title: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio

text: Today there are mini-split (ductless) air conditioner units available with SEER ratings up to 42. During the 2014 AHR Expo, Mitsubishi unveiled a new mini-split ductless AC unit with a SEER rating of 30.5. GREE also released a 30.5 SEER rating mini split in 2015 as well. Carrier launched a 42 SEER ductless air conditioner during 2018 Consumer electronic Show (CES), held in Las Vegas. Traditional AC systems with ducts have maximum SEER ratings slightly below these levels. Also, practically, central systems will have an achieved energy efficiency ratio 10–20% lower than the nameplate rating due to the duct-related losses.


title: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio

text: Additionally, there are ground-source residential AC units with SEER ratings up to 75. However, ground-source heat pump effective efficiency is reliant on the temperature of the ground or water source used. Hot climates have a much higher ground or surface water temperature than cold climates and therefore will not be able to achieve such efficiencies. Moreover, the ARI rating scheme for ground-source heat pumps allows them to largely ignore required pump power in their ratings, making the achievable SEER values often practically lower than the highest efficiency air-source equipment—particularly for air cooling. There are a variety of technologies that will allow SEER and EER ratings to increase further in the near future. Some of these technologies include rotary compressors, inverters, DC brushless motors, variable-speed drives, and integrated systems such as those found in solar-powered air conditioning.


title: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio

text: A refrigeration cycle can be operated as a heat pump to move heat from outdoors into a warmer house. A heat pump with a higher SEER rating for cooling mode would also usually be more efficient in heating mode, rated using HSPF. When operated in heating mode, a heat pump is typically more efficient than an electrical resistance heater. This is because a space heater can convert only the input electrical energy directly to output heat energy, while a heat pump also transfers heat from outdoors. In heating mode, the coefficient of performance is the ratio of heat provided to the energy used by the unit. An ideal resistance heater converting 100% of its input electricity to output heat would have COP = 1, equivalent to a 3.4 EER. The heat pump becomes less efficient as the outside temperature decreases, and its performance may become comparable to a resistance heater. For a heat pump with the minimum 13 SEER cooling efficiency, this is typically below .


title: Seasonal energy efficiency ratio

text: Lower temperatures may cause a heat pump to operate below the efficiency of a resistance heater, so conventional heat pumps often include heater coils or auxiliary heating from LP or natural gas to prevent low efficiency operation of the refrigeration cycle. "Cold climate" heat pumps are designed to optimize efficiency below . In the case of cold climates, water or ground-source heat pumps are the most efficient solution. They use the relatively constant temperature of ground water or of water in a large buried loop to moderate the temperature differences in summer and winter and improve performance year round. The heat pump cycle is reversed in the summer to act as an air conditioner.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: Rape trauma syndrome (RTS) is the psychological trauma experienced by a rape survivor that includes disruptions to normal physical, emotional, cognitive, and interpersonal behavior. The theory was first described by nurse Ann Wolbert Burgess and sociologist Lynda Lytle Holmstrom in 1974.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: RTS is a cluster of psychological and physical signs, symptoms and reactions common to most rape victims immediately following a rape, but which can also occur for months or years afterwards. While most research into RTS has focused on female victims, sexually abused males (whether by male or female perpetrators) also exhibit RTS symptoms. RTS paved the way for consideration of complex post-traumatic stress disorder, which can more accurately describe the consequences of protracted trauma than post-traumatic stress disorder alone. The symptoms of RTS and post-traumatic stress syndrome overlap. As might be expected, a person who has been raped will generally experience high levels of distress immediately afterward. These feelings may subside over time for some people; however, individually each syndrome can have long devastating effects on rape victims and some victims will continue to experience some form of psychological distress for months or years. It has also been found that rape survivors are at high risk for developing substance use disorders, major depression, generalized anxiety disorder, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and other disorders.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: RTS identifies three stages of psychological trauma a rape survivor goes through: the acute stage, the outer adjustment stage, and the renormalization stage.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: The acute stage occurs in the days or weeks after a rape. Durations vary as to the amount of time the victim may remain in the acute stage. The immediate symptoms may last a few days to a few weeks and may overlap with the outward adjustment stage.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: According to Scarse, there is no "typical" response amongst rape victims. However, the U.S. Rape Abuse and Incest National Network (RAINN) asserts that, in most cases, a rape victim's acute stage can be classified as one of three responses: expressed ("He or she may appear agitated or hysterical, [and] may suffer from crying spells or anxiety attacks"); controlled ("the survivor appears to be without emotion and acts as if 'nothing happened' and 'everything is fine'"); or shock/disbelief ("the survivor reacts with a strong sense of disorientation. They may have difficulty concentrating, making decisions, or doing everyday tasks. They may also have poor recall of the assault"). Not all rape survivors show their emotions outwardly. Some may appear calm and unaffected by the assault.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: Survivors in this stage seem to have resumed their normal lifestyle. However, they simultaneously suffer profound internal turmoil, which may manifest in a variety of ways as the survivor copes with the long-term trauma of a rape. In a 1976 paper, Burgess and Holmstrom note that all but 1 of their 92 subjects exhibited maladaptive coping mechanisms after a rape. The outward adjustment stage may last from several months to many years after a rape.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: Some rape survivors may see the world as a more threatening place to live in, so they will place restrictions on their lives, interrupting their normal activity. For example, they may discontinue previously active involvements in societies, groups or clubs, or a parent who was a survivor of rape may place restrictions on the freedom of their children.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: Whether or not they were injured during a sexual assault, survivors exhibit higher rates of poor health in the months and years after an assault, including acute somatoform disorders (physical symptoms with no identifiable cause). Physiological reactions such as tension headaches, fatigue, general feelings of soreness or localized pain in the chest, throat, arms or legs. Specific symptoms may occur that relate to the area of the body assaulted. Survivors of oral rape may have a variety of mouth and throat complaints, while survivors of vaginal or anal rape have physical reactions related to these areas.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: A common psychological defense that is seen in rape survivors is the development of fears and phobias specific to the circumstances of the rape, for example:


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: In this stage, the survivor begins to recognize his or her adjustment phase. Recognizing the impact of the rape for survivors who were in denial, and recognizing the secondary damage of any counterproductive coping tactics (e.g., recognizing that one's drug abuse began to help cope with the aftermath of a rape) is particularly important. Male victims typically do not seek psychotherapy for a long time after the sexual assault—according to Lacey and Roberts, less than half of male victims sought therapy within six months and the average interval between assault and therapy was 2.5 years; King and Woollett's study of over 100 male rape victims found that the mean interval between assault and therapy was 16.4 years.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: During renormalization, survivors integrate the sexual assault into their lives so that the rape is no longer the central focus of their lives; negative feelings such as guilt and shame become resolved, and survivors no longer blame themselves for the attack.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: Prosecutors sometimes use RTS evidence to disabuse jurors of prejudicial misconceptions arising from a victim's ostensibly unusual post-rape behavior. The RTS testimony helps educate the jury about the psychological consequences surrounding rape and functions to dispel rape myths by explaining counterintuitive post-rape behavior.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: Especially in cases in which prosecutors have introduced RTS testimony, defendants have also sometimes proffered RTS evidence, a practice that has been criticized as undermining core values embodied in rape shield laws, since it can involve subjecting victims to compelled psychological evaluations and searching cross-examination regarding past sexual history. Since social scientists have difficulty distinguishing symptoms attributable to rape-related PTSD from those induced by previous traumatic events, rape defendants sometimes argue that an alternative traumatic event, such as a previous rape, could be the source of the victim's symptoms.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: A criticism of rape trauma syndrome as currently conceptualized is that it delegitimizes a person's reaction to rape by describing their coping mechanisms, including their rational attempts to struggle through, survive the pain of sexual assault, and to adapt to a violent world, as symptoms of disorder. People who installed locks and purchased security devices, took self-defense classes, carried mace, changed residence, and expressed anger at the criminal justice system, for example, were characterized as exhibiting pathological symptoms and "adjustment difficulties". According to this criticism, RTS removes a person's pain and anger from their social and political context, attributing a person's anguish, humiliation, anger, and despair after being raped to a disorder caused by the actions of the rapist, rather than to, say, insensitive treatment by the police, examining physicians, and the judicial system; or to family reactions permeated with rape mythology.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: Another criticism is that the literature on RTS constructs rape survivors as passive, disordered victims, even though much of the behavior that serves as the basis for RTS could be considered the product of strength. Words like "fear" are replaced with words like "phobia", with its connotations of irrationality.


title: Rape trauma syndrome

text: Criticisms of the scientific validity of the RTS construct are that it is vague in important details; it is unclear what its boundary conditions are; it uses unclear terms that do not have a basis in psychological science; it fails to specify key quantitative relationships; it has not undergone subsequent scientific evaluation since the 1974 Burgess and Holstrom study; there are theoretical allegiance effects; it has not achieved a consensus in the field; it is not falsifiable; it ignores possible mediators; it is not culturally sensitive; and it is not suitable for being used to infer that rape has or has not occurred. PTSD has been described as a superior model since unlike RTS, empirical examination of the PTSD model has been extensive, both conceptually and empirically.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: David Dunn is a fictional superhero and protagonist in M. Night Shyamalan's "Unbreakable" film series, portrayed by American actor Bruce Willis. Dunn is a former college football prodigy and a security guard who discovers he has superhuman abilities. He is the protagonist in "Unbreakable", makes a cameo in "Split", and again is a major character in "Glass".


