title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: By 1875, use of the metric system had become widespread in Europe and in Latin America; that year, twenty industrially developed nations met for the Convention of the Metre, which led to the signing of the Treaty of the Metre, under which three bodies were set up to take custody of the international prototypes of the kilogram and the metre, and to regulate comparisons with national prototypes. They were:


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The 1st CGPM (1889) formally approved the use of 40 prototype metres and 40 prototype kilograms made by the British firm Johnson Matthey as the standards mandated by the Convention of the Metre. The prototypes Metre No. 6 and Kilogram KIII were designated as the international prototype of the metre and the kilogram, respectively; the CGPM retained other copies as working copies, and the rest were distributed to member states for use as their national prototypes. About once every 40 years, the national prototypes were compared with and recalibrated against the international prototype.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: In 1921 the Convention of the Metre was revised and the mandate of the CGPM was extended to provide standards for all units of measure, not just mass and length. In the ensuing years, the CGPM took on responsibility for providing standards of electrical current (1946), luminosity (1946), temperature (1948), time (1956), and molar mass (1971). The 9th CGPM in 1948 instructed the CIPM "to make recommendations for a single practical system of units of measurement, suitable for adoption by all countries adhering to the Metre Convention". The recommendations based on this mandate were presented to the 11th CGPM (1960), where they were formally accepted and given the name """ and its abbreviation "SI".


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: There is a precedent for changing the underlying principles behind the definition of the SI base units; the 11th CGPM (1960) defined the SI metre in terms of the wavelength of krypton-86 radiation, replacing the pre-SI metre bar, and the 13th CGPM (1967) replaced the original definition of the second, which was based on Earth's average rotation from 1750 to 1892, with a definition based on the frequency of the radiation emitted or absorbed with a transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium-133 atom. The 17th CGPM (1983) replaced the 1960 definition of the metre with one based on the second by giving an exact definition of the speed of light in units of metres per second.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Since their manufacture, drifts of up to kilograms/20 μg per year in the national prototype kilograms relative to the international prototype of the kilogram (IPK) have been detected. There was no way of determining whether the national prototypes were gaining mass or whether the IPK was losing mass. Newcastle University metrologist Peter Cumpson has since identified mercury vapour absorption or carbonaceous contamination as possible causes of this drift. At the 21st meeting of the CGPM (1999), national laboratories were urged to investigate ways of breaking the link between the kilogram and a specific artifact.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Metrologists investigated several alternative approaches to redefining the kilogram based on fundamental physical constants. Among others, the Avogadro project and the development of the Kibble balance (known as the "watt balance" before 2016) promised methods of indirectly measuring mass with very high precision. These projects provided tools that enable alternative means of redefining the kilogram.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: A report published in 2007 by the Consultative Committee for Thermometry (CCT) to the CIPM noted that their current definition of temperature has proved to be unsatisfactory for temperatures below and for temperatures above . The committee took the view that the Boltzmann constant provided a better basis for temperature measurement than did the triple point of water because it overcame these difficulties.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: At its 23rd meeting (2007), the CGPM mandated the CIPM to investigate the use of natural constants as the basis for all units of measure rather than the artifacts that were then in use. The following year this was endorsed by the International Union of Pure and Applied Physics (IUPAP). At a meeting of the CCU held in Reading, United Kingdom, in September 2010, a resolution and draft changes to the SI brochure that were to be presented to the next meeting of the CIPM in October 2010 were agreed to in principle. The CIPM meeting of October 2010 found "the conditions set by the General Conference at its 23rd meeting have not yet been fully met. For this reason the CIPM does not propose a revision of the SI at the present time". The CIPM, however, presented a resolution for consideration at the 24th CGPM (17–21 October 2011) to agree to the new definitions in principle, but not to implement them until the details had been finalised. This resolution was accepted by the conference, and in addition the CGPM moved the date of the 25th meeting forward from 2015 to 2014. At the 25th meeting on 18 to 20 November 2014, it was found that "despite [progress in the necessary requirements] the data do not yet appear to be sufficiently robust for the CGPM to adopt the revised SI at its 25th meeting", thus postponing the revision to the next meeting in 2018. Measurements accurate enough to meet the conditions were available in 2017 and the redefinition was adopted at the 26th CGPM (13–16 November 2018).


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Following the successful 1983 redefinition of the metre in terms of an exact numerical value for the speed of light, the BIPM's Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) recommended and the BIPM proposed that four further constants of nature should be defined to have exact values. These are


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: These constants are described in the 2006 version of the SI manual but in that version, the latter three are defined as "constants to be obtained by experiment" rather than as "defining constants".


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The redefinition retains unchanged the numerical values associated with the following constants of nature:


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The seven definitions above are rewritten below with the derived units (joule, coulomb, hertz, lumen, and watt) expressed in terms of the seven base units: second, metre, kilogram, ampere, kelvin, mole, and candela, according to the 9th SI Brochure. In the list that follows, the symbol sr stands for the dimensionless unit steradian.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: As part of the redefinition, the International Prototype of the Kilogram was retired and definitions of the kilogram, the ampere, and the kelvin were replaced. The definition of the mole was revised. These changes have the effect of redefining the SI base units, though the definitions of the SI derived units in terms of the base units remain the same.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Following the CCU proposal, the texts of the definitions of all of the base units were either refined or rewritten, changing the emphasis from explicit-unit to explicit-constant-type definitions. Explicit-unit-type definitions define a unit in terms of a specific example of that unit; for example, in 1324 Edward II defined the inch as being the length of three barleycorns and from 1889 to 2019 the kilogram was defined as the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram. In explicit-constant definitions, a constant of nature is given a specified value and the definition of the unit emerges as a consequence; for example, in 1983, the speed of light was defined as exactly metres per second. The length of the metre could be derived because the second had been already independently defined. The previous and 2019 definitions are given below.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The new definition of the second is effectively the same as the previous one, the only difference being that the conditions under which the definition applies are more rigorously defined.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The new definition of the metre is effectively the same as the previous one, the only difference being that the additional rigour in the definition of the second propagated to the metre.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The definition of the kilogram changed fundamentally; the previous definition defined the kilogram as the mass of the International Prototype of the Kilogram, which is an artifact rather than a constant of nature. The new definition relates the kilogram to, amongst things, the equivalent mass of the energy of a photon given its frequency, via the Planck constant.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: For illustration, an earlier proposed redefinition that is equivalent to this 2019 definition is: ""The kilogram is the mass of a body at rest whose equivalent energy equals the energy of a collection of photons whose frequencies sum to [] hertz.""


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The definition of the ampere underwent a major revision. The previous definition, which is difficult to realise with high precision in practice, was replaced by a definition that is easier to realise.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: For illustration, this is equivalent to defining one coulomb to be an exact specified multiple of the elementary charge.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Because the previous definition contains a reference to force, which has the dimensions MLT, it follows that in the previous SI the kilogram, metre, and second – the base units representing these dimensions – had to be defined before the ampere could be defined. Other consequences of the previous definition were that in SI the value of vacuum permeability () was fixed at exactly . Because the speed of light in vacuum () is also fixed, it followed from the relationship


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: A consequence of the revised definition is that the ampere no longer depends on the definitions of the kilogram and the metre; it does, however, still depend on the definition of the second. In addition, the numerical values when expressed in SI units of the vacuum permeability, vacuum permittivity, and impedance of free space, which were exact before the redefinition, are subject to experimental error after the redefinition. For example, the numerical value of the vacuum permeability has a relative uncertainty equal to that of the experimental value of the fine-structure constant formula_3. The CODATA 2018 value for the relative standard uncertainty of formula_3 is


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The definition of the kelvin underwent a fundamental change. Rather than using the triple point of water to fix the temperature scale, the new definition uses the energy equivalent as given by Boltzmann's equation.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The previous definition of the mole linked it to the kilogram. The revised definition breaks that link by making a mole a specific number of entities of the substance in question.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: One consequence of this change is that the previously defined relationship between the mass of the C atom, the dalton, the kilogram, and the Avogadro constant is no longer valid. One of the following had to change:


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The wording of the 9th SI Brochure implies that the first statement remains valid, which means the second is no longer true. The molar mass constant, while still with great accuracy remaining , is no longer exactly equal to that. Appendix 2 to the 9th SI Brochure states that "the molar mass of carbon 12, "M"(C), is equal to within a relative standard uncertainty equal to that of the recommended value of at the time this Resolution was adopted, namely , and that in the future its value will be determined experimentally", which makes no reference to the dalton and is consistent with either statement.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The new definition of the candela is effectively the same as the previous definition as dependent on other base units, with the result that the redefinition of the kilogram and the additional rigour in the definitions of the second and metre propagate to the candela.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: All seven of the SI base units will be defined in terms of defined constants and universal physical constants. Seven constants are needed to define the seven base units but there is not a direct correspondence between each specific base unit and a specific constant; except the second and the mole, more than one of the seven constants contributes to the definition of any given base unit.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: When the New SI was first designed, there were more than six suitable physical constants from which the designers could choose. For example, once length and time had been established, the universal gravitational constant "G" could, from a dimensional point of view, be used to define mass. In practice, "G" can only be measured with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10, which would have resulted in the upper limit of the kilogram's reproducibility being around 10 whereas the then-current international prototype of the kilogram can be measured with a reproducibility of 1.2 × 10. The physical constants were chosen on the basis of minimal uncertainty associated with measuring the constant and the degree of independence of the constant in respect of other constants that were being used. Although the BIPM has developed a standard "mise en pratique" (practical technique) for each type of measurement, the "mise en pratique" used to make the measurement is not part of the measurement's definition – it is merely an assurance that the measurement can be done without exceeding the specified maximum uncertainty.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Much of the work done by the CIPM is delegated to consultative committees. The CIPM Consultative Committee for Units (CCU) has made the proposed changes while other committees have examined the proposal in detail and have made recommendations regarding their acceptance by the CGPM in 2014. The consultative committees have laid down a number of criteria that must be met before they will support the CCU's proposal, including:


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: As of March 2011, the International Avogadro Coordination (IAC) group had obtained an uncertainty of and NIST had obtained an uncertainty of in their measurements. On 1 September 2012 the European Association of National Metrology Institutes (EURAMET) launched a formal project to reduce the relative difference between the Kibble balance and the silicon sphere approach to measuring the kilogram from to within . the proposed redefinition is known as the "New SI" but Mohr, in a paper following the CGPM proposal but predating the formal CCU proposal, suggested that because the proposed system makes use of atomic scale phenomena rather than macroscopic phenomena, it should be called the "Quantum SI System".


