title: Konbaung dynasty

text: Captives from various military campaigns in their hundreds and thousands were brought back to the kingdom and resettled as hereditary servants to royalty and nobility or dedicated to pagodas and temples; these captives added new knowledge and skills to Burmese society and enriched Burmese culture. They were encouraged to marry into the host community thus enriching the gene pool as well. Captives from Manipur formed the cavalry called "Kathè myindat" (Cassay Horse) and also "Kathè a hmyauk tat" (Cassay Artillery) in the royal Burmese army. Even captured French soldiers, led by Chevalier Milard, were forced into the Burmese army. The incorporated French troops with their guns and muskets played a key role in the later battles between the Burmese and the Mons. They became an elite corps, which was to play a role in the Burmese battles against the Siamese (attacks and capture of Ayutthaya from 1760 to 1765) and the Manchus (battles against the Chinese armies of the Qianlong Emperor from 1766 to 1769). Muslim eunuchs from Arakan also served in the Konbaung court.


title: Konbaung dynasty

text: A small community of foreign scholars, missionaries and merchants also lived in Konbaung society. Besides mercenaries and adventurers who had offered their services since the arrival of the Portuguese in the 16th century, a few Europeans served as ladies-in-waiting to the last queen Supayalat in Mandalay, a missionary established a school attended by Mindon's several sons including the last king Thibaw, and an Armenian had served as a king's minister at Amarapura.


title: Konbaung dynasty

text: Among the most visible non-Burmans of the royal court were Brahmins. They typically originated from one of four locales:


title: Konbaung dynasty

text: The evolution and growth of Burmese literature and theatre continued, aided by an extremely high adult male literacy rate for the era (half of all males and 5% of females). Foreign observers such as Michael Symes remarked on widespread literacy among commoners, from peasants to watermen.


title: Konbaung dynasty

text: The Siamese captives carried off from Ayutthaya as part of the Burmese–Siamese War (1765–67) went on to have an outsize influence on traditional Burmese theatre and dance. In 1789, a Burmese royal commission consisting of Princes and Ministers was charged with translating Siamese and Javanese dramas from Thai to Burmese. With the help of Siamese artists captured from Ayutthaya in 1767, the commission adapted two important epics from Thai to Burmese: the Siamese Ramayana and the Enao, the Siamese version of Javanese Panji tales into Burmese "Yama Zattaw" and "Enaung Zattaw". One classical Siamese dance, called "Yodaya Aka" (lit. Ayutthaya-style dance) is considered one of the most delicate of all traditional Burmese dances.


title: Konbaung dynasty

text: Burmese dynasties had a long history of building regularly planned cities along the Irawaddy valley between the 14th to 19th century. Town planning in pre-modern Burma reached its climax during the Konbaung period with cities such as Mandalay. Alaungpaya directed many town planning initiatives. He built many small fortified towns with major defences. One of these, Rangoon, was founded in 1755 as a fortress and sea harbor. The city had an irregular plan with stockades made of teak logs on a ground rampart. Rangoon had six city gates with each gate flanked by massive brick towers with typical merlons with cross-shaped embrasures. The stupa of Shwedagon, Sule and Botataung were located outside the city walls. The city had main roads paved with bricks and drains along the sides.


title: Konbaung dynasty

text: Monastic and lay elites around the Konbaung kings, particularly from Bodawpaya's reign, launched a major reformation of Burmese intellectual life and monastic organisation and practice known as the Sudhamma Reformation. It led to, amongst other things, Burma's first proper state histories.


title: Konbaung dynasty

text: Note: Naungdawgyi was the eldest brother of Hsinbyushin and Bodawpaya who was the grandfather of Bagyidaw who was Mindon's elder uncle. They were known by these names to posterity, although the formal titles at their coronation by custom ran to some length in Pali; "Mintayagyi paya" (Lord Great King) was the equivalent of Your/His Majesty whereas "Hpondawgyi paya" (Lord Great Glory) would be used by the royal family.


title: Goodbye Horses

text: "Goodbye Horses" is a song recorded by American singer Q Lazzarus. It was written by Q Lazzarus's bandmate, William Garvey, and released in 1988, with an extended version being released three years later. It is a synth-pop, dark wave, new wave, and dance song with lyrics based on "transcendence over those who see the world as only earthly and finite" and androgynous vocals from Q Lazzarus.


title: Goodbye Horses

text: After Q Lazzarus played a demo tape for Jonathan Demme while driving him in her taxi, which included a demo of "Goodbye Horses", he featured the song in his crime comedy film "Married to the Mob" (1988). It then became a cult hit after he used it in a scene of his film "The Silence of the Lambs" (1991), which was widely lauded for the usage. Since this, it has been used in various films, television series, and video games, often with references to its use in "The Silence of the Lambs", and has been covered by numerous artists.


title: Goodbye Horses

text: "Goodbye Horses" was written by songwriter William Garvey and performed by Q Lazzarus, both of whom were bandmates in the band Q Lazzarus and the Resurrection, and, according to friends of Garvey, had a tumultuous relationship with one another. Q Lazzarus disappeared from the public eye after the band disbanded in 1996, while Garvey died in 2009.


title: Goodbye Horses

text: The song, a "haunting", "dreamlike" synth-pop, dark wave, new wave, and dance ballad, features Q Lazzarus's androgynous vocals, picked guitar, snare drums, and drum pads. Its lyrics were based by Garvey on "transcendence over those who see the world as only earthly and finite", with the "horses" in the song representing "the five senses from Hindu philosophy". Evan Sawdey of "PopMatters" wrote that "Goodbye Horses" has a "strangely entrancing thump" and "sad, tragicomic elements" in the lyrics, describing it as "quirky". It was described by Tracy Moore in "Vanity Fair" as a "gothy, somber ode", and by Tyler Jenke of "Tone Deaf" as "rather creepy".


title: Goodbye Horses

text: In the 1980s, Q Lazzarus worked as a taxi driver in New York City and was unsigned, with record labels allegedly turning her away due to her dreadlocks. One day, in 1985, she picked up director Jonathan Demme and producer Arthur Baker in her taxi during a blizzard after the two finished doing the final mix on Little Steven's music video for his song "Sun City". After dropping off Baker, Q Lazzarus asked Demme if he was in the music business, then proceeded to play her demo tape, which included "Goodbye Horses". After listening to the tape, Demme was impressed, saying, "Oh my God, what is this and who are you?"


title: Goodbye Horses

text: "Goodbye Horses" quickly became a cult hit after Demme used it in a scene from his 1991 film "The Silence of the Lambs". In the scene, the film's antagonist, serial killer Buffalo Bill (portrayed by Ted Levine) puts on makeup in the mirror and plays with his nipple ring while his victim, Catherine, attempts to escape from a deep pit. As the song plays, Buffalo Bill says to himself, "Would you fuck me? I'd fuck me. I'd fuck me so hard", and then begins dancing naked into a video camera with his penis and testicles tucked between his legs as Catherine cries in the background. "Goodbye Horses" was not in the script, and other songs by David Bowie and Mick Jagger were also considered for the scene. It was originally rehearsed to Bob Seger's 1980 song "Her Strut", but "Goodbye Horses" was eventually chosen, with Levine saying that it became "a little gentler", "stranger", and "more feminine" as a result.


title: Goodbye Horses

text: "Under the Radar" and "Time Out" included the use of "Goodbye Horses" in "The Silence of the Lambs" on their lists of the best usages of songs in films. Lauren Down wrote for "Under the Radar" that it was "nigh on impossible" to separate "Goodbye Horses" from the film's scene, remarking they become "inextricable" once "he [Buffalo Bill] steps backwards in self-admiration". Howard Gorman of "NME" included the song on his list of songs that "became inextricably linked to the horror movies they were ultimately featured in", writing, "Regardless of how great a track this is...not even an "MIB" neuralyser can prevent us from recreating Buffalo Bill's unsettling mangina-meets-Bon Jovi moment in our heads whenever we hear it."


title: Goodbye Horses

text: "Bustle"s Jack O'Keeffe wrote that Levine's performance was "etched into pop culture history through...the song 'Goodbye Horses' in other media". "Goodbye Horses" was included on "Flavorwire"s list of the creepiest soundtrack songs, where they wrote that the "infamous 'tuck' scene" in "The Silence of the Lambs" is "invariably associated" with the song. "Billboard"s Ron Hart wrote that the inclusion of "Goodbye Horses" in "The Silence of the Lambs" "immortalized" the song as a "classic". "Time Out"s Keith Uhlich labeled the song "enrapturing" and called the scene "a pop-cultural touchstone".