title: David Dunn (character)

text: When M. Night Shyamalan conceived the idea for "Unbreakable", the outline had a comic book's traditional three-part structure: the superhero's "birth," his struggles against general evil-doers, and the hero's ultimate battle against the "archenemy." However, he found the origin story most interesting, and chose to write "Unbreakable" as one. Willis became attached while shooting "The Sixth Sense," also directed by Shyamalan.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: David Dunn possesses super-strength enough to rip off a car door, bench press 500 pounds, break down a steel door, bend metal bars, and hurl a grown man several feet with tremendous force. He has nigh-invulnerability that renders him immune to disease and injuries, including traumas and shocks that would kill a normal human.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: Additionally, David possesses the ability of psychometry. He is able to intuitively read the minds of others, particularly as they relate to acts of violence and immorality, by touching them. He has demonstrated the ability to discover actions a person committed in the past (such as Price's sabotage of the train and the unnamed murderer's crimes) as well as potential/planned acts of violence (learning a man smuggled a gun into the sports stadium).


title: David Dunn (character)

text: David has a weakness to water; being exposed to water weakens him and drains his strength. He had a near-death experience when he nearly drowned at a young age due to children his age trying to push him under water. As a result, he wears a long, hooded raincoat as part of his vigilante disguise.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: David Dunn was born in Philadelphia and became a football player during college, before being caught in a car accident with his girlfriend Audrey. David is left unharmed but Audrey is injured, causing David to quit football to be with Audrey.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: In the year 2000, David boards the Eastrail 177 train home but is later caught in a crash. David is recovered and examined by doctors, who reveal he was the only survivor of 132 passengers and hasn't broken a single bone. This grabs the attention of comic book art gallery owner Elijah Price, who contacts David, taunting him, convincing him he has unique superhuman abilities. He then interrogates David about any similar past incidents, in an attempt to expose his abilities. This begins to scare David, who leaves the store. The following day, Elijah visits David at the stadium where David becomes suspicious of a man carrying a gun. The man quickly leaves in a rush but Elijah reluctantly follows the man who did have a gun proving Elijah's theory correct about David. He attempts to deny it by recalling a past drowning incident, but Elijah speculates that water is David's weakness. Joseph also convinces David he is a superhero, so he decides to do some bench presses, revealing his super strength. He also recalls that he used his strength to save Audrey from the car accident by tearing the door off.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: Eventually, David becomes more aware of his powers and decides to test them out in a subway by allowing people to push through him. As people walk past him, David begins to see visions of crimes they committed. David sees a crime committed by a janitor who had killed a man. That night, David follows the janitor to the home, where he finds the same man and his wife, both dead. He finds and frees the children. The janitor pushes David into a swimming pool, affirming his weakness to water. The children rescue David, who then kills the janitor. The next day, David is hailed a superhero in the newspaper. He later exposes Elijah for causing a hotel fire, an airplane bombing, and the Eastrail train derailment. Price is sent to an institution for the criminally insane.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: David makes a cameo appearance in the 2016 film "Split," where he visits a cafe. When the patrons see the news station on the cafe's TV monitors about Kevin Wendell Crumb/The Horde, a waitress states that The Horde reminds her of a man in a wheelchair sent to an insane asylum 15 years ago, as she attempts to recall the man's name. David replies, "Mr. Glass."


title: David Dunn (character)

text: Sixteen years later, David has become a superhero vigilante named "The Overseer" and is working with Joseph. When not being a vigilante, David runs a home security store.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: When David learns about the emergence of Kevin Wendell Crumb, a supervillain with an identity disorder involving 24 personalities dubbed by the media as "The Horde", he decides to track him down but is led to an abandoned building where The Horde is holding a group of cheerleaders hostage. David rescues the cheerleaders but is confronted by one of The Horde's personalities "The Beast". Their confrontation is interrupted by a group of Philadelphia police officers lead by Dr. Ellie Staple. Staple places the two in an institution where Elijah has been held since his arrest. David and Kevin are put in separate rooms which hold security measures exploiting their weaknesses to contain them.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: Later, Elijah becomes interested in the Beast so he decides to free him and team up together to escape. However, before leaving, Elijah contacts David over the PA to reveal to him his plan to destroy the Osaka Tower in Philadelphia before Elijah would expose real-life superheroes. This prompts David to escape his room and confronts the Beast again outside the facility. The fight is interrupted when Joseph exposes that Kevin's father was also on the Eastrail 177 leaving Kevin alone to his mother who begins abusing him leaving Elijah to come to the conclusion of his creation of both David and Kevin's alter egos The Overseer and The Horde. The Beast thanks Elijah for his creation and brutally injures him then throws David into a water tank in an attempt to drown him but manages to regain strength to escape but is weakened due to the water.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: One of Staple's men walks over to David and drags him over to a nearby pothole filled with water after the tank exploded. The man pushes David's face in the water, which drowns and eventually kills him. Staple reveals that she is part of an organization with the goal of silencing people with superhuman abilities to maintain a societal balance even when David uses his ability to learn this upon grabbing her. Elijah dies from his injuries received from Kevin, who is shot and killed by a sniper. Joseph is eventually sent the security footage of the brawl between David and Kevin at the institution, which Casey Cooke and Elijah's mother also receive. They collaborate to upload the footage to the internet, revealing to the world the existence of superhuman abilities.


title: David Dunn (character)

text: Willis received critical praise for his performance as Dunn in "Unbreakable". Critic Roger Ebert believed that Willis' "subtle acting" was positively different from the actor's usual work in "brainless action movies." Quentin Tarantino, who directed Willis in "Pulp Fiction", also praised his performance in "Unbreakable," saying he considers it his best work. The franchise received backlash from fans over David's death scene and lack of screen time in "Glass."


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: The red-shouldered hawk (Buteo lineatus) is a medium-sized buteo. Its breeding range spans eastern North America and along the coast of California and northern to northeastern-central Mexico. It is a permanent resident throughout most of its range, though northern birds do migrate, mostly to central Mexico. The main conservation threat to the widespread species is deforestation.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: The red-shouldered hawk was formally described in 1788 by the German naturalist Johann Friedrich Gmelin in his revised and expanded edition of Carl Linnaeus's "Systema Naturae". He placed it with the eagles, hawks and relatives in the genus "Falco" and coined the binomial name "Falco lineatus". Gmelin based his account on the "barred-breasted buzzard" of John Latham and the "red shouldered falcon" of Thomas Pennant. Latham had described a preserved specimen from North America in the Leverian collection while Pennant's specimen formed part of the collection of Anna Blackburne and had come from Long Island. The red-shouldered hawk is now placed with 27 other species in the genus "Buteo" that was introduced in 1799 by Bernard Germain de Lacépède. The genus name "buteo" is Latin for a "buzzard". The specific epithet "lineatus" is Latin meaning "marked with lines" or "lined".


