title: Eberron

text: Keith Baker's "Dungeons & Dragons" campaign setting of Eberron was chosen as the winner among the 11,000 submissions to the Wizards of the Coast Fantasy Setting Search in 2002. Baker won $100,000 for his contest submission. The original title of Baker's setting was the "Thrilling Tales of Swords and Sorcery". Baker highlighted that the setting went through multiple stages of development: "Thrilling Tales" wasn't Eberron. It went through four stages of development. First there was the original one page concept, which went up against thousands of others. The next step was expanding that into ten pages, fleshing out the core idea. From there I wrote a hundred page story bible. But even then, it was still "Thrilling Tales of Swords and Sorcery". Once "Thrilling Tales" was chosen as the final setting, I went to Seattle and spent weeks working with an amazing team of people at Wizards of the Coast: Bill Slavicsek, Chris Perkins, James Wyatt, and many others. Together we isolated the best parts of "Thrilling Tales", as well as identifying the elements that didn't work and finding ways to improve them. [...] [It] was Bill Slavicsek who named the world Eberron.On the Fantasy Setting Search contest, Slavicsek highlighted that four subteams reduced the 11,000 submissions to 120 entries which were then reviewed by a panel who whittled it down to eleven proposals. These eleven contest submitters were then asked to expand their one-page submissions and from these new ten-page submissions, the panel further reduced the proposals to just three entries. Slavicsek said, "at this point, we learned the names of the authors and we flew each of them to Wizards of the Coast's offices to meet with them. During those meetings, I began to direct each project in earnest, just as I would direct any product published through the efforts of my R&D team. It was great meeting Keith Baker, Rich Burlew, and Nathan Toomey in person, getting to talk about their worlds with them, and getting to help them each make their vision come alive. We gave them an outline form to follow so they could create 125-page world bibles [...]. All three [proposals] were great, but we had to select the one we were going to put our efforts behind. That one was Keith Baker's world, the world that became Eberron".


title: Eberron

text: The inspiration for Eberron came when Baker was working on VR-1's cancelled pulp MMORPG "Lost Continents". Baker aimed to fuse the energy of pulp adventure and film noir settings to traditional fantasy settings and steampunk. The "Eberron Campaign Setting" sourcebook lists the following movies as inspirations for Eberron's tone and attitude: "Brotherhood of the Wolf", "Casablanca", "From Hell", "The Maltese Falcon", "The Mummy", "The Name of the Rose", "", "Raiders of the Lost Ark" and "Sleepy Hollow". Baker also said inspiration for the war-torn setting came from the unstable period of world history between World War I and World War II.


title: Eberron

text: The 2004 campaign setting book for "Dungeons & Dragons" v3.5 was written by Keith Baker, Bill Slavicsek, and James Wyatt. In June 2005, the "Eberron Campaign Setting" book won the Origins Award for "Best Roleplaying Game Supplement of 2004". Over the next four years, over 20 supplements for "Eberron" were released. Shannon Appelcline (author of "Designers & Dragons") wrote "meanwhile, it had also become the setting for "Dungeons & Dragons Online" (2006), Atari's major multimedia expansion of the D&D brand. By 2009, Eberron was still "big", and that's why it won out as 4e's second setting".


title: Eberron

text: In June 2009, the "Eberron Player's Guide" and the free adventure "Khyber's Harvest" (2009) brought the setting to the new 4th Edition of "D&D". It was followed in July by the "Eberron Campaign Guide" (2009) and the not-free adventure "Seekers of the Ashen Crown" (2009). The development of the 4th Edition of "D&D" brought many design changes including the addition of a new default setting that followed the new "Points of Light" design philosophy – a world that looked less like the modern world, "full of civilized countries with civilized borders", and more like a world with few centers of civilization separated by the open, dangerous wilderness. On the impact of the edition change, Appelcline wrote "Players were wondering if Eberron would also be changed to more closely match the Points of Light ideals and surprisingly … it wasn't. Instead, Eberron appears much as it did before. There wasn't even a timeline change; though rumors at one points suggested a two-year advancement was in the works, the world ended up remaining in 998YK. Eberron's designers and developers said that players interested in metaplot should read the novels and decide themselves whether they wanted to include those events in their games. Though Eberron didn't become a Points of Light world, it did adopt many of the other assumptions of 4e".


title: Eberron

text: In February 2015, the very first instance of the online feature "Unearthed Arcana" provided Eberron content for public playtesting for the 5th Edition. However, further official Eberron content did not appear until 3 years later, when the "" was released on July 23, 2018, as a PDF on Dungeon Masters Guild; it was described as a "living document" that would be updated as the included concepts were refined. The included races, and dragonmarks, magic items, as well as the artificer class and subclasses, also went through the "Unearthed Arcana" public playtest process over the next year. An "exploratory campaign featuring Eberron" was released for the D&D Adventurers League as PDFs between September 2018 and December 2018.


title: Eberron

text: "", a hardcover campaign book, was announced in August 2019, and was published on November 19, 2019. An alternative art cover by Vance Kelly for the book was also released in local game stores on November 17, 2019. At the same time, the "Wayfinder's Guide to Eberron" was updated to include the final versions of the included content as it appears in "Eberron: Rising from the Last War", and added the artificer class from the same book (with only one subclass – the Alchemist – of the three included in "Rising from the Last War"). To correspond with this release, the D&D Adventurers League added a new season of stories called "The Oracle of War" that take place in the Mournland. Shawn Merwin, Adventurers League Resource Manager, wrote that the "Oracle of War" storyline is a "very different type of campaign from what has come before [in Adventurers League]. The story presented in "Oracle of War" plays out in 20 Core Storyline adventures that take characters from level 1 to 20. [...] Core Storyline adventures are placed on the DMs Guild at the rate of one per month, giving the campaign an active play period of approximately 2 years".


title: Eberron

text: One of the most obvious differences between Eberron and generic "Dungeons & Dragons" is the level of magic. High-level magic, including "resurrection" spells, is less common than in most other settings. However, low-level magic is much more pervasive, primarily provided by the Dragonmarked houses. Many cities have magical lanterns throughout the streets. A continent-spanning magical "lightning rail" provides high speed transportation.


title: Eberron

text: Alignment is slightly more muddied than in other official settings. Evil beings of traditionally good races and good beings of traditionally evil races are encouraged; but alignment definition remains true to D&D standards, with good and evil retaining their meanings. However, the situation often arises in the campaign world that oppositely aligned characters will side with each other briefly if a threat looms over all, and also both good and evil characters will infiltrate each other's organizations for purposes of espionage.


title: Eberron

text: Religion is similarly less clear-cut. The pantheon of Eberron does not make itself overtly known. The existence of divine magic is not evidence of the gods, as clerics who worship no deities but instead follow a path or belief system also receive spells. A cleric can even actively work against their own church and continue to receive spells. As a result, religion is largely a matter of faith. Unlike in many other 3rd edition "D&D" settings, a cleric does not have to be within one step of his deity's or religion's alignment, and is not restricted from casting certain spells because of alignment.


title: Eberron

text: The setting adds a new base character class, the artificer. Artificers are spellcasters focusing on magical item creation. Artificer infusions (their equivalent to spells) focus on temporarily imbuing objects with the desired effects. For example, instead of casting "bull's strength" on a character, an artificer would cast it upon a belt to create a short term magical Belt of Bull's Strength. Artificers have access to a pool of "craft points" which act as extra experience points (only) for use in creating magical items without sacrificing level attainment. This pool is refilled when the artificer gains levels, or by draining power from an existing magical item (destroying the item in the process).


title: Eberron

text: Eberron also introduced a new non-player character class known as the magewright, which is an arcane caster who has a limited selection of low-level spells. The existence of magewrights is part of the reason for the prevalence of low-level magic in Eberron.


title: Eberron

text: To try to create a pulp setting, Eberron initially used "action points" that allow a player to add a six-sided die to the result of rolls made with a twenty-sided die. Characters receive a set allotment of single-use action points each character level. The Eberron Campaign Setting also includes feats which grant additional uses for action points, such as allowing a player to add an eight-sided die instead of a six-sided die, or spending two action points to grant your character an additional move or standard action. Certain class features with uses per day, like a barbarian's rage ability, a cleric's turn/rebuke undead ability, or a druid's wild shape ability, can be used again by spending 2 action points. The final use for action points is to spend one to stabilize a dying character.


title: Eberron

text: The world of Eberron contains seven continents. The setting primarily takes place in Khorvaire, the most populated continent. Humans are the most populous race in Khorvaire, living primarily in the area known as the Five Nations. Southeast is the small continent of Aerenal, ruled by elves. Due south is the jungle continent of Xen'drik, once ruled by an empire of giants that collapsed. It is now largely wilderness, with some areas under tribal dominion of the drow. Further south of Xen'drik is Everice, a continent-sized sheet of ice possibly covering several land masses. Frostfell is an unexplored land of ice in the north. The other two main continents are Sarlona (a continent ruled by quori, creatures from the Region of Dreams) and Argonnessen (a continent inhabited by dragons). The world of Eberron has twelve moons; some sages believe there is a thirteenth moon that has vanished or is invisible to the naked eye.


title: Eberron

text: The World of Eberron comprises a number of features for the Eberron campaign setting. The number 13, also known as a "baker's dozen", has been part of a theme Keith Baker used regarding aspects of the world.


title: Eberron

text: "Eberron" is also the name for the land of the world, and is referred to as the Dragon Between. Siberys, the Dragon Above, is the name given to the planetary rings which surround the planet. Khyber, the Dragon Below, is the name given to the underworld, and is similar to the Underdark in many other settings. According to the creation story, the world was formed when the progenitor wyrms changed their form into what they are now. Siberys and Khyber fought, leading to Siberys' body being broken into pieces. To stop Khyber, Eberron wrapped around him, and Siberys' broken body became a ring around them both. Siberys created the dragons, Eberron created humanoids and other "lower races", and Khyber created the "demons" of the world. According to Keith Baker, there is some significance to the fact that each name contains the morpheme "ber", but he has not stated what this is.