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: As of the 2014 CODATA-recommended values of the fundamental physical constants published in 2016 using data collected until the end of 2014, all measurements met the CGPM's requirements, and the redefinition and the next CGPM quadrennial meeting in late 2018 could now proceed.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: On 20 October 2017, the 106th meeting of the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) formally accepted a revised Draft Resolution A, calling for the redefinition of the SI, to be voted on at the 26th CGPM, The same day, in response to the CIPM's endorsement of the final values, the CODATA Task Group on Fundamental Constants published its 2017 recommended values for the four constants with uncertainties and proposed numerical values for the redefinition without uncertainty. The vote, which was held on 16 November 2018 at the 26th GCPM, was unanimous; all attending national representatives voted in favour of the revised proposal.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: In 2010, Marcus Foster of the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO) published a wide-ranging critique of the SI; he raised numerous issues ranging from basic issues such as the absence of the symbol "Ω" (Omega, for the ohm) from most Western computer keyboards to abstract issues such as inadequate formalism in the metrological concepts on which SI is based. The changes proposed in the new SI only addressed problems with the definition of the base units, including new definitions of the candela and the mole – units Foster argued are not true base units. Other issues raised by Foster fell outside the scope of the proposal.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Concerns have been expressed that the use of explicit-constant definitions of the unit being defined that are not related to an example of its quantity will have many adverse effects. Although this criticism applies to the linking of the kilogram to the Planck constant via a route that requires a knowledge of both special relativity and quantum mechanics, it does not apply to the definition of the ampere, which is closer to an example of its quantity than is the previous definition. Some observers have welcomed the change to base the definition of electric current on the charge of the electron rather than the previous definition of a force between two parallel, current-carrying wires; because the nature of the electromagnetic interaction between two bodies is somewhat different at the quantum electrodynamics level than at classical electrodynamic levels, it is considered inappropriate to use classical electrodynamics to define quantities that exist at quantum electrodynamic levels.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: When the scale of the divergence between the IPK and national kilogram prototypes was reported in 2005, a debate began about whether the kilogram should be defined in terms of the mass of the silicon-28 atom or by using the Kibble balance. The mass of a silicon atom could be determined using the Avogadro project and using the Avogadro constant, it could be linked directly to the kilogram. Concerns that the authors of the proposal had failed to address the impact of breaking the link between the mole, kilogram, dalton, and the Avogadro constant () have also been expressed. This direct link has caused many to argue that the mole is not a true physical unit but, according to the Swedish philosopher Johansson, a "scaling factor".


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The 8th edition of the SI Brochure defines the dalton in terms of the mass of an atom of C. It defines the Avogadro constant in terms of this mass and the kilogram, making it determined by experiment. The proposal fixes the Avogadro constant and the 9th SI Brochure retains the definition of dalton in terms of C, with the effect that the link between the dalton and the kilogram will be broken.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: In 1993, the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC) approved the use of the dalton as an alternative to the unified atomic mass unit with the qualification that the CGPM had not given its approval. This approval has since been given. Following the proposal to redefine the mole by fixing the value of the Avogadro constant, Brian Leonard of the University of Akron, writing in "Metrologia", proposed that the dalton (Da) be redefined such that , but that the unified atomic mass unit () retain its current definition based on the mass of C, ceasing to exactly equal the dalton. This would result in the dalton and the atomic mass unit potentially differing from each other with a relative uncertainty of the order of 10. The 9th SI Brochure, however, defines both the dalton (Da) and the unified atomic mass unit (u) as exactly of the mass of a free carbon-12 atom and not in relation to the kilogram, with the effect that the above equation will be inexact.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Different temperature ranges need different measurement methods. Room temperature can be measured by means of expansion and contraction of a liquid in a thermometer but high temperatures are often associated with colour of blackbody radiation. Wojciech T. Chyla, approaching the structure of SI from a philosophical point of view in the Journal of the Polish Physical Society, argued that temperature is not a real base unit but is an average of the thermal energies of the individual particles that comprise the body concerned. He noted that in many theoretical papers, temperature is represented by the quantities or where formula_5 and is the Boltzmann constant. Chyla acknowledged, however, that in the macroscopic world, temperature plays the role of a base unit because much of the theory of thermodynamics is based on temperature.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: The Consultative Committee for Thermometry, part of the International Committee for Weights and Measures, publishes a "mise en pratique" (practical technique), last updated in 1990, for measuring temperature. At very low and at very high temperatures it often links energy to temperature via the Boltzmann constant.


title: 2019 redefinition of the SI base units

text: Foster argued that "luminous intensity [the candela] is not a physical quantity, but a photobiological quantity that exists in human perception", questioning whether the candela should be a base unit. Before the 1979 decision to define photometric units in terms of luminous flux (power) rather than luminous intensities of standard light sources, there was already doubt whether there should still be a separate base unit for photometry. Furthermore, there was unanimous agreement that the lumen was now more fundamental than the candela. However, for the sake of continuity the candela was kept as base unit.


title: Bill Gothard

text: William W. Gothard Jr. (born November 2, 1934) is an American Christian minister, speaker, and writer, and the founder of the Institute in Basic Life Principles (IBLP), an ultra-conservative Christian organization.


title: Bill Gothard

text: His conservative teachings encourage Bible memorization, large families, homeschooling, aversion to debt, male superiority and female obedience, and conservative dress.


title: Bill Gothard

text: At the height of Gothard's popularity during the 1970s, his Basic Youth Conflicts seminar was regularly filling auditoriums throughout the United States and beyond with attendance figures as large as ten thousand and more for a one-week seminar. In this way, he reached many in the evangelical community from the Baby Boomer generation during their teen years and young adulthood. Other seminars during this time included an advanced youth conflicts seminar and as well as seminars for pastors, physicians, and legislators.


title: Bill Gothard

text: In 2014, he stepped down from the IBLP after 34 women accused him of sexual harassment and molestation, with some incidents allegedly occurring when the victims were minors. In 2016, Gothard and IBLP were sued by a group of alleged victims. The lawsuit was dismissed in 2018, as the statute of limitations had been exceeded.


title: Bill Gothard

text: Bill Gothard began his post-secondary education at Wheaton College, receiving his B.A. in biblical studies in 1957 and then his M.A. in Christian education in 1961. He completed his Ph.D. in biblical studies at Louisiana Baptist University in 2004.


title: Bill Gothard

text: In 1961, Gothard started Campus Teams, an organization which changed its name in to Institute in Basic Youth Conflicts in 1974. The organization's name changed again in 1989 to the Institute in Basic Life Principles (IBLP), of which Gothard was the president and a board member until his resignation in 2014.


title: Bill Gothard

text: In 1984, Gothard founded the Advanced Training Institute (ATI), a homeschooling program with a curriculum based on the Sermon on the Mount.


title: Bill Gothard

text: Gothard had many political connections with Republican political leaders, including Mike Huckabee, Sonny Perdue, and Sarah Palin. His ministry was also popular with the reality TV Duggar family and others. He has never married.


title: Bill Gothard

text: Gothard's primary teaching, his "Basic Seminar", focuses on what he refers to as seven "Basic Life Principles". He claims that these principles are universal, and that people will suffer consequences for violating them. Gothard's principles are called Design, Authority, Responsibility, Suffering, Ownership, Freedom, and Success.


title: Bill Gothard

text: In addition to the Basic Seminar, Gothard also has an Advanced Seminar and an Anger Resolution Seminar. He also has a 49-week "Daily Success" series where he expounds on the "Commands of Christ" found in the Gospels. Gothard also offers "Total Health" training, which seeks to bring a Biblical view of sickness, and considers that there may be spiritual aspects of illness. His organization has published "Basic CARE Bulletins" and offers "Stress Resolution Seminars".


title: Bill Gothard

text: Gothard teaches that dating is morally dangerous and that courtship is the better alternative. Gothard encourages parents to be involved in their children's courtship, and that a father should be involved in his daughter's relationships, and should at the very least have the right to say "no" when a man asks to marry his daughter. Gothard also advocates conservative dress. Gothard's teachings discourage dating and "syncopated music", including Christian rock. He has warned that Cabbage Patch dolls are idolatrous.


title: Bill Gothard

text: Gothard has been the subject of much debate in Christian circles, and occasionally in mass media. Various books and articles have challenged Gothard's teachings on legalism, law, and grace, and questioned his handling of the IBLP ministry.


title: Bill Gothard

text: On February 27, 2014, the Board of Directors of the Institute in Basic Life Principles placed Gothard on indefinite administrative leave while it investigated claims that he sexually harassed several female employees and volunteers. No criminal activity was uncovered, but an investigation found that Gothard had acted in an "inappropriate manner". The claims had been publicized on "Recovering Grace", which is a website, Christian ministry, and support group for former followers of Gothard's teachings. As many as 34 women who worked for Gothard have claimed that he harassed them. Gothard denied the allegations and admitted no wrongdoing but announced his resignation from the Institute in order "to listen to those who have ought [something] against him".


