, without the aid of Great Britain, Kampot or any other port in Cambodia, can never become a commercial Emporium." Crawfurd later wrote: "The Cambodians...sought to use intervals of peace in the Siam - Vietnam wars to develop intercourse with outside nations. The trade at Kampot which they sought to foster was imperiled by pirates. Here is a point where the wedge might be inserted, that would open the interior of the Indo-Chinese Peninsula to British Commerce, as the great River of the Cambodians traverses its entire length and even affords communication into the heart of Siam".


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Under French rule Vietnam, Laos, and Cambodia became a single administrative and economic unit. The coastal region "Circonscription Résidentielle" with Kampot as its capital contained the arrondissements of Kampot, Kompong Som, Trang, and Kong-Pisey. The establishment of another international trading center near the existing city of Saigon was not considered necessary. Focus remained the Mekong and the idea to establish an alternative route to Chinese and Thai markets along an uninterrupted navigable waterway all the way south to the Mekong Delta.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: An insurrection that took place from 1885 to 1887 further discouraged French ambition. It started in Kampot and quickly spread to Veal Rinh, Kampong Seila, and Kompong Som, where the insurgents were led by a Chinese pirate named Quan-Khiem. He managed to control the northern part of Preah Sihanouk for some time until he—an old man—was arrested by the local governor.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The most notable infrastructural improvements of this period were the construction of Route Coloniale No. 17, later renamed National Road No.3 and the national railway system, although work on the "Southern Line", from Phnom Penh to Sihanoukville, only began in 1960.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The city's and province's alternative name "Kampong som" (Kampong Som) was adopted from the local indigenous community. After the dissolution of French Indochina in 1954, it became apparent that the steadily tightening control of the Mekong Delta by Vietnam required a solution to gain unrestricted access to the seas. Plans were made to construct an entirely new deep-water port. Kompong Saom (Kampong Som) was selected for water depth and ease of access. In August 1955, a French/Cambodian construction team cut a base camp into the unoccupied jungle in the area that is now known as Hawaii Beach. Funds for construction of the port came from France and the road was financed by the United States.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: During the Vietnam War the port became a military facility for both sides: in the service of National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam and after 1970, under the government of Lon Nol, in the service of the United States.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The port was the last place to be evacuated by the US Army, only days before Khmer Rouge guerrillas took control of the government in April 1975. The events surrounding the taking of the US container ship SS Mayaguez and its crew on 12 May by the Khmer Rouge and the subsequent rescue operation by US Marines played out on the waters of Koh Tang off the coast of Sihanoukville. During the two days of action, the US commenced air strikes on targets on the mainland of Sihanoukville including the port, the Ream Naval Base, an airfield, the railroad yard and the petroleum refinery in addition to strikes and naval gun fire on several islands.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: After the fall of the Khmer Rouge regime in 1979 and the subsequent opening of the economy, the port of Sihanoukville resumed its importance in the development and recovery of the country. With the further opening of new markets in 1999, the city regained its role in the economic growth of Cambodia.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The Sihanoukville Municipality was elevated to a regular province on 22 December 2008 after King Norodom Sihamoni signed a royal decree converting the municipalities of Kep, Pailin, and Sihanoukville into provinces.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: In 2006 the Koh Puos (Cambodia) Investment Group submitted an application, planning to invest US$276 million in converting the 116 hectare Koh Puos, Snake Island, into a luxury residential and resort complex. After the completion of certain elements of the infrastructure, the investor announced alterations of the original blueprints, as "Reapplying for permission will happen in 2014..." according to the Council of the Development of Cambodia.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: On 26 May 2011 Preah Sihanouk area joined the Paris-based club, Les Plus Belles Baies Du Monde, ('the most beautiful bays in the world'). The organisation officially accepted the Bay of Cambodia as one of its members at its 7th General Assembly.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanoukville town is at the tip of the rolling hills of a peninsula on the Gulf of Thailand. To its northwest and at its center it rises up to above sea level, whereas the land gently and steadily flattens towards extended coastal plains, marshlands and beaches in the south and southeast. These hills, that provide a great variety of housing ground, good perspectives on the coastal plains, the beaches, the rivers, the sea and the islands define the region's natural character and value. The Gulf of Thailand's shallow depths and the local climate are moderate in contrast to the South China Sea to the east and the Indian Ocean to the west, where Pacific typhoons and monsoonal extremes are permanent perils.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: As a result of its clearly defined purpose, its very brief but turbulent history, and its location, Sihanoukville is distinct from other urban centers in Cambodia. Established after the period of the French Protectorate, bourgeois colonial style quarters such as ones seen in Kampot, Siem Reap, or Phnom Penh do not exist. Architecture and street layout are subject to modern concepts of reduction and functionality. Cambodian architect Vann Molyvann designed objects, public buildings with a distinct function, some still operational. This brief era of New Khmer Architecture ended in 1970. Inconsistency and chaos during the long civil wars had far greater impact on the city's current image.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: In 1959 the first urban plan for the city was completed for a population of 55,000 residents; it included cycle paths and green spaces. The plan also clearly marked out zoning for the port, the railway network, the town center with municipal offices, business and residential housing, and finally a tourist zone to the south along the beaches. A feasibility study by the United States Operations Mission (USOM) looked at drawing on a new water supply from the Prek Tuk Sap and existing lagoons; these were subsequently improved (cut off from the sea) and used as the initial source for town supply. The reservoirs are still operational, although insufficient for today's demands.