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Males are long and weigh on average . Females are slightly larger at in length and a mean weight of . The wingspan can range from . Adult birds can vary in mass from . Among standard measurements, the wing bone is long, the tail is long and the tarsus is . Adults have brownish heads, reddish chests, and pale bellies with reddish bars. Their tails, which are quite long by "Buteo" standards, are marked with narrow white bars. Red "shoulders" are visible when the birds are perched. These hawks' upper parts are dark with pale spots and they have long yellow legs. Western birds may appear more red, while Florida birds are generally paler. The wings of adults are more heavily barred on the upper side. Juvenile red-shouldered hawks are most likely to be confused with juvenile broad-winged hawks, but can be distinguished by their long tails, crescent-like wing markings, and a more flapping, "Accipiter"-like flight style. In direct comparison, it is typically larger and longer proportioned than the broad-wing, though is slightly smaller and more slender than most other common North American "Buteo" species. This bird is sometimes also confused with the widespread red-tailed hawk. That species is larger and bulkier, with more even-sized, broad wings, and is paler underneath, with a reddish tail often apparent. The red-tail is also more likely to soar steadily, with wings in a slight dihedral.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: An eastern population ranges west through southern Canada from southern New Brunswick and Ontario to the eastern edge of the U.S. Great Plains, south to Florida, the Gulf Coast, and eastern Mexico. Only northernmost populations are migratory. A western population breeds west of the Sierra Nevada from northern California to northern Baja California, and has recently expanded into Oregon and Arizona, and east of the Sierra Nevada in California and southern Nevada.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Eastern populations winter from southern Wisconsin, Oklahoma, Ohio, and southern New England south to the Gulf Coast, occasionally throughout breeding range. In winter, they are reported south to Jalisco and Veracruz, Mexico. Western populations are largely nonmigratory. Throughout its winter range, this species avoids higher elevations.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Eastern birds occasionally wander west (e.g., Colorado, Kansas, West Texas, Manitoba, North Dakota) in migration; western birds have strayed east to Arizona, Nevada, Idaho, and Utah, and north to Washington.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: In the east, individuals from the northern half of the species’ range are migratory. In the west, most populations are local. Red-shouldered hawks are short- to moderate-distance migrants, with most individuals traveling distances between 300 and 1,500 km each way. The species follows leading lines, migrating along inland ridges and coastlines. Larger numbers of red-shouldered hawks are counted at coastal watch sites than at inland sites. Juveniles often precede adults on migration in autumn, whereas adults precede juveniles in the spring. Red-shouldered hawks typically migrate alone, although they sometimes form small flocks of three or more birds. The species usually avoids crossing large bodies of water. While migrating, red-shouldered hawks are observed in soaring, gliding, and flapping flight.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: A study of red-shouldered hawk home range and habitat use in southern California found average home range of and showed fair adaptability to human-altered landscapes, which is important as riparian forest habitat has diminished by 98% from 1850 to 1977 in California's Central Valley.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Red-shouldered hawks are forest raptors. In the east, they live in bottomland hardwood stands, flooded deciduous swamps, and upland mixed deciduous–conifer forests. They tend to live in stands with an open subcanopy, which makes hunting easier. They are not exclusively birds of deep forest, though; one can find red-shouldered hawks in some suburban areas where houses or other buildings are mixed into woodlands. In the west, they live in riparian and oak woodlands, and also in eucalyptus groves and some residential areas.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Red-shouldered hawks search for prey while perched on a treetop or soaring over woodlands. When they sight prey, they kill it by dropping directly onto it from the air. They may cache food near their nest for later consumption. When in clearings, they sometimes fly high and then drop to surprise prey. Red-shouldered hawks, like most raptors, have very good vision and reasonably good sense of hearing, with talons capable of killing animals as big as their own size. Small mammals are typically the most common prey, especially rodents. Voles, gophers, mice, moles and chipmunks may locally be favored based on abundance. Slightly larger mammals, such as rabbits and tree squirrels, are also occasionally preyed on. Other prey can include amphibians, reptiles (especially small snakes), birds, fish, and large insects. They will attack birds up to the size of a ruffed grouse or ring-necked pheasant. Steller's jays and blue jays, both of which being potential prey species, sometimes habitually imitate the call of the red-shouldered hawk and are known to be difficult to distinguish on voice alone. During winters, red-shouldered hawks sometimes habituate to preying on birds commonly found at bird feeders. In some areas where they are common, crayfish can be important prey for this species. Unusual food items recorded for the species have included nocturnal animals such as eastern screech owls and flying squirrels and road-killed deer.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: The breeding habitats of the red-shouldered hawk are deciduous and mixed wooded areas, often near water. They have been known to nest near residential areas and open water but this is much less common. Red-shouldered hawks select sites with greater tree species richness for nesting. Like almost all raptors, the red-shouldered hawk is monogamous and territorial. While courting or defending territories, the distinctive, screaming "kee-aah" call (usually repeated three to four times) of this bird is heard. Courtship displays occur on the breeding grounds, and involve soaring together in broad circles while calling, or soaring and diving toward one another. Males may also perform the "sky-dance" by soaring high in the air, and then making a series of steep dives, each followed by a wide spiral and rapid ascent. These courtship flights usually occur in late morning and early afternoon.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Red-shouldered hawks' mating season is between April and July, with activity usually peaking between April and mid-June. The breeding pair builds a stick nest (sometimes including shredded bark, leaves and green sprigs) in a major fork of a large tree. They often use the same nest year after year, refurbishing it annually with sticks in the spring. The clutch size is typically three to four eggs. The blotchy-marked eggs, often brown to lavender in color, measure on average . The incubation period can range from 28 to 33 days. Hatching is asynchronous, with the first chick hatching up to a week before the last. The hatchlings, which weigh at first, are brooded almost constantly by the female for up to 40 days. Pairs that nest earlier in the breeding season tend to lay greater numbers of eggs and have higher productivity from those eggs. The male more often captures food but will also incubate and brood occasionally. The young leave the nest at about six weeks of age, but remain dependent on the parents until they are 17 to 19 weeks old. They may continue to roost near the nest site until the following breeding season. Breeding maturity is usually attained at 1 or 2 years of age.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Although they have lived as long as within a month of 20 years old, few live half that long and only around half survive their first year. Each year overall nesting success can be lower than 30 percent. Early mortality can be due to natural causes, relating to harsh weather conditions, or more often starvation. Young hawks are often parasitized by species such as "Trichomonas gallinae", "Protocalliphora avium", and various species of blood parasites. Humans, intentionally or unintentionally, are a threat to red-shouldered hawks, including hunting, collision with electric wires, road accidents and logging. A further common cause of mortality is natural predation. Raccoons, martens, fishers and large arboreal snakes can prey on eggs, hatchlings, fledglings and occasionally incubating and brooding adults. Non-nesting adults, being a fairly large and powerful predator, have fewer natural predators, but (both during and after the breeding season, as well as among nestlings) they may be preyed on by other red-shouldered hawks, great horned owls, red-tailed hawks, barred owls, northern goshawks, peregrine falcons, prairie falcons, and bald and golden eagles. In western New York, the main cause of nest failure was stated to be great horned owl predation. Many of the same predators sometimes compete over territory and food with this species. Despite their highly similar diet and habitat preferences, it has been found that red-shouldered hawks can nest within of a barred owl without interspecies conflict. In Florida, red-shouldered hawks sometimes collaborate and peaceably coexist with American crows (usually an enemy to all other birds because of their egg-hunting habits) so they cooperatively mob mutual predators, mainly great horned owls and red-tailed hawks.


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Red-shouldered hawks have hybridized with gray hawks ("Buteo plagiatus"), red-tailed hawks ("Buteo jamaicensis") and common black hawks ("Buteogallus anthracinus").


title: Red-shouldered hawk

text: Prior to 1900, the red-shouldered hawk was one of the most common North American raptors. Population densities have decreased precipitously due to the clearing of mature forests (principally the wet hardwood forest they prefer) since that time. The changing of habitats has led to a general population increase of the red-tailed hawk, an occasional predator of its cousin. Additionally affecting the red-shouldered hawk was the greater availability of firearms in the early 1900s, leading to unchecked hunting of this and all other raptor species until conservation laws took effect in the latter half of the 20th century. Local forest regrowth and the ban of hunting has allowed red-shouldered hawk populations to become more stable again and the species is not currently considered conservation dependent. In Florida, the red-shouldered hawk is perhaps the most commonly seen and heard raptor species (outside of abundant black and turkey vultures). However, human activity, including logging, poisoning from insecticides and industrial pollutants, continue to loom as threats to the species. Before its use was outlawed in the United States, red-shouldered hawks and other raptors suffered from exposure to DDT, a pesticide. The DDT would cause their eggs to have thin, breakable shells, reducing their ability to reproduce. Accidental encounters with power lines and automobiles also take a toll on hawks. In spite of these dangers, habitat loss remains the biggest threat to red-shouldered hawks.


title: Golden spike

text: The golden spike (also known as The Last Spike) is the ceremonial 17.6-karat gold final spike driven by Leland Stanford to join the rails of the first transcontinental railroad across the United States connecting the Central Pacific Railroad from Sacramento and the Union Pacific Railroad from Omaha on May 10, 1869, at Promontory Summit, Utah Territory. The term "last spike" has been used to refer to one driven at the usually ceremonial completion of any new railroad construction projects, particularly those in which construction is undertaken from two disparate origins towards a common meeting point. The spike is now displayed in the Cantor Arts Center at Stanford University.


title: Golden spike

text: Completing the last link in the transcontinental railroad with a spike of gold was the brainchild of David Hewes, a San Francisco financier and contractor. The spike had been manufactured earlier that year especially for the event by the William T. Garrett Foundry in San Francisco. Two of the sides were engraved with the names of the railroad officers and directors. A special tie of polished California laurel was chosen to complete the line where the spike would be driven. The ceremony was originally to be held on May 8, 1869 (the date actually engraved on the spike), but it was postponed two days because of bad weather and a labor dispute that delayed the arrival of the Union Pacific side of the rail line.


title: Golden spike

text: On May 10, in anticipation of the ceremony, Union Pacific No. 119 and Central Pacific No. 60 (better known as the "Jupiter") locomotives were drawn up face-to-face on Promontory Summit. It is unknown how many people attended the event; estimates run from as low as 500 to as many as 3,000; government and railroad officials and track workers were present to witness the event.


title: Golden spike

text: Before the last spike was driven, three other commemorative spikes, presented on behalf of the other three members of the Central Pacific's Big Four who did not attend the ceremony, had been driven in the pre-bored laurel tie:


title: Golden spike

text: The golden spike was made of 17.6-karat (73%) copper-alloyed gold, and weighed 14.03 troy ounces (436 g). It was dropped into a pre-drilled hole in the laurel ceremonial last tie, and gently tapped into place with a silver ceremonial spike maul. The spike was engraved on all four sides:


title: Golden spike

text: The spike was removed immediately after being hammered in to prevent it from being stolen. A second golden spike, exactly like the one from the ceremony (except for the date), was cast at the same time, and probably engraved at a later time with the correct Promontory date of May 10, 1869. It has been noted that the first Golden Spike engraving appeared "rushed", and the Hewes family spike lettering appeared more polished. It was held, unknown to the public, by the Hewes family until 2005. This second spike is now on permanent display, along with Thomas Hill's famous painting "The Last Spike", at the California State Railroad Museum in Sacramento.


title: Golden spike

text: With the locomotives drawn so near, the crowd pressed so closely around Stanford and the other railroad officials that the ceremony became somewhat disorganized, leading to varying accounts of the actual events. "On the Union Pacific side, thrusting westward, the last two rails were laid by Irishmen; on the Central Pacific side, thrusting eastward, the last two rails were laid by the Chinese!" A.J. Russell stereoview No. 539 shows the "Chinese at Laying Last Rail UPRR". Eight Chinese workers laid the last rail, and three of these men, Ging Cui, Wong Fook, and Lee Shao, lived long enough to also participate in the 50th anniversary parade. At the conclusion of the ceremony, the participating Chinese workers were honored and cheered by the CPRR officials and that road's construction chief, J.H Strobridge, at a dinner in his private car.


title: Golden spike

text: To drive the final spike, Stanford lifted a silver spike maul and drove the spike into the tie, completing the line. Stanford and Hewes missed the spike, but the single word "done" was nevertheless flashed by telegraph around the country. In the United States, the event has come to be considered one of the first nationwide media events. The locomotives were moved forward until their "cowcatchers" met, and photographs were taken. Immediately afterwards, the golden spike and the laurel tie were removed, lest they be stolen, and replaced with a regular iron spike and normal tie. At exactly 12:47 pm, the last iron spike was driven, finally completing the line.


title: Golden spike

text: After the ceremony, the Golden Spike was donated to the Stanford Museum (now Cantor Arts Center) in 1898. The last laurel tie was destroyed in the fires caused by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake.