title: Goodbye Horses

text: For "The New York Times", Joe Coscarelli wrote that "Goodbye Horses" "adds an extra layer of eeriness" to what many consider the "indelible shot" of "The Silence of the Lambs". Moore wrote that the scene was "played as a moment of dark degeneracy" as Q Lazzarus "warbles on the soundtrack". Max O'Connell of "IndieWire" called the use of "Goodbye Horses" in the film a "smart choice" due to how it foreshadowed Buffalo Bill's eventual failure and how its "melancholy...underscores how pitiful Bill's existence is, showing him trying to be something he's not just to get away from what he is".


title: Goodbye Horses

text: Before using "Goodbye Horses" in "The Silence of the Lambs", Demme included the song on the soundtrack for his 1988 film "Married to the Mob". The "Silence of the Lambs" scene was parodied in an episode of "Family Guy"; Garvey later sued MGM for the show's use of the song. The song appeared in a scene from the 2006 film "Clerks II", in which Jay and Silent Bob (played by Jason Mewes and Kevin Smith, respectively) parody the "Silence of the Lambs" scene, and it was also used in another parody of the scene from the 2019 film "Jay and Silent Bob Reboot". "Goodbye Horses" also appeared in the 2012 slasher film "Maniac", a remake of the 1980 film of the same name, as a tribute to the "Silence of the Lambs" scene. The CBS television series "Clarice", a spin-off of "The Silence of the Lambs", featured the song in a 2021 episode. "Goodbye Horses" was also featured in the video games "Grand Theft Auto IV" (2008) and "Skate 3" (2010). , the house in Perryopolis, Pennsylvania used as Buffalo Bill's house in the film is a vacation rental, and, when visitors enter the basement, "Goodbye Horses" plays as a disco ball lights up.


title: Goodbye Horses

text: "Goodbye Horses" was first released in 1988, and, in 1991, Q Lazzarus released an extended version of the song, with her song "White Lines" as a B-side. In 2021, Ryan Leas wrote for "Stereogum" that the "cult icon status" of the "beloved" "Goodbye Horses" "seems to keep strengthening over the years". Q Lazzarus has been described as a one-hit wonder by "IndieWire" and "The Daily Telegraph" due to the success of "Goodbye Horses".


title: Goodbye Horses

text: In 1996, The Canadian Synthpop band Psyche released their first version of the Q Lazzarus song Goodbye Horses as the b-side to their single "You Ran Away". This recording became popular enough that the band decided to make an extended version and include it on their album "Strange Romance" at the end of the same year. Over the last decades the song has been covered by the bands Carrier Flux, Foretaste, Gil Mantera's Party Dream, the Harvey Girls, Human Aftertaste, Ludwyg, Tone Of Loc, Kele Okereke, Hayden Thorpe and Crosses. However aside from the original, only Psyche's interpretation has maintained its popularity, appearing on two best of compilations "Misguided Angels" (2000) , and "Legacy" (2004), as well as a recent limited Australian Tour CD collection entitled "Club Salvation". Psyche re-recorded the song in 2009 for release on Metropolis Records compilation Until The Shadows. In 2012, an extended mix was released on vinyl by the Optimo Label ebtitled on "All Things Pass Into The Night". The video on YouTube and this version of this song remains a popular staple in the band's repertoire to this day.


title: Goodbye Horses

text: Electronic band Fan Death released a disco cover of the song in 2009 for their first European tour, which was praised by "The Fader" as a "bang-up cover" with "deep and husky" vocals. In 2011, Kele Okereke of Bloc Party included a cover of "Goodbye Horses" on his EP "The Hunter". In 2012, Psyche's cover of "Goodbye Horses" was released through Optimo. In 2013, American rock band the Delta Mirror included a cover of the song on their 2013 album "Better Unsung", which the staff of "Entertainment Weekly" described as "appropriately Ian Curtis-y" and Zach Kelly from "Pitchfork" viewed as "more than a little silly". A 25th anniversary re-release of the single, issued by Mon Amie Records in 2013, included a B-side of a minimalist cover of the song by Hayden Thorpe and Jon Hopkins. Their cover was later included on "The Longest Day", a compilation album released by Mon Amie Records in 2020, with proceeds all going towards the Alzheimer's Association. In 2020, American hip-hop duo Sematary & Ghost Mountain included a Witch house cover of the song in their second mixtape, Hundred Acre Wrist.


title: Goodbye Horses

text: In 2014, Crosses, the musical side project of Deftones singer Chino Moreno, Far guitarist Shaun Lopez, and bassist Chuck Doom, released a cover of "Goodbye Horses" shortly after releasing their self-titled debut album. In 2021, in anticipation of a new album, the band released a second cover of the song. Ryan Leas of "Stereogum" called the latter cover "a pretty faithful rendition" that was "a little grainer and more haunting" than the original.


title: Poxviridae

text: Poxviridae is a family of double-stranded DNA viruses. Vertebrates and arthropods serve as natural hosts. There are currently 83 species in this family, divided among 22 genera, which are divided into two subfamilies. Diseases associated with this family include smallpox.


title: Poxviridae

text: Four genera of poxviruses may infect humans: "Orthopoxvirus", "Parapoxvirus", "Yatapoxvirus", "Molluscipoxvirus". "Orthopoxvirus": smallpox virus (variola), vaccinia virus, cowpox virus, monkeypox virus; "Parapoxvirus": orf virus, pseudocowpox, bovine papular stomatitis virus; "Yatapoxvirus": tanapox virus, yaba monkey tumor virus; "Molluscipoxvirus": molluscum contagiosum virus (MCV). The most common are vaccinia (seen on the Indian subcontinent) and molluscum contagiosum, but monkeypox infections are rising (seen in west and central African rainforest countries). The similarly named disease chickenpox is not a true poxvirus and is caused by the herpesvirus varicella zoster.


title: Poxviridae

text: The name of the family, "Poxviridae", is a legacy of the original grouping of viruses associated with diseases that produced poxes in the skin. Modern viral classification is based on phenotypic characteristics; morphology, nucleic acid type, mode of replication, host organisms, and the type of disease they cause. The smallpox virus remains the most notable member of the family.


title: Poxviridae

text: Diseases caused by pox viruses, especially smallpox, have been known about for centuries. One of the earliest suspected cases is that of Egyptian pharaoh Ramses V who is thought to have died from smallpox circa 1150 years BCE. Smallpox was thought to have been transferred to Europe around the early 8th century and then to the Americas in the early 16th century, resulting in the deaths of 3.2 million Aztecs within two years of introduction. This death toll can be attributed to the indigenous population's complete lack of exposure to the virus over millennia.


title: Poxviridae

text: A century after Edward Jenner showed that the less potent cowpox could be used to effectively vaccinate against the more deadly smallpox, a worldwide effort to vaccinate everyone against smallpox began with the ultimate goal to rid the world of the plague-like epidemic. The last case of endemic smallpox occurred in Somalia in 1977. Extensive searches over two years detected no further cases, and in 1979 the World Health Organization (WHO) declared the disease officially eradicated.


title: Poxviridae

text: In 1986, all virus samples were destroyed or transferred to two approved WHO reference labs: at the headquarters of the federal Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (the C.D.C.) in Atlanta, Georgia (the United States) and at the Institute of Virus Preparations in Moscow. After September 11, 2001 the American and UK governments have had increased concern over the use of smallpox, or a smallpox-like disease, in bioterrorism. However, several poxviruses including vaccinia virus, myxoma virus, tanapox virus and raccoon pox virus are currently being investigated for their therapeutic potential in various human cancers in preclinical and clinical studies.


title: Poxviridae

text: "Poxviridae" viral particles (virions) are generally enveloped (external enveloped virion), though the intracellular mature virion form of the virus, which contains different envelope, is also infectious. They vary in their shape depending upon the species but are generally shaped like a brick or as an oval form similar to a rounded brick because they are wrapped by the endoplasmic reticulum. The virion is exceptionally large, its size is around 200 nm in diameter and 300 nm in length and carries its genome in a single, linear, double-stranded segment of DNA. By comparison, rhinoviruses are 1/10 as large as a typical "Poxviridae" virion.


title: Poxviridae

text: Phylogenetic analysis of 26 different chordopoxvirus genomes has shown that the central region of the genome is conserved and contains ~90 genes. The termini in contrast are not conserved between species. Of this group Avipoxvirus is the most divergent. The next most divergent is Molluscipoxvirus. Capripoxvirus, Leporipoxvirus, Suipoxvirus and Yatapoxvirus genera cluster together: Capripoxvirus and Suipoxvirus share a common ancestor and are distinct from the genus Orthopoxvirus. Within the Othopoxvirus genus Cowpox virus strain Brighton Red, Ectromelia virus and Monkeypox virus do not group closely with any other member. Variola virus and Camelpox virus form a subgroup. Vaccinia virus is most closely related to CPV-GRI-90.