title: Bill Gothard

text: On June 17, 2014, IBLP issued a statement, summarizing the investigation conducted by "outside legal counsel". They asserted that although no criminal activity was uncovered, Gothard had acted in an "inappropriate manner" and so "is not permitted to serve in any counseling, leadership, or Board role within the IBLP ministry". In July 2015, Gothard re-launched his website, including testimonials from several women.


title: Bill Gothard

text: In 2016, Gothard and IBLP were sued by a group of alleged victims who accused him of sexual harassment and assault. The plaintiffs voluntarily dismissed their lawsuit in 2018, citing "unique complexities" with the statute of limitations, but emphasized: "We are not recanting our experiences or dismissing the incalculable damage that we believe Gothard has done."


title: English numerals

text: English number words include numerals and various words derived from them, as well as a large number of words borrowed from other languages.


title: English numerals

text: If a number is in the range 21 to 99, and the second digit is not zero, the number is typically written as two words separated by a hyphen.


title: English numerals

text: In English, the hundreds are perfectly regular, except that the word "hundred" remains in its singular form regardless of the number preceding it.


title: English numerals

text: So too are the thousands, with the number of thousands followed by the word "thousand". For the number one thousand it may be written 1 000 or 1000 or 1,000, for larger numbers they are written for example 10 000 or 10,000 for ease of human reading. The use of the , as a separator is avoided in some languages as it is used for a decimal placement, for example with money. As a result some style guides recommend avoidance of the comma (,) as a separator and only to use the period (.) as a decimal placement. Thus a half would be written 0.5 in decimal, base ten notation, and fifty thousand as 50 000, and not 50.000 nor 50,000 nor 50000. As the English language has no language academy to make usage correct there is still a wide variety of usage, other languages do have language academies which ruled on these matters, yet their rulings are deprecated by international standards like the SI system or EU recommendations which leads to varied usage.


title: English numerals

text: In American usage, four-digit numbers are often named using multiples of "hundred" and combined with tens and ones: "eleven hundred three", "twelve hundred twenty-five", "forty-seven hundred forty-two", or "ninety-nine hundred ninety-nine." In British usage, this style is common for multiples of 100 between 1,000 and 2,000 (e.g. 1,500 as "fifteen hundred") but not for higher numbers.


title: English numerals

text: Americans may pronounce four-digit numbers with non-zero tens and ones as pairs of two-digit numbers without saying "hundred" and inserting "oh" for zero tens: "twenty-six fifty-nine" or "forty-one oh five". This usage probably evolved from the distinctive usage for years; "nineteen-eighty-one", or from four-digit numbers used in the American telephone numbering system which were originally two letters followed by a number followed by a four-digit number, later by a three-digit number followed by the four-digit number. It is avoided for numbers less than 2500 if the context may mean confusion with time of day: "ten ten" or "twelve oh four".


title: English numerals

text: Intermediate numbers are read differently depending on their use. Their typical naming occurs when the numbers are used for counting. Another way is for when they are used as labels. The second column method is used much more often in American English than British English. The third column is used in British English but rarely in American English (although the use of the second and third columns is not necessarily directly interchangeable between the two regional variants). In other words, British English and American English can seemingly agree, but it depends on a specific situation (in this example, bus numbers).


title: English numerals

text: Note: When a cheque (or "check") is written, the number 100 is always written "one hundred". It is never "a hundred".


title: English numerals

text: In American English, many students are taught, not to use the word "and" anywhere in the whole part of a number, so it is not used before the tens and ones. It is instead used as a verbal delimiter when dealing with compound numbers. Thus, instead of "three hundred and seventy-three," "three hundred seventy-three" would be said. Despite this rule, some Americans use the "and" in reading numbers containing tens and ones as an alternative variant.


title: English numerals

text: For numbers above a million, three main systems name numbers in English (for the use of prefixes such as kilo- for a thousand, mega- for a million, milli- for a thousandth, etc. see SI units):


title: English numerals

text: Many people have no direct experience of manipulating numbers this large, and many non-American readers may interpret "billion" as 10 (even if they are young enough to have been taught otherwise at school); moreover, usage of the "long" billion is standard in some non-English speaking countries. For these reasons, defining the word may be advisable when writing for the public.


title: English numerals

text: The numbers past one trillion in the short scale, in ascending powers of 1000, are as follows: quadrillion, quintillion, sextillion, septillion, octillion, nonillion, decillion, undecillion, duodecillion, tredecillion, quattuordecillion, quindecillion, sexdecillion, septendecillion, octodecillion, novemdecillion and vigintillion (which is 10 to the 63rd power, or a one followed by 63 zeros). The highest number in this series listed in modern dictionaries is centillion, which is 10 to the 303rd power. The interim powers of one thousand between vigintillion and centillion do not have standardized names, nor do any higher powers, but there are many extensions in use. The highest number listed in Robert Munafo's table of such unofficial names is milli-millillion, which was coined as a name for 10 to the 3,000,003rd power.


title: English numerals

text: The googolplex was often cited as the largest named number in English. If a googol is ten to the one hundredth power, then a googolplex is one followed by a googol of zeros (that is, ten to the power of a googol). There is the coinage, of very little use, of ten to the googolplex power, of the word googolplexplex.


title: English numerals

text: The terms "arab", "kharab", "padm" and "shankh" are more commonly found in old books on Indian mathematics.


title: English numerals

text: Often, large numbers are written with (preferably non-breaking) half-spaces or thin spaces separating the thousands (and, sometimes, with normal spaces or apostrophes) instead of commas—to ensure that confusion is not caused in countries where a decimal comma is used. Thus, a million is often written 1 000 000.


title: English numerals

text: In some areas, a point (. or ·) may also be used as a thousands separator, but then the decimal separator must be a comma (,). In English the point (.) is used as the decimal separator, and the comma (,) as the thousands separator.


title: English numerals

text: When reading numbers in a sequence, such as a telephone or serial number, British people will usually use the terms "double" followed by the repeated number. Hence 007 is "double oh seven". Exceptions are the emergency telephone number 999, which is always "nine nine nine" and the apocalyptic "Number of the Beast", which is always "six six six". In the US, 911 (the US emergency telephone number) is usually read "nine one one", while 9/11 (in reference to the September 11, 2001, attacks) is usually read "nine eleven".


title: English numerals

text: A few numbers have specialised multiplicative numbers (adverbs), also called adverbial numbers, which express how many times some event happens:


title: English numerals

text: Compare these specialist multiplicative numbers to express how many times some thing exists (adjectives):


title: English numerals

text: The name of a negative number is the name of the corresponding positive number preceded by "minus" or (American English) "negative". Thus −5.2 is "minus five point two" or "negative five point two". For temperatures, North Americans colloquially say "below"—short for "below zero"—so a temperature of −5° is "five below" (in contrast, for example, to "two above" for 2°). This is occasionally used for emphasis when referring to several temperatures or ranges both positive and negative. This is particularly common in Canada where the use of Celsius in weather forecasting means that temperatures can regularly drift above and below zero at certain times of year.


title: English numerals

text: "Zeroth" only has a meaning when counting starts with zero, which happens in a mathematical or computer science context. Ordinal numbers predate the invention of zero and positional notation.


title: English numerals

text: Ordinal numbers such as 21st, 33rd, etc., are formed by combining a "cardinal" ten with an "ordinal" unit.


title: English numerals

text: Higher ordinals are not often written in words, unless they are round numbers (thousandth, millionth, billionth). They are written with digits and letters as described below. Some rules should be borne in mind.


title: English numerals

text: These ordinal abbreviations are actually hybrid contractions of a numeral and a word. 1st is "1" + "st" from "first". Similarly, "nd" is used for "second" and "rd" for "third". In the legal field and in some older publications, the ordinal abbreviation for "second" and "third" is simply "d".


title: English numerals

text: NB: "D" still often denotes "second" and "third" in the numeric designations of units in the US armed forces, for example, 533d Squadron, and in legal citations for the second and third series of case reporters.


title: English numerals

text: There are a number of ways to read years. The following table offers a list of valid pronunciations and alternate pronunciations for any given year of the Gregorian calendar.


title: English numerals

text: "Twelve thirty-four" would be the norm on both sides of the Atlantic for the year 1234. The years 2000 to 2009 are most often read as "two thousand", "two thousand (and) one" and the like by both British and American speakers. For years after 2009, "twenty eleven", "twenty fourteen", etc. are more common, even in years earlier than 2009 BC/BCE. Likewise, the years after 1009 (until 1099) are also read in the same manner (e.g. 1015 is either "ten fifteen" or, rarely, "one thousand fifteen"). Some Britons read years within the 1000s to 9000s BC/BCE in the American manner, that is, 1234 BC is read as "twelve (hundred and) thirty-four" BC, while 2400 BC can be read as either "two thousand four hundred" or "twenty four hundred" BC.


title: English numerals

text: Collective numbers are numbers that refer to a group of a specific size. Words like "pair" and "dozen" are common in English, though most are formally derived from Greek and Latin numerals, as follows:


title: English numerals

text: Numbers used to denote the denominator of a fraction are known linguistically as "partitive numerals." In spoken English, ordinal numerals and partitive numerals are identical with a few exceptions. Thus "fifth" can mean the element between fourth and sixth, or the fraction created by dividing the unit into five pieces. When used as a partitive numeral, these forms can be pluralized: one seventh, two "sevenths." The sole exceptions to this rule are division by one, two, and sometimes four: "first" and "second" cannot be used for a fraction with a denominator of one or two. Instead, "whole" and "half" (plural "halves") are used. For a fraction with a denominator of four, either "fourth" or "quarter" may be used.


title: English numerals

text: Alternatively, and for greater numbers, one may say for 1/2 "one over two", for 5/8 "five over eight", and so on. This "over" form is also widely used in mathematics.