title: Golden spike

text: Although the Promontory event marked the completion of the transcontinental railroad line, it did not actually mark the completion of a seamless coast-to-coast rail network: neither Sacramento nor Omaha was a seaport, nor did they have rail connections until after they were designated as the termini. The Mossdale Bridge, which was the final section across the San Joaquin River near Lathrop, California, was finally completed in September 1869 connecting Sacramento in California. Passengers were required to cross the Missouri River between Council Bluffs, Iowa, and Omaha, Nebraska, by boat until the building of the Union Pacific Missouri River Bridge in 1872. In the meantime, a coast-to-coast rail link was achieved in August 1870 in Strasburg, Colorado, by the completion of the Denver extension of the Kansas Pacific Railway.


title: Golden spike

text: In 1904 a new railroad route called the Lucin Cutoff was built by-passing the Promontory location to the south. By going west across the Great Salt Lake from Ogden, Utah, to Lucin, Utah, the new railroad line shortened the distance by 43 miles and avoided curves and grades. Main line trains no longer passed over Promontory Summit.


title: Golden spike

text: In 1942, the old rails over Promontory Summit were salvaged for the war effort; the event was marked by a ceremonial "undriving" of the last iron spike. The original event had been all but forgotten except by local residents, who erected a commemorative marker in 1943. The following year a commemorative postage stamp was issued to mark the 75th anniversary. The years after the war saw a revival of interest in the event; the first re-enactment was staged in 1948.


title: Golden spike

text: In 1957, Congress established the Golden Spike National Historic Site to preserve the area around Promontory Summit as closely as possible to its appearance in 1869. O'Connor Engineering Laboratories in Costa Mesa, California, designed and built working replicas of the locomotives present at the original ceremony for the Park Service. These engines are drawn up face-to-face each Saturday during the summer for a re-enactment of the event.


title: Golden spike

text: For the May 10, 1969, centennial of the driving of the last spike, the High Iron Company ran a steam-powered excursion train round trip from New York City to Promontory. The Golden Spike Centennial Limited transported over 100 passengers including, for the last leg into Salt Lake City, actor John Wayne. The Union Pacific Railroad also sent a special display train and the US Army Transportation Corps sent a steam-powered 3-car special from Fort Eustis, Virginia.


title: Golden spike

text: On May 10, 2006, on the anniversary of the driving of the spike, Utah announced that its state quarter design would be a depiction of the driving of the spike. The Golden Spike design was selected as the winner from among several others by Utah's governor, Jon Huntsman Jr., following a period during which Utah residents voted and commented on their favorite of three finalists.


title: Golden spike

text: On May 10, 2019, the United States Postal Service issued a set of three new commemorative postage stamps to mark the 150th anniversary of the driving of the golden spike: one stamp for the Jupiter locomotive, one stamp for locomotive #119, and one stamp for the golden spike.


title: Golden spike

text: It remains a common myth that Chinese workers are not visible in the famous A.J. Russell "champagne photo" of the last spike ceremony. Many Chinese workers were absent from the Golden Spike ceremony in 1869 despite their tremendous contribution in the completion of the railroad. Over 12,000 Chinese had labored to build the rail line from the west, 80% of the railroad workers were Chinese. On the 145th anniversary of the Golden Spike ceremony, Corky Lee gathered 200+ Chinese, Chinese Americans and other Asian Pacific Americans groups to create what he called "photographic justice". Research done by Stanford's "Chinese Railroad Workers in North America Project" disproved the myth, identifying two Chinese laborers who were photographed in the famous A.J. Russel shot. More Chinese laborers who attended the last spike ceremony are also visible in A.J. Russel's "stereo view # 539 Chinese at Laying Last Rail UPRR," although the Chinese laborers who attended the ceremony still only represented a small fraction of the total Chinese workforce on the railroad. Three of the Chinese workers believed to have been at the ceremony in 1869, Wong Fook, Lee Chao, and Ging Cui would be given a place in the celebratory 50th anniversary parade at Ogden, Utah in 1919.


title: Golden spike

text: An elaborate four-day event called the Golden Spike Days Celebration was held in Omaha, NE, from April 26 to 29, 1939, to commemorate the 70th anniversary of the joining of the UP and CPRR rails and driving of the Last Spike at Promontory Summit, UT, in 1869. The center piece event of the celebration occurred on April 28 with the World Premiere of the Cecil B. DeMille feature motion picture Union Pacific which took place simultaneously in the city's Omaha, Orpheum, and Paramount theaters. The film features an elaborate reenactment of the original Golden Spike ceremony (filmed in Canoga Park, CA) as the motion picture's closing scene for which DeMille borrowed the actual Golden Spike from Stanford University to be held by Dr. W.H. Harkness (Stanley Andrews) as he delivered his remarks prior to its driving to complete the railroad. (A prop spike was used for the actual hammering sequence.)


title: Golden spike

text: Also included as a part of the overall celebration's major attractions was the Golden Spike Historical Exposition, a large assemblage of artifacts (including the Golden Spike itself), tools, equipment, photographs, documents, and other materials from the construction of the Pacific Railroad that were put on display at Omaha's Municipal Auditorium. The four days of events drew over 250,000 people to Omaha during its run, a number roughly equivalent to the city's then population. The celebration was opened by President Franklin D. Roosevelt who inaugurated it by pressing a telegraph key at the White House in Washington, DC.


title: Golden spike

text: On the same day as the premiere of the movie, a still standing gold-colored concrete spike called the "Golden Spike Monument" and measuring some in height was also unveiled at 21st Street and 9th Avenue in Council Bluffs, IA, adjacent to the UP's main yard, the location of milepost 0.0 of that road's portion of the Pacific Railroad.


title: Fecal impaction

text: A fecal impaction is a solid, immobile bulk of feces that can develop in the rectum as a result of chronic constipation.


title: Fecal impaction

text: A related term is fecal loading which refers to a large volume of stool in the rectum of any consistency. Fecal impaction is a common result of neurogenic bowel dysfunction and causes immense discomfort and pain. Treatment of fecal impaction includes laxatives, enema, and pulsed irrigation evacuation (PIE).


title: Fecal impaction

text: Symptoms include chronic constipation. There can be fecal incontinence and paradoxical overflow diarrhea (encopresis) as liquid stool passes around the obstruction. Complications may include necrosis and ulcers of the rectal tissue. Abdominal pain and bloating could also be present depending on the severity of the condition. Loss of appetite can also occur.


title: Fecal impaction

text: There are many possible causes; for example, physical inactivity, not eating enough fiber, dehydration, and holding in bowel movements.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Medications such as opioid pain relievers (fentanyl, buprenorphine, methadone, codeine, oxycodone, hydrocodone, morphine, hydromorphone, etc.) and certain sedatives that reduce intestinal movement may cause fecal matter to become too large, hard and/or dry to expel.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Specific conditions, such as irritable bowel syndrome, certain neurological disorders, paralytic ileus, gastroparesis, diabetes, dehydration, enlarged prostate gland, distended colon, ingested foreign object, inflammatory bowel diseases such as Crohn's disease and colitis, and autoimmune diseases such as amyloidosis, celiac disease, lupus, and scleroderma can cause constipation. Hypothyroidism can cause chronic constipation because of sluggish, slower, or weaker colon contractions. Iron supplements or increased blood calcium levels are also potential causes. Spinal cord injury is a common cause of constipation, due to ileus.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Manual removal of a fecal impaction is often required with obese patients in traction, after a barium enema, and in poorly hydrated older adults.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Reducing opiate-based medication (when possible, tolerable, and safe; prescription medication changes should be done under the supervision of a physician), and adequate intake of liquids (water) and dietary fiber and daily exercise.


title: Fecal impaction

text: The treatment of fecal impaction requires both the remedy of the impaction and treatment to prevent recurrences. Decreased motility of the colon results in dry, hard stools that in the case of fecal impaction become compacted into a large, hard mass of stool that cannot be expelled from the rectum.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Various methods of treatment attempt to remove the impaction by softening the stool, lubricating the stool, or breaking it into pieces small enough for removal. Enemas and osmotic laxatives can be used to soften the stool by increasing the water content until it is soft enough to be expelled. Osmotic laxatives such as magnesium citrate work within minutes - eight hours for onset of action, and even then they may not be sufficient to expel the stool.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Osmotic laxatives can cause cramping and even severe pain as the patient's attempts to evacuate the contents of the rectum are blocked by the fecal mass. Polyethylene glycol (PEG 3350) may be used to increase the water content of the stool without cramping. This may take 24 to 48 hours for it to take effect, and it is not well suited to cases where the impaction needs to be removed immediately due to risk of complications or severe pain. Enemas (such as hyperosmotic saline) and suppositories (such as glycerine suppositories) work by increasing water content and stimulating peristalsis to aid in expulsion, and both work much more quickly than oral laxatives.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Because enemas work in 2–15 minutes, they do not allow sufficient time for a large fecal mass to soften. Even if the enema is successful at dislodging the impacted stool, the impacted stool may remain too large to be expelled through the anal canal. Mineral oil enemas can assist by lubricating the stool for easier passage. In cases where enemas fail to remove the impaction, polyethylene glycol can be used to attempt to soften the mass over 24–48 hours, or if immediate removal of the mass is needed, manual disimpaction may be used. Manual disimpaction may be performed by lubricating the anus and using one gloved finger with a scoop-like motion to break up the fecal mass. Most often manual disimpaction is performed without general anaesthesia, although sedation may be used. In more involved procedures, general anaesthesia may be used, although the use of general anaesthesia increases the risk of damage to the anal sphincter. If all other treatments fail, surgery may be necessary.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Another treatment method makes use of an enema and manual disimpaction via pulsed irrigation evacuation (PIE). By using pulsating water to enter into the colon to soften and break down the dense mass, PIE treats fecal impaction.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Individuals who have had one fecal impaction are at high risk of future impactions. Therefore, preventive treatment should be instituted in patients following the removal of the mass. Increasing dietary fiber, increasing fluid intake, exercising daily, and attempting regularly to defecate every morning after eating should be promoted in all patients.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Often underlying medical conditions cause fecal impactions; these conditions should be treated to reduce the risk of future impactions. Many types of medications (most notably opioid pain medications, such as codeine) reduce motility of the colon, increasing the likelihood of fecal impactions. If possible, alternate medications should be prescribed that avoid the side effect of constipation.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Given that all opioids can cause constipation, it is recommended that any patient placed on opioid pain medications be given medications to prevent constipation before it occurs. Daily medications can also be used to promote normal motility of the colon and soften stools. Daily use of laxatives or enemas should be avoided by most individuals as it can cause the loss of normal colon motility. However, for patients with chronic complications, daily medication under the direction of a physician may be needed.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Polyethylene glycol 3350 can be taken daily to soften the stools without the significant risk of adverse effects that are common with other laxatives. In particular, stimulant laxatives should not be used frequently because they can cause dependence in which an individual loses normal colon function and is unable to defecate without taking a laxative. Frequent use of osmotic laxatives should be avoided as well as they can cause electrolyte imbalances.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Research shows that pulsed irrigation evacuation with the PIE MED device is successful in all tested patients in studies, making pulsed irrigation evacuation the most effective and reliable form of fecal impaction treatment.