title: Poxviridae

text: The GC-content of family member genomes differ considerably. Avipoxvirus, capripoxvirus, cervidpoxvirus, orthopoxvirus, suipoxvirus, yatapoxvirus and one Entomopox genus (Betaentomopoxvirus) along with several other unclassified Entomopoxviruses have a low G+C content while others - Molluscipoxvirus, Orthopoxvirus, Parapoxvirus and some unclassified Chordopoxvirus - have a relatively high G+C content. The reasons for these differences are not known.


title: Poxviridae

text: Replication of the poxvirus involves several stages. The virus first binds to a receptor on the host cell surface; the receptors for the poxvirus are thought to be glycosaminoglycans. After binding to the receptor, the virus enters the cell where it uncoats. Uncoating of the virus is a two step process. Firstly the outer membrane is removed as the particle enters the cell; secondly the virus particle (without the outer membrane) fuses with the cellular membrane to release the core into the cytoplasm. The pox viral genes are expressed in two phases. The early genes encode the non-structural protein, including proteins necessary for replication of the viral genome, and are expressed before the genome is replicated. The late genes are expressed after the genome has been replicated and encode the structural proteins to make the virus particle. The assembly of the virus particle occurs in five stages of maturation that lead to the final exocytosis of the new enveloped virion. After the genome has been replicated, the immature virion assembles the A5 protein to create the intracellular mature virion. The protein aligns and the brick-shaped envelope of the intracellular enveloped virion. These particles are then fused to the cell plasma to form the cell-associated enveloped virion, which encounters the microtubules and prepares to exit the cell as an extracellular enveloped virion. The assembly of the virus particle occurs in the cytoplasm of the cell and is a complex process that is currently being researched to understand each stage in more depth. Considering the fact that this virus is large and complex, replication is relatively quick taking approximately 12 hours until the host cell dies by the release of viruses.


title: Poxviridae

text: The replication of poxvirus is unusual for a virus with double-stranded DNA genome because it occurs in the cytoplasm, although this is typical of other large DNA viruses. Poxvirus encodes its own machinery for genome transcription, a DNA dependent RNA polymerase, which makes replication in the cytoplasm possible. Most double-stranded DNA viruses require the host cell's DNA-dependent RNA polymerase to perform transcription. These host polymerases are found in the nucleus, and therefore most double-stranded DNA viruses carry out a part of their infection cycle within the host cell's nucleus.


title: Poxviridae

text: The ancestor of the poxviruses is not known but structural studies suggest it may have been an adenovirus or a species related to both the poxviruses and the adenoviruses.


title: Poxviridae

text: Based on the genome organisation and DNA replication mechanism a phylogenetic relationships may exist between the rudiviruses ("Rudiviridae") and the large eukaryal DNA viruses: the African swine fever virus ("Asfarviridae"), Chlorella viruses ("Phycodnaviridae") and poxviruses ("Poxviridae").


title: Poxviridae

text: The mutation rate in poxvirus genomes has been estimated to be 0.9–1.2 x 10 substitutions per site per year. A second estimate puts this rate at 0.5–7 × 10 nucleotide substitutions per site per year. A third estimate places the rate at 4–6 × 10.


title: Poxviridae

text: The last common ancestor of the extant poxviruses that infect vertebrates existed . The genus "Avipoxvirus" diverged from the ancestor 249 ± 69 thousand years ago. The ancestor of the genus "Orthopoxvirus" was next to diverge from the other clades at . A second estimate of this divergence time places this event at 166,000 ± 43,000 years ago. The division of the "Orthopoxvirus" into the extant genera occurred ~14,000 years ago. The genus "Leporipoxvirus" diverged ~137,000 ± 35,000 years ago. This was followed by the ancestor of the genus "Yatapoxvirus". The last common ancestor of the "Capripoxvirus" and "Suipoxvirus" diverged 111,000 ± 29,000 years ago.


title: Poxviridae

text: An isolate from a fish – salmon gill poxvirus – appears to be the earliest branch in the "Chordopoxvirinae". A new systematic has been proposed recently after findings of a new squirrel poxvirus in Berlin, Germany.


title: Poxviridae

text: The date of the appearance of smallpox is not settled. It most likely evolved from a rodent virus between 68,000 and 16,000 years ago. The wide range of dates is due to the different records used to calibrate the molecular clock. One clade was the variola major strains (the more clinically severe form of smallpox) which spread from Asia between 400 and 1,600 years ago. A second clade included both alastrim minor (a phenotypically mild smallpox) described from the American continents and isolates from West Africa which diverged from an ancestral strain between 1,400 and 6,300 years before present. This clade further diverged into two subclades at least 800 years ago.


title: Poxviridae

text: A second estimate has placed the separation of variola from Taterapox at 3000–4000 years ago. This is consistent with archaeological and historical evidence regarding the appearance of smallpox as a human disease which suggests a relatively recent origin. However, if the mutation rate is assumed to be similar to that of the herpesviruses the divergence date between variola from Taterapox has been estimated to be 50,000 years ago. While this is consistent with the other published estimates it suggests that the archaeological and historical evidence is very incomplete. Better estimates of mutation rates in these viruses are needed.


title: Poxviridae

text: The species in the subfamily "Chordopoxvirinae" infect vertebrates and those in the subfamily "Entomopoxvirinae" infect insects. There are ten recognised genera in the "Chordopoxvirinae" and three in the "Entomopoxvirinae".


title: Poxviridae

text: The following subfamilies and genera are recognized (-"virinae" denotes subfamily and -"virus" denotes genus):


title: Poxviridae

text: Both subfamilies also contain a number of unclassified species for which new genera may be created in the future.


title: Poxviridae

text: The prototypical poxvirus is vaccinia virus, known for its role in the eradication of smallpox. The vaccinia virus is an effective tool for foreign protein expression, as it elicits a strong host immune-response. The vaccinia virus enters cells primarily by cell fusion, although currently the receptor responsible is unknown.


title: Poxviridae

text: Vaccinia contains three classes of genes: early, intermediate and late. These genes are transcribed by viral RNA polymerase and associated transcription factors. Vaccinia replicates its genome in the cytoplasm of infected cells, and after late-stage gene expression undergoes virion morphogenesis, which produces intracellular mature virions contained within an envelope membrane. The origin of the envelope membrane is still unknown. The intracellular mature virions are then transported to the Golgi apparatus where it is wrapped with an additional two membranes, becoming the intracellular enveloped virus. This is transported along cytoskeletal microtubules to reach the cell periphery, where it fuses with the plasma membrane to become the cell-associated enveloped virus. This triggers actin tails on cell surfaces or is released as external enveloped virion.


title: Leila Khaled

text: Leila Khaled (, born April 9, 1944) is a Palestinian refugee, terrorist, and member of the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine (PFLP).


title: Leila Khaled

text: Khaled came to public attention for her role in the TWA Flight 840 hijacking in 1969 and one of the four simultaneous Dawson's Field hijackings the following year as part of the campaign of Black September in Jordan. The first woman to hijack an airplane, she was later released in a prisoner exchange for civilian hostages kidnapped by other PFLP members.


title: Leila Khaled

text: Khaled was born in Haifa, Mandatory Palestine, to Arab parents. Her family fled to Lebanon on 13 April 1948 as part of the 1948 Palestinian exodus, leaving her father behind. At the age of 15, following in the footsteps of her brother, she joined the pan-Arab Arab Nationalist Movement, originally established in the late-1940s by George Habash, then a medical student at the American University of Beirut. The Palestinian branch of this movement became the Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine after the 1967 Six-Day War.


title: Leila Khaled

text: Khaled spent some time teaching in Kuwait and, in her autobiography, recounted crying the day she heard that John F. Kennedy had been assassinated.


title: Leila Khaled

text: On August 29, 1969, Khaled was part of a team that hijacked TWA Flight 840 on its way from Rome to Tel Aviv, diverting the Boeing 707 to Damascus. According to some media sources, the PFLP leadership thought that Yitzhak Rabin, then Israeli ambassador to the United States, would be on board; he was not. She claims she ordered the pilot to fly over Haifa, so she could see her birthplace. No one was injured, but after the passengers disembarked, the hijackers blew up the nose section of the aircraft. After this hijacking, and a photograph of her (taken by Eddie Adams) holding an AK-47 rifle and wearing a kaffiyeh was reproduced in many publications, she underwent six plastic surgery operations on her nose and chin to conceal her identity and allow her to take part in a future hijacking, and because she did not want to wear the face of an icon.


title: Leila Khaled

text: On September 6, 1970, Khaled and Patrick Argüello, a Nicaraguan–American, attempted to hijack El Al Flight 219 from Amsterdam to New York City as part of the Dawson's Field hijackings, a series of almost simultaneous hijackings carried out by the PFLP. The attack was foiled when Israeli skymarshals killed Argüello before eventually overpowering Khaled. Although she was carrying two hand grenades at the time, Khaled said she had received very strict instructions not to threaten passengers on the civilian flight. However, while being overpowered, she withdrew the safety pin from one of the grenades and rolled it down the aisle towards the economy class passengers; miraculously it did not explode and thus cause general de-pressurisation and the probable crash of the plane. Argüello had shot Vider, a member of the flight crew, twice, and the pilot Uri Bar-Lev therefore refused orders to return to Tel Aviv in order to bring Khaled to justice.