title: English numerals

text: A space is required between the whole number and the fraction; however, if a special fraction character is used like "½", then the space can be done without, e.g.


title: English numerals

text: Numbers with a decimal point may be read as a cardinal number, then "and", then another cardinal number followed by an indication of the significance of the second cardinal number (mainly U.S.); or as a cardinal number, followed by "point", and then by the digits of the fractional part. The indication of significance takes the form of the denominator of the fraction indicating division by the smallest power of ten larger than the second cardinal. This is modified when the first cardinal is zero, in which case neither the zero nor the "and" is pronounced, but the zero is optional in the "point" form of the fraction.


title: English numerals

text: Some American and Canadian schools teach students to pronounce decimaly written fractions (for example, ".5") as though they were longhand fractions ("five tenths"), such as "thirteen and seven tenths" for 13.7. This formality is often dropped in common speech and is steadily disappearing in instruction in mathematics and science as well as in international American schools. In the U.K., and among most North Americans, 13.7 would be read "thirteen point seven".


title: English numerals

text: In English the decimal point was originally printed in the center of the line (0·002), but with the advent of the typewriter it was placed at the bottom of the line, so that a single key could be used as a full stop/period and as a decimal point. In many non-English languages a full-stop/period at the bottom of the line is used as a thousands separator with a comma being used as the decimal point.


title: English numerals

text: With few exceptions, most grammatical texts rule that the numbers zero to nine inclusive should be "written out" – instead of "1" and "2", one would write "one" and "two".


title: English numerals

text: After "nine", one can head straight back into the 10, 11, 12, etc., although some write out the numbers until "twelve".


title: English numerals

text: Another common usage is to write out any number that can be expressed as one or two words, and use figures otherwise.


title: English numerals

text: The above rules are not always followed. In literature, larger numbers might be spelled out. On the other hand, digits might be more commonly used in technical or financial articles, where many figures are discussed. In particular, the two different forms should not be used for figures that serve the same purpose; for example, it is inelegant to write, ""Between day twelve and day 15 of the study, the population doubled.""


title: English numerals

text: Colloquial English's small vocabulary of empty numbers can be employed when there is uncertainty as to the precise number to use, but it is desirable to define a general range: specifically, the terms "umpteen", "umpty", and "zillion". These are derived etymologically from the range affixes:


title: English numerals

text: The prefix "ump-" is added to the first two suffixes to produce the empty numbers "umpteen" and "umpty": it is of uncertain origin. A noticeable absence of an empty number is in the hundreds range.


title: Breland (musician)

text: Daniel Gerard Breland (born July 18, 1995), known professionally as Breland, is an American singer, songwriter and record producer of a hybrid of country rap, R&B, gospel, and soul music. His 2019 debut single, "My Truck", rose to prominence the following year after gaining popular attention via social media, reaching No. 26 on "Billboard"s Hot Country Songs chart, and was remixed with Sam Hunt before being certified platinum for sales of one million units as of January 2021.


title: Breland (musician)

text: Breland has released two EPs on Bad Realm Records/Atlantic Records, and his music been streamed on Spotify over 150 million times. He released his debut full-length album "Cross Country" in September 2022.


title: Breland (musician)

text: Daniel Breland grew up in Burlington Township, New Jersey, the son of two ordained ministers Tonya and Gerard Breland who filled their home with gospel music. At age 14, he entered the Peddie School, a New Jersey boarding school, and was exposed for the first time to secular music in the hip-hop, R&B, country and pop genres. His favorites were 70s soul artists such as Aretha Franklin and Stevie Wonder.


title: Breland (musician)

text: Breland started writing his own songs, a mix of styles he was listening to and liked. He turned down admission to New York University's Clive Davis Institute of Recorded Music to study business at Georgetown University in Washington, DC. While there, he sang and arranged a cappella with a group called the Phantoms, and was a Residential Advisor.


title: Breland (musician)

text: Breland began his career as a professional songwriter while at Georgetown, and in his second year, he met rapper Chinx (Chinx Drugz), an associate of French Montana. One night at Chinx's Far Rockaway, New York home, the rapper left Breland working on music to go perform at his show. He never came back, as Chinx was murdered.


title: Breland (musician)

text: After graduation, he moved to Atlanta. While working a job selling language technology during the day, he wrote music usually until late into the morning hours. Breland taught himself how to produce music on Pro Tools, Logic Pro, and FL Studio. With approximately 2,000 songs in around five years, he made placements with artists such as Trey Songz and wrote nearly half of the tracks on "The Golden Child", the debut from Def Jam Recordings R&B artist YK Osiris.


title: Breland (musician)

text: Breland often posted his original material on Instagram. He started the #BrelandVerseChallenge on the app to engage his fans during COVID-19 quarantine. He ended up giving two of his Instagram followers their first major-label writing credit on the song "In the Woulds", an R&B and pop song featuring Chase Rice and Lauren Alaina, two country music artists. However, newcomer country rap artist Rvshvd was originally intended to be featured on "In the Woulds" before Chase Rice was added to the final version, despite this, he still received songwriting credits for it.


title: Breland (musician)

text: In September 2019, he wrote the song "My Truck", about the truck culture found in rural America. The music was a blend of hip hop and country music and when he posted the song on Instagram, he received a great response, and realized he had found his niche with the country-trap sub-genre.


title: Breland (musician)

text: "I just felt like it was time for people to change their perspective on what country music is and what country music can be, because there is an audience of country music listeners under 30 who believe Black Lives Matter," he told the "Associated Press". "My Truck" reached No. 26 on the "Billboard" Hot Country Songs chart.


title: Breland (musician)

text: In an interview on the television program "Extra" at the time, Breland termed his musical hybrid sound as cross country, while most media categorizes him as country-trap.


title: Breland (musician)

text: Signing with Bad Realm/Atlantic Records, Breland signed with SALXCO Management, and released a remix of "My Truck" that features country music's Sam Hunt. "My Truck" has over 2.6 million U.S. streams, 2,000 downloads sold and 2.8 million radio audience impressions, according to Nielsen Audio, and hit No. 1 on Spotify's Viral 50 Chart in February.


title: Breland (musician)

text: In May 2020, Breland's self-titled EP was released by Bad Realm/Atlantic Records. The music crossed genres of country, hip hop, R&B, and pop with songs like the singles "My Truck" and "Horseride", as well as fan favorites "Hot Sauce" and "In the Woulds." Producers included Sam Sumser (Lizzo, Jason Derulo), Sean Small (Lizzo, Usher), Charlie Handsome (Post Malone, Kanye West, Khalid), as well as country singers Mitchell Tenpenny and Walker Hayes. The EP charted at No. 48 on "Billboard"'s Top Country Albums chart.


title: Breland (musician)

text: The EP "Rage and Sorrow" followed with a June 2020 release. Breland's theme on the EP was derived from the racial unrest prompted by the murders of George Floyd and Ahmaud Arbery, and the killing of Breonna Taylor. "Intro" features a line from the 1960s blues song "Tobacco Road", and has a rock guitar. Other songs include "Real Men Don't Cry", and "A Message". Producers include Carson Thatcher (Parson James, Andy Grammer), Brian Kennedy, and Rob Persaud.


title: Breland (musician)

text: Breland and Keith Urban co-wrote two songs for Urban's September 2020 album "The Speed of Now Part 1", including the song "Out the Cage" that has Breland adding vocals, and Nile Rodgers's on rhythm guitar, and the track "Soul Food".


title: Breland (musician)

text: In September 2020, Breland joined Apple Music Country as an on-air host for his own radio show called "Land of the Bre".


title: Breland (musician)

text: Breland released a brand new collaboration with Thomas Rhett "Praise the Lord" in March 2022. His debut album "Cross Country" was released on September 9, 2022.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: Natalia Gavrilița (; born 21 September 1977) is a Moldovan economist and politician who has served as prime minister of Moldova since 2021. Gavrilița was previously proposed as prime minister by Maia Sandu in February 2021, but was rejected by the PSRM-Șor parliamentary majority. She was proposed once again in August 2021, following the 2021 parliamentary election, and was approved along with her cabinet.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: In the 2021 parliamentary election, Gavrilița was also elected to the Parliament of Moldova on behalf of the Party of Action and Solidarity (PAS). She previously served as finance minister from June 2019 to November 2019 in the cabinet of Sandu, when the latter served as prime minister.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: Between 1995 and 2000, Natalia Gavrilița studied for a bachelor's degree at Moldova State University, she has a degree in International Law. In 2003, she attended the Edmund S. Muskie Graduate Fellowship Program. Natalia Gavrilița has a master's degree in Public Policy from the Harvard Kennedy School of Government at Harvard University.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: Natalia Gavrilița has held several positions in the public service of the Republic of Moldova and has worked in international development projects in several countries in the world.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: Natalia Gavrilița, between 2007 and 2008, worked in the Ministry of Economy and Infrastructure, as a Head of the Department for Economic Forecasts and Development Programs. From 2008 to 2009 she was the Head of the Directorate for Policy Coordination and External Assistance within the State Chancellery. From 2010 to 2013 Natalia Gavrilița worked for Oxford Policy Management in the UK as a senior consultant and subsequently as a Portfolio Manager on valuation methods. Between 2013 and 2015 she was the Chief of Staff and then Secretary of State in the Ministry of Education, led at that time by Maia Sandu. She also served as Executive Director of the World Bank's Education Reform Project.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: From 2015 to 2019, she was Managing Director of the Global Innovation Fund where she managed a portfolio of 11 innovative projects with a budget of approximately 13.5 million dollars and led the selection, analysis, contracting and managing innovation investment projects for several developing countries in Africa and Asia. In 2019, she was Minister of Finance in the Government of Maia Sandu, where she distinguished herself by mobilizing budget support in the amount of about 100 million US dollars, restoring relations and resuming budget support with the IMF and the European Union. Within the Government, she elaborated the Solidarity Budget which provided for salary increases for certain categories of employees, aid for the needy, increase of allowances.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: In 2021, she was nominated by the President of the Republic of Moldova as a candidate for the position of Prime Minister of the Republic of Moldova, PSRM-Șor coalition rejected the candidacy of Natalia Gavrilița and the team of ministers.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: Following the 2021 Moldovan parliamentary election, the Party of Action and Solidarity (PAS) clinched a majority of 63 members in the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova, Natalia Gavrilița being elected as well in the Parliament of the Republic of Moldova on the PAS list. On 6 August 2021, Natalia Gavrilița was elected Prime Minister of Moldova.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: Gavrilița is married. In addition to Romanian, she is also fluent in Russian, English, French, and Spanish.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: Her grandfather, Trifon Catrinescu, fought in the Soviet Army in the Second World War, being decorated with the medal "For the Victory over Germany in the Great Patriotic War 1941–1945".