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The years of turmoil that followed meant that little of the original plan was implemented. The current state of structural inconsistency is testimony to decades of upheaval as layout planning was by no means a subject of aesthetic considerations and applied sciences.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The area connects with the city center along a single highway via typical irregular successions of residential buildings, bare of any distinct features and landmarks. These highways were designed to connect the very few and widely dispersed actual settlement foundations. The neighborhoods lack intimacy, due to a one-dimensional infrastructure. The city's center is a sequence of alternating single blocks of solid urban edifices, such as banks, middle-class hotels, gas stations, pharmacies, Chinese bakeries and electronics retailers followed by long rows of low-end food stalls, makeshift shops, motor-bike repair services, mini-markets, laundry, gas, lock-picker services and mobile phone shops.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The mangrove-lined Ou Trojak Jet river runs from Otres Pagoda to Otres Beach is Sihanoukville's longest river. In the tidal mangrove area barramundi, mangrove jacks and barracuda are the prize target for sport anglers, the lower section harbours a marina. Restaurants along the south bank of the river serve fresh seafood supplied by the local inshore fishing boats.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: All the islands listed below fall under administration of Sihanoukville's Mittakpheap District. The majority is either in the process of or has been assigned for extensive tourism. Koh Rong and Koh Rong Sanloem in particular have so far undergone years of uncoordinated development. A number of guesthouses and bungalow resorts offers accommodation of greatly varying standard by the beaches or in the lush jungle. Despite the very moderate infrastructure, visitor numbers have risen quickly and Koh Rong has been declared a stop on the Banana Pancake Trail.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The urban area suffers from polluted water supplies which render tap water non-potable. Waste management policies and practices are deficient or lacking altogether.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanoukville lies in the Tropical monsoon (Am) climate zone. The city has two seasons: a wet season and a dry season.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The maximum mean is about ; the minimum mean, about . Maximum temperatures of higher than , however, are common and, just before the start of the rainy season, they may rise to more than . Minimum night temperatures sporadically fall below . in January, the coldest month. May is the warmest month - although strongly influenced by the beginning of the wet season, as the area constitutes the easternmost fringe of the south-west monsoon. Tropical cyclones only rarely cause damage in Cambodia.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The total annual rainfall averages around 2200 millimeters (86.6 inches). The maximal amounts fall in July, August and September. Relative humidity is high throughout the entire year; usually exceeding 90 percent. During the dry season daytime humidity rates average around 50 percent or slightly lower, climbing to about 90 percent during the rainy season. The wet season runs from April to November, and the dry season from December to March. However, as is common in places with this climate type, the dry season still sees some rainfall.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanoukville was established as an international marine gateway and as a result the local economy is largely defined by its deep water port and the nearby oil terminal. Attached is a regularly modernized cargo storage and logistics facility which serves numerous shipping companies, freight forwarders, suppliers, and maintenance contractors. All of these are based in the port's vicinity. The Phnom Penh–Sihanoukville transport corridor is the premier national trade route, accounting for about 75 percent of Cambodia's trade traffic.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Other sizable economic sectors of the city are fisheries, aqua-culture, and frozen shrimp processing, the garment industry, food production, and processing, the constantly growing tourism industry with a noticeably developed service branch and the associated real estate market.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The Sihanoukville Special Economic Zone (SSEZ) is an overseas economic and trade cooperation zone which was designed to promote favorable market conditions such as: policy advantages, a safe political environment, favorable trade status, completed infrastructure supporting, low labor costs, and excellent services. In addition to its areas around the port, a sizable industrial center, exclusively composed of Chinese companies has been developed since 2010.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Trading accounts for a high percentage of the city's economy. The city imports goods from Thailand, Hong Kong, Singapore, and China while it exports goods to the United States, Canada, Germany, and the United Kingdom. The city often re-exported many of the goods it imported such as electronics, cigarettes, vehicles and gold. Today, the city's main export is garments, but it also produces and exports timber, logs, and rubber in small quantities.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Cambodia is one of the few least developed countries (LDCs) to export over US$2 billion. Since Cambodia became the first LDC to join the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2004, trade has steadily increased, and the U.S. has been Cambodia's largest trading partner. Comparing to US$2.3 billion of export to the U.S and US$153 million of export to Cambodia in 2010, from January to October 2011, Cambodia's exports to the U.S. were US$2.29 billion and U.S. exports to Cambodia were US$152.6 million.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The city's development strategy focuses on tourism, port expansion, and industrial growth. Tourism development is expected to be an economic driver leading to the development of a national commercial center and is already producing rapid growth in the surrounding area. It is anticipated that the port, as a hub for the expansion of maritime transport, will attract additional industry. An industrial zone has been established that includes petrochemical production and food processing based on local fisheries and other elements. With new investments in these areas and associated development strategies, planners anticipate increased urbanization of Sihanoukville, alongside growing economic opportunities that will lead to migration from rural areas.