title: Eberron

text: Eberron utilized traditional "Dungeons & Dragons" races but gave them entirely localized lore, history and national ties. Eberron emphasizes national and cultural ties over racial ties. Sean K. Reynolds wrote "for example, the elves of House Phiarlan are an old dragonmarked house with a centuries-long history of entertainment and artistry; most common folk praise them and their work. In contrast to that house, the elves of the new nation of Valenar are seen as land thieves and a threat to the peace established by the Treaty of Thronehold". Gabrielle Lissauer, in "The Tropes of Fantasy Fiction," highlighted that the Eberron campaign setting subverts the classical racial presentation of orcs as savages. Instead, Lissauer wrote "these orcs are interested in peace and keeping the world safe. [...] They just want to live in harmony with nature".


title: Eberron

text: The setting also added four new races to "Dungeons & Dragons": Changelings, Shifters, Kalashtar, and Warforged. Changelings and Shifters were based on preexisting "Dungeons & Dragons" monsters, doppelgangers and lycanthropes respectively. Warforged, sentient constructs created by artificers during the Last War, and Kalashtar, psionic humanoids combined with quori spirits, were created for Eberron.


title: Eberron

text: The kalashtar are a race of psionic people; they are the descendants of a group of human monks from Adar, a nation on the continent of Sarlona, who allowed themselves to be possessed by the planar entities known as the Quori. These entities were good-aligned Quori who rebelled and thus had to flee the plane of dreams known as Dal Quor. This merger was permanent leading their descendants to become a hybrid-type race. The spiritual essence of each Quori is divided out amongst many Kalashtar, known collectively as a lineage. Thus, the only way to completely destroy one of the good-aligned Quori is to exterminate its entire lineage. The evil-aligned Quori, known as the Dreaming Dark, seek to hunt and destroy the Kalashtar so many Kalashtar live in either the fortified temple-keeps of Adar or live in hiding amongst the wider world of Eberron. The Dreaming Dark have their own possessed creatures known as the Inspired who rule most of the continent of Sarlona.


title: Eberron

text: Baker highlighted the design differences between the Dreaming Dark and the kalashtar: "Quori possession is entirely different from the relationship between a kalashtar and their quori spirit. With the kalashtar, the quori is a passive presence that simultaneously guides many kalashtar. With the Inspired (voluntary or otherwise) the quori is an active presence that controls a single body at a time, and it fully dominates the host". Glenn Carreau, for "GameRant", highlighted the roleplaying potential of kalashtar player characters: "While separate from most of Khorvaire's drama, Sarlona has plenty of its own: kalashtar are a hunted race, shuttered into their monastic country of Adar and constantly besieged by their Inspired enemies in the neighboring nation of Riedra. Still, those who want to play kalashtar in a campaign based elsewhere in Eberron can do so without disrupting the setting's narrative; small numbers of kalashtar "do" inhabit cities across Khorvaire, quietly continuing their battle against the Inspired even far from home".


title: Eberron

text: The warforged are a race of living, sentient constructs, superficially similar to golems. Warforged are composed of a blend of materials: predominantly stone, wood, and some type of metal. In Eberron, they were created by House Cannith in magical 'creation forges' to fight in the Last War. When the Last War ended, they were given their freedom at the Treaty of Thronehold. Though they have free will, whether they have a soul is not known with certainty; they can be resurrected by spells designed to restore human souls to life, but, unlike humans, never remember anything of their experience in the afterlife after such an event. While they have no biological sex, warforged may adopt a gender role as part of their individual personality. They do not age as the other races do, and it is not known what effects time will have on them. It is generally assumed that, like all living creatures, their bodies must experience degradation over time. Like other races, warforged may take levels in any character class.


title: Eberron

text: Gabrielle Lissauer, in "The Tropes of Fantasy Fiction," emphasized that Eberron helped move "Dungeons & Dragons" past the tropes established by Tolkien. She wrote that "Eberron changed several ideas that were considered fundamental to the concept of "Dungeons and Dragons" for the past thirty years, both mechanically and in the flavor of the worlds. [...] With changes to things that most players considered being fundamental to the game, Eberron subverts and yet at the same time shows what the game could be". Lissauer highlighted that alignment was no longer clear cut and that the players were "unable to use their meta-knowledge of years of playing "Dungeons and Dragons" in other settings to judge who is friend and who is foe".


title: Eberron

text: "Geek & Sundry" wrote "Winner of Wizards of the Coast's Fantasy Setting Search contest in 2002, "Eberron" marries magic with steampunk's technology, offering a world of elemental-powered airships, industrial nobility, and arcane tinkerers. [...] I dig the playable Warforged race, which puts you in the mind of a soldier drone seeking purpose (although their explicit maleness serves a pedantic point). If you want to sling spells in a tailored coat, check out "Eberron"."


title: Eberron

text: "Wired", on the release of the 4th Edition "Eberron Campaign Guide", reported "Eberron is my new favorite game world. [...] The world feels like it was designed from the ground up to be original and different, and still feels consistent and logical. The world's continents have an interlocking and compelling history [...]. Magic is treated as an integral part of society. You can take a magical train (the 'lightning rail') or fly elemental-powered airships. [...] I love the section on 'everyday magic' which describes how magic affects the daily lives of the ordinary citizens, covering agriculture, communications, crafts, law enforcement and so on. [...] Most worlds have politics but I can't think of any whose residents foment such complex, yet totally logical machinations. [...] The best thing bout the setting, however, may be that it simply takes the classic D&D tropes like dragons and elves and mixes them up in a new and interesting way".


title: Eberron

text: On the release of the 5th Edition "Wayfinder's Guide to Eberron", Richard Jansen-Parkes, for the UK print magazine "Tabletop Gaming", wrote "Originally created by Gloom designer Keith Baker for a competition some 16 years ago, Eberron is a wonderful example of how to take the standard fantasy setting and twist it into something fresh. While many of the standard fantasy tropes are still accounted for – there are still dragons to battle and dungeons to delve – there is a deliberate effort to shift away from Tolkien rip-offs and instead start ripping off everything from Jurassic Park to Casablanca. If that sounds like a criticism, it really isn't. [...] The entire setting is packed with magical gadgets and gizmos, but at the same time it manages to feel a little more down-to-earth and dirtier than the Forgotten Realms [...]. Where more traditional worlds have played host to battles between good and evil on a vast scale, Eberron is gripped in a cold war where there is very little black-and-white morality to spare".


title: Eberron

text: "Polygon", on the release of the 5th Edition "", reported that "Eberron is an amazing place, and Wizards of the Coast does an excellent job in this new book explaining it and giving players the tools to have fun there".


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Inorganic chemistry deals with synthesis and behavior of inorganic and organometallic compounds. This field covers chemical compounds that are not carbon-based, which are the subjects of organic chemistry. The distinction between the two disciplines is far from absolute, as there is much overlap in the subdiscipline of organometallic chemistry. It has applications in every aspect of the chemical industry, including catalysis, materials science, pigments, surfactants, coatings, medications, fuels, and agriculture.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Many inorganic compounds are ionic compounds, consisting of cations and anions joined by ionic bonding. Examples of salts (which are ionic compounds) are magnesium chloride MgCl, which consists of magnesium cations Mg and chloride anions Cl; or sodium oxide NaO, which consists of sodium cations Na and oxide anions O. In any salt, the proportions of the ions are such that the electric charges cancel out, so that the bulk compound is electrically neutral. The ions are described by their oxidation state and their ease of formation can be inferred from the ionization potential (for cations) or from the electron affinity (anions) of the parent elements.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: The strength of a bond in ionic compounds is known as lattice energy. It can be defined as the heat released when ions of opposite charge in the gas phase to combine into an ionic solid. For example, if we take a sodium and chlorine atom and combined them <chem display="inline">Na+(g) + Cl- (g)-> NaCl(s)</chem> we would get formula_1, because this number is negative we would have an exothermic reaction, if this number was positive it would be an endothermic reaction. Another way of describing lattice energy is the energy required to separate one mole of an ionic solid into a gas, this is the reverse of the previous description. It is not possible to determine these values experimentally due to the number of conditions that could influence the reaction but it can be estimated using the Born–Haber cycle


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Important classes of inorganic compounds are the oxides, the carbonates, the sulfates, and the halides. Many inorganic compounds are characterized by high melting points. Inorganic salts typically are poor conductors in the solid state but rise slightly while molten. Other important features include their high melting point and ease of crystallization. Where some salts (e.g., NaCl) are very soluble in water, others (e.g., FeS) are not.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: The simplest inorganic reaction is double displacement when in mixing of two salts the ions are swapped without a change in oxidation state. In redox reactions one reactant, the "oxidant", lowers its oxidation state and another reactant, the "reductant", has its oxidation state increased. The net result is an exchange of electrons. Electron exchange can occur indirectly as well, e.g., in batteries, a key concept in electrochemistry.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: When one reactant contains hydrogen atoms, a reaction can take place by exchanging protons in acid-base chemistry. In a more general definition, any chemical species capable of binding to electron pairs is called a Lewis acid; conversely any molecule that tends to donate an electron pair is referred to as a Lewis base. As a refinement of acid-base interactions, the HSAB theory takes into account polarizability and size of ions.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Inorganic compounds are found in nature as minerals. Soil may contain iron sulfide as pyrite or calcium sulfate as gypsum. Inorganic compounds are also found multitasking as biomolecules: as electrolytes (sodium chloride), in energy storage (ATP) or in construction (the polyphosphate backbone in DNA).