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: The historian and unionist politician Octavian Țîcu criticized Gavrilița for her support to the Moldovan independent state, despite the fact that she holds Romanian citizenship. In reply, she stated that she no longer remembered what the oath of citizenship contained, that she is not a unionist and that she wanted all Moldovans, regardless of their citizenship, to live well in their country: Moldova. Țîcu labeled her as opportunistic.


title: Natalia Gavrilița

text: During the 2021 election campaign, "Timpul de dimineață" accused that Gavrilița appeared in a Russian-language video promoting the concept of Moldovan people, in what the journal saw as an instance of Moldovenism.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: In the traditional grammar of Modern English, a phrasal verb typically constitutes a single semantic unit composed of a verb followed by a particle (examples: "turn down", "run into" or "sit up"), sometimes combined with a preposition (examples: "get together with", "run out of" or "feed off of"). Alternative terms include verb-adverb combination, verb-particle construction, two-part word/verb or three-part word/verb (depending on the number of particles) and multi-word verb.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Phrasal verbs ordinarily cannot be understood based upon the meanings of the individual parts alone but must be considered as a whole: the meaning is non-compositional and thus unpredictable. Phrasal verbs are differentiated from other classifications of multi-word verbs and free combinations by criteria based on idiomaticity, replacement by a single-word verb, wh-question formation and particle movement.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: The category "phrasal verb" is mainly used in English as a second language teaching. Some textbooks restrict the term to verbs with particles in order to distinguish phrasal verbs from prepositional verbs. Others include verbs with prepositions under the same category and distinguish particle verbs and prepositional verbs as two types of phrasal verbs.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Since a prepositional phrase can complement a particle verb, some explanations distinguish three types of phrasal verb constructions depending on whether the verb combines with a particle, a preposition phrase, or both, though the third type is not a distinct linguistic phenomenon.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Particle verbs (phrasal verbs in the strict sense) are two-word verbs composed of a simple verb and a particle extension that modifies its meaning. The particle is thus integrally collocated with the verb. In older grammars, the particle was usually analyzed as an adverb.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: In these examples, the common verbs "grow" and "give" are expanded by the particles "up" and "in". The resulting two-word verbs are single semantic units, so "grow up" and "give in" are listed as discrete entries in modern dictionaries.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: These verbs can be transitive or intransitive. If they are transitive, i.e. if they have an object, the particle may come either before or after the object of the verb.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: When the object is a pronoun, the particle is usually placed afterwards. With nouns, it is a matter of familiar collocation or of emphasis.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Particles commonly used in this construction include "to, in, into, out, up, down, at, on, off, under, against." All these words can also be used as prepositions, but the prepositional use is distinct, and modern dictionaries may list, for example, "to (particle)" and "to (preposition)" as separate lexemes. In the particle verb construction, they cannot be construed as prepositions because they are not being used as part of a prepositional phrase.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: This construction is sometimes also taught as a phrasal verb, but only when the combination of verb and preposition is not intuitive to the learner:


title: English phrasal verbs

text: In general, the discrete meanings associated with "phrasal verbs" cannot be readily understood solely by construing the sum of their respective parts: the meaning of "pick up" is distinct from the various meanings of "pick" and "up", and may acquire disparate meanings depending on its contextual usage. Similarly, the meaning of "hang out" is not conspicuously related to a particular definition of "hang" or "out".


title: English phrasal verbs

text: When a particle verb is transitive, it may be difficult to distinguish it from a prepositional verb. A simple diagnostic which works in many cases is to consider whether it is possible to shift the preposition/particle to after the noun. An English preposition can never follow its noun, so if we can change "verb - P - noun" to "verb - noun - P", then P cannot be a preposition and must be particle. But even with a particle verb, shifting the particle is not always possible, for example if it is followed by a pronoun instead of a noun, or if there is a fixed collocation. Another diagnostic is to think about where the instinctive division would be if we had to take a breath in the middle of the phrase. A particle would naturally be grouped with the preceding verb, a preposition with the following noun phrase. In the following examples, an asterisk indicates an impossible form.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Another test would be to place the verb in a w-question ("which? who?") or a relative clause and consider whether the particle/preposition can be placed before the question word or relative pronoun. While this may sound antiquated, it is always possible with a preposition, never with a particle. (For more on an osolete prescriptive rule about this, see preposition stranding.)


title: English phrasal verbs

text: While this distinction is of interest to linguists, it is not necessarily important for language learners, and some textbooks recommend learning phrasal verbs as whole collocations without considering types.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: The terminology of phrasal verbs is inconsistent. Modern theories of syntax tend to use the term "phrasal verb" to denote particle verbs only; they do not view prepositional verbs as phrasal verbs. In contrast, literature in English as a second or foreign language ESL/EFL, tends to employ the term "phrasal verb" to encompass both prepositional and particle verbs.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Note that prepositions and adverbs can have a literal meaning that may be spatial or orientational. Many English verbs interact with a preposition or an adverb to yield a meaning that can be readily understood from the constituent elements.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Furthermore, the same words that occur as a genuine phrasal verb can also appear in other contexts, as in:


title: English phrasal verbs

text: The terminology used to denote the particle is also inconsistent. Sometimes it is called an adverb and at other times an "intransitive prepositional phrase". The inconsistent use of terminology in these areas may be a source of confusion regarding what qualifies as a phrasal verb and the status of the particle or a preposition.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: The term "phrasal verb" was first used by Logan Pearsall Smith, in "Words and Idioms" (1925), in which he states that the OED Editor Henry Bradley suggested the term to him.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: The value of this choice and its alternatives (including "separable verb" for Germanic languages) is debatable. In origin the concept is based on translation linguistics; as many single-word English and Latinate words are translatable by a phrasal verb complex in English, therefore the logic is that the phrasal verb complex must be a complete semantic unit in itself. One should consider in this regard that the actual term "phrasal verb" suggests that such constructions should form phrases. In most cases however, they clearly do "not" form phrases. Hence the very term "phrasal verb" is misleading and a source of confusion, which has motivated some to reject the term outright.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: A complex aspect of phrasal verbs concerns the syntax of particle verbs that are transitive (as discussed and illustrated above). These allow some variability, depending on the relative weight of the constituents involved. Shifting often occurs when the object is very light, e.g.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Shifting occurs between two (or more) sister constituents that appear on the same side of their head. The lighter constituent shifts leftward and the heavier constituent shifts rightward, and this happens to accommodate the relative weight of the two. Dependency grammar trees are again used to illustrate the point:


title: English phrasal verbs

text: The trees illustrate when shifting can occur. English sentence structures that grow down and to the right are easier to process. There is a consistent tendency to place heavier constituents to the right, as is evident in the a-trees. Shifting is possible when the resulting structure does not contradict this tendency, as is evident in the b-trees. Note again that the particle verb constructions (in orange) qualify as catenae in both the a- and b-trees. Shifting does not alter this fact.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Prepositional verbs are very common in many languages, though they would not necessarily be analyzed as a distinct verb type: they are simply verbs followed by prepositional phrases.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: By contrast, particle verbs are much rarer in cross-language comparison. Middle English particle verbs developed from Old English prefixed verbs: OE "inngan" > English "go in". They are related to the separable verbs in other Germanic languages, which can be seen historically as a parallel, though independent development. For example, in Dutch, "de lamp aansteken" (to light the lamp) becomes "ik steek de lamp aan" (I light the lamp on) in a principal clause.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: A number of particle verbs exist in some Romance languages such as Lombard, spoken in Northern Italy, due to the influence of ancient Lombardic:


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Some of these made their way into Italian, for instance "far fuori" (to get rid of); "mangiare fuori" (to eat out); "andare d'accordo con" (to get on/along with); "buttare via" (throw away).


title: English phrasal verbs

text: An extension of the concept of "phrasal verb" occurs via compounding when a verb+particle complex is nominalized. The particles may come before or after the verb. If it comes after, there may be a hyphen between the two parts of the compound noun.


title: English phrasal verbs

text: Compounds which place the particle before the verb are of ancient development, and are common to all Germanic languages, as well as to Indo-European languages in general. This is related to the history of particle verbs, which developed out of Old English prefixed verbs. By contrast, compounds which put the particle second are a more modern development in English, and focus more on the action expressed by the compound.


title: Noel Hogan

text: Noel Anthony Hogan (born 25 December 1971) is an Irish musician and record producer best known as the lead guitarist and co-songwriter of the Irish alt-rock band the Cranberries.


title: Noel Hogan

text: Hogan formed the Cranberries with his brother Mike and drummer Fergal Lawler in 1989. The group recruited Dolores O'Riordan as lead singer soon after forming. The band went on to sell in excess of 40 million records worldwide. In total, Hogan has released eight albums with the Cranberries.