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Foreign investment in Cambodia has increased significantly since 2004 led by Asian investors from countries such as Malaysia, China, Korea, Thailand, and Vietnam. Approved investment proposals by the Council for the Development of Cambodia totaled around US$500 million in 2011. Chinese investments has since modified the city's character, partly destroying its Cambodian aesthetics and culture. "The Diplomat" reported that "unchecked development by Chinese investors has come at a cost, freezing out locals and changing the city’s character." Evictions of native Cambodians due to economic investments by the Chinese has led to ethnic conflicts, with the government supporting the Chinese investors.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The Sihanoukville Autonomous Port has an independent administration. In combination with the related logistics and transport sector it is the city's economic backbone.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: At present, the total operational land area of the Sihanoukville Autonomous Port is around 124.76 ha. The Old Jetty was constructed in 1956 and became operational in 1960. The jetty is long by wide and can accommodate four vessels with medium gross register tonnage (GRT) at both sides. The exterior berth is depth, while the interior berth is depth.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: In order to cope with the increasing rates of cargo throughput, the Government of Cambodia had constructed a long new quay with maximum draft in 1966. At present, this new quay can accommodate three vessels with draft medium GRT.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The construction of the container terminal, long by depth and a container yard was completed in March 2007.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The primary destinations of Sihanoukville Autonomous Port are: Singapore, Hong Kong, Bangkok, Ho Chi Minh City, Shanghai, Laem Chabang, Yantian and Kaohsiung. It has a frequency of scheduled services of 38 per week.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Cambodia's official driving side is the right side of the road. There is no formally adopted road and road transport policy in Cambodia, and this particularly affects urban road transport.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Although Cambodia's traffic laws are the same as those of any other country, with respect to the country's membership of the ASEAN, that requires recognition of ratified agreements, regular traffic only functions on a basic level and in times of low density. Conduct is still traditional as smaller and slower vehicles are expected to yield to big vehicles.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Law enforcement has been accused of failing to enforce international norms. A habit of running predictable checkpoints has developed over the last years. Tourists on rental bikes and common people are often stopped and forced to pay, often based on mere assumptions and unsupported claims. Drivers of vehicles with perceived social status remain generally unmolested. Consequently, the deterrent effect of these activities is very low.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: In all urban and residential areas an overabundance of motorbikes exists due to the absence of any form of public transportation and taxi-cars. For non-residential and inexperienced people Sihanoukville city remains unsafe for driving. Drivers of motorbikes often do not wear helmets, drive indiscriminately on any side of the street and it is common to see motorbikes with more than two passengers or vehicles driven by children. Traffic lights are often ignored.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: In 2008 the government ordered the countrywide enforcement of the use of helmets, but the order was not thoroughly enforced.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The city does not have any form of public transportation. Local administration does issue transport licences for any individual of the informal urban transportation system of motor-taxis ("moto-dups") and tuk-tuks. The system is not administered by authorities, as anybody can become a motor-taxi - or tuk-tuk driver. As a consequence, prices of services are ad hoc, insurance non-existent and service quality varies considerably. The overwhelming majority of drivers do not have knowledge of street names and/or numbers.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanouk International Airport (International Air Transport Association code KOS) was formerly called Kang Keng Airport (ព្រលានយន្តហោះ កង កេង), named after the Minister of Health of the Khmer Republican regime during the 1970s. The airport is in Ream Commune in central Sihanoukville Province. It lies close to National Highway 4, only around from Ream beach atop a former mangrove lagoon, just about from Sihanoukville City.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The central long-distance bus station for all transport business operators is on National Highway 4 in the city's north-east near the Autonomous Port. Transport business operators maintain booking offices in the urban centers.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanoukville is served by many competing companies with daily scheduled services from and to all major population centers in Cambodia. Direct destinations are Phnom Penh, Koh Kong (city), and Kampot. Some companies offer services to Ho Chi Minh City in Vietnam and to Siem Reap near Angkor Wat. Buses operate from the early morning until the afternoon plus a daily night-bus/sleeper.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Privately operated taxi stands for long-distance transportation are found at the central bus station, in the commercial urban center and the tourist center in the South.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The last daily national official marine ferry service from/to Sihanoukville city to/from Krong Koh Kong ceased operation with the completion of National Highway 48 in 2007.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Access to smaller islands is generally provided by local holiday resorts, Otres marina, dive operators or private operators. Additionally, small long-tail boats and medium size cruising boats can be individually hired for sightseeing, fishing, diving and drinking trips at Otres marina, guest-houses, travel agencies and diving operators.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Marina Oceania - the first marina in Cambodia operational and fully equipped since 2013 for yachts and boats up to with berths for 20 boats. It is at the local port's pier, near Koh Preab Island. (coordinates: 10° 39' 59" N / 103° 30' 41" E).