title: Fecal impaction

text: A fecaloma is a more extreme form of fecal impaction, giving the accumulation an appearance of a tumor.


title: Fecal impaction

text: A fecaloma can develop as the fecal matter gradually stagnates and accumulates in the intestine and increases in volume until the intestine becomes deformed. It may occur in chronic obstruction of stool transit, as in megacolon and chronic constipation. Some diseases, such as Chagas disease, Hirschsprung's disease and others damage the autonomic nervous system in the colon's mucosa (Auerbach's plexus) and may cause extremely large or "giant" fecalomas, which must be surgically removed (disimpaction). Rarely, a fecalith will form around a hairball (Trichobezoar), or other absorbent or desiccant core.


title: Fecal impaction

text: Distal or sigmoid, fecalomas can often be disimpacted digitally or by a catheter which carries a flow of disimpaction fluid (water or other solvent or lubricant). Surgical intervention in the form of sigmoid colectomy or proctocolectomy and ileostomy may be required only when all conservative measures of evacuation fail. Attempts at removal can have severe and even lethal effects, such as the rupture of the colon wall by catheter or an acute angle of the fecaloma (stercoral perforation), followed by sepsis. It may also lead to stercoral perforation, a condition characterized by bowel perforation due to pressure necrosis from a fecal mass or fecaloma.


title: England national under-18 football team

text: England national under-18 football team, also known as England under-18s or England U18(s), represents England in association football at under-18 age level and is controlled by the Football Association, the governing body for football in England. The team is coached by Neil Ryan.


title: England national under-18 football team

text: The team competed in the FIFA International Youth Tournament (later taken over by UEFA) and its successor, the UEFA European Under-18 Championship, and was often referred to as England Youth. After the tournament was renamed the European Under-18 Championship, England won twice more, in 1980 and 1993. In 1997, eligibility rules changed and the competition was rebranded as the UEFA European Under-19 Championship in 2001.


title: England national under-18 football team

text: Nowadays, the under-18 banner is used for participation in international friendlies. The 2017 Toulon Tournament was also composed largely of under-18 players.


title: England national under-18 football team

text: For the 2022–23 season, players born on or after 1 January 2005 are eligible. Players born between January and August 2005 are second-year scholars in the English academy system, players born between September 2005 and August 2006 are first-year scholars.


title: England national under-18 football team

text: The following players were named in the squad for games against Netherlands, Faroe Islands and Belgium, to be played between 21-26 September 2022.


title: Prefontaine (film)

text: Prefontaine is a 1997 American biographical film chronicling the life of the American long-distance runner Steve Prefontaine and his death at age 24. Jared Leto plays the title character and R. Lee Ermey plays Bill Bowerman. The film was written by Steve James and Eugene Corr, and directed by James. "Prefontaine" tells the story from the point of view of Bill Dellinger, played by Ed O'Neill, the assistant coach who was with him day-to-day, and Nancy Alleman, the runner's girlfriend at the time of his death.


title: Prefontaine (film)

text: Steve Prefontaine, a Coos Bay, Oregon student, is too small to play most sports but becomes a talented distance runner. He enrolls at the University of Oregon in 1969, and meets fellow Oregon Ducks track and field athletes Pat Tyson and Mac Wilkins. With coaches Bill Bowerman and Bill Dellinger, "Pre" wins three national cross-country championships and four consecutive 5,000-meter runs, breaking the U.S. record in the latter. Prefontaine gains fame as an aggressive runner who likes to be out front from the start, rather than biding his time until a strong finish.


title: Prefontaine (film)

text: Prefontaine accompanies other top American runners including Frank Shorter and Jeff Galloway to the 1972 Munich Olympics, where they witness the terrorist attacks of the Munich Massacre which interrupt and almost cancel the games. In the 5,000-meter, Prefontaine leads with 150 meters to go, but three different runners pass him and he does not medal. The gold goes to Finland's Lasse Viren.


title: Prefontaine (film)

text: After his college career ends, Prefontaine prepares for a rematch with Viren at the 1976 Montreal Olympics. The strict amateurism rules of American non-collegiate sports force Prefontaine to turn down a lucrative offer to become a professional runner, instead working as a bartender while living in a trailer home. He becomes an activist to help American athletes compete against better-funded international rivals. On May 30, 1975, after drinking alcohol at a post-meet party, Prefontaine is killed when his MG convertible flips while he is driving. After his death, the Amateur Sports Act of 1978 gives athletes more control over their sports' governance.


title: Prefontaine (film)

text: The majority of the film was shot at the University of Puget Sound campus in Tacoma, Washington. Peyton Field was redecorated to resemble Hayward Field at the University of Oregon. For the role of Steve Prefontaine, Jared Leto immersed himself in the runner's life, meeting with members of the family and friends. He bore a striking resemblance to the real Prefontaine, also adopting the athlete's voice and upright running style. The transformation was so complete that when the runner's sister, Linda, first saw him in character, she broke down and cried. "Prefontaine" explores American athletes' amateur status and the conditions and lack of resources these athletes had to endure in their attempts to compete with the world's top athletes, who were provided all they needed to train and compete at a top level, while dealing with the pressure from their American fans who expected nothing but the best from them.


title: Prefontaine (film)

text: Upon its premiere at the 1997 Sundance Film Festival, "Prefontaine" was positively received by critics and audiences, who greatly praised the film for Leto's acting and James' direction. As of March 2020, Rotten Tomatoes reports that 56% of critics gave the film a positive review, based on 36 reviews with an average score of 6.31 out of 10. On Metacritic, which assigns a weighted mean rating out of 100 reviews from film critics, the film has a rating score of 56 based on 15 reviews, indicating mixed or average reviews. Film critics Gene Siskel and Roger Ebert praised the film giving it "two thumbs up" on their television program.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: The MacBook is a line of Macintosh notebook computers designed, manufactured and sold by Apple Inc. from May 2006 to February 2012. A new line of computers by the same name was released in 2015, serving the same purpose as an entry-level laptop. It replaced the iBook series of notebooks as a part of Apple's transition from PowerPC to Intel processors. Positioned as the low end of the MacBook family, below the premium ultra-portable MacBook Air and the powerful MacBook Pro, the MacBook was aimed at the consumer and education markets. It was the best-selling Macintosh ever. For five months in 2008, it was the best-selling laptop of any brand in US retail stores. Collectively, the MacBook brand is the "world's top-selling line of premium laptops."


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: There have been three separate designs of the MacBook. The original model used a combination of polycarbonate and fiberglass casing which was modeled after the iBook G4. The second type was introduced in October 2008 alongside the 15-inch MacBook Pro; the MacBook shared the more expensive laptop's unibody aluminium casing, but omitted FireWire. A third design, introduced in late 2009, had retained a similar unibody design but changed back to white polycarbonate.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: On July 20, 2011, the MacBook was discontinued for consumer purchase as it had been effectively superseded by the MacBook Air which had a lower entry price. Apple continued to sell the MacBook to educational institutions until February 2012.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: The original MacBook, available in black or white colors, was released on May 16, 2006, and used the Intel Core Duo processor and 945GM chipset, with Intel's GMA 950 integrated graphics on a 667 MHz front side bus. Later revisions of the MacBook moved to the Core 2 Duo processor and the GM965 chipset, with Intel's GMA X3100 integrated graphics on an 800 MHz system bus. Sales of the black polycarbonate MacBook ceased in October 2008, after the introduction of the aluminum MacBook, however the white model continued to be sold until the introduction of the redesigned unibody polycarbonate MacBook.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: While thinner than its predecessor – the iBook G4 – the MacBook is wider than the 12-inch model due to its widescreen display. In addition, the MacBook was one of the first (the first being the MacBook Pro) to adopt Apple's MagSafe power connector and it replaced the iBook's mini-VGA display port with a mini-DVI display port. The iBook's discrete graphics chip was initially replaced by an integrated Intel GMA solution, though the latest revisions of the MacBook were upgraded with the more powerful Nvidia GeForce 9400M and later the 320M.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: While the MacBook Pro largely followed the industrial design standard set by the PowerBook G4, the MacBook was Apple's first notebook to use features now standard in its notebooks – the glossy display, the sunken keyboard design and the non-mechanical magnetic latch. With the late 2007 revision, the keyboard received several changes to closely mirror the one which shipped with the iMac, by adding the same keyboard shortcuts to control multimedia, and removing the embedded numeric keypad and the Apple logo from the command keys.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: A more expensive black model was offered until the introduction of the unibody aluminum MacBook. The polycarbonate MacBook was the only Macintosh notebook (until the new 2015 model) to be offered in more than one color since the iBook G3 (Clamshell).