title: Leila Khaled

text: The pilot diverted the aircraft to Heathrow Airport in London, where the two skymarshals were smuggled on the tarmac to another El Al aircraft waiting for takeoff to Tel Aviv. Vider was rushed to hospital with minutes to live and Khaled was delivered to Ealing police station. On October 1, the British government released her in exchange for hostages taken in a further hijacking.


title: Leila Khaled

text: Khaled has stated in interviews that she developed a fondness for the United Kingdom when her first visitor in jail, an immigration officer, wanted to know why she had arrived in the country without a valid visa. She also developed a relationship with the two policewomen assigned to guard her in Ealing and later corresponded with them. Khaled continued to return to the UK for speaking engagements until as late as 2002, although she was refused a visa by the British embassy in 2005 to address a meeting at the Féile an Phobail in Belfast, where she was invited as a speaker. Eventually she managed to speak to people at the Belfast Féile through a video link.


title: Leila Khaled

text: According to Khaled, there is not an Arab-Israeli "peace process. It's a political process where the balance of forces is for the Israelis and not for us. They have all the cards to play with and the Palestinians have nothing to depend on, especially when the PLO is not united." Khaled also supports the Kurdish political movement surrounding the Peoples' Democratic Party (HDP) and drew attention to the similar fate of the Palestinian and the Kurdish people She has become involved in politics, becoming a member of the Palestinian National Council and appearing regularly at the World Social Forum.


title: Leila Khaled

text: She is married to the physician Fayez Rashid, and lives with their two sons Bader and Bashar in Amman, Jordan. She is irreligious.


title: Leila Khaled

text: She was the subject of a film entitled "Leila Khaled, Hijacker", directed by Palestinian filmmaker Lina Makboul, premiered in November 2005 at the International Documentary Film Festival in Amsterdam.


title: Leila Khaled

text: In 2011, Khaled went on a speaking tour in Sweden, including speeches at May Day demonstrations of the Communist Party and the Central Organisation of the Workers of Sweden, a public art gallery, Södertörn University College and a seminar arranged by the Left Party.


title: Leila Khaled

text: In November 2017, Khaled was refused entry to Rome, Italy at the Leonardo da Vinci–Fiumicino Airport, and was forced to return to Amman, Jordan as she is a member of a group considered a terrorist organization by the Italian government.


title: Leila Khaled

text: In mid September 2020, Khaled was scheduled to speak at a virtual Zoom conference at San Francisco State University hosted by Rabab Abdulhadi and Tomomi Kinukawa. Following lobbying by the Jewish coalition group "End Jewish Hatred," Zoom Video Communications along with YouTube and Facebook, prevented the conference from using their video conferencing software and platforms, citing compliance with U.S. export control, sanctions, and anti-terrorism laws.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The 1985 Mexico City earthquake struck in the early morning of 19 September at 07:17:50 (CST) with a moment magnitude of 8.0 and a maximal Mercalli intensity of IX ("Violent"). The event caused serious damage to the Greater Mexico City area and the deaths of at least 5,000 people. The sequence of events included a foreshock of magnitude 5.2 that occurred the prior May, the main shock on 19 September, and two large aftershocks. The first of these occurred on 20 September with a magnitude of 7.5 and the second occurred seven months later on 30 April 1986 with a magnitude of 7.0. They were located off the coast along the Middle America Trench, more than away, but the city suffered major damage due to its large magnitude and the ancient lake bed that Mexico City sits on. The event caused between three and five billion USD in damage as 412 buildings collapsed and another 3,124 were seriously damaged in the city.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Then-president Miguel de la Madrid and the ruling Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) were widely criticized for what was perceived as an inefficient response to the emergency, including an initial refusal of foreign aid.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Much of Mexico's volcanic and seismic activity stems from the movement of the North American plate against the Cocos and Pacific plates and it is one of the most active trenches in the world. Each year more than 90 tremors above magnitude 4.0 are recorded in this zone.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: While not on or near any fault like San Francisco or Los Angeles, Mexico City is also vulnerable to earthquakes. The main reason for this is the surface geology of the area, especially the downtown area. The city was originally built on an island in the middle of Lake Texcoco, and Aztec rulers built dikes to prevent flooding while Spanish colonial rulers later drained the lakes in a massive hydraulic project (known as the "Desagüe") in response to major periodic flooding. The near surface geology of this area is classified into three sections: the old lake bed which is soft clay from volcanic ash with a high water content, a piedmont area, much of which is capped by 5 to 30 meters of lava less than 2,500 years old, and an old river delta area.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: On the bed of the historic lake, the prevailing silt and volcanic clay sediments amplify seismic shaking. Damage to structures is worsened by soil liquefaction which causes the loss of foundation support and contributes to dramatic settlement of large buildings. Mexico City's downtown area mostly lies on the silt and volcanic clay sediments of the bed of the historic Lake Texcoco, which are between seven and thirty-seven meters deep and have a high water content. Above this is a layer of sand and above this is a layer of sand and rock. The western and northwestern parts of the city are outside the old lakeshores and are located on sands from eroding volcanic cones that surround the Valley of Mexico. The southern part of the city rests on hardened basalt lava flows. The old lakebed, with its high water content, is easily moved or compressed. The old lakeshore area also has a fairly high water content, allowing movement, though not as much as the lakebed. The old lava flows have little water content or movement in comparison and are therefore more stable.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Another factor is that the old lakebed resonates with certain seismic waves and low frequency signals. This lakebed has a natural "pitch" of one cycle every 2.5 seconds making everything built on the bed vibrate at the same frequency. This is the same "pitch" as a number of shallow earthquake waves. This resonance amplifies the effects of the shock waves coming from an earthquake far away.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: However, only certain types of structures are vulnerable to this resonance effect. Taller buildings have their own frequencies of vibration. Those that are six to fifteen stories tall also vibrate at the 2.5-second cycle, making them act like tuning forks in the event of an earthquake. The low-frequency waves of an earthquake are amplified by the mud of the lakebed, which in turn, is amplified by the building itself. This causes these buildings to shake more violently than the earthquake proper as the earthquake progresses. Many of the older colonial buildings have survived hundreds of years on the lakebed simply because they are not tall enough to be affected by the resonance effect.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The earthquake occurred in the Pacific Ocean, off the coast of the Mexican state of Michoacán, a distance of more than from the city, in the Cocos Plate subduction zone, specifically in a section of the fault line known as the Michoacán seismic gap. The Cocos Plate pushes against and slides under the North American Plate, primarily along the coasts of the states of Michoacán and Guerrero in Mexico. Volatile trenches along the Cocos plate generally have had seismic events 30 to 70 years before 1985. This subduction zone outside the Michoacán gap was the source of 42 earthquakes of magnitude 7.8 or stronger in the 20th century prior to the 1985 event. However, this particular section of the subduction zone had not had an event for a much longer time.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Shockwaves from the earthquake hit the mouth of the Río Balsas on the coast at 7:17 am and hit Mexico City, away, two minutes later at 7:19 am. The 19 September quake was a multiple event with two epicenters and the second movement occurring 26 seconds after the first. Because of multiple breaks in the fault line, the event was of long duration. Ground shaking lasted more than five minutes in places along the coast and parts of Mexico City shook for three minutes, with an average shaking time of 3–4 minutes. It is estimated the movement along the fault was about . The main tremor was foreshadowed by a quake of magnitude 5.2 on 28 May 1985, and was followed by two significant aftershocks: one on 20 September 1985 of magnitude 7.5 lasting thirteen seconds and the third occurring seven months later on 30 April 1986 with magnitude 7.0 lasting ten seconds. However, at least twelve other minor aftershocks were associated with the seismic event.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The energy released during the main event was equivalent to approximately 1,114 nuclear weapons exploding. The earthquake was felt over 825,000 square kilometers, as far away as Los Angeles and Houston in the United States.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: In the port of Lázaro Cárdenas, near the epicenter, the 19 September event registered as IX on the Modified Mercalli intensity scale; in parts of Mexico City, it registered the same, even at a distance of about 400 km (249 mi) away. There was no historic record of such a strong quake in Mexico.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: While the fault line was located just off the Pacific coast of Mexico, there was relatively little effect on the sea itself. The earthquake did produce a number of tsunamis but they were small, ranging between in height. Ecuador reported the highest waves of .