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The railway network of Cambodia was re-constructed for freight transport during the last years by Toll Holdings, which has obtained a building and maintenance concession from the Royal Cambodian Railway. The "Southern line", constructed 1960–1969 with a length of , connects Sihanoukville Port Special Economic Zone with the capital Phnom Penh.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Currently a weekend passenger train service runs from the station near the Autonomous Port used to manage passenger train transportation to Phnom Penh via Kampot


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The 2008 census of Cambodia counted 89,846 inhabitants of Sihanoukville City and approximately 66,700 in its urban center.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The population of the city is apart from descendants of the indigenous inhabitants not older than three generations as the product of recent history, such as the Cambodian diaspora and Cambodian humanitarian crisis of and after the Pol Pot era. Historic events which led to demographic upheavals in Cambodia are evident in the demographic trends of the city. With the arrival of displaced refugees, in subsequent decades and centuries, a non-Khmer, mixed Asian population grew to a high percentage of the total population in the core population in urban areas.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: In addition to Khmer, ethnic groups like Vietnamese, Chinese, Cham, Thai, Korean, French, British, Europeans, Australians and Americans live in the urban area. Due to its status as an international port, high volume and density of commerce and the impact of the service sector related to the tourist industry, Krong Preah Sihanouk has a relative high Human Development Index (HDI) of 0.750, compared to the national average HDI of 0.523.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: In late-2018 "Channel News Asia" estimated that the Chinese resident population of the province had risen to 78,000.<ref name="Po/Heng-2019"></ref>


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Cambodia still has one of the worst health infrastructures in Asia, although the situation is slowly changing for the better. The public health system has suffered from war and neglect and has had serious difficulties meeting the health needs of the population. Some government hospitals and other health units have been rehabilitated so that they are autonomous entities, staffed with qualified personnel. This has led to a significant improvement of health services. At the same time, modern standard private clinics, including local and foreign service providers, are increasing in number and are competing with state-owned hospitals.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sanitation practices in rural Cambodia are often primitive. The water supply is the main problem; rivers and streams are common sources of drinking water and of water for cooking. These water sources are often the same ones used for bathing, washing clothes, and disposing of waste products. Adequate sewage disposal is nonexistent in most rural and suburban areas.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Sihanoukville faces challenges related to crime, security and safety with the city frequently being the focus of scandals linked to serious organized crime, petty crime and corruption.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The police force, especially the traffic police, have often been shown to be corrupt and ineffective in the city and newspaper investigations have uncovered connections to organized crime and drug trafficking.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Embassies and consular officials have issued cautionary statements about travel to Sihanoukville following gang disputes and a number of high-profile murders, rapes and robberies as well as a number of unexplained deaths of foreigners.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: Like many towns and cities in Southeast Asia with sub-standard security and judicial systems, Sihanoukville has also been an attractive target for foreign criminals to hide and engage in nefarious activities. Russian tycoon Sergei Polonsky was deported from Cambodia in May 2015 to face embezzlement charges in Russia after years spent clashing with other Russians on the streets of Sihanoukville Doroshenko Says Oligarch Polonsky Is Trying to Kill his Family.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The majority of municipal inhabitants are of East Asian descent, who profoundly characterize and influence local customs, moral, commerce, cuisine and tradition based on pan-East Asian beliefs and ideas. Cambodian culture is of distinct ancient Khmer origin, accompanied by century-old moderate Chinese and Vietnamese cultural influences. The prolonged presence of foreign and in particular Westerners in Cambodia and Sihanoukville town contributes to a noticeable varied, modern, multi-cultural manifestation, which is increasingly influenced by modern media.


title: Sihanoukville (city)

text: The citizens of Sihanoukville city celebrate all religious, traditional and secular festivities such as Cambodian New Year (April), Chinese New Year (between January and February), Water Festival (November), Pchum Ben (honor to the ancestors in October) and Kathen Ceremony (offerings to the monks), 8January (Day of Cambodian - Vietnamese Friendship) among others.