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: The ports are all on the left edge; on early models, from left to right, they are the MagSafe power connector, Gigabit Ethernet, mini-DVI, FireWire 400, 2 USB 2.0 ports, audio in, audio out and Kensington Security Slot.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: For the unibody polycarbonate MacBook (2009), the ports from left to right are the MagSafe power connector, Gigabit Ethernet, Mini DisplayPort, 2 USB 2.0 ports, audio out and Kensington Security Slot.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: On the front, there is a power light and an infrared receiver, while on the right edge, there is only the optical drive.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: The polycarbonate Intel MacBook is easier for users to fix or upgrade than its predecessor. Where the iBook required substantial disassembly to access internal components such as the hard drive, users only need to remove the battery and the RAM door to access or replace the internal hard disk drive. Apple provides do-it-yourself manuals for these tasks.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: In February 2007, the MacBook was recalled because the graphics card and hard drive caused the computer to overheat, forcing the unit to shut down.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: Some early polycarbonate MacBook models suffered from random shutdowns; Apple released a firmware update to resolve them.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: There were also cases reported of discolored or chipping palmrests. In such cases, Apple asked affected owners to contact AppleCare.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: There were problems with batteries on some models from 2007 not being read by the MacBook. This is caused by a logic board fault and not a fault with the battery.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: In February 2010, Apple announced a recall for MacBooks bought between 2006 and 2007 for hard drive issues. This is caused by heat and other problems.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: Apple used the A1181 code, printed on the case, for this family of models, though 17 variations may be counted if color is included.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: On October 14, 2008, Apple announced a MacBook featuring a new Nvidia chipset at a Cupertino, California press conference with the tagline: "The spotlight turns to notebooks". It was replaced by the 13-inch MacBook Pro the following year.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: The chipset brought a 1066 MHz system bus, use of DDR3 system memory, and integrated Nvidia GeForce 9400M graphics. Other changes include a display which uses LED backlights (replacing the fluorescent tube backlights used in the previous model) and arsenic-free glass, a new Mini DisplayPort (replacing the polycarbonate MacBook's mini-DVI port), a multi-touch glass trackpad which also acts as the mouse button, and the removal of the FireWire 400 port (thus it doesn't support Target Disk Mode, used for data transfers or operating system repairs without booting the system).


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: There was only one product cycle of the aluminum MacBook, as Apple rebranded the next revision in June 2009 as a 13-inch MacBook Pro using the same chassis with an added FireWire port and SD card slot.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: The design had stylistic traits of the MacBook Air which were also implemented into the design of the MacBook Pro. This model is thinner than the original polycarbonate MacBooks, and it made use of a unibody aluminum case with tapered edges. The keyboard of the higher-end model included a backlight.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: Although Gizmodo concluded it to be "our favorite MacBook to date," they did claim, at this time, its display was inferior to that found on the MacBook Pro and MacBook Air, alleging a smaller viewing angle, washed-out colors, and dimmer backlighting. Similarly, AppleInsider and Engadget concluded it "may well be Apple's best MacBook to date" and "these are terrific choices—not only from an industrial design standpoint, but in specs as well" respectively, while also drawing attention to a lower quality display as compared with the MacBook Pro and MacBook Air. Charlie Sorrel of Wired News reached a similar conclusion about the MacBook display, citing its poor contrast and lack of vertical angle in comparison with the MacBook Pro and even the older white MacBook. Peter Cohen wrote an article discussing the loss of the FireWire port for Macworld, saying "The absence of FireWire ports is certainly an inconvenience for some users. But it shouldn’t be considered a deal-breaker for most of us, anyway."


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: On October 20, 2009, Apple released a MacBook that introduced a new polycarbonate (plastic) unibody design, faster DDR3 memory, a multi-touch trackpad, an LED-backlit display, and a built-in seven-hour battery. The polycarbonate unibody MacBook, like its aluminum predecessor, lacks FireWire and, like the 13-inch MacBook Pro, has a combined audio in/out port. There is no infrared port and the Apple Remote is not included. On May 18, 2010, the MacBook was refreshed with a faster processor, a faster graphics card, improved battery life, and the ability to pass audio through the Mini DisplayPort connector. On July 20, 2011, the MacBook was discontinued for consumer purchases, but was still available to educational institutions until February 2012. It was the last Mac to use a plastic shell, as every Mac since has used aluminum.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: Unlike the MacBook Air, the MacBook follows the same design first seen in the MacBook Pro; however, it is rounder on the edges than previous laptops in the MacBook line. This model has an all-white fingerprint-resistant glossy palm rest, unlike the grayish surface of its predecessor, and uses a multi-touch glass trackpad like the one found on the MacBook Pro. The video-out port is Mini DisplayPort. The bottom of the MacBook features a rubberized non-slip finish. This was prone to peeling off and Apple offered free replacements fitted by authorised agents until at least 2015 internationally. The built-in battery of the late 2009 revision, a feature introduced earlier in the year with the MacBook Pro, is claimed by Apple to last seven hours compared with five hours in the older models. However, in tests conducted by Macworld, the battery was found to last only about four hours while playing video at full brightness with AirPort turned off. However, Apple's battery life was calculated with the brightness at the middle setting and while browsing websites and editing word documents, not with video and at full brightness. Gizmodo also reached about the same conclusion in their tests, but with AirPort turned on. The battery included in the mid-2010 model holds an additional five watt-hours over the previous model's and is claimed to last up to ten hours.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: Despite being hailed by Slashgear as "one of the best entry-level notebooks Apple have produced," the unibody MacBook has received criticism for its lack of a FireWire port and SD card slot. Nilay Patel of Engadget added that the USB ports were easily dented and the bottom of the laptop became worn and discolored after a few days. He also drew particular attention to the fact that the price was not lowered, stating the small price difference between the MacBook and the MacBook Pro makes it a "wasted pricing opportunity." However, most critics agree that the unibody MacBook's display is significantly better than its predecessor's. AppleInsider states the new display "delivers significantly better color and viewing angle performance" than the previous MacBook, but still "not as vivid and wide-angle viewable as the MacBook Pro screens."


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: The rubber bottom of unibody MacBooks have been known to peel off. Apple has noticed this as a flaw and will replace the bottom for free, with or without a warranty. Some consumers have also reported defects in their LCD displays in mid-2010–2011 models.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: The MagSafe power adapter of MacBooks has been known to fray, break, and stop working. Following a lawsuit, Apple replaces these adapters for US residents with affected adapters, purchased (or received as a gift) with computers or as an accessory.


title: MacBook (2006–2012)

text: Some MacBooks are affected by the iSeeYou vulnerability, potentially allowing their iSight cameras to record the user without the user's knowledge.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Server 2008 is the fourth release of the Windows Server operating system produced by Microsoft as part of the Windows NT family of the operating systems. It was released to manufacturing on February 4, 2008, and generally to retail on February 27, 2008. Derived from Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008 is the successor of Windows Server 2003 R2 and the predecessor to Windows Server 2008 R2.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: On January 12, 2016, Microsoft ended support for all Internet Explorer versions older than Internet Explorer 11 released in 2013 for Windows 7. Extended support for Windows Server 2008 ended on January 14, 2020.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Extended Security Updates (ESU) updates last until January 10, 2023 (January 9, 2024 for Azure customers).


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Server 2008 is the final version which supports IA-32-based processors (also known as 32-bit processors). Its successor, Windows Server 2008 R2, requires a 64-bit processor in any supported architecture (x86-64 for x86 and Itanium).


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Microsoft had released Windows Vista to mixed reception, and their last Windows Server release| was based on Windows XP. The operating system's working title was Windows Server Codename "Longhorn", but was later changed to Windows Server 2008 when Microsoft chairman Bill Gates announced it during his keynote address at WinHEC 16 May 2007.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Beta 1 was released on July 27, 2005; Beta 2 was announced and released on May 23, 2006, at WinHEC 2006 and Beta 3 was released publicly on April 25, 2007. Release Candidate 0 was released to the general public on September 24, 2007 and Release Candidate 1 was released to the general public on December 5, 2007. Windows Server 2008 was released to manufacturing on February 4, 2008, and officially launched on 27th of that month.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Server 2008 is built from the same codebase as Windows Vista and thus it shares much of the same architecture and functionality. Since the codebase is common, Windows Server 2008 inherits most of the technical, security, management and administrative features new to Windows Vista such as the rewritten networking stack (native IPv6, native wireless, speed and security improvements); improved image-based installation, deployment and recovery; improved diagnostics, monitoring, event logging and reporting tools; new security features such as BitLocker and address space layout randomization (ASLR); the improved Windows Firewall with secure default configuration; .NET Framework 3.0 technologies, specifically Windows Communication Foundation, Microsoft Message Queuing and Windows Workflow Foundation; and the core kernel, memory and file system improvements. Processors and memory devices are modeled as Plug and Play devices to allow hot-plugging of these devices. This allows the system resources to be partitioned dynamically using dynamic hardware partitioning - each partition has its own memory, processor and I/O host bridge devices independent of other partitions.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Server 2008 includes a variation of installation called Server Core. Server Core is a significantly scaled-back installation where no Windows Explorer shell is installed. It also lacks Internet Explorer, and many other non-essential features. All configuration and maintenance is done entirely through command-line interface windows, or by connecting to the machine remotely using Microsoft Management Console (MMC). Notepad and some Control Panel applets, such as Regional Settings, are available.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: A Server Core installation can be configured for several basic roles, including the domain controller (Active Directory Domain Services), Active Directory Lightweight Directory Services (formerly known as Active Directory Application Mode), DNS Server, DHCP server, file server, print server, Windows Media Server, Internet Information Services 7 web server and Hyper-V virtual server roles. Server Core can also be used to create a cluster with high availability using failover clustering or network load balancing.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Andrew Mason, a program manager on the Windows Server team, noted that a primary motivation for producing a Server Core variant of Windows Server 2008 was to reduce the attack surface of the operating system, and that about 70% of the security vulnerabilities in Microsoft Windows from the prior five years would not have affected Server Core.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: The Active Directory domain functionality that was retained from Windows Server 2003 was renamed to Active Directory Domain Services (ADDS).