title: Noel Hogan

text: The Cranberries went on a six-year hiatus from 2003 to 2009. However, after O'Riordan's death on 15 January 2018, Hogan confirmed the group’s disbandment, which occurred after the release of the posthumous album "In the End" in 2019, saying: "The Cranberries without Dolores just isn't The Cranberries... we won't replace our friend and lead singer".


title: Noel Hogan

text: With the Cranberries on hiatus from 2003 to 2009, Hogan turned to focus on his own music. He began working with programmer Matt Vaughan, who had already done work on unreleased Cranberries songs and Dolores O'Riordan's solo material. Mono Band was born with Hogan as the sole band member. With vocals being supplied by Richard Walters, Alexandra Hamnede, Kate Havnevik, and other guest artists, Hogan worked with Cranberries' veteran producer Stephen Street to compile a mix of 12 tracks. Working on his side project at the same time, saw their resulting debut album, "Mono Band", released on 20 May 2005. Hogan and Mono Band vocalist Richard Walters went on to form Arkitekt. Arkitekt released two EPs at that time in 2009, working on new material.


title: Noel Hogan

text: Hogan's work independent of the Cranberries has been released on his own label, Gohan Records and is published through Fairwood Music (UK) Ltd for the world.


title: Noel Hogan

text: Hogan has also been producing bands on the local music scene of Limerick. Gohan Records has recently released, in collaboration with Limerick Live 95FM's Green and Live show, "Tonelist", a collection featuring musicians in the Limerick music scene.


title: Piri Reis

text: Ahmet Muhiddin Piri ( 1465 – 1553), better known as Piri Reis ( or "Hacı Ahmet Muhittin Pîrî Bey"), was a navigator, geographer and cartographer. He is primarily known today for his maps and charts collected in his "Kitab-ı Bahriye" ("Book of Navigation"), a book that contains detailed information on early navigational techniques as well as relatively accurate charts for their time, describing the important ports and cities of the Mediterranean Sea.


title: Piri Reis

text: He gained fame as a cartographer when a small part of his first world map, prepared in 1513, was discovered in 1929 at the Topkapı Palace in Istanbul. His world map is the oldest known Turkish atlas showing the New World, and one of the oldest maps of America still existing anywhere (the oldest known surviving map of America is the map drawn by Juan de la Cosa in 1500). Piri Reis's map is centered on the Sahara at the latitude of the Tropic of Cancer.


title: Piri Reis

text: In 1528, Piri Reis drew a second world map, of which a small fragment (showing Greenland and North America from Labrador and Newfoundland in the north to Florida, Cuba, Hispaniola, Jamaica and parts of Central America in the south) still survives. According to his imprinting text, he had drawn his maps using about 20 foreign charts and mappae mundi (Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and Greek) including one by Christopher Columbus. He was executed in 1553 in Cairo, having been found guilty of lifting the siege of Hormuz Island and abandoning the fleet, even though his reason for doing so was the lack of maintenance of his ships.


title: Piri Reis

text: Very little background information is known about Piri Reis. Unconfirmed tradition holds that he was born around 1470 in Gallipoli on the Dardanelles which was at the time an important Ottoman naval base. His father was Hacı Mehmed, a Turk originally from the Anatolian province of Karaman. His full name was Hacı Ahmed Muhiddin Piri. "Reis" was a military rank equivalent to captain, so the name Piri Reis translates as Captain Piri. The honorary and informal Islamic title "Hadji" (Turkish: "Hacı") in Piri's and his father's names indicate that they both had completed the Hajj (Islamic pilgrimage) by going to Mecca during the dedicated annual period.


title: Piri Reis

text: Piri began engaging in government-supported privateering (a common practice in the Mediterranean Sea among both the Muslim and Christian states of the 15th and 16th centuries) when he was young, following his uncle Kemal Reis, a well-known corsair and seafarer of the time, who later became a famous admiral of the Ottoman Navy. During this period, together with his uncle, he took part in many naval wars of the Ottoman Empire against Spain, the Republic of Genoa and the Republic of Venice, including the First Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Zonchio) in 1499 and the Second Battle of Lepanto (Battle of Modon) in 1500. When his uncle Kemal Reis died in 1511 (his ship was wrecked by a storm in the Mediterranean Sea, while he was heading to Egypt), Piri returned to Gelibolu, where he started working on his studies about navigation.


title: Piri Reis

text: By 1516, he was again at sea as a ship captain in the Ottoman fleet. He took part in the 1516–17 Ottoman conquest of Egypt. In 1522 he participated in the Siege of Rhodes against the Knights of St. John, which ended with the island's surrender to the Ottomans on 25 December 1522 and the permanent departure of the Knights from Rhodes on 1 January 1523 (the Knights relocated briefly to Sicily and later permanently to Malta). In 1524 he captained the ship that took the Ottoman Grand Vizier Pargalı İbrahim Pasha to Egypt.


title: Piri Reis

text: In 1547, Piri had risen to the rank of Reis (admiral) as the Commander of the Ottoman Fleet in the Indian Ocean and Admiral of the Fleet in Egypt, headquartered in Suez. On 26 February 1548 he recaptured Aden from the Portuguese, followed in 1552 by the sack of Muscat, which Portugal had occupied since 1507, and the strategically important island of Kish. Turning further east, Piri Reis attempted to capture the island of Hormuz in the Strait of Hormuz, at the entrance of the Persian Gulf, unsuccessfully, the Ottomans managed to capture the city but not the fortress. He then sacked the nearby island of Qeshm and sailed with his booty to Basra. When the Portuguese turned their attention to the Persian Gulf, Piri Reis occupied the Qatar peninsula to deprive the Portuguese of suitable bases on the Arabian coast.


title: Piri Reis

text: He then returned to Egypt, an old man approaching the age of 90. When he refused to support the Ottoman Vali (Governor) of Basra, Kubad Pasha, in another campaign against the Portuguese in the northern Persian Gulf, Piri Reis was beheaded in 1553.


title: Piri Reis

text: Piri Reis is the author of the "Kitāb-ı Baḥrīye", or "Book of the Sea", one of the most famous cartographical works of the period. The book gives seafarers information on the Mediterranean coast, islands, crossings, straits, and gulfs; where to take refuge in the event of a storm, how to approach the ports, and precise routes to the ports.


title: Piri Reis

text: The work was first published in 1521, and it was revised in 1524–1525 with additional information and better-crafted charts in order to be presented as a gift to Sultan Suleiman I. The revised edition had a total of 434 pages containing 290 maps.


title: Piri Reis

text: Although he was not an explorer and never sailed to the Atlantic, he compiled over twenty maps of Arab, Spanish, Portuguese, Chinese, Indian and older Greek origins into a comprehensive representation of the known world of his era. This work included the recently explored shores of both the African and American continents; on his first World Map of 1513, he imprinted the description "these lands and islands are drawn from the map of Columbus."


title: Piri Reis

text: In his text, he also wrote that he used the "maps drawn in the time of Alexander the Great" as a source, but most likely he had mistakenly confused the 2nd-century Greek geographer Ptolemy with Alexander's general of the same name (of four and a half centuries before), since his map is similar with the Jan of Stobnica famous reproduction map of Ptolemy, printed in 1512.


title: Piri Reis

text: Ptolemy's "Geographia" had been translated in Turkish after a personal order of Mehmed II some decades before.


title: Piri Reis

text: It can be seen that the Atlantic part of the map originates with Columbus because of the errors it contains (such as Columbus's belief that Cuba was a continental peninsula) since at the time the manuscript was produced, the Spaniards had already been in Mexico for two years.


title: Piri Reis

text: Apart from the maps, the book also contained detailed information on the major ports, bays, gulfs, capes, peninsulas, islands, straits and ideal shelters of the Mediterranean Sea, as well as techniques of navigation and navigation-related information on astronomy, together with information about the local people of each country and city and the curious aspects of their culture. There are thirty legends around the world map, twenty-nine in Turkish and one in Arabic; the latter gives the date as the month Muharrem of AH 919 AH (i.e. the spring of 1513) but most studies have identified the more probable date of completion as 1521.


title: Piri Reis

text: The "Kitab-ı Bahriye" has two main sections, with the first section dedicated to information about the types of storms; techniques of using a compass; portolan charts with detailed information on ports and coastlines; methods of finding direction using the stars; and characteristics of the major oceans and the lands around them. Special emphasis is given to the discoveries in the New World by Christopher Columbus and those of Vasco da Gama and the other Portuguese seamen on their way to India and the rest of Asia.


title: Piri Reis

text: The second section is entirely composed of portolan charts and cruise guides. Each topic contains the map of an island or coastline. In the first book (1521), this section has a total of 132 portolan charts, while the second book (1525) has a total of 210 portolan charts. The second section starts with the description of the Dardanelles Strait and continues with the islands and coastlines of the Aegean Sea, Ionian Sea, Adriatic Sea, Tyrrhenian Sea, Ligurian Sea, the French Riviera, the Balearic Islands, the coasts of Spain, the Strait of Gibraltar, the Canary Islands, the coasts of North Africa, Egypt and the River Nile, the Levant and the coastline of Anatolia. This section also includes descriptions and drawings of the famous monuments and buildings in every city, as well as biographic information about Piri Reis who also explains the reasons why he preferred to collect these charts in a book instead of drawing a single map, which would not be able to contain so much information and detail.


title: Piri Reis

text: A century after Piri's death and during the second half of the 17th century, a third version of his book was produced, which left the text of the second version unaffected while enriching the cartographical part of the manuscript.


title: Piri Reis

text: It included additional new large-scale maps, mostly copies of the Italian (from Battista Agnese and Jacopo Gastaldi) and Dutch (Abraham Ortelius) works of the previous century.