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: The first important man-made inorganic compound was ammonium nitrate for soil fertilization through the Haber process. Inorganic compounds are synthesized for use as catalysts such as vanadium(V) oxide and titanium(III) chloride, or as reagents in organic chemistry such as lithium aluminium hydride.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Subdivisions of inorganic chemistry are organometallic chemistry, cluster chemistry and bioinorganic chemistry. These fields are active areas of research in inorganic chemistry, aimed toward new catalysts, superconductors, and therapies.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Inorganic chemistry is a highly practical area of science. Traditionally, the scale of a nation's economy could be evaluated by their productivity of sulfuric acid.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: The manufacturing of fertilizers, which often begins with the Haber-Bosch process, is another practical application of industrial inorganic chemistry.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Descriptive inorganic chemistry focuses on the classification of compounds based on their properties. Partly the classification focuses on the position in the periodic table of the heaviest element (the element with the highest atomic weight) in the compound, partly by grouping compounds by their structural similarities.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Classical coordination compounds feature metals bound to "lone pairs" of electrons residing on the main group atoms of ligands such as HO, NH, Cl, and CN. In modern coordination compounds almost all organic and inorganic compounds can be used as ligands. The "metal" usually is a metal from the groups 3–13, as well as the "trans"-lanthanides and "trans"-actinides, but from a certain perspective, all chemical compounds can be described as coordination complexes.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: The stereochemistry of coordination complexes can be quite rich, as hinted at by Werner's separation of two enantiomers of [Co((OH)Co(NH))], an early demonstration that chirality is not inherent to organic compounds. A topical theme within this specialization is supramolecular coordination chemistry.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: These species feature elements from groups I, II, III, IV, V,VI, VII, 0 (excluding hydrogen) of the periodic table. Due to their often similar reactivity, the elements in group 3 (Sc, Y, and La) and group 12 (Zn, Cd, and Hg) are also generally included, and the lanthanides and actinides are sometimes included as well.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Main group compounds have been known since the beginnings of chemistry, e.g., elemental sulfur and the distillable white phosphorus. Experiments on oxygen, O, by Lavoisier and Priestley not only identified an important diatomic gas, but opened the way for describing compounds and reactions according to stoichiometric ratios. The discovery of a practical synthesis of ammonia using iron catalysts by Carl Bosch and Fritz Haber in the early 1900s deeply impacted mankind, demonstrating the significance of inorganic chemical synthesis.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Typical main group compounds are SiO, SnCl, and NO. Many main group compounds can also be classed as "organometallic", as they contain organic groups, e.g., B(CH)). Main group compounds also occur in nature, e.g., phosphate in DNA, and therefore may be classed as bioinorganic. Conversely, organic compounds lacking (many) hydrogen ligands can be classed as "inorganic", such as the fullerenes, buckytubes and binary carbon oxides.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Noble gases are elements which have filled valence electron shells in their neutral state, and are thus stable as lone atoms. Historically known as being inert, methods were discovered to react with them. The trend within the group is for the larger elements to be more reactive. Xenon and krypton are more easily ionized, and can combine with extremely electronegative elements to make fluorides and oxides and form solid ionic compounds. Argon, neon, and helium are much less reactive, though in cosmochemistry ArH has been observed spectroscopically in interstellar gas. Noble gases can also be trapped in solids while not being directly coordinated in clathrates or in endohedral fullerenes.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Compounds containing metals from group 4 to 11 are considered transition metal compounds. Compounds with a metal from group 3 or 12 are sometimes also incorporated into this group, but also often classified as main group compounds.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Transition metal compounds show a rich coordination chemistry, varying from tetrahedral for titanium (e.g., TiCl) to square planar for some nickel complexes to octahedral for coordination complexes of cobalt. A range of transition metals can be found in biologically important compounds, such as iron in hemoglobin.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Usually, organometallic compounds are considered to contain the M-C-H group. The metal (M) in these species can either be a main group element or a transition metal. Operationally, the definition of an organometallic compound is more relaxed to include also highly lipophilic complexes such as metal carbonyls and even metal alkoxides.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Organometallic compounds are mainly considered a special category because organic ligands are often sensitive to hydrolysis or oxidation, necessitating that organometallic chemistry employs more specialized preparative methods than was traditional in Werner-type complexes. Synthetic methodology, especially the ability to manipulate complexes in solvents of low coordinating power, enabled the exploration of very weakly coordinating ligands such as hydrocarbons, H, and N. Because the ligands are petrochemicals in some sense, the area of organometallic chemistry has greatly benefited from its relevance to industry.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Clusters can be found in all classes of chemical compounds. According to the commonly accepted definition, a cluster consists minimally of a triangular set of atoms that are directly bonded to each other. But metal-metal bonded dimetallic complexes are highly relevant to the area. Clusters occur in "pure" inorganic systems, organometallic chemistry, main group chemistry, and bioinorganic chemistry. The distinction between very large clusters and bulk solids is increasingly blurred. This interface is the chemical basis of nanoscience or nanotechnology and specifically arise from the study of quantum size effects in cadmium selenide clusters. Thus, large clusters can be described as an array of bound atoms intermediate in character between a molecule and a solid.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: By definition, these compounds occur in nature, but the subfield includes anthropogenic species, such as pollutants (e.g., methylmercury) and drugs (e.g., Cisplatin). The field, which incorporates many aspects of biochemistry, includes many kinds of compounds, e.g., the phosphates in DNA, and also metal complexes containing ligands that range from biological macromolecules, commonly peptides, to ill-defined species such as humic acid, and to water (e.g., coordinated to gadolinium complexes employed for MRI). Traditionally bioinorganic chemistry focuses on electron- and energy-transfer in proteins relevant to respiration. Medicinal inorganic chemistry includes the study of both non-essential and essential elements with applications to diagnosis and therapies.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: This important area focuses on structure, bonding, and the physical properties of materials. In practice, solid state inorganic chemistry uses techniques such as crystallography to gain an understanding of the properties that result from collective interactions between the subunits of the solid. Included in solid state chemistry are metals and their alloys or intermetallic derivatives. Related fields are condensed matter physics, mineralogy, and materials science.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: An alternative perspective on the area of inorganic chemistry begins with the Bohr model of the atom and, using the tools and models of theoretical chemistry and computational chemistry, expands into bonding in simple and then more complicated molecules. Precise quantum mechanical descriptions for multielectron species, the province of inorganic chemistry, is difficult. This challenge has spawned many semi-quantitative or semi-empirical approaches including molecular orbital theory and ligand field theory, In parallel with these theoretical descriptions, approximate methodologies are employed, including density functional theory.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Exceptions to theories, qualitative and quantitative, are extremely important in the development of the field. For example, Cu(OAc)(HO) is almost diamagnetic below room temperature whereas crystal field theory predicts that the molecule would have two unpaired electrons. The disagreement between qualitative theory (paramagnetic) and observation (diamagnetic) led to the development of models for magnetic coupling, such as the exchange interaction. These improved models led to the development of new magnetic materials and new technologies.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Inorganic chemistry has greatly benefited from qualitative theories. Such theories are easier to learn as they require little background in quantum theory. Within main group compounds, VSEPR theory powerfully predicts, or at least rationalizes, the structures of main group compounds, such as an explanation for why NH is pyramidal whereas ClF is T-shaped. For the transition metals, crystal field theory allows one to understand the magnetism of many simple complexes, such as why [Fe(CN)] has only one unpaired electron, whereas [Fe(HO)] has five. A particularly powerful qualitative approach to assessing the structure and reactivity begins with classifying molecules according to electron counting, focusing on the numbers of valence electrons, usually at the central atom in a molecule.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: A central construct in inorganic chemistry is the theory of molecular symmetry. Mathematical group theory provides the language to describe the shapes of molecules according to their point group symmetry. Group theory also enables factoring and simplification of theoretical calculations.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Spectroscopic features are analyzed and described with respect to the symmetry properties of the, "inter alia", vibrational or electronic states. Knowledge of the symmetry properties of the ground and excited states allows one to predict the numbers and intensities of absorptions in vibrational and electronic spectra. A classic application of group theory is the prediction of the number of C-O vibrations in substituted metal carbonyl complexes. The most common applications of symmetry to spectroscopy involve vibrational and electronic spectra.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Group theory highlights commonalities and differences in the bonding of otherwise disparate species. For example, the metal-based orbitals transform identically for WF and W(CO), but the energies and populations of these orbitals differ significantly. A similar relationship exists CO and molecular beryllium difluoride.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: An alternative quantitative approach to inorganic chemistry focuses on energies of reactions. This approach is highly traditional and empirical, but it is also useful. Broad concepts that are couched in thermodynamic terms include redox potential, acidity, phase changes. A classic concept in inorganic thermodynamics is the Born–Haber cycle, which is used for assessing the energies of elementary processes such as electron affinity, some of which cannot be observed directly.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: The mechanisms of main group compounds of groups 13-18 are usually discussed in the context of organic chemistry (organic compounds are main group compounds, after all). Elements heavier than C, N, O, and F often form compounds with more electrons than predicted by the octet rule, as explained in the article on hypervalent molecules. The mechanisms of their reactions differ from organic compounds for this reason. Elements lighter than carbon (B, Be, Li) as well as Al and Mg often form electron-deficient structures that are electronically akin to carbocations. Such electron-deficient species tend to react via associative pathways. The chemistry of the lanthanides mirrors many aspects of chemistry seen for aluminium.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Transition metal and main group compounds often react differently. The important role of d-orbitals in bonding strongly influences the pathways and rates of ligand substitution and dissociation. These themes are covered in articles on coordination chemistry and ligand. Both associative and dissociative pathways are observed.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: An overarching aspect of mechanistic transition metal chemistry is the kinetic lability of the complex illustrated by the exchange of free and bound water in the prototypical complexes [M(HO)]:


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: The rates of water exchange varies by 20 orders of magnitude across the periodic table, with lanthanide complexes at one extreme and Ir(III) species being the slowest.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Redox reactions are prevalent for the transition elements. Two classes of redox reaction are considered: atom-transfer reactions, such as oxidative addition/reductive elimination, and electron-transfer. A fundamental redox reaction is "self-exchange", which involves the degenerate reaction between an oxidant and a reductant. For example, permanganate and its one-electron reduced relative manganate exchange one electron:


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Coordinated ligands display reactivity distinct from the free ligands. For example, the acidity of the ammonia ligands in [Co(NH)] is elevated relative to NH itself. Alkenes bound to metal cations are reactive toward nucleophiles whereas alkenes normally are not. The large and industrially important area of catalysis hinges on the ability of metals to modify the reactivity of organic ligands. Homogeneous catalysis occurs in solution and heterogeneous catalysis occurs when gaseous or dissolved substrates interact with surfaces of solids. Traditionally homogeneous catalysis is considered part of organometallic chemistry and heterogeneous catalysis is discussed in the context of surface science, a subfield of solid state chemistry. But the basic inorganic chemical principles are the same. Transition metals, almost uniquely, react with small molecules such as CO, H, O, and CH. The industrial significance of these feedstocks drives the active area of catalysis. Ligands can also undergo ligand transfer reactions such as transmetalation.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Because of the diverse range of elements and the correspondingly diverse properties of the resulting derivatives, inorganic chemistry is closely associated with many methods of analysis. Older methods tended to examine bulk properties such as the electrical conductivity of solutions, melting points, solubility, and acidity. With the advent of quantum theory and the corresponding expansion of electronic apparatus, new tools have been introduced to probe the electronic properties of inorganic molecules and solids. Often these measurements provide insights relevant to theoretical models. Commonly encountered techniques are:


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Although some inorganic species can be obtained in pure form from nature, most are synthesized in chemical plants and in the laboratory.


title: Inorganic chemistry

text: Inorganic synthetic methods can be classified roughly according to the volatility or solubility of the component reactants. Soluble inorganic compounds are prepared using methods of organic synthesis. For metal-containing compounds that are reactive toward air, Schlenk line and glove box techniques are followed. Volatile compounds and gases are manipulated in "vacuum manifolds" consisting of glass piping interconnected through valves, the entirety of which can be evacuated to 0.001 mm Hg or less. Compounds are condensed using liquid nitrogen (b.p. 78K) or other cryogens. Solids are typically prepared using tube furnaces, the reactants and products being sealed in containers, often made of fused silica (amorphous SiO) but sometimes more specialized materials such as welded Ta tubes or Pt "boats". Products and reactants are transported between temperature zones to drive reactions.


title: Austin Powers (character)

text: Sir Austin Danger Powers is a fictional character from the "Austin Powers" series of films, and is created and portrayed by Mike Myers. He is the protagonist of "" (1997), "The Spy Who Shagged Me" (1999) and "Austin Powers in Goldmember" (2002).


title: Austin Powers (character)

text: He is a womanizing, hard partying British spy embodying the Swinging London psyche and hippie culture of the 1960s who, with his nemesis Dr. Evil, was frozen in a cryonics experiment. The series' humor follows his attempts to adjust to the modern world as he continues to try to save it from terrorism.


title: Austin Powers (character)

text: Austin Powers was a character seen as a parody of James Bond, and being influenced by Evelyn Tremble (played by Peter Sellers) in the spoof James Bond 1967 movie "Casino Royale". Other notable influences were Harry Palmer (played by Michael Caine who would go on to play Austin's father, Nigel, in Goldmember), especially his thick horn-rimmed glasses, and the flamboyant dress sense of Jason King (played by Peter Wyngarde).


title: Austin Powers (character)

text: The character of Austin Powers represents an archetype of 1960s Swinging London, with his advocacy for free love, his use of obscure expressions and his clothing style (including crushed velvet suits and Beatle boots).


title: Austin Powers (character)

text: Myers, Matthew Sweet and Susanna Hoffs formed the faux British 1960s band Ming Tea after Myers' "Saturday Night Live" stint in the early 1990s. The band members all performed under pseudonyms with 1960s personas. Myers adopted the pseudonym and character of Austin Powers.


title: Austin Powers (character)

text: This group made a number of live club and television performances in character. Myers' then wife, Robin Ruzan, encouraged him to write a film based on Austin Powers. Obituaries of Simon Dee (1935–2009), the radio and BBC television presenter, stated that his "Sixties grooviness" made him the inspiration for the character.


title: Austin Powers (character)

text: Heavily influenced by British pop culture growing up, Mike Myers has claimed his British-born father was the inspiration behind Austin Powers.


title: Austin Powers (character)

text: In November 2010, he was voted #23 in "Entertainment Weekly"s list "The 100 Greatest Characters of The Last 20 Years."


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Australian frontier wars is a term applied by some historians to describe violent conflicts between Indigenous Australians (including both Aboriginal Australians and Torres Strait Islanders) and non-Indigenous settlers during the colonisation of Australia. The first conflict took place several months after the landing of the First Fleet in January 1788, and the last frontier conflicts occurred into the early 20th century, with some occurring as late as 1934.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: An estimated minimum of 40,000 Indigenous Australians and between 2,000 and 2,500 settlers died in the conflicts. Conflicts occurred in a number of locations across Australia.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In 1770 an expedition from Great Britain under the command of then-Lieutenant James Cook made the first voyage by the British along the Australian east coast. On 29 April, Cook and a small landing party fired on a group of the local Dharawal nation who had sought to prevent them from landing at the foot of their camp at Botany Bay, described by Cook as "a small village". Two Dharawal men made threatening gestures and threw a stone at Cook's party. Cook then ordered "a musket to be fired with small-shot" and the elder of the two was hit in a leg. This caused the two Dharawal men to run to their huts and seize their spears and shields. Subsequently, a single spear was thrown toward the British party, which "happily hurt nobody". This then caused Cook to order "the third musket with small-shots" to be fired, "upon which one of them threw another lance and both immediately ran away". Cook did not make further contact with people of the Dharawal Nation.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In his voyage up the east coast of Australia, Cook claimed to have observed no signs of agriculture or other development by its inhabitants. Some historians have argued that under prevailing European law such land was deemed "terra nullius" or land belonging to nobody or land "empty of inhabitants" (as defined by Emerich de Vattel), though this doctrine was overturned by the High Court of Australia decision in "Mabo v Queensland (No 2)". Cook wrote that he formally took possession of the east coast of New Holland on 22 August 1770 when on Possession Island off the west coast of Cape York Peninsula.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The British Government decided to establish a prison colony in Australia in 1786. The law system practiced by Indigenous Australians was not necessarily understood or recognized in any official respect by settlers (language barriers made communication extremely difficult), and the English-speaking colony abided by its own legal doctrine. The colony's Governor, Captain Arthur Phillip, was instructed to "live in amity and kindness" with Indigenous Australians and sought to avoid conflict.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The British colonisation of Australia commenced with the First Fleet in mid-January 1788 in the south-east in what is now the federal state of New South Wales. This process then continued into Tasmania and Victoria from 1803 onward. Since then the population density of non-Indigenous people has remained highest in this region of the Australian continent. However, conflict with Aboriginal people was never as intense and bloody in the south-eastern colonies as in Queensland and the continent's northeast. More settlers, as well as Indigenous Australians, were killed on the Queensland frontier than in any other Australian colony. The reason is simple, and is reflected in all evidence and sources dealing with this subject: there were more Aboriginal people in Queensland. The territory of Queensland was the single most populated section of pre-contact Indigenous Australia, reflected not only in all pre-contact population estimates but also in the mapping of pre-contact Australia (see Horton's "Map of Aboriginal Australia").


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The Indigenous population distribution illustrated below is based on two independent sources, firstly on two population estimates made by anthropologists and a social historian in 1930 and in 1988, and secondly on the basis of the distribution of known tribal land.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: All evidence suggests that the territory of Queensland had a pre-contact Indigenous population density more than double that of New South Wales, at least six times that of Victoria, and at least twenty times that of Tasmania. Equally, there are signs that the population density of Indigenous Australia was comparatively higher in the north-eastern sections of New South Wales, and along the northern coast from the Gulf of Carpentaria and westward including certain sections of the Northern Territory and Western Australia.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The effects of disease, infertility, loss of hunting grounds and starvation on the Aboriginal population were significant. There are indications that smallpox epidemics may have impacted heavily on some Aboriginal communities, with depopulation in large sections of what is now Victoria, New South Wales and Queensland up to 50% or more, even before the move inland from Sydney of squatters and their livestock. Other diseases hitherto unknown in the Indigenous populationsuch as the common cold, flu, measles, venereal diseases and tuberculosisalso had an impact, significantly reducing their numbers and tribal cohesion, and so limiting their ability to adapt to or resist invasion and dispossession.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: According to the historian John Connor, traditional Aboriginal warfare should be examined on its own terms and not by definitions of war derived from other societies. Aboriginal people did not have distinct ideas of war and peace, and traditional warfare was common, taking place between groups on an ongoing basis, with great rivalries being maintained over extended periods of time. The aims and methods of traditional Aboriginal warfare arose from their small autonomous social groupings. The fighting of a war to conquer enemy territory was not only beyond the resources of any of these Aboriginal groupings, it was contrary to a culture that was based on spiritual connections to a specific territory. Consequently, conquering another group's territory may have been seen to be of little benefit. Ultimately, traditional Aboriginal warfare was aimed at continually asserting the superiority of one's own group over its neighbours, rather than conquering, destroying or displacing neighbouring groups. As the explorer :Edward John Eyre observed in 1845, whilst Aboriginal culture was "so varied in detail", it was "similar in general outline and character", and Connor observes that there were sufficient similarities in weapons and warfare of these groups to allow generalisations about traditional Aboriginal warfare to be made.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In 1840, the American-Canadian ethnologist :Horatio Hale identified four types of Australian Aboriginal traditional warfare; formal battles, ritual trials, raids for women, and revenge attacks. Formal battles involved fighting between two groups of warriors, which ended after a few warriors had been killed or wounded, due to the need to ensure the ongoing survival of the groups. Such battles were usually fought to settle grievances between groups, and could take some time to prepare. Ritual trials involved the application of customary law to one or more members of a group who had committed a crime such as murder or assault. Weapons were used to inflict injury, and the criminal was expected to stand their ground and accept the punishment. Some Aboriginal men had effective property rights over women and raids for women were essentially about transferring property from one group to another to ensure the survival of a group through women's food-gathering and childbearing roles. The final type of Aboriginal traditional warfare described by Hale was the revenge attack, undertaken by one group against another to punish the group for the actions of one of its members, such as a murder. In some cases these involved sneaking into the opposition camp at night and silently killing one or more members of the group.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Connor describes traditional Aboriginal warfare as both limited and universal. It was limited in terms of:


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Traditional Aboriginal warfare was also universal, as the entire community participated in warfare, boys learnt to fight by playing with toy melee and missile weapons, and every initiated male became a warrior. Women were sometimes participants in warfare as warriors and as encouragers on the sidelines of formal battles, but more often as victims.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: While the selection and design of weapons varied from group to group, Aboriginal warriors used a combination of melee and missile weapons in traditional warfare. Spears, clubs and shields were commonly used in hand-to-hand fighting, with different types of shields favoured during exchanges of missiles and in close combat, and spears (often used in conjunction with spear throwers), boomerangs and stones used as missile weapons.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Available weapons had a significant influence over the tactics used during traditional Aboriginal warfare. The limitations of spears and clubs meant that surprise was paramount during raids for women and revenge attacks, and encouraged ambushing and night attacks. These tactics were offset by counter-measures such as regularly changing campsites, being prepared to extinguish camp-fires at short notice, and posting parties of warriors to cover the escape of raiders.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Initial peaceful relations between Indigenous Australians and Europeans began to be strained several months after the First Fleet established Sydney on 26 January 1788. The local Indigenous people became suspicious when the British began to clear land and catch fish, and in May 1788 five convicts were killed and an Indigenous man was wounded. The British grew increasingly concerned when groups of up to three hundred Indigenous people were sighted at the outskirts of the colony in June. Despite this, Phillip attempted to avoid conflict, and forbade reprisals after being speared in 1790. He did, however, authorise two punitive expeditions in December 1790 after his huntsman was killed by an Indigenous warrior named Pemulwuy, but neither was successful.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: During the 1790s and early 19th century the British occupied areas along the Australian coastline. These settlements initially occupied small amounts of land, and there was little conflict between the colonisers and Indigenous peoples. Fighting broke out when the settlements expanded, however, disrupting traditional Indigenous food-gathering activities, and subsequently followed the pattern of European invasion in Australia for the next 150 years. Whilst the reactions of the Aboriginal inhabitants to the sudden invasion by the British were varied, they became hostile when their presence led to competition over resources, and to the occupation of their lands. European diseases decimated Indigenous populations, and the occupation or destruction of lands and food resources sometimes led to starvation. By and large neither the Europeans nor the Indigenous peoples approached the conflict in an organised sense, with the conflict more one between groups of colonisers and individual Indigenous groups rather than systematic warfare, even if at times it did involve British soldiers and later formed mounted police units. Not all Indigenous Australians resisted European encroachment on their lands either, whilst many also served in mounted police units and were involved in attacks on other tribes. Colonisers in turn often reacted with violence, resulting in a number of indiscriminate massacres.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Opinions differ on whether to depict the conflict as one-sided and mainly perpetrated by Europeans on Indigenous Australians or not. Although tens of thousands more Indigenous Australians died than Europeans, some cases of mass killing were not massacres but quasi-military defeats, and the higher death toll was also caused by the technological and logistic advantages enjoyed by Europeans. Indigenous tactics varied, but were mainly based on pre-existing hunting and fighting practices—utilising spears, clubs and other simple weapons. Unlike the indigenous peoples of New Zealand and North America, in the main they failed to adapt to meet the challenge of the Europeans, and although there were some instances of individuals and groups acquiring and using firearms, this was not widespread. In reality the Indigenous peoples were never a serious military threat, regardless of how much the settlers may have feared them. On occasions large groups attacked Europeans in open terrain and a conventional battle ensued, during which the Aboriginal residents would attempt to use superior numbers to their advantage. This could sometimes be effective, with reports of them advancing in crescent formation in an attempt to outflank and surround their opponents, waiting out the first volley of shots and then hurling their spears whilst settlers reloaded. Usually, however, such open warfare proved more costly for the Indigenous Australians than the Europeans.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Central to the success of the Europeans was the use of firearms, but the advantages this afforded have often been overstated. Prior to the 19th century, firearms were often cumbersome muzzle-loading, smooth-bore, single shot weapons with flint-lock mechanisms. Such weapons produced a low rate of fire, whilst suffering from a high rate of failure and were only accurate within . These deficiencies may have given the Aboriginal residents some advantages, allowing them to move in close and engage with spears or clubs. However, by 1850 significant advances in firearms gave the Europeans a distinct advantage, with the six-shot Colt revolver, the Snider single shot breech-loading rifle and later the Martini-Henry rifle as well as rapid-fire rifles such as the Winchester rifle, becoming available. These weapons, when used on open ground and combined with the superior mobility provided by horses to surround and engage groups of Indigenous Australians, often proved successful. The Europeans also had to adapt their tactics to fight their fast-moving, often hidden enemies. Strategies employed included night-time surprise attacks, and positioning forces to drive Aboriginal people off cliffs or force them to retreat into rivers while attacking from both banks.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Fighting between Indigenous Australians and European settlers was localised, as Indigenous groups did not form confederations capable of sustained resistance. Conflict emerged as a series of violent engagements, and massacres across the continent. According to the historian Geoffrey Blainey, in Australia during the colonial period: "In a thousand isolated places there were occasional shootings and spearings. Even worse, smallpox, measles, influenza and other new diseases swept from one Aboriginal camp to another ... The main conqueror of Aborigines was to be disease and its ally, demoralisation".


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The Caledon Bay crisis of 1932–34 saw one of the last incidents of violent interaction on the "frontier" of indigenous and non-indigenous Australia, which began when the spearing of Japanese poachers who had been molesting Yolngu women was followed by the killing of a policeman. As the crisis unfolded, national opinion swung behind the Aboriginal people involved, and the first appeal on behalf of an Indigenous Australian, Dhakiyarr Wirrpanda, was launched to the High Court of Australia in Tuckiar v The King. Following the crisis, the anthropologist Donald Thomson was despatched by the government to live among the Yolngu. Elsewhere around this time, activists like Sir Douglas Nicholls were commencing their campaigns for Aboriginal rights within the established Australian political system and the age of frontier conflict closed.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Frontier encounters in Australia were not universally negative. Positive accounts of Aboriginal customs and encounters are also recorded in the journals of early European explorers, who often relied on Aboriginal guides and assistance: Charles Sturt employed Aboriginal envoys to explore the Murray-Darling; the lone survivor of the Burke and Wills expedition was nursed by local Aboriginal residents, and the famous Aboriginal explorer Jackey Jackey loyally accompanied his ill-fated friend Edmund Kennedy to Cape York. Respectful studies were conducted by such as Walter Baldwin Spencer and Frank Gillen in their renowned anthropological study "The Native Tribes of Central Australia" (1899); and by Donald Thomson of Arnhem Land (c.1935–1943). In inland Australia, the skills of Aboriginal stockmen became highly regarded.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The first frontier war began in 1795 when encroaching British settlers established farms along the Hawkesbury River west of Sydney. Some of these settlements were established by soldiers as a means of providing security to the region. Local Darug people raided farms until Governor Macquarie dispatched a detachment of the 46th Regiment of Foot in 1816. This detachment patrolled the Hawkesbury Valley and ended the conflict by killing 14 Indigenous Australians in an ambush on their campsite. Indigenous Australians led by Pemulwuy also conducted raids around Parramatta during the period between 1795 and 1802. These attacks led Governor Philip Gidley King to issue an order in 1801 which authorised settlers to shoot Indigenous Australians on sight in Parramatta, Georges River and Prospect areas.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Conflict began again when the British expanded into inland New South Wales. Settlers who crossed the Blue Mountains were harassed by Wiradjuri warriors, who killed or wounded stock-keepers and stock and were subjected to retaliatory killings. In response, Governor Brisbane proclaimed martial law on 14 August 1824 to end "the Slaughter of Black Women and Children, and unoffending White Men". It remained in force until 11 December 1824, when it was proclaimed that "the judicious and humane Measures pursued by the Magistrates assembled at Bathurst have restored Tranquillity without Bloodshed". There is a display of the weaponry and history of this conflict at the National Museum of Australia. This includes a commendation by Governor Brisbane of the deployment of the troops under Major Morisset:


title: Australian frontier wars

text: I felt it necessary to augment the Detachment at Bathurst to 75 men who were divided into various small parties, each headed by a Magistrate who proceeded in different directions in towards the interior of the Country ... This system of keeping these unfortunate People in a constant state of alarm soon brought them to a sense of their Duty, and ... Saturday their great and most warlike Chieftain has been with me to receive his pardon and that He, with most of His Tribe, attended the annual conference held here on the 28th Novr...