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Server 2008 offers high availability to services and applications through Failover Clustering. Most server features and roles can be kept running with little to no downtime.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: In Windows Server 2008, the way clusters are qualified changed significantly with the introduction of the cluster validation wizard. The cluster validation wizard is a feature that is integrated into failover clustering in Windows Server 2008. With the cluster validation wizard, an administrator can run a set of focused tests on a collection of servers that are intended to use as nodes in a cluster. This cluster validation process tests the underlying hardware and software directly, and individually, to obtain an accurate assessment of how well failover clustering can be supported on a given configuration.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Hyper-V is hypervisor-based virtualization software, forming a core part of Microsoft's virtualization strategy. It virtualizes servers on an operating system's kernel layer. It can be thought of as partitioning a single physical server into multiple small computational partitions. Hyper-V includes the ability to act as a Xen virtualization hypervisor host allowing Xen-enabled guest operating systems to run virtualized. A beta version of Hyper-V shipped with certain x86-64 editions of Windows Server 2008, prior to Microsoft's release of the final version of Hyper-V on 26 June 2008 as a free download. Also, a standalone variant of Hyper-V exists; this variant supports only x86-64 architecture. While the IA-32 editions of Windows Server 2008 cannot run or install Hyper-V, they can run the MMC snap-in for managing Hyper-V.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows System Resource Manager (WSRM) is integrated into Windows Server 2008. It provides resource management and can be used to control the amount of resources a process or a user can use based on business priorities. "Process Matching Criteria", which is defined by the name, type or owner of the process, enforces restrictions on the resource usage by a process that matches the criteria. CPU time, bandwidth that it can use, number of processors it can be run on, and allocated to a process can be restricted. Restrictions can be set to be imposed only on certain dates as well.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Server Manager is a new roles-based management tool for Windows Server 2008. It is a combination of Manage Your Server and Security Configuration Wizard from Windows Server 2003. Server Manager is an improvement of the "Configure my server" dialog that launches by default on Windows Server 2003 machines. However, rather than serve only as a starting point to configuring new roles, "Server Manager" gathers together all of the operations users would want to conduct on the server, such as, getting a remote deployment method set up, adding more server roles etc., and provides a consolidated, portal-like view about the status of each role.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Support for the RTM version of Windows Server 2008 ended on July 12, 2011, and users can no longer receive further security updates for the operating system. As a component of Windows Vista, Windows Server 2008 with Service Pack 2 continued to be supported with security updates, lasting until January 14, 2020, the same respective end-of-life dates of its successor, Windows Server 2008 R2 and Windows 7.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Microsoft planned to end support for Windows Server 2008 on January 12, 2016. However, in order to give customers more time to migrate to newer Windows versions, particularly in developing or emerging markets, Microsoft decided to extend support until January 14, 2020. That date marked the final end of the Windows Vista codebase after 13 years, 2 month and 6 days. In 2018, Microsoft announced the Extended Security Updates (ESU) service for Windows Server 2008/R2 to give users 3 additional years of security patches. Security updates are available for the operating system until January 10, 2023. In November 2021 Microsoft reported if ESU service is installed on Microsoft Azure, it'll have additional year of support, beginning on January 11, 2023 and ending on January 9, 2024. In the case of Azure, this will mark the final end of the Extended Security Updates support for Windows Vista codebase after 17 years, 2 months, and 1 day.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Most editions of Windows Server 2008 are available in x86-64 and IA-32 variants. These editions come in two DVDs: One for installing the IA-32 variant and the other for x64. Windows Server 2008 for Itanium-based Systems supports IA-64 processors. The IA-64 variant is optimized for high-workload scenarios like database servers and Line of Business (LOB) applications. As such, it is not optimized for use as a file server or media server. Windows Server 2008 is the last 32-bit Windows server operating system.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: The Microsoft Imagine program, known as DreamSpark at the time, used to provide verified students with the 32-bit variant of Windows Server 2008 Standard Edition, but the version has since then been removed. However, they still provide the R2 release.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Server 2008 shares most of its updates with Windows Vista due to being based on that operating system's codebase. A workaround was found that allowed the installation of updates for Windows Server 2008 on Windows Vista, adding three years of security updates to that operating system (Support for Windows Vista ended on April 11, 2017, while support for Windows Server 2008 ended on January 14, 2020).


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Due to the operating system being based on the same codebase as Windows Vista and being released on the same day as the initial release of Windows Vista Service Pack 1, the RTM release of Windows Server 2008 already includes the updates and fixes of Service Pack 1.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Service Pack 2 was initially announced on October 24, 2008 and released on May 26, 2009. Service Pack 2 added new features, such as Windows Search 4.0, support for Bluetooth 2.1, the ability to write to Blu-ray discs, and simpler Wi-Fi configuration. Windows Server 2008 specifically received the final release of Hyper-V 1.0, improved backwards compatibility with Terminal Server license keys and an approximate 10% reduction in power usage with this service pack.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 share the same service pack update binary because the codebases of the two operating systems are unified - Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008 are the first Microsoft client and server operating systems to share the same codebase since the release of Windows 2000. The predecessors to Windows Vista and Windows Server 2008, Windows XP and Windows Server 2003, had unique codebases that used their own updates and service packs.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: On October 27, 2009, Microsoft released the Platform Update for Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista. It backports several APIs and libraries introduced in Windows Server 2008 R2 and Windows 7 to Windows Server 2008 and Windows Vista, including the Ribbon API, DirectX 11, the XPS library, the Windows Automation API and the Portable Device Platform. A supplemental update was released in 2011 to provide improvements and bug fixes.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Server 2008 shipped with Internet Explorer 7, the same version that shipped with Windows Vista. The last supported version of Internet Explorer for Windows Server 2008 is Internet Explorer 9, released in 2011. Internet Explorer 9 was continually updated with cumulative monthly update rollups until support for Internet Explorer 9 on Windows Server 2008 ended on January 14, 2020. Extended Security Updates (ESU) last for the operating system and IE9 until January 10, 2023 (January 9, 2024 for Azure customers), marking the end of an era of older versions of Internet Explorer than IE11.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: The latest supported version of the .NET Framework officially is version 4.6, released on October 15, 2015.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: In July 2017, Microsoft released an update to add TLS 1.1 and 1.2 support to Windows Server 2008, however it is disabled by default after installing the update.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Starting in March 2019, Microsoft began transitioning to exclusively signing Windows updates with the SHA-2 algorithm. As a result of this Microsoft released several updates throughout 2019 to add SHA-2 signing support to Windows Server 2008.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: In June 2018, Microsoft announced that they would be moving Windows Server 2008 to a monthly update model beginning with updates released in September 2018 - two years after Microsoft switched the rest of their supported operating systems to that model.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: With the new update model, instead of updates being released as they became available, only two update packages were released on the second Tuesday of every month until Windows Server 2008 reached its end of life - one package containing security and quality updates, and a smaller package that contained only the security updates. Users could choose which package they wanted to install each month. Later in the month, another package would be released which was a preview of the next month's security and quality update rollup.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Installing the preview rollup package released for Windows Server 2008 on March 19, 2019, or any later released rollup package, will update the operating system kernel's build number from version 6.0.6002 to 6.0.6003. This change was made so Microsoft could continue to service the operating system while avoiding “version-related issues”.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: Windows Server 2008/R2 are eligible for the paid Extended Security Updates (ESU) program (free for Azure Virtual Desktop users). This program allows volume license customers to purchase, in yearly installments, security updates for the operating system until at most 3 years after end of extended support, for 4 years for Azure customers, lasting until January 10, 2023 (January 9, 2024 for Azure customers). The licenses are paid for on a per-machine basis. If a user purchases an Extended Security Updates license in a later year of the program, they must pay for any previous years of Extended Security Updates as well. Extended Security Updates are released only as they become available.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: A second release of Windows Server 2008 based on Windows 7, Windows Server 2008 R2, was released to manufacturing on July 22, 2009 and became generally available on October 22, 2009. New features added in Windows Server 2008 R2 include new virtualization features, new Active Directory features, Internet Information Services 7.5 and support for up to 256 logical processors. It is the first server operating system by Microsoft to exclusively support 64-bit processors, a move which would be followed by the consumer-oriented Windows 11 in 2021.


title: Windows Server 2008

text: A service pack for Windows 7 and Windows Server 2008 R2, formally designed Service Pack 1, was released in February 2011.


title: RKG-3 anti-tank grenade

text: RKG-3 is a series of Soviet anti-tank hand grenades. It superseded the RPG-43, RPG-40 and RPG-6 series of grenades. It entered service in 1950, and was still being used by insurgents in Iraq and Afghanistan into the 2000s and 2010s, against the vehicles of NATO forces.


title: RKG-3 anti-tank grenade

text: RKG stands for "Ruchnaya Kumulyativnaya Granata" ("handheld shaped-charge grenade"). The grenade has an odd strap-like lever (or "spoon") that covers the base of the handle and runs up each side of the handle. When the pin is pulled, the "spoon" falls away, and when the grenade is thrown a spring deploys a four-panelled drogue parachute. This parachute stabilizes the grenade in flight and ensures that the grenade strikes the target at a 90 degree angle, maximising the effect of the shaped charge. Realistic accurate throw ranges are within . The lethality radius is within due to concussion and fragmentation. The casualty radius is within and the danger space from fragmentation is within meters.