title: Piri Reis

text: Copies of the "Kitab-ı Bahriye" are found in various libraries in Istanbul and in some of the major libraries in Europe, besides one copy known to be held privately in the USA (Walters Art Museum).


title: Piri Reis

text: Piri Reis is mentioned in the video game "", and appears in its sequel "". In "Brotherhood", a group of Italian Assassins sent from Rome to Constantinople by Ezio Auditore da Firenze infiltrates Piri Reis's shop to steal some of his maps detailing the New World, in order to match the Templars' expansion into the new lands. By "Revelations", despite his earlier conflict with the Assassins, Piri joins the Ottoman Assassin Brotherhood in 1506 to serve as a scholar and technician, and even eventually progresses to the rank of Master Assassin.


title: Harry McEntire

text: Harry McEntire (born September 14, 1990) is an English actor. He is known for his roles in Tower Block, for his numerous theatre roles, such as in the award-winning London production of "Spring Awakening", for starring in the English localization of "Xenoblade Chronicles 3" as Noah, and for playing Æthelwold in "The Last Kingdom" as a recurring character over the first two seasons and main cast in the third season.


title: Harry McEntire

text: He has won the Best Actor Manchester Theatre Award in 2015 for his role in "Billy Liar", at the Royal Exchange Theatre.


title: White sugar

text: White sugar, also called table sugar, granulated sugar, or regular sugar, is a commonly used type of sugar, made either of beet sugar or cane sugar, which has undergone a refining process.


title: White sugar

text: The refining process completely removes the molasses to give the white sugar, sucrose. It has a purity higher than 99.7%. Its molecular formula is . White sugars produced from sugar cane and sugar beet are chemically indistinguishable: it is possible, however, to identify its origin through a carbon-13 analysis.


title: White sugar

text: White sugar (and some brown sugar) produced from sugar cane may be refined using bone char by a few sugar cane refiners. For this reason white sugar from sugar cane may not be vegan. Beet sugar has never been processed with bone char and is vegan.


title: White sugar

text: From a chemical and nutritional point of view, white sugar does not contain—in comparison to brown sugar—some minerals (such as calcium, potassium, iron and magnesium) present in small quantities in molasses. The only detectable differences are, therefore, the white color and the less intense flavor.


title: Sefirin Kızı

text: Sefirin Kızı () is a turkish drama television series directed by Emre Kabakuşak and written by Ayşe Ferda Eryılmaz and Sedef Nehir Erdem. It consists of two seasons, the first of which aired on 16 December 2019, and concluded on 22 June 2020. The second season premiered on September 7, 2020 and concluded on May 11, 2021. The series originally starred Engin Akyürek and Neslihan Atagül in the lead roles, but Atagül announced on 18 January 2021 that she would depart from the series due to leaky gut syndrome and was replaced by Tuba Büyüküstün.


title: Sefirin Kızı

text: The series was originally starring Neslihan Atagül and Engin Akyürek in the lead roles, But Atagül announced on 18 January 2021 that she would depart from the series due to leaky gut syndrome. Later, it was announced that Tuba Büyüküstün had replaced her. It was also reported that Uraz Kaygılaroğlu would depart from the series after a few episodes. His role later ended in Episode 37.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: Jean-Jacques Burnel (born 21 February 1952) is an English musician, producer and songwriter, best known as the bass guitarist and co-lead vocalist with the English rock band The Stranglers. He is the last founding member to remain in the band.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: Jean-Jacques Burnel was born in Notting Hill, London, to French parents. His family owned a restaurant where his father worked as a chef. As a child, as the son of French immigrants, he was often the victim of mockery from his schoolmates, which later led him to call himself John to disguise his French origins. This early encounter with xenophobia would also have an impact on his explosive temper in life and on stage as well as on the way he plays.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: He moved with his parents to Godalming, Surrey, when he was 12 years old and attended the Royal Grammar School, Guildford, subsequently reading history at the University of Bradford and Huddersfield Polytechnic. Burnel originally trained as a classical guitarist, but adopted the bass guitar as his instrument within The Stranglers. He has provided lead vocals on nearly a third of the band's songs, though Burnel later explained he often sang lyrics written by Hugh Cornwell (or vice versa) depending on "who had the best voice for that particular song."


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: Burnel has been a member of the Stranglers since the group's inception in 1974, but has also made two solo albums: "Euroman Cometh" in 1979, and "Un Jour Parfait" in 1988, as well as a collaborative album with fellow Stranglers member Dave Greenfield, "Fire and Water (Ecoutez Vos Murs)" in 1983. Burnel has also produced and appeared as a guest musician for a number of artists, such as Lizard and ARB from Japan, Polyphonic Size (from Belgium) and Taxi Girl's album "Seppuku" in 1981, as well as Laurent Sinclair's "Devant le Miroir" maxi single. Burnel also formed a rhythm and blues covers band, the Purple Helmets, who played a number of concerts and released two albums in the late 1980s.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: As a holder of French citizenship, Burnel received his call-up papers for national service in France. He succeeded in avoiding it with a novel defence, arguing that his absence would indirectly damage the Stranglers as a band, and therefore the careers of the other members. This was in accordance with Burnel's claim that only the "bourgeois" would ever agree to serve their country's military.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: Burnel composed and performed music for the anime "", including both the opening and ending themes, "We Were Lovers", and "You Won't See Me Coming" respectively.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: Burnel is noted for his distinctive bass guitar sound and melodic bass lines. These are particularly prominent on earlier Stranglers recordings produced by Martin Rushent, such as the hit singles "No More Heroes" and "Peaches".


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: In the early days, Burnel's distinctive aggressive sound was created using a Fender Precision Bass with RotoSound roundwound strings played with a plectrum very close to the bridge, through Hiwatt all-valve amplification. However, the defining factor was the use of a Marshall 4x12 speaker cabinet in which the speaker cones were ripped, creating a distorted sound.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: Later, he used a Yamaha BB2000, a Steinberger L2 (headless), and a Kinkade acoustic bass. He currently plays Shuker JJ Burnel signature basses custom-built in England by Jon Shuker.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: He was one of the first bass guitarists to use Trace Elliot amplification when the company began production in 1980. He now uses amplification by Ashdown Engineering who have honoured him with his own JJ500 signature amps.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: As of 2015, Burnel was a 7th degree black belt (nanadan) in Shidokan Karate and is head of Shidokan UK. He is also a motorcyclist and has owned many Triumph motorbikes.


title: Jean-Jacques Burnel

text: Burnel has also produced and or appeared either as a member of the group (Mutations, Purple Helmets) or as a ‘guest’ musician on a number of recordings, as follows:


title: Annie's Song

text: "Annie's Song" (also known as "Annie's Song (You Fill Up My Senses)") is a song in time written and recorded by American singer-songwriter John Denver. The song was released as the lead single from his eighth studio album "Back Home Again". It was his second number-one song in the United States, occupying that spot for two weeks in July 1974. "Annie's Song" also went to number one on the Easy Listening chart. "Billboard" ranked it as the No. 25 song for 1974.


title: Annie's Song

text: It went to number one in the United Kingdom, where it was Denver's only major hit single. Four years later, an instrumental version also became flautist James Galway's only major British hit.


title: Annie's Song

text: "Annie's Song" was written as an ode to Denver's wife at the time, Annie Martell Denver. Denver "wrote this song in July 1973 in about ten-and-a-half minutes one day on a ski lift" to the top of Aspen Mountain in Aspen, Colorado, as the physical exhilaration of having "just skied down a very difficult run" and the feeling of total immersion in the beauty of the colors and sounds that filled all senses inspired him to think about his wife. Annie Denver recalls the beginnings: "It was written after John and I had gone through a pretty intense time together and things were pretty good for us. He left to go skiing and he got on the Ajax chair on Aspen mountain and the song just came to him. He skied down and came home and wrote it down... Initially it was a love song and it was given to me through him, and yet for him it became a bit like a prayer."


title: Annie's Song

text: "The first time I heard 'Annie's Song,' I told John it had the same melody as Tchaikovsky's Fifth Symphony, Second Movement," says Milt Okun. "He walked over to the piano, sat for an hour and came back, and the only thing remaining from Tchaikovsky was the first five notes. It was fantastic."


title: Annie's Song

text: Shawn M. Haney of Allmusic noted the song's expressive emotionality, calling it an "ever so romantic tearjerker". Haney praised "Annie's Song" as "one of Denver's finest achievements". "Billboard" called it a "fine love song."


title: Annie's Song

text: On July 4, 2016, Ville Valo released a cover version of "Annie's Song" in Finnish, titled "Olet mun kaikuluotain" ("You're My Sonar"). The lyrics were by Hector, and the song had previously been recorded in 1976 by Freeman. Ville Valo's version was released as a tribute to Finnish label Love Records, who celebrated their 50th anniversary in 2016. Valo's version was also the first release from the label in over 30 years. Valo commented on the song, stating: "'Kaikuluotain' is a childhood favorite of mine, to the beat of which many a sleepless night ended up in tears. To this day it gives me cold shivers and goosebumps." The song would go on to reach number one on the Finnish Download Chart.


title: Annie's Song

text: Valo's version also received a music video, directed by Ykä Järvinen. Released on July 11, 2016, the video features scenes of Valo walking around Helsinki, done in tribute to Aki Kaurismäki's film "Calamari Union". The video received the Emma Award for Video of the Year in 2017.


title: Annie's Song

text: Supporters of Sheffield United use the melody of Annie's Song as The Greasy Chip Butty Song, a football chant with recast lyrics humorously extolling the virtues of life in Sheffield and as supporters of the club.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: Hoodlum is a 1997 American crime drama film that gives a fictionalized account of the gang war between the Italian/Jewish mafia alliance and the black gangsters of Harlem that took place in the late 1920s and early 1930s. The film concentrates on Ellsworth "Bumpy" Johnson (Laurence Fishburne), Dutch Schultz (Tim Roth), and Lucky Luciano (Andy García).