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Brisbane also established the New South Wales Mounted Police, who began as mounted infantry from the third Regiment, and were first deployed against bushrangers around Bathurst in 1825. Later they were deployed to the upper Hunter Region in 1826 after fighting broke out there between Wonnarua and Kamilaroi people and settlers.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: From the 1830s British invasion spread rapidly through inland eastern Australia, leading to widespread conflict. War took place across the Liverpool Plains, with 16 British and up to 500 Indigenous Australians being killed between 1832 and 1838. The violence in this region included several massacres of Indigenous people, including the Waterloo Creek massacre and Myall Creek massacres in 1838, and did not end until 1843. Further violence took place in the New England region during the early 1840s.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The British established a settlement in Van Diemen's Land (modern Tasmania) in 1803. Relations with the local Indigenous people were generally peaceful until the mid-1820s when pastoral expansion caused conflict over land. This led to sustained frontier warfare (the "Black War"), and in some districts farmers were forced to fortify their houses. Over 50 British were killed between 1828 and 1830 in what was the "most successful Aboriginal resistance in Australia's history".


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In 1830 Lieutenant-Governor Arthur attempted to end the "Black War" through a massive offensive. In an operation which became known as the "Black Line" ten percent of the colony's male civilian population were mobilised and marched across the settled districts in company with police and soldiers in an attempt to clear Indigenous Australians from the area. While few Indigenous people were captured, the operation discouraged the Indigenous raiding parties, and they gradually agreed to leave their land for a reservation which had been established at Flinders Island.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The first British settlement in Western Australia was established by a detachment of soldiers at Albany in 1826. Relations between the garrison and the local Minang people were generally good. Open conflict between people of the Noongar Nation and European settlers broke out in Western Australia in the 1830s as the Swan River Colony expanded from Perth. The Pinjarra massacre, the best known single event, occurred on 28 October 1833 when a party of British colonisers led by Governor Stirling attacked an Indigenous campsite on the banks of the Murray River.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The Noongar Nation, forced from traditional hunting grounds and denied access to sacred sites, turned to stealing settlers' crops and killing livestock to survive. In 1831 a Noongar person was murdered for taking potatoes; this resulted in Yagan killing a servant of the household, as was the response permitted under Noongar law. In 1832 Yagan and two others were arrested and sentenced to death, but settler Robert Menli Lyon argued that Yagan was defending his land from invasion and therefore should be treated as a prisoner of war. The argument was successful and the three men were exiled to Carnac Island under the supervision of Lyon and two soldiers. The group later escaped from the island.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In the Busselton region, relations between white settlers and the Wardandi people were strained to the point of violence, resulting in several Aboriginal deaths. In June 1841, George Layman was speared to death by Wardandi Elder Gaywal. According to one source, Layman had got involved in an argument between Gaywal and another Wardandi person over their allocation of damper, and had pulled Gaywal's beard, which was considered a grave insult. According to another source, Layman had hired two of Gaywal's wives to work on his farm and would not let them go back to their husbands. A manhunt for Layman's killer went on for several weeks, involving much bloodshed as Captain John Molloy, the Bussell brothers, and troops murdered unknown numbers of Aboriginal residents in what has become known as the Wonnerup massacre. The posse eventually murdered Gaywal and abducted his three sons, two of whom were imprisoned on Rottnest Island.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The discovery of gold near Coolgardie in 1892 brought thousands of prospectors onto Wangkathaa land, causing sporadic fighting.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Continued European invasion and expansion in Western Australia led to further frontier conflict, Bunuba warriors also attacked European settlements during the 1890s until Bunuba leader Jandamarra was killed in 1897. Sporadic conflict continued in northern Western Australia until the 1920s, with a Royal Commission held in 1926 finding that at least eleven Indigenous Australians had been murdered in the Forrest River massacre by a police expedition in retaliation for the death of a European.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: South Australia was settled in 1836 with no convicts and a unique plan for settlers to purchase land in advance of their arrival, which was intended to ensure a balance of landowners and farm workers in the colony. The Colonial Office was very conscious of the recent history of the earlier occupations in the eastern states, where there was a significant conflict with the Aboriginal population. On the initial Proclamation Day in 1836 Governor Hindmarsh, made a brief statement that explicitly stated how the native population should be treated. He said in part:


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Governor Gawler declared in 1840 that Aboriginal people "have exercised distinct, defined, and absolute right or proprietary and hereditary possession ... from time immemorial". The Governor ordered land to be set aside for the Aboriginal population, but there was bitter opposition from settlers who insisted on a right to choose the best land. Eventually, the land was available to Aboriginal people only if it promoted their "Christianisation" and they became farmers.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The designation of the Aboriginal population as British citizens gave them rights and responsibilities of which they had no knowledge and ignored existing Aboriginal customary law. However, Aboriginal people could not testify in court, since, not being Christians, they could not swear an oath on a bible. There was also great difficulty in translation. The intentions of those establishing and leading the new colony soon came into conflict with the fears of Aboriginal people and the new settlers. "In South Australia, as across Australia's other colonies, the failure to adequately deal with Aboriginal rights to land was fundamental to the violence that followed."


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Soon after the colony was established, large numbers of sheep and cattle were brought overland from the eastern colonies. There were many instances of conflict between Aboriginal people and the drovers, with the former desiring the protection of the Country and the latter quick to shoot to protect themselves and their flocks. One expedition leader (Buchanan) recorded at least six conflicts and the deaths of eight Aboriginal people.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In 1840 the ship "Maria" was wrecked at Cape Jaffa, on the southeast coast. A search party found that all 26 survivors of the wreck had been massacred. The Governor summoned the Executive Council under martial law and a police party was sent to the district to deliver summary justice against the local Indigenous people. The police party apprehended a number of Aboriginal people; two men were implicated, tried by a tribunal from members of the expedition, found guilty, and hanged. There was a vigorous debate in the colony between those approving the immediate punishment for the massacre and those condemning this form of justice outside the normal law.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The town of Port Lincoln, which was readily accessible by sea from Adelaide, became an early new settlement. A small number of shepherds began to steal land that was home to a large Aboriginal population. Deaths on both sides occurred and settlers demanded better protection. Police and soldiers were sent to the Eyre Peninsula but were often ineffective due to the size of the area and the number of isolated settlements. By the mid-1840s, after conflicts sometimes involving large numbers of Aboriginal people, the greater lethality of the white people's weapons had an effect. Several alleged leaders of attacks by Aboriginal people were tried and executed in Adelaide.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The experience of the Port Lincoln settlement on the Eyre Peninsula was repeated in the South East of the state and in the north as settlers encroached on the Aboriginal population. The government attempted to apply the sentiments of the state's proclamation, but the contradictions between these sentiments and the dispossession that the settlement involved made conflict inevitable.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In 1833–34, the battle for rights to a beached whale between whalers and people of the Gunditjmara Nation resulted in the Convincing Ground massacre near Portland, Victoria.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The 1836 Mount Cottrell massacre was a reprisal for the killing of a prominent Van Diemen's Land squatter Charles Franks who squatted on land west of the Melbourne's fledgling settlement.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: A clash at Benalla in 1838 known as the Battle of Broken River of which at least seven white settlers were killed, marked the beginning of the frontier conflict in the colony which lasted for fifteen years.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In 1839 the reprisal raid against Aboriginal resistance in central Victoria resulted in the Campaspe Plains massacre.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The Indigenous groups in Victoria concentrated on economic warfare, killing tens of thousands of sheep. Large numbers of British settlers arrived in Victoria during the 1840s and rapidly outnumbered the Indigenous population.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: From 1840, the Eumerella Wars took place in southwest Victoria, and many years of violence occurred during the Warrigal Creek and Gippsland massacres.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In 1842, white settlers from the Port Fairy area wrote a letter to the Charles Latrobe requesting the government improve security from "outrages committed by natives" and listing many incidents of conflict and economic warfare. An excerpt of the letter printed on 10 June:


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The frontier wars were particularly bloody and bitter in Queensland, owing to its comparatively large Indigenous population. This point is emphasized in a 2011 study by Ørsted-Jensen, which by use of two different sources calculated that colonial Queensland must have accounted for upwards of one-third and close to forty percent of the Indigenous population of the pre-contact Australian continent.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Queensland represents the single bloodiest colonial frontier in Australia. Thus the records of Queensland document the most frequent reports of shootings and massacres of Indigenous people, the three deadliest massacres on white settlers, the most disreputable frontier police force, and the highest number of white victims to frontier violence on record in any Australian colony. In 2009 professor Raymond Evans calculated the Indigenous fatalities caused by the Queensland Native Police Force alone as no less than 24,000. In July 2014, Evans, in cooperation with the Danish historian Robert Ørsted-Jensen, presented the first-ever attempt to use statistical modeling and a database covering no less than 644 collisions gathered from primary sources, and ended up with total fatalities suffered during Queensland's frontier wars being no less than 66,680—with Aboriginal fatalities alone comprising no less than 65,180—whereas the hitherto commonly accepted minimum overall continental deaths had previously been 20,000. The 66,680 covers Native Police and settler-inflicted fatalities on Aboriginal people, but also a calculated estimate for Aboriginal inflicted casualties on whites settlers and their associates. The continental death toll of Europeans and associates has previously been roughly estimated as between 2,000 and 2,500, yet there is now evidence that Queensland alone accounted for an estimated 1,500 of these fatal frontier casualties.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The European settlement of what is now Queensland commenced as the Moreton Bay penal settlement from September 1824. It was initially located at Redcliffe but moved south to Brisbane River a year later. Free settlement began in 1838, with settlement rapidly expanding in a great rush to take up the surrounding land in the Darling Downs, Logan and Brisbane Valley and South Burnett onwards from 1840, in many cases leading to widespread fighting and heavy loss of life. The conflict later spread north to the Wide Bay and Burnett River and Hervey Bay region, and at one stage the settlement of Maryborough was virtually under siege. Both sides committed atrocities, with settlers poisoning a large number of Indigenous people, for example at Kilcoy on the South Burnett in 1842 and on Whiteside near Brisbane in 1847, and Indigenous warriors killing 19 settlers during the Cullin-La-Ringo massacre on 17 October 1861. At the Battle of One Tree Hill in September 1843, Multuggerah and his group of warriors ambushed one group of settlers, routing them and subsequently others in the skirmishes which followed, starting in retaliation for the Kilcoy poisoning.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Queensland's Native Police Force was formed by the Government of New South Wales in 1848, under the well-connected Commandant Frederick Walker.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The largest reasonably well-documented massacres in southeast Queensland were the Kilcoy and Whiteside poisonings, each of which was said to have taken up to 70 Aboriginal lives by use of a gift of flour laced with strychnine. Central Queensland was particularly hard hit during the 1860s and 1870s, several contemporary writers mention the Skull Hole, Bladensburg, or Mistake Creek massacre on Bladensburg Station near Winton, which in 1901 was said to have taken up to 200 Aboriginal lives.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: In 1869 the "Port Denison Times" reported that "Not long ago 120 aboriginals disappeared on two occasions forever from the native records". Frontier violence peaked on the northern mining frontier during the 1870s, most notably in Cook district and on the Palmer and Hodgkinson River goldfields, with heavy loss of Aboriginal lives and several well-known massacres. Battle Camp and Cape Bedford belong among the best-known massacres of Aboriginal people in the Cook district, but they were certainly not the only ones. The Cape Bedford massacre on 20 February 1879 alone was reported to have taken as many as 28 lives, this was retaliation for the injuring (but not killing) of two white "cedar-getters" from Cooktown. In January 1879 Carl Feilberg, the editor of the short-lived Brisbane "Daily News" (later editor-in-chief of the "Brisbane Courier"), conveyed a report from a "gentleman, on whose words reliance can be placed" that he had after just "one of these raids ... counted as many as seventy-five natives dead or dying upon the ground".