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Most of the earthquake damage was to buildings. Two reasons are the resonance in the lakebed sediments and the long duration of the shaking. The buildings most damaged were from 6 to 15 stories in height. These buildings tended to resonate most with the energetic frequency band of the lakebed motions. One interesting characteristic was that many buildings had their upper floors collapse, leaving the lower floors relatively undamaged. In many damaged buildings, just one floor had collapsed. In some cases the damage was caused by the top of a lower, adjacent building banging against the walls and the supporting columns of its neighbor. Eventually, the columns gave way. In other cases, the first few floors of buildings were designed as parking garages, open lobbies or large shopping areas. These "soft" stories were particularly flexible and tended to collapse after prolonged shaking. Some types of foundations, particularly those involving piles driven into clay and held in place by friction, turned out to be weak. One nine-story building, for example, overturned. Its piles were pulled entirely out of the ground.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: A survey by the government of the damage done found that few buildings from one to five stories suffered serious damage; the same was true for buildings over fifteen stories. When the buildings were built seemed to have an effect as well. Before the 1957 earthquake, there were no building codes with respect to earthquake resistance. Some regulations were passed in that year and more in 1976 after another, stronger earthquake shook the city. However, none of these regulations had an event like 1985's in mind when passed. Most of the seriously damaged buildings were built between 1957 and 1976, when the city was starting to build upwards, in the six-to-fifteen floor range. In second place were buildings from before 1957, possibly because they were weakened by the earlier earthquakes. Structures built between 1976 and 1985 suffered the least damage.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: At the time of the earthquake, Mexico City had one of the most stringent building codes, based on experience gained from earthquakes in 1957 and 1979. However, the codes were not designed for seismic activity of the intensity experienced in 1985. The event was one of the most intense ever recorded, and macroseismic waves arrived in the Valley of Mexico with unusually high energy content. Prior to the event, estimates about ground movement on the lakebed were generally accepted and a number of buildings were built on these estimates.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Several notable buildings were relatively untouched by the quake. One significant example is the Torre Latinoamericana. Despite being 44 stories tall, it survived the 1985 event almost undamaged. It was constructed with two hundred piles extending down over into the stable earth stratum.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Mexico City is divided into boroughs. Eighty percent of the earthquake damage was confined to four of them: Venustiano Carranza, Cuauhtémoc, Benito Juárez and Gustavo A. Madero. The damage area corresponds to the western part of the lake zone within of the Alameda Central. Nearly all the buildings that collapsed were located in this lake zone that extended from Tlatelolco in the north to Viaducto Miguel Alemán in the south, Chapultepec Park in the west and to a short distance east of the Zócalo or main plaza.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Cuauhtémoc, which includes the historic downtown, suffered the most damage. In this particular area, 258 buildings completely crumbled, 143 partially collapsed and 181 were seriously damaged. The next seriously affected area was Venustiano Carranza where 83 buildings collapsed, 128 partially collapsed and 2,000 structures were seriously damaged. Damage was localized to the center parts of the city, leaving much of the residential outer rim unscathed, but the damage in the affected area was extensive. Over 720,000 tons of debris was removed during the first six weeks after the event. The Metropolitan Commission for Emergencies of the Federal District reported 2,831 buildings damaged for the entire city: 31% or 880 were completely ruined, 13% were reinhabitable with major repairs and the rest, totaling 1581, were recoverable with minor repairs. This translates to more than 30,000 housing units completely destroyed and another 68,000 units damaged.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: One of the most visible government institutions to fall in the event was the tower of Hospital Juárez, one of the oldest hospital institutions in Mexico. It was founded in 1847, converting the old convent of San Pablo to treat wounded soldiers from the Mexican–American War. It originally was called San Pablo Hospital but its name was changed to Juárez Hospital in 1872.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The "Torre de Hospitalización" was built in 1970 with the main building being twelve stories tall. It had two wings, one facing north and the other south, with an inpatient capacity of 536 beds. At the top was a helipad. It was also surrounded by a number of other buildings belonging to the hospital complex such as a blood bank, teaching facilities, offices as well as the original convent. At the time of the earthquake, the hospital was 80% full, and it was shift change time for nurses, doctors and residents. Within minutes, the steel-frame structure collapsed, crushing and trapping many people inside.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Those who were rescued first were taken to another building for treatment, as the ambulances were trapped inside the collapsed tower. The hospital did not have an emergency plan but nonetheless, surviving hospital workers and neighbors quickly improvised, under the management of the hospital, setting up aid stations and scavenging supplies. Rescue workers soon arrived to start digging through the rubble. A second quake made rescue work slower, because of fear of further collapse. Most bodies were identified by personal effects, some by dental records and some were so mangled that they wound up being cremated without ever being identified, due to the lack of morgue facilities. 561 bodies were found and 188 were never identified. 266 were hospital workers and 44 were medical residents. The majority who were rescued were found in the first five days. The number of bodies recovered was high during those first days as well but the numbers dramatically increased between days 17 and 31.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Heavy machinery was unable to get to the site until five days after the earthquake. Numbers of dead did not include unidentified body parts found. Most of the injured had contusion injuries and many suffered from dehydration, with the severity of the dehydration increasing with those rescued later.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: However, the most memorable story to come from this event was the rescue of nearly all the newborn babies that were in the nursery at the time. These babies were pulled out of the wreckage mostly unscathed but lost their mothers. The infants were found seven days after the initial event and came to be known as the "Miracle Babies" or the "Miracle of Hospital Juárez", having survived without nourishment, water, warmth or human contact during that time.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: On Manuel José Othón Street, in the Colonia Obrera neighborhood, near Metro station San Antonio Abad, was one of the many garment factories located in the city center area. It was destroyed along with approximately 1,200 other workshops.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Called "Topeka", it was one of three buildings that collapsed on this block. The magazine "Proceso" reported that by the time rescue workers reached the building, the owners were already in a hurry to demolish it, without trying to rescue or recover the workers trapped inside. About 150 bodies of workers had already been pulled from the wreckage by fellow employees using their bare hands.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The collapse of this factory exposed the deplorable conditions to which many of these women were subjected. The building that collapsed, as well as many others, were found to be decrepit. It came to be known that many of the women had to work extended hours with little or no compensation, and few, if any, of the labor laws on the books were being followed. This event made the garment industry a labor embarrassment.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: All that remains of the factory is a small empty lot with a bronze statue of a woman sewing. Apartments were built on the remainder of the property.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The Conalep SPP was a building located between the streets of Iturbide and Humboldt, in the Historic Center of Mexico City, which was destroyed by the 8.1 magnitude earthquake of 19 September 1985.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: In this school the classes normally started at 7 o'clock in the morning, so the students were already in class. Some data indicate that around 120 people died and some disappeared in this building. Literally this building was split in two, the part that overlooked Humboldt Street stood and the part that overlooked Iturbide Street collapsed falling floor to floor and pulling the building towards that street.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: On Eje Central and Xola Avenue, at the southern end of the lake-bed zone was (and is) the Secretaría de Comunicaciones y Transportes (Ministry of Communication and Transportation), a reinforced concrete structure with its microwave tower. This structure failed, causing the near total collapse of long distance communications between Mexico City and the rest of the world.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: One of the most spectacular building collapses was that of the Conjunto Pino Suárez, which was a complex of five steel-frame buildings. A 20-story tower, "Tower Four", doubled over at the third floor and fell south onto a fourteen-story building. The fall left a huge piece of concrete blocking the road that leads to the Zócalo. People at the scene stated that there was simply no time to run and escape the building's fall. The other three 20-story buildings were closed because of damage, as well as the Metro entrance next door. The building was occupied by family courts and offices of the public defender. The area is now a market.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The Hotel Regis was built in the beginning of the 20th century as a luxury hotel in neo-Classical style. It had its own cabaret, gourmet restaurant and a small but luxurious cinema with wide reclining armchairs.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: It was located at the corner of Balderas and Avenida Juárez in the historic center and completely collapsed within moments of the quake. Shortly after its collapse, it began to burn due to a gas leak, which made it extremely difficult to rescue survivors. Nothing survived of the hotel. The space is now the Plaza de la Solidaridad park. The Museo Mural Diego Rivera on the north side of the park houses a mural by Diego Rivera which was originally housed in the huge Hotel Del Prado across the street. That hotel was irreparably damaged in the earthquake and subsequently demolished.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: There were two apartment complexes in the area of the city called Tlatelolco to the north of the historic center that became major scenes of disaster, the Conjunto Urbano Nonoalco Tlatelolco and the "Multifamiliares Juárez" near the Metro Centro Médico. Together, these apartment complexes were a large percentage of the 30,000 units lost, with the city losing about 30% of its living space.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Nonoalco Tlatelolco was located on Paseo de la Reforma Norte #668, covering an area of about . It had 102 buildings with seven medical facilities, twenty-two schools and about 500 small businesses, serving the 80,000 people who lived there. Constructed under the presidency of Adolfo López Mateos, it was considered the most important complex of its kind in the country.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: In the Conjunto Urbano, two of the three modules of the building called "Nuevo León", at thirteen stories tall, completely collapsed, while the other one was severely damaged. In other buildings, dozens of people terrified by the event jumped from high windows to their deaths, trying to escape. People became trapped in stairwells, elevators and their apartments without any way to contact the outside world. At the collapsed building, lines of 50–100 people passed rubble by hand and buckets, trying to reach victims. During these rescue efforts, a nearby building, called Oaxaca, began to creak noisily, causing everyone to run and abandon the site temporarily, but it did not collapse.