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: In 1934, Ellsworth “Bumpy” Johnson (Laurence Fishburne) is released from Sing Sing and returns to Harlem, where mobster Dutch Schultz (Tim Roth) asserts his control of the lucrative numbers game. Schultz begrudgingly reports to Mafia boss Charles “Lucky” Luciano (Andy Garcia), who pays bribes to special prosecutor Thomas E. Dewey (William Atherton) to protect his business.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: Reuniting with his cousin "Illinois" Gordon (Chi McBride), Bumpy returns to the employ of Harlem crime boss Madame Queen (Cicely Tyson), whose business is threatened by Schultz. Bumpy is introduced to Francine (Vanessa Williams), a friend of Illinois’ girlfriend Mary (Loretta Devine). Schultz’s meeting with the Queen ends in a standoff when he presents her with a rival’s testicles. Walking Francine home from a club, Bumpy charms her with his poetry.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: Madame Queen is attacked by Schultz’s men, led by black enforcer Bub Hewlett (Clarence Williams III), but Bumpy and fellow mobster Whispers (Paul Benjamin) repel the assassins and rescue her. At a meeting of the Commission, Schultz states his determination to take over Harlem. After robbing Schultz’s operation with Illinois, Bumpy is chastised by Madame Queen for making his own decisions. Schultz then hires two hitmen, the Salke brothers, to kill Bumpy, and has his police contact, NYPD Captain Foley (Richard Bradford), arrange for Madame Queen's arrest. At a party, a 17-year-old named Tyrone asks Bumpy for a job, and Francine struggles to reconcile her feelings for Bumpy with his criminal ways.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: The Salkes break into Bumpy’s home, killing his guards, but Bumpy ambushes them and kills one while a terrified Francine shoots the other dead. Illinois is beaten and robbed by Foley and his officers, while Madame Queen is arrested for illegal gambling. Taking over her operation, Bumpy enlists Tyrone as a runner, and ignores the Queen’s orders to avoid violence. By May 1935, he is locked in an all-out war with Schultz. His wealth and power grow, as does the body count, including Tyrone. Bumpy’s attempt to comfort Tyrone’s mother at his funeral is rejected.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: At an ice cream parlor with Francine, Bumpy realizes his banana split has been poisoned. When the shop owner reveals that Bumpy’s associate Vallie ordered him to hire the new teenage employee responsible, Bumpy forces the boy to eat the poisoned ice cream despite his attempts to apologize. Whispers then kills Vallie with a razor. Bumpy confronts Schultz at the Cotton Club with Vallie’s severed finger, demanding he cease his Harlem operations, but Schultz refuses.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: Disguised as truck drivers, Bumpy and Illinois deliver a bomb to one of Schultz’s illicit breweries, narrowly escaping before the warehouse explodes. Illinois returns home to find Schultz had Mary killed in retaliation. Threatened by Dewey to end the bloodshed in Harlem, Luciano invites Bumpy and Schultz to a meeting, against both their wills.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: Visiting Madame Queen in prison, Bumpy is rebuked for inciting a gang war. Finding she can no longer accept who he is, Francine leaves him, and Illinois drunkenly confronts him over the innocent lives lost. Illinois is abducted and tortured by Foley, to Hewlett’s disgust, but refuses to betray his cousin. At Luciano’s meeting, Bumpy and Schultz refuse to settle their dispute. After finding Illinois’ corpse left as a message, Bumpy slits Foley’s throat while he's with a black prostitute, but spares Hewlett’s life and offers him a partnership.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: Bumpy accepts an alliance with Luciano, and Luciano’s driver – on Bumpy’s orders – informs Schultz that Bumpy will be meeting with Luciano’s accountant. Schultz and his men burst in but find only the accountant, whom Schultz kills. At a restaurant, Schultz’s long-suffering henchman Lulu (Ed O'Ross) shoots him in the bathroom, and Schultz calmly returns to his table before dying. Meeting Luciano outside for payment, Lulu is shot dead. With Dutch eliminated and the gang war settled, Dewey – having received an enormous bribe from Bumpy, delivered by Hewlett – warns Luciano to stay away from Harlem. Hewlett and Bumpy part ways, and Bumpy arrives at Illinois’ funeral. After exchanging looks with Francine and Madame Queen, Bumpy walks out into the rain alone.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: A soundtrack containing hip hop and R&B music was released on August 12, 1997 by Interscope Records. It peaked at #94 on the "Billboard" 200 and #23 on the Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: The film received mixed reviews from critics. Review aggregation website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a score of 43% based on 21 reviews. Audiences surveyed by CinemaScore gave the film a grade B on scale of A to F.


title: Hoodlum (film)

text: Critic Roger Ebert noted that "the film is being marketed as a violent action picture, and in a sense, it is" and that director Bill Duke having made "a historical drama as much as a thriller, and his characters reflect a time when Harlem seemed poised on the brink of better things, and the despair of the postwar years was not easily seen on its prosperous streets."


title: Emirati nationality law

text: Emirati nationality law governs citizenship eligibility in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). The law is primarily "jus sanguinis". Foreigners may be naturalized and granted citizenship, but the process is limited due to the declining share of the Emirati population and fears of national identity loss. Gulf Cooperation Council citizens are allowed to live in the UAE without restriction and have the right of freedom of movement.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: The Emirati nationality law is derived from the "Federal Law No.17 of 1972 on Nationality and Passports", and is administered by the General Directorate of Residency and Foreigners Affairs (GDRFA) in each emirate.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: In general, birth in the United Arab Emirates does not, in itself, confer Emirati citizenship as its law utilize "jus sanguinis" policy. Exceptions are made for foundlings.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: Children born to an Emirati father or an unknown or stateless father and an Emirati mother are Emirati citizens by descent, irrespective of the place of birth. Until 2017, children born to an Emirati mother and a foreign father could apply and receive Emirati citizenship once they reached age 18. Since October 2017 an Emirati mother can now confer Emirati nationality to her children once they reach six years of age.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: A foreign woman married to an Emirati national may acquire citizenship provided that the marriage lasts for at least seven years with the condition of having at least one child, or ten years in the absence of children. The wife of a naturalized male citizen may also acquire Emirati citizenship.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: Naturalization is limited due to fears of loss of Emirati national identity and conservative culture, which are both considered under threat due to foreigners outnumbering native Emirati people eleven-to-one.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: Any person who wishes to apply for naturalization has to be proficient in the Arabic language, has a legal source of income and has been in a continuous residence in the UAE, has an academic qualification, does not have a bad reputation, and has not been convicted of any crime. A person convicted for misdemeanor or dishonesty may apply on the condition of fulfilling recuperation or rehabilitation. A wife of an Emirati national does not need to have an academic qualification to be eligible for naturalization.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: The right to vote or the right to a nomination for parliament or governmental authority is limited to Emirati citizens by descent. Nationality is only granted once.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: As per Human Rights Watch, many Emirati mothers have complained that the application process can be confusing and could take years for the authorities to respond. The amendments announced to UAE’s citizenship law in January 2021 are aimed to attract only the elite foreigners.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: Renouncing citizenship is viewed as a shame within the Emirati community, as citizenship is usually attributed to the Emirati community sense of national identity, it is particularly hard to attain, and it entitles the holder various benefits.


title: Emirati nationality law

text: In May 2019, the UAE Prime Minister Sheikh Mohammed bin Rashid Al Maktoum launched a permanent residency scheme, in an attempt to establish the UAE as the home to the large number of expatriates. Subject to additional criteria, investors and professionals in healthcare, engineering, science and art are eligible for permanent residency. The permanent residency scheme is expected to generate foreign investment, encourage entrepreneurship, and attract engineers, scientists and students of exceptional caliber.


title: Private Lessons (1981 film)

text: Private Lessons is a 1981 American sex comedy film starring Sylvia Kristel, Howard Hesseman, Eric Brown, and Ed Begley Jr.


title: Private Lessons (1981 film)

text: The screenplay was written by Dan Greenburg, who wrote the original source novel, "Philly". Greenburg appears as the manager of a motel in the film.


title: Private Lessons (1981 film)

text: "Private Lessons" was one of Kristel's few major American film appearances; she was better known to European audiences for her "Emmanuelle" films which had only limited distribution in the United States. In early 2006, a 25th anniversary DVD release was issued in North America.


title: Private Lessons (1981 film)

text: Philip "Philly" Fillmore (Eric Brown) is an adventurous 15-year-old high school student and the son of a rich businessman in Albuquerque, who has left town on an extended trip during summer break, leaving the young man in the passing care of Nicole Mallow (Sylvia Kristel), a sexy French housekeeper and Lester Lewis (Howard Hesseman), the family's chauffeur.


title: Private Lessons (1981 film)

text: The following day, Nicole approaches Philly while he is reading a magazine in the garden. She asks for recommendations for night time activities, and finding that all previous housekeepers have been elderly women, she teases Philly. Resenting her initially, Philly later becomes infatuated. When Nicole goes out shopping, Philly sneaks into her room and touches her bras and panties. He frequently uses his binoculars to observe her through the windows, deliberately walks by her when she is sunbathing beside the pool, and rides his bicycle past her room. When she finally spots him peeping into her room that night, she tells him to come inside and close her door. To Philly's utter shock, she intends him to close her door from the inside and watch her undress. She seductively strips her night dress, stockings and bra. However, it's too much for Philly when topless Nicole invites him to touch her breasts. When he frightfully objects, she steps back, throws the bra at him, then takes off her panties and offers them to him. When he sees her fully nude, he panics and leaves, but not before thanking her. He shares the story with his best friend Sherman.