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Raids conducted by the Kalkadoon held settlers out of Western Queensland for ten years until September 1884 when they attacked a force of settlers and native police at Battle Mountain near modern Cloncurry. The subsequent battle of Battle Mountain ended in disaster for the Kalkadoon, who suffered heavy losses. Fighting continued in North Queensland, however, with Indigenous raiders attacking sheep and cattle while native police mounted punitive expeditions. Two reports from 1884 and 1889 written by one of the prime combatants of the Kalkadoons, Sub-inspector of Native Police (later Queensland Police Commissioner) Frederic Charles Urquhart described how he and his detachment pursued and killed up to 150 Aboriginal people in just three or four so-called "dispersals" (he provided numbers up to about 80 of these killings, the rest was just described without estimating the actual toll).


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The conflict in Queensland was the bloodiest in the history of colonial Australia. Some studies give evidence of some 1,500 whites and associates (meaning Aboriginal servants, as well as Chinese, Melanesian, and other non-Europeans) killed on the Queensland frontier during the 19th century, while others suggest that upwards of 65,000 Aboriginal people were killed, with sections of Central and North Queensland witnessing particularly heavy fighting. 65,000 is, of course, an estimate, and notably much higher than the more commonly-held belief of a national minimum of 20,000 colonial Aboriginal casualties.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The British made three early attempts to establish military outposts in northern Australia. The initial settlement at Fort Dundas on Melville Island was established in 1824 but was abandoned in 1829 due to attacks from the local Tiwi people. Some fighting also took place near Fort Wellington on the Cobourg Peninsula between its establishment in 1827 and abandonment in 1829. The third British settlement, Fort Victoria, was also established on the Cobourg Peninsula in 1838 but was abandoned in 1849.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The final battles took place in the Northern Territory. A permanent settlement was established at modern-day Darwin in 1869 and attempts by pastoralists to occupy Indigenous land led to conflict. This fighting continued into the 20th century, and was driven by reprisals against European deaths and the pastoralists' desire to secure the land they had stolen from Indigenous people. At least 31 Indigenous men were killed by police in the Coniston massacre in 1928 and further reprisal expeditions were conducted in 1932 and 1933.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Armed resistance to British invasion was generally given little attention by historians until the 1970s, and was not regarded as a "war". In 1968 anthropologist W. E. H. Stanner wrote that historians' failure to include Indigenous Australians in histories of Australia or acknowledge the Frontier Wars constituted a "great Australian silence". Works which discussed the conflicts began to appear during the 1970s and 1980s, and the first history of the Australian frontier told from an Indigenous perspective, Henry Reynolds' "The Other Side of the Frontier", was published in 1982.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: Between 2000 and 2002 Keith Windschuttle published a series of articles in the magazine "Quadrant" and the book "The Fabrication of Aboriginal History". These works argued that there had not been prolonged frontier warfare in Australia, and that historians had in some instances fabricated evidence of fighting. Windschuttle's claims led to the so-called "history wars" in which historians debated the extent of the conflict between Indigenous Australians and European settlers.


title: Australian frontier wars

text: The frontier wars are not commemorated at the Australian War Memorial in Canberra. The Memorial argues that the Australian frontier fighting is outside its charter as it did not involve Australian military forces. This position is supported by the Returned and Services League of Australia but is opposed by many historians, including Geoffrey Blainey, Gordon Briscoe, John Coates, John Connor, Ken Inglis, Michael McKernan and Peter Stanley. These historians argue that the fighting should be commemorated at the Memorial as it involved large numbers of Indigenous Australians and paramilitary Australian units.


title: Battenberg cake

text: Battenberg or Battenburg (with either 'cake' or 'square' added on the end) is a light sponge cake with different sections held together with jam. The cake is covered in marzipan and, when cut in cross section, displays a distinctive two-by-two check pattern alternately coloured pink and yellow. The large chequered patterns on emergency vehicles in the UK are officially referred to as Battenburg markings because of their resemblance to the cake.


title: Battenberg cake

text: Charles Nevin wrote in "The Independent": “Battenberg cake is exemplarily British. The first cake was baked in 1884 to celebrate Prince Louis of Battenberg marrying Princess Victoria, Queen Victoria’s granddaughter and Prince Philip’s grandmother.” Early Battenbergs had as many as 25 squares, and food historian Ivan Day states the simplified four-panelled cake occurred when large industrial bakers such as Lyons began producing it.


title: Battenberg cake

text: Bakers construct Battenberg cakes by baking yellow and pink almond sponge-cakes separately, and then cutting and combining the pieces in a chequered pattern. The cake is held together by apricot jam and covered with marzipan.


title: Battenberg cake

text: with early recipes also using the alternative names "Domino Cake" (recipe by Agnes Bertha Marshall, 1898), "Neapolitan Roll" (recipe by Robert Wells, 1898),


title: Battenberg cake

text: The cake was purportedly named in honour of the marriage of Princess Victoria, a granddaughter of Queen Victoria, to Prince Louis of Battenberg in 1884. The name refers to the German town of Battenberg, Hesse, which was the seat of an aristocratic family that died out in the early Middle Ages and whose title was transferred in 1851 to Countess Julia Hauke on behalf of her marriage to Prince Alexander of Hesse and by Rhine; then first Countess of Battenberg, afterwards Princess of Battenberg, known in Britain since 1917 as Mountbatten. Food historian Ivan Day refuted the idea that four panels is reference to four princes or houses as older recipes show higher numbers of panels (Day could neither confirm nor deny name origin in the royal wedding via contemporary sources), and states the simplification of the four-panelled cake occurred when "large industrial bakers such as Lyons" got in on the battenberg game – "I suppose a four-panel battenburg [a common 19th-century spelling] is much easier to make on a production line".


title: Battenberg cake

text: According to "The Oxford Companion to Food", the name "Battenberg cake" first appeared in print in 1903. However, a "Battenburg cake" appeared in: Frederick Vine, "Saleable Shop Goods for Counter-Tray and Window …" (London, England: Office of the Baker and Confectioner, 1898).


title: Holden Torana

text: The Holden Torana is a mid-sized car that was manufactured by Holden from 1967 to 1980. The name apparently comes from an word meaning "to fly" in an unconfirmed Aboriginal Australian language. The original HB series Torana was released in 1967 and was a four-cylinder compact vehicle closely based on the British Vauxhall Viva HB series of 1966 - 1970.


title: Holden Torana

text: Whilst the 1969-73 (LC and LJ series) cars included more popular, longer-wheelbase six-cylinder versions, and with the 1974-77 (LH and LX series) cars adding eight-cylinder versions to the mix, a range of four-cylinder versions continued for the entire production life of the Torana (with later four-cylinder versions being marketed as the Holden Sunbird from November 1976).


title: Holden Torana

text: In South Korea, the LJ Torana was produced locally as the Chevrolet 1700 (시보레 1700, 1972–1978) and Saehan Camina (새한 카미나, 1976–1978).


title: Holden Torana

text: Changing tack in Australian motor sport, Holden released the LC Torana GTR XU-1 in 1970, with performance-enhanced drivetrain and handling. From this time through to the release of the Holden Commodore, the Torana remained Holden's most successful sports/performance vehicle, with many victories garnered in rallying and circuit racing.


title: Holden Torana

text: The introduction of the VB Commodore in 1978 was preceded by the arrival of the updated UC Torana/Sunbird twins, but with no sports versions or V8 engine options. The Torana was subsequently discontinued in 1979, followed by the four-cylinder Sunbird in 1980.


title: Holden Torana

text: Introduced in May 1967 to replace the HA series Vauxhall Viva in the Australian market, the first Torana model was a mildly facelifted HB series Vauxhall Viva. It featured a two-door body, 12-inch (305-mm) wheels, and a 56-bhp 1.2-litre four-cylinder engine mated to a four-speed gearbox. A Borg-Warner Model 35 three-speed automatic transmission was optional. Drum brakes were fitted front and rear, with power-assisted front disc brakes optional. In terms of styling, the only points of visual difference between Viva and Torana were in the grille and headlamps, the rear tail panel (no registration plate recess), the deletion of the Viva's dashboard air vents, the wheel trims, and the badging - otherwise it was very much a straightforward exercise in badge engineering. Holden's HB Torana sedan was retailed in three model specifications : Torana, Torana S, and Torana SL ... these models effectively mirrored the concurrent larger HR Holden sedans with their three-tiered specification of Standard, Special, and Premier.