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: All the buildings suffered damage but along with the collapsed Nuevo León building, buildings such as those called Veracruz, Coahuila, Zacatecas, Oaxaca, Puebla, Jalisco, Churubusco, Guelatao, 2 de Abril, 15 de Septiembre, Chihuahua, Tamaulipas, ISSSTE 11, Querétaro, Guanajuato, Ignacio Comonfort, Ignacio M. Altamirano, Jesús Terán, Ponciano Arriaga, Niños Héroes and 20 de Noviembre suffered severe damage such as deeply cracked foundations. In the days after the quake, military and police cordoned off ten buildings to keep people out, leading a number of them to sleep on the streets. Twelve buildings in the complex were so badly damaged that they were demolished in the next six months.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Buildings A1, B2 and C3 of the Multifamiliar Juárez complex partially collapsed with a total of nine structures eventually being demolished.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: One of the most famous images of the event is the recording of the live broadcast of "Hoy Mismo," then the morning news cast in the Televisa television network, when the earthquake struck. In the video, movement can be seen, especially in the studio lights above the newscasters. The three newscasters were María Victoria Llamas (in place of Guillermo Ochoa, the principal anchor who was on leave), Lourdes Guerrero and Juan Dosal. As the movement began, it is reported that Llamas grabbed the underside of the desk, and whispering quickly to her colleagues that she hoped no one could see how scared she was. The last image broadcast from the studio was that of Lourdes Guerrero stating "... it's still shaking a little ("sigue temblando un poquitito"), but we must take it calmly. We will wait just a second so we can keep talking." Then the broadcast got interrupted.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The transmission ended because a nearby 10-ton antenna had bent over and crushed parts of Televisa's buildings that were located on Niños Héroes and Dr. Río de la Loza Streets in Colonia Doctores.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Everyone ran from the studio but Llamas and Guerrero stayed, hiding under their anchor desks. After the shaking stopped, they both left the Televisa studios through a back door, and hours later they were back on the air in the studios of Canal de las Estrellas to broadcast live what was happening. Some members of the "Hoy Mismo" staff died, including producer Ernesto Villanueva and engineer David Mendoza Córcega, who had just parked at the Televisa building, but had no time to escape from his car. The falling debris also killed street vendors who worked just outside the studio building. Reconstruction of the studio building began in 1995 and ended in 2000.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The region's infrastructure was severely affected. The number of people with potable water went from six million to 90,000. as of primary and secondary water and drainage pipes suffered breaks in 163 places, cutting off water and contaminating it. of asphalt was damaged, and 137 schools collapsed. The number of jobs lost due to the event was estimated at 200,000. Forty percent of the population was without electricity and seventy percent without telephone service.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: 1,687 school buildings were damaged. Interruption of classes, either to the lack of facilities and/or the need to help with rescue efforts, affected over 1.5 million students.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: On the day of the quake, the Metro stopped service and completely shut down for fear of electrocution. This caused people to get out of the tunnels from wherever they were and onto the street to try to get where they were going. At the time, the Metro had 101 stations, with 32 closed to the public in the weeks after the event. On Line 1, there was no service in stations Merced, Pino Suárez, Isabel la Católica, Salto del Agua, Balderas or Cuauhtémoc. On Line 2, there was no service between stations Bellas Artes and Taxqueña. On Line 3 only Juárez and Balderas were closed. Line 4 continued to operate normally. All of the closed stations were in the historic center area, with the exception of the stations of Line 2 south of Pino Suárez. These stations were located above ground. The reason these stations were closed was not due to damage to the Metro proper, but rather because of surface rescue work and clearing of debris.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The area most severely hit by the earthquake had the highest concentration of hospitals. Most of the damage occurred in secondary and tertiary hospitals. Thirteen hospitals of six or more floors were partially or totally destroyed, most of these public institutions. One out of every four then-available beds was lost.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The National Medical Center of the Mexican Social Security Institute (IMSS) was considered the most important hospital complex in Latin America with over 2,300 beds and the largest medical library in the country. It had to be evacuated because all of its 25 buildings suffered severe damage. Most of the beds that it lost were dedicated to tertiary, high-technology care. The ISSSTE hospital for government workers lost 36 percent of its capacity. The 2,158 beds of the Ministry of Health (SSA) were lost, representing 43 percent of its capacity in the city. This included the 700 beds lost with the complete collapse of Juárez Hospital and the gynecology-obstetrics tower of the General Hospital of Mexico. In total, the city lost more than 4,000 public hospital beds in the earthquake, severely disrupting these institutions' ability to handle the crisis. In addition, five of the largest private hospitals had to be evacuated. More than 900 patients, physicians, nurses and paramedical workers died in the initial shock.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: In contrast, the network of twenty four community general hospitals with 1,600 beds belonging to the city (federal district) were not affected as these were spread out beyond the city center and the old lakebed.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Although much closer to the epicenter, the states of Jalisco, Colima, Guerrero and Michoacán suffered only mild to moderate damage. Landslides caused damage at Atenquique, Jalisco, and near Jala, Nayarit. Rockslides were reported along highways near Ixtapa, Guerrero, with sand volcanos and ground cracks in Lázaro Cárdenas. Students at the Universidad de las Américas in nearby Puebla reported feeling as if the cafeteria had been lifted and rocked back and forth, shattering windows and injuring some people but mostly causing panic. A small tsunami caused only mild damage to Lázaro Cárdenas and Zihuatanejo. Some fishing boats were reported missing but these reports were never confirmed. One exceptional case was in Ciudad Guzmán, Jalisco, where about 60 percent of the buildings were destroyed, with about 50 dead. Some damage also occurred as far away as the states of Mexico, Morelos and parts of Veracruz, on the Gulf coast. Coastal and most inland damage was moderated by the fact that most of the west of Mexico sits on bedrock, which serves to transmit the shockwaves without amplifying them. La Villita, and Infiernillo Dams, near the coast, were superficially damaged and undamaged respectively.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Off the coasts of Michoacán and Guerrero, the 19 and 20 September events caused a rupture in the seabed 240 km long and 70 km wide, located between the subduction trench and the coastline. This is an intertidal zone and the event caused widespread mortality in a number of species living in the area such as algae and shellfish.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: To this day, the death toll has been in dispute. About 5,000 bodies were recovered from the debris and represent the total of legally certified deaths but does not include those who were missing and never recovered. Reports have numbered the dead anywhere from 5,000 to 30,000 (claimed by a number of citizens' groups) to 45,000 claimed by the National Seismological Service. However, the most commonly cited figures are around 10,000. While high as an absolute number, it compares to other earthquakes of similar strength in Asia and other parts of Latin America where death tolls have run between 66,000 and 242,000 for earthquakes of magnitude 7.8 or above. Part of the explanation for that was the hour in which the earthquake struck, approximately 7:20 am, when people were awake but not in the many schools and office buildings that were severely damaged.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: However, the death toll was great enough to require the use of the IMSS baseball field as a morgue, using ice to conserve bodies for identification.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The main reason that the figures have been disputed is the government's response to the tragedy. President Miguel de la Madrid ordered a news blackout and did not address the situation at all for 39 hours after the event. When the government did give estimates of the number killed, they ranged from 7,000 to 35,000. Consequently, most of the populace believes that the true numbers have never been revealed.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: According to government figures, approximately 250,000 people lost their homes directly due to the earthquake. Unofficial sources put that figure much higher. Some sources say that more than 50,000 families lost their homes. INEGI reports that 700,000 people in Mexico City and the suburbs in the State of Mexico lost their homes.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: In the hours and days immediately after the first shock, there was an enormous response and solidarity among the city population of 18 million people. Ordinary citizens organized brigades to help with rescue efforts and to provide food, clothing and emotional support to the homeless.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Patients had to be moved from damaged hospitals, especially the National Medical Center. Many of these patients were very ill. 1,900 patients were successfully moved from here, without any deaths, in just four hours.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: More than 4,000 people were rescued alive. 9,600 injured people received treatment, including 1,879 who needed hospitalization. Despite the loss of 5,000 hospital beds, there was never a shortage of facilities for the injured. Some of the reason for this was that those with postponable care were discharged, but mostly because the public and private facilities unified de facto during the crisis. There were also people rescued as late as ten days after the initial event.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The military was deployed to patrol streets to prevent looting after a curfew was imposed, as well as rescue, sanitary efforts and other, with 1,836 soldiers initially sent in and another 1,500 conscripts sent later. The federal government's first public response was President de la Madrid's declaration of a period of mourning for three days starting from 20 September 1985.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: These earthquakes created many political difficulties for the then-ruling Partido Revolucionario Institucional (PRI) or Institutional Revolutionary Party. The crisis was severe enough to have tested the capabilities of wealthier countries, but the government from local PRI bosses to President de la Madrid himself exacerbated the problem aside from the lack of money. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs declared it would not request aid; it specifically rejected help from the United States. It was also widely reported in the days after the earthquake that the military assisted factory owners in retrieving their machinery rather than in removing the bodies of dead factory workers. At many levels of the government, who was helped and by how much was determined by one's standing vis-à-vis the PRI. Those belonging to the party received preference and those considered opposition received the runaround. President de la Madrid refused to cut foreign debt payments to use the money to help with the recovery effort. The government's response to the earthquake was widely criticized at various levels of Mexican society, being seen as both authoritarian and incompetent. As most of the collapsed buildings were of recent construction and public works projects, the government was seen at fault due to mismanagement and corruption in these constructions. The government itself realized that it could not handle the crisis alone through already-established institutions and decided to open the process up to "opposition groups".