title: RKG-3 anti-tank grenade

text: The fuze in the handle activates the grenade. When the parachute deploys, its ejection throws a weight to the rear of the handle and disables the safety. When it impacts or stops, inertia causes the weight to fly forward and hit the spring-loaded firing pin, which activates the primer detonator in the base. This sets off the booster charge in the base of the shaped charge, detonating and enhancing the main charge. The sensitive fuze guarantees that the grenade will detonate if it impacts any target.


title: RKG-3 anti-tank grenade

text: Armour penetration depends on the model. The original RKG-3 used a basic shaped charge with a steel liner and could penetrate against Rolled Homogeneous Armor (RHA). The RKG-3M used a copper-lined shaped-charge warhead and had a penetration of 165 mm; the RKG-3T had an improved copper liner that had a penetration of 170 mm. The RKG-3EM has a larger warhead and boasts a penetration of .


title: RKG-3 anti-tank grenade

text: The RKG-3 was adopted into service in 1950. A few years later it was replaced by the improved RKG-3M and enhanced RKG-3T. Thicker top armor caused the Soviets to develop the larger RKG-3EM. In early 1970s the Soviet Army replaced this grenade with the RPG-18, but many other countries and guerrilla movements are still using the RKG-3 in their armed forces. It was used extensively during the 1973 Yom Kippur War.


title: RKG-3 anti-tank grenade

text: The grenade has also been seen in use by the Aerorozvidka unit of the Ukrainian military in the 2022 Russian Invasion of Ukraine. PJSC Mayak modifies the grenade into the RKG 1600 by changing the fuze timing and adding 3D printed fins to stabilise its flight when dropped from a commercial drone. Alleged footage of these being used by Ukrainian forces against Russian forces has been published officially. The estimated total cost is "less than $100".


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler (; 17 March 1834 – 6 March 1900) was a German engineer, industrial designer and industrialist born in Schorndorf (Kingdom of Württemberg, a federal state of the German Confederation), in what is now Germany. He was a pioneer of internal-combustion engines and automobile development. He invented the high-speed liquid petroleum-fueled engine.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Daimler and his lifelong business partner Wilhelm Maybach were two inventors whose goal was to create small, high-speed engines to be mounted in any kind of locomotion device. In 1883 they designed a horizontal cylinder layout compressed charge liquid petroleum engine that fulfilled Daimler's desire for a high speed engine which could be throttled, making it useful in transportation applications. This engine was called Daimler's Dream.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: In 1885 they designed a vertical cylinder version of this engine which they subsequently fitted to a two-wheeler, the first internal combustion motorcycle which was named the Petroleum Reitwagen (Riding Car) and, in the next year, to a coach, and a boat. Daimler called this engine the grandfather clock engine ("Standuhr") because of its resemblance to a large pendulum clock.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: In 1890, they converted their partnership into a stock company Daimler Motoren Gesellschaft (DMG, in English—Daimler Motors Corporation). They sold their first automobile in 1892. Daimler fell ill and took a break from the business. Upon his return he experienced difficulty with the other stockholders that led to his resignation in 1893. This was reversed in 1894. Maybach resigned at the same time, and also returned. Daimler died in 1900 and Wilhelm Maybach quit DMG in 1907.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Gottlieb Wilhelm Daimler was the son of a baker named Johannes Däumler (Daimler) and his wife Frederika, from the town of Schorndorf near Stuttgart, Württemberg. By the age of 13 (1847), he had completed six years of primary studies in Lateinschule and became interested in engineering.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: After completing secondary school in 1848, Daimler had trained as a gunsmith under Master Gunsmith Hermann Raithel. In 1852 he ended the training with the trade examination. He graduated in 1852, passing the craft test with a pair of engraved double-barreled pistols. The same year, at eighteen, Daimler decided to take up mechanical engineering, abandoning gunsmithing, and left his hometown.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Daimler enrolled at Stuttgart's School for Advanced Training in the Industrial Arts, under the tutelage of . Daimler was studious, even taking extra Sunday morning classes. In 1853, Daimler, with Steinbeis' assistance, got work at "the factory college", "Rollé und Schwilque" (R&S) in Grafenstaden, so-called because its manager, Friedrich Messmer, had been an instructor at the University of Karlsruhe. Daimler performed well, and when Rollé und Schwilque began making railway locomotives in 1856, Daimler, then 22, was named foreman.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Instead of staying, Daimler took two years at Stuttgart's Polytechnic Institute to hone his skills, gaining in-depth understanding of steam locomotives, as well as "a profound conviction" steam was destined to be superseded. He conceived small, cheap, simple engines for light industrial use, possibly inspired by the newly developed gas engines of that era.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: In 1861, he resigned from R&S, visiting Paris, then went on to England, working with the country's top engineering firms, becoming knowledgeable with machine tools. He spent from autumn 1861 to summer 1863 in England, then regarded as "the motherland of technology", at Beyer, Peacock & Company, Manchester. Beyer was from Saxony. While in London, he visited the 1862 International Exhibition, where one of the exhibits was a steam carriage. These carriages did not evidently inspire him, however, for his wish was to produce machine tools and woodworking machinery.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Daimler went to work for Maschinenfabrik Daniel Straub, Geislingen an der Steige, where he designed tools, mills, and turbines. In 1863, he joined the "Bruderhaus Reutlingen", a Christian Socialist toolmaker, as inspector and later executive. While there, he met Wilhelm Maybach, then a 15-year-old orphan. Thanks to Daimler's organizational skills, the factory managed to show a profit, but he quit in frustration in 1869, joining Maschinenbau Gesellschaft Karlsruhe in July.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: When in 1872 N.A. Otto and Cie reorganized as Gasmotoren-Fabrik Deutz, management picked Daimler as factory manager, bypassing even Otto, and Daimler joined the company in August, bringing in Maybach as chief designer. While Daimler managed to improve production, the weakness in Otto's vertical piston design, coupled to Daimler's stubborn insistence on atmospheric engines, led the company to an impasse. Neither Otto nor Daimler would give way, and when Daimler was offered the choice of founding a Deutz branch in Saint Petersburg or resigning, he resigned to set up shop in Cannstatt (financed by savings and shares in Deutz), where he was shortly joined by Maybach.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: In 1872 at age 38, Daimler and Maybach moved to work at the world's largest manufacturer of stationary engines at the time, the Deutz-AG-Gasmotorenfabrik in Cologne. It was half-owned by Nicolaus Otto, who was looking for a new technical director. As directors, both Daimler and Otto focused on gas-engine development while Maybach was chief designer.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: In 1876, Otto developed a gaseous fuel, compressed charge four-stroke cycle, (also known as the Otto Cycle) engine after 14 years of effort, a system characterized by four piston strokes (intake, compression, power, and exhaust). Otto intended that his invention would replace the steam engines predominant in those years, even though his engine was still primitive and inefficient.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Otto's engine was patented in 1877, but one of his 25 patents was soon challenged and overturned. Daimler, who wanted to make his own engine, feared Otto's patent would prevent it. Daimler hired an attorney who found that a prior art patent for a four stroke engine had been issued in Paris in 1862 to Beau De Rochas, a French public works engineer.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Meanwhile, serious personal differences arose between Daimler and Otto, reportedly with Otto being jealous of Daimler, because of his university background and knowledge. Daimler wanted to build small engines that could be applied to transportation but Otto had no interest in this. When Otto excluded Daimler from his engine patents there was great animosity between the two. Daimler was fired in 1880, receiving 112,000 Gold marks in Deutz-AG shares in compensation for the patents of both Daimler and Maybach. Maybach resigned later and followed Daimler.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: At Cannstatt, Daimler and the more creative thinking Maybach devised their engine. At Daimler's insistence, it eliminated "the clumsy, complicated slide-valve ignition", in favor of a hot tube system invented by an Englishman named Watson, since electrical systems functioned too slowly.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: In the summer of 1882, Daimler moved to Cannstatt (just outside of Stuttgart at that time), purchasing a cottage in Cannstatt's Taubenheimstrasse, with 75,000 Gold marks from the compensation from Deutz-AG. Maybach followed in September of that year. In the garden, they added a brick extension to the roomy glass-fronted summer house and this became their workshop. Their activities alarmed the neighbors who reported them to the police as suspected counterfeiters. The police obtained a key from the gardener and raided the house in their absence, but found only engines.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: Daimler and Maybach spent long hours debating how best to fuel Otto's four-stroke design, and turned to a commonly available petroleum fraction. The main distillates of petroleum at the time were lubricating oil, kerosene (burned as lamp fuel), and ligroin (petroleum naphtha or heavy naphtha), which up to then was used mainly as a cleaner and was sold in pharmacies. " [i.e. ligroin and similar petroleum fractions] of a kind common and readily available at pharmacies (chemist's) at the time", as described by antique car expert Michael Plag. "This is a combustible fuel called "n"-hexane."


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: In late 1883, Daimler and Maybach patented the first of their engines fueled by ligroin. This engine was patented on 16 December 1883. It achieved Daimler's goal of being small and running fast enough to be useful at 750 rpm. Improved designs in the next four years brought that up to 900 rpm. Daimler had three engines built to this design early in 1884, and a flywheel was included in one of the engines. This design was smaller and lighter than engines by other inventors of the time. Daimler relied on hot tube ignition, until 1897, when he adopted the electrical ignition designed by Bosch.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: The engine with the flywheel included was built into a light vehicle, called the Reitwagen, the first vehicle powered by an internal combustion engine.


title: Gottlieb Daimler

text: It took considerable effort and experimentation, but eventually, the duo perfected a vertical single, which was fitted in the "Reitwagen", a purpose-built two-wheeler chassis with two spring-loaded stabilizers.