title: Holden Torana

text: A 'sports' option package was released in October 1967, called the 'Brabham' Torana, named in honour of the well-respected Australian race-car driver, Sir Jack Brabham, who at the time was the reigning F1 World Champion and Australian of the Year for 1966. The Brabham Torana's engine featured twin CD Zenith-Stromberg carburettors fitted with individual sports air cleaners. Together with a low-restriction exhaust system, power was boosted to . The Brabham option (available only with manual transmission on Torana S or Torana SL) also included wider wheel rims and red-wall tyres, power-assisted front disc brakes, black body accents, and subtle 'Brabham' identification badges attached to the leading edges of the front fenders and to the rear boot lid.


title: Holden Torana

text: In early 1968, a "Series 70" engine option - equivalent to the ‘90’ option for the British Vauxhall Viva - was added. This engine had a higher compression ratio and higher-lift camshaft (adapted from the Brabham option engine) and a single CD Zenith-Stromberg carburettor, which boosted output to . Power-assisted front disc brakes were standardised with this engine, whilst availability of the automatic transmission option shifted exclusively to the "Series 70" engine option (no longer available with the standard engine).


title: Holden Torana

text: In September 1968, the '69 Torana' was released, sometimes called the HB Series II. This featured locally made body panels, replacing the imported bodies of the original HB. The model lineup now included a four-door sedan - some media claimed this design was developed in Australia, with four-door bodies shipped back to the UK to be constructed and sold as the Viva saloon. However, the Vauxpedia website, after extensive research with Vauxhall, maintains that the four-door was designed in England, to compete with Ford's four-door Escort, and both Holden and Vauxhall made their own body panels for their respective Torana and Viva versions. A collapsible steering column was now fitted, together with a new recessed instrument cluster, new indicator switch, and new steering wheel borrowed from the contemporary full-sized Holden HK-series. These local components replaced the previously imported Vauxhall items. A consequence of using these local components was the loss of the stalk-operated headlight dip switch and horn. The dip switch ended up on the floor, as was the case for full-sized Holdens. Dual-circuit brakes were now standard on all models, though power-assisted front disc brakes were still optional with the standard engine. The Brabham Torana became an independent model in its own right - (option XS5) based upon the Torana S two-door sedan - complete with bold specific 'Brabham Torana' badging front and rear and on the flanks, and new black accent body decoration. Its interior specification included a sports steering wheel (from the contemporary Holden HK Monaro GTS) and uniquely comprehensive dash instrumentation with tachometer and three supplementary gauges.


title: Holden Torana

text: The HB Torana continued until late 1969. Total production was 16,318 with imported panels and 20,243 with the locally manufactured bodies.


title: Holden Torana

text: The next generation of Holden Torana, the LC-series, appeared in October 1969 and was made available with a range of a four-cylinder or six-cylinder engines. The inline six had a capacity of 138 cu in (badged as the '2250'); a 161 cu in engine (badged as the '2600') was optional. The six-cylinder cars had a longer wheelbase (100 inches against the of four-cylinder models), a more aggressively styled and longer nose to accommodate the larger engines, and offered a choice of three-speed column shift or four-speed floor shift manual transmissions or the new locally GM-manufactured 'Trimatic' three-speed automatic transmission with column or floor shift. A bench front seat was available for some column shift models. The LC Torana scored "Wheels" magazine's Car of the Year award for 1969.


title: Holden Torana

text: The four-cylinder engine was initially of 1,159 cc, and offered either . The more powerful Brabham Torana engine was not carried over to the LC-series and the model itself was also discontinued. In July 1971, a bigger overhead cam 1.6-litre engine with was added; this engine was also sourced from Vauxhall in the UK. The 1600 OHC engine option also included a strengthened gearbox.


title: Holden Torana

text: Body styles were based upon the previous HB-series, but the new six-cylinder cars were of a significantly different external appearance. All LC Toranas shared a new body shape rear of the 'B' pillar, but shared windscreen and front doors carried over from the HB-series (modified with the recessed door handles now required by Australian Design Rules [ADRs]; further to this, all LC four-cylinder cars carried over HB body panels forward of the 'A' pillar. The LC-series was available in two-door and four-door versions of base (four-cylinder only), S, or SL specification, as well as a two-door sports model called the GTR. The new Torana GTR effectively replaced the previous series' Brabham Torana, but raised the performance level significantly with its uniquely specified '2600S' six-cylinder engine.


title: Holden Torana

text: As for general features, a three-person front bench seat became available as an option for four-door S and SL six-cylinder models. Later in production (July 1971), the 161-ci engine was replaced with a larger 173-ci version (badged as the '2850') which also made it into the last of the LC GTR cars as the '2850S'.


title: Holden Torana

text: In August 1970, the first ultra-performance Torana, the GTR XU-1, was developed by Holden along with Harry Firth of the Holden Dealer Team for competition in popular Series Production touring car racing within Australia, as well as in off-road rallying and unique rallycross events. However, the highlight purpose of the Torana GTR XU-1 was to keep the Holden brand competitive against the larger and more powerful Ford Falcon GT-HO in the Hardie-Ferodo 500 (Bathurst) endurance race that some consider to be the jewel in the crown of Australian motorsport.


title: Holden Torana

text: The LC Torana GTR XU-1 was equipped with a 160-bhp, 186-cu in (3-litre) six-cylinder engine, fitted with three Zenith-Stromberg CD-150 carburettors, cast-iron headers, a performance cylinder head and camshaft, and the heavy-duty Australian-designed four-speed manual gearboxes (available in a number of different ratios) replacing the weaker Opel units. This car also featured an underbody front chassis air dam, a rear bobtail spoiler, wider steel wheel rims, and front disc brakes as standard equipment. The Torana GTR XU-1 proved to be a strong performer on both the road and track due to its favourable power/weight ratio. It soon gained popularity in Australian motor sport and successfully replaced the V8 Monaro GTS 350 as Holden's frontline track race car in 1970, winning many touring car and rally events, but for the famed Bathurst race which Ford won in 1970 and 1971 with its XW Phase Two and XY Phase Three Falcon GT-HOs, respectively.


title: Holden Torana

text: In February 1972, the facelifted LJ Torana was introduced with the six-cylinder models now visually associated with the larger Holden HQ series. Many mechanical components were carried over from the LC-series, with some changes to the choice of engines. The four-cylinder Torana retained its Vauxhall designed 1200OHV and 1600OHC engines, but was now also available with a 1300cc OHV unit. The base two-door car was now simply called the Torana 1200, while the 1300 engine equipped the Torana Deluxe model in either two-door or four-door form. The optional 1600 OHC engine was later in the year to be increased in capacity, badged as the 1760 OHC. Otherwise, the 2250 and 2850 engines carried over into the revised six-cylinder Torana models, and the 3300 engine (known as the 202 in the HQ range) was adopted as the engine for the LJ Torana GTR sedan. Gearbox choices remained the same across the range.


title: Holden Torana

text: A race-bred version of the 3300 engine was also fitted to the LJ Torana GTR XU-1, producing . By now the XU-1 was equipped with the 202-ci engine and larger CD-175 Zenith-Stromberg triple carburettors, as well as a new close-ratio four-speed Australian-made transmission (which was not available as an option on the standard GTR). Also available on the 'Bathurst Special' was an even closer-ratio gearbox and the taller (reduced from 3.36:1 to 3.08:1) rear axle final drive ratio from the standard GTR which increased top speed to 135 mph. This gave the nimble XU-1 the power boost it needed to seriously challenge the powerful Ford Falcon GTHO Phase III, which had won the 1971 Hardie-Ferodo 500 production-car endurance race held annually at Bathurst.


title: Holden Torana

text: In the somewhat wet 1972 Hardie-Ferodo 500, the lightweight HDT Torana GTR XU-1 was able to finally claim victory against the heavyweight GT-HO, driven solo for by Peter Brock. This would be the start of the 'Peter Perfect'/Torana legend, and the first of five Bathurst wins for the Torana in its colourful 10-year racing career at Bathurst.


title: Holden Torana

text: The Holden Dealer Team also developed a , 308ci V8-powered version of the GTR XU-1, often erroneously referred to as the GTR XU-2. The V8 Torana did race in Sports Sedan racing in the hands of Brock and Colin Bond, and was extensively road tested by HDT boss Harry Firth and young team engineer/driver Larry Perkins, but the car never made it past the prototype stage. This was due to the 'supercar scare' of 1972, which involved vast political pressure being placed upon Holden, Ford, and Chrysler to abandon their proposed specially built 'Bathurst Supercars', such as the V8 GTR XU-1. This was the result of a media frenzy that was reporting against these soon-to-be released "bullets on wheels" available to the general public. In effect, all three manufacturers (Holden, Ford and Chrysler) bowed to this pressure, and Holden postponed its introduction of a V8 Torana for two years until the release of the larger LH series Torana in 1974.


title: Holden Torana

text: A total of 81,813 LJ Toranas were built by Holden in Australia, with some exported to New Zealand, but only in six-cylinder form, as the similar 130OHV and 1760OHV four-cylinder Vauxhall Viva HC range was also sold there. The 2850S model, with bucket seats and four-speed floor shift or console shift Trimatic three-speed automatic, was also shipped to New Zealand in CKD kit form for local assembly from 1973, becoming the first Kiwi-built Torana.


title: Holden Torana

text: The LJ Torana formed the basis of the Chevrolet 1700 in South Korea, produced by GM Korea between September 1972 and 1976. Unlike the Torana, the 1700 was also available as a five-door station wagon. Powered by a 1698-cc four-cylinder engine, the 1700 sold poorly in the Korean market with only 8105 units produced; the car was perceived to suffer from high fuel consumption. The suspension was also seen as unsuitable for Korean roads.