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: On the other hand, the disaster created an opportunity for political opponents, especially at the grassroots level. Much of the community organizing focused on helping those left homeless by the earthquake. The three largest and most effective organizations were based in Tlatelolco and Colonia Roma. These consisted of families from the "Multifamiliar Juárez" housing project, which completely collapsed and the combined colonias (neighborhoods) of Centro, Morelos, Guerrero, Doctores, Obrera, Peralvillo, Asturias, Nicolás Bravo among others which housed the working and lower classes. These groups along with the Sindicato Nacional de Costureras united to form the Coordinadora Única de Damnificados (CUD).


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: CUD and other popular movement representatives met the head of the Secretariat of Urban Development and Ecology (SEDUE) Guillermo Carrillo Arena on 27 September 1985. Carrillo Arena at first insisted that the movements incorporate themselves into the PRI before gaining any concessions. This was refused. Many media outlets expressed support for the popular movements and marches like that of 2 October 1985, demanding that the reconstruction process be more "democratic", meaning the inclusion of non-PRI political organizations into the decision-making process. On 11 October 1985, the President granted a seven-minute audience to the heads of a dozen popular movements, which turned into a 45-minute meeting where de la Madrid was handed a document outlining what would remain the movements' core demands: expropriation of all condemned buildings, followed by a "popular" and "democratic" reconstruction project which would include the active participation of the community movement. De la Madrid conceded some with the expropriation of 5,500 properties in the four most affected boroughs.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: After the government created the Programa de Renovación Habitacional Popular (PRHP) on 14 October to help deal with the crisis, friction between the government and community groups grew again, PRHP used PRI-membership as a requirement to be included into the census of earthquake victims. More protests followed on 26 October calling for, among other things, the firing of SEDUE head Carrillo Arena. Things got worse through February 1986, mostly due to the ineffectiveness of SEDUE and PRHP. Finally Carrillo Arena was fired from SEDUE and replaced by Manuel Camacho Solís.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: In March, only weeks after taking office, Camacho Solís changed the charged atmosphere between SEDUE and the community groups. He actively integrated Tlateloloco citizen groups into a new program meant for that area, defusing the most volatile area of the city. Camacho Solís continued to work to integrate and smooth relations between his agency and the community groups. On 16 May 1986, Camacho Solís met with the heads of all the major groups. He offered a commitment to build 48,000 housing units in one year if the groups would all sign a "Convenio de concertación democrática para la reconstrucción de vivienda" (Democratic agreement for the reconstruction of housing). Basically, this document required the cooperation of community groups in exchange for solid commitments from the agency. All sides would compromise in order to get something done. The deal generally worked; movements like CUD moderated their stances and agencies like SEDUE and PRHP made progress in rebuilding housing, regardless of political affiliation.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The Mexican government, thinking that it could handle the situation after the earthquake by themselves, initially refused any foreign aid. As an aftershock struck on 20 September, the Mexican government then announced that it would be willing to accept help. Heavy machinery, medical supplies, and excavation equipment descended into the city to help with rescue efforts. First Lady Nancy Reagan toured Mexico City with U.S. Ambassador to Mexico, John Gavin, observing the resulting damage of the earthquake. Few countries sent rescue delegations to support these efforts. One of the prominent group was the Israeli delegation of the Israel Defence Force (I.D.F.), which was enthusiastically welcomed and hosted by the Jewish community of Mexico City.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: At the time of the earthquake, Mexico was in its fourth year of a foreign debt crisis, and a contracting economy causing serious political problems for the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI). Much of the PRI's authoritarian nature was tolerated because the country had seen four decades of economic expansion of six percent or better. When this disappeared, the PRI's power base began to shrink. Its reputation was damaged further when the government seemed to be deliberately downplaying the number of earthquake victims. President de la Madrid made relatively few public appearances afterwards and during those he did, he received strong heckling, in contrast to the near-reverence that past presidents enjoyed at such events.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The severe damage in so many buildings, including in many public works construction projects to house the rapidly growing population of Mexico City, was blamed on lax enforcement of building codes. Critics argued that the lack of enforcement of such codes was indicative of corrupt practices in all levels of government.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: The stepping-in of non-PRI organizations to take over where the government could not, also took its toll on PRI's reputation. Burton Kirkwood stated, "Out of the disaster emerged the realization that a viable civil society existed in Mexico. This revelation also caused many to consider why they needed a centralized state that so obviously could not care for its people. As a consequence, the opposition movements pointed to the government's shortcomings and advanced candidates for the greater goal of defeating the PRI."


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Shortly after the event, the PRI began to face serious challenges at the polls, resulting in attempts to rig elections.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: One preparation that was made for any future events was the alert system, Sistema de Alerta Sísmica (SAS), which sends early-warning messages electronically from sensors along the coastal subduction zone in Guerrero. It was expanded to a similar area on the coast of Oaxaca. An alarm is supposed to go off in Mexico City (similar to an air-raid siren) when an earthquake of 6.0 or higher is detected.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: To better help deal with major disasters, the Civil Protection Committee was created. This committee organizes drills in cooperation with rescue workers, police, hospital staff and even metro personnel. Affiliated with the Civil Protection Committee is the "Brigada de Topos de Tlatelolco" (Mole Brigade of Tlatelolco). This group arose from youths who spontaneously volunteered to risk their lives crawling into collapsed buildings to look for survivors. Despite having no equipment, training or knowledge of rescue tactics, these youths were instrumental in saving a number of lives, including the babies rescued from the collapse of the Juárez Hospital. Shortly thereafter, these youths decided to formally band together in February 1986. These "topos" have developed into highly trained specialists in times of disaster, with branches in other parts of Mexico. They are now expertly trained and even have scent dogs to help them. They have gained international fame as they have helped in disasters in San Salvador, Taiwan, in the countries of the rim of the Indian Ocean after the tsunami there in 2004, and in the January 2010 Haiti earthquake.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Despite warnings and predictions, in 2005, an estimated 32 million people live in the high-risk lakebed area.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: In 2005, there were still two camps where approximately eighty families are still waiting for relocation from the earthquake.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Centuries-old structures have been reinforced across the city and new construction must comply with very strict codes. There are several instances of tall buildings in Mexico City incorporating earthquake-resistant engineering. A few notable examples are: the Torre Latinoamericana, one of the first buildings in Mexico City to do so, the Torre Ejecutiva Pemex, built before the 1985 earthquake, and the Torre Mayor, built in 2003.


title: 1985 Mexico City earthquake

text: Every 19 September, in all public buildings at Mexico City and all the nation the civil protection authorities conduct evacuation drills to evaluate the evacuation response in the case of an earthquake. On 19 September 2017, 32 years after the 1985 earthquake, Mexico City also faced another earthquake at around 13:14 CDT (18:14 UTC), nearly two hours after the earthquake drills took place and on 19 September 2022, 37 years after the 1985 earthquake and 5 after the 2017 one, the 2022 Michoacán earthquake struck Mexico at 13:05 CDT (18:05 UTC).


title: Toyota GZ engine

text: The Toyota GZ engine family consists of a single model, the 1GZ-FE. This engine is used as the powerplant for the second generation Century limousine from 1997 to 2017.


title: Toyota GZ engine

text: The 1GZ-FE is a 48-valve DOHC V12 engine with variable valve timing (VVT-i). Bore is 81 mm and stroke is 80.8 mm, with a compression ratio of 10.5:1. The official power output advertised in Japan per the gentlemen's agreement is at 5,200 rpm, though it was advertised as in export markets. Peak torque of is at 4,000 rpm with over available from as little as 1200 rpm. The Electronic fuel-injection system is controlled by two ECUs, one for each bank of six cylinders. The engine is capable of running on either bank should a malfunction occur.


title: Toyota GZ engine

text: In 2010 the standard engine was revised in order to meet tough fuel economy and emissions standards, reducing power slightly and peak torque to although this torque figure had been advertised in export markets since at least 2004.


title: Cotija cheese

text: Cotija is an aged Mexican cheese made from cow's milk and named after the town of Cotija, Michoacán. White in color and firm in texture, its flavor is salty and milky. "Young" (or fresher) cotija cheese has been described as akin to a mild feta, while aged ("añejo") cotija is more comparable in flavor to hard, aged cheeses like Parmesan. Cotija softens when exposed to heat, but does not melt.


title: Cotija cheese

text: El queso Cotija de Montaña or "grain cheese" is dry, firm, and very salty (the cheese is usually several times saltier than typical cheese, traditionally so that it will keep better). It is a seasonal cheese produced in limited quantities only from July to October because the cows are fed only on the rich grass that grows naturally on the mountains during the rainy season, giving the cheese its unique color and flavor.


title: Cotija cheese

text: "Tajo" cheese is a moister, fattier, and less salty version that holds its shape when cut, with a flavor similar to Greek feta.


title: Cotija cheese

text: Queso cotija is an artisan cheese made by hand; thus, every cheese is unique. This cheese usually comes in cylinders with a cream-colored crust. It is a "queso de montaña" (cheese of the mountains) because the cheesemakers live in the mountains as high as .


title: Cotija cheese

text: The production method involves milling the curds into small pieces before pressing and aging. When cooked, it slightly softens, but does not otherwise change its shape or consistency. In the mouth, the cheese breaks up again to a sandy or grain-like consistency, adding to the texture of dishes.


title: Cotija cheese

text: Cotija can be purchased in small rounds or large blocks. Like Parmesan, it is often sold already grated.


title: Cotija cheese

text: Cotija is often used as a "finishing" cheese in Mexican cuisine, crumbled or grated as a topping for burritos, soups, salads, beans, tostadas, or tacos, and Mexican "elote" (corn on the cob). If cotija can't be found, acceptable substitutes for fresh cotija include feta or queso fresco. Acceptable substitutes for aged cotija include ricotta salata, Parmesan, or Romano cheese.


title: Cotija cheese

text: Cotija can be used as a substitute for the Salvadoran cheese "queso duro" (also known as "queso duro blando") when queso duro is inaccessible, especially in applications such as the Salvadoran quesadilla, a pound cake-like sweet bread.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The United States Navy maintains a number of its ships as part of a reserve fleet, often called the "Mothball Fleet". While the details of the maintenance activity have changed several times, the basics are constant: keep the ships afloat and sufficiently working as to be reactivated quickly in an emergency.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: In some cases (for instance, at the outset of the Korean War), many ships were successfully reactivated at a considerable savings in time and money. The usual fate of ships in the reserve fleet, though, is to become too old and obsolete to be of any use, at which point they are sold for scrapping or are scuttled in weapons tests.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: In rare cases, the general public may intercede for ships from the reserve fleet that are about to be scrapped – usually asking for the Navy to donate them for use as museum ships, memorials, or artificial reefs.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: In November 1976, the controlling organization was the Inactive Ship Division of the Naval Ship Systems Command. As of 2011, the controlling organization actually appears to be the Inactive Ships Management Office of the Program Executive Officer - Ships, Naval Sea Systems Command, Portsmouth, Virginia.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: Merchant ships held in reserve are managed as part of the separate National Defense Reserve Fleet within MARAD (US Maritime Administration). Several of its sites, such as at Suisun Bay in California, are also used to store regular Navy ships.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: Ships placed in the reserve fleets are categorized depending on priority, funding and the planned disposition.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: Ships in this category are prioritized over the other categories when it comes to maintenance and funding. They are retained for possible future mobilization and will receive updates and upgrades as funding permits.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: These are ships that will be maintained as-is; meaning no updates or improvements unless funding becomes available after that assigned for category B ships has been exhausted.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: Ships stricken from the Naval Vessel Register awaiting disposal. Receives no maintenance except ships on donation hold, which undergo dehumidification and cathodic protection.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: Around 1912, the Atlantic Reserve Fleet and the Pacific Reserve Fleet were established as reserve units with still operating ships, but on a greatly reduced schedule.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: After the Second World War, with hundreds of ships no longer needed by a peacetime navy, each fleet consisted of a number of groups corresponding to storage sites, each adjacent to a shipyard for easier reactivation. For example, was underway for Green Cove Springs, Florida, on 11 April 1945. "Brock" arrived there on 13 April 1945, and joined the Florida Group, 16th Fleet, which later became the Florida Group, Atlantic Reserve Fleet.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: Many of the deactivated Second World War merchant vessels were of a class called the Liberty Ship which was a mass-produced ocean-going transport used primarily in the convoys going to/from the U.S., Europe, and Russia. These Liberty Ships were also used as the navy's support vessel for its fleet of warships and to ferry forces across the Pacific and Atlantic. It was a race between how fast the U.S. could build these ships and how fast the German U-Boats could sink them, and the Liberty Ship was significant in maintaining the beleaguered United Kingdom.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: Most of these Liberty Ships when deactivated were put into "mothball fleets" strategically located around the coasts of the U.S, or sold into commercial service. They began to be deactivated and scrapped in the early 1970s.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: Vice Admirals Herbert F. Leary and Thomas C. Kinkaid served as Commanders, Sixteenth Fleet, after World War II. Sixteenth Fleet later became the Atlantic Reserve Fleet.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The groups of the Atlantic Reserve Fleet were at Boston, Charleston, Green Cove Springs, Florida, New London, MOTBY/New York Harbor, Norfolk, Philadelphia, and Texas.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The groups of the Pacific Reserve Fleet were at Alameda, Bremerton, Columbia River, Long Beach, Mare Island, San Diego, San Francisco, Stockton, Tacoma, and Olympia, Washington (Budd Inlet).


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The James River Reserve Fleet consists of six decommissioned U.S. Navy auxiliaries and warships anchored in Virginia's James River near Newport News.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The fleet originally consisted of about 60 ships, most of which were gradually towed away for scrapping.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: As of 1 July 2014, the Reserve Fleet consisted of the following vessels (AK = Auxiliary Cargo Ship, AGS = Auxiliary Surveying Ship):


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: A similar fleet, the National Defense Reserve Fleet, is anchored in Suisun Bay near Benicia, California, and has similarly been reduced. This location is known for hosting the "Glomar Explorer" after its recovery of portions of Soviet Submarine K-129 during the Cold War before its subsequent reactivation as a minerals exploration ship.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The Beaumont Reserve Fleet, anchored in the Neches River near Beaumont, Texas, contains a number of transport ships.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: A Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility (NISMF) is a facility owned by the U.S. Navy as a holding facility for decommissioned naval vessels, pending determination of their final fate. All ships in these facilities are inactive, but some are still on the Naval Vessel Register, while others have been struck from that Register.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The Philadelphia Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility holds several dozen inactive warships, including the aircraft carrier , Ticonderoga class cruisers, Oliver Hazard Perry class frigates, and numerous supply ships.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility at Puget Sound Naval Shipyard, located next to Bremerton, Washington, hosts, among its other ships two dozen decommissioned submarines, several frigates, and numerous supply ships. It is the former home of the nuclear cruiser , which was scrapped.


title: United States Navy reserve fleets

text: The Naval Inactive Ship Maintenance Facility at Pearl Harbor, Hawaii, holds logistic support ships and amphibious transport dock ships.


title: Savanna Samson

text: Savanna Samson (born October 14, 1967) is the stage name of Natalie Oliveros, an American former pornographic actress. The winner of several AVN Awards, she has spent most of her career as a contract performer with major producer Vivid Entertainment, and is known for her roles in acclaimed adult films such as "The New Devil in Miss Jones". In addition to performing, she has her own adult film studio, Savanna Samson Productions. A native of upstate New York, she entered the adult film industry in 2000, after working as a dancer at the Manhattan strip club, Scores.


title: Savanna Samson

text: Samson has gained mainstream recognition with appearances on television shows such as "Saturday Night Live", "The Daily Show" and "30 Rock". Her wide range of activities outside pornography include working as a sex-advice columnist, a radio presenter and a political correspondent. She also produces her own line of wines, has a recording contract with E1 Music and is a trained ballerina.


title: Savanna Samson

text: Born Natalie Skeldon, one of five daughters, she grew up in a Roman Catholic family in Watertown, New York. She began dancing at a young age. At 17, she moved to New York City to pursue a career in ballet. However, she eventually gave this up, admitting she "wasn't good enough". She took a job dancing at the Manhattan strip club Scores, on the recommendation of her sister who worked there. When starting at the club, she chose the stage name Savanna in homage to a character in the novel and film, "The Prince of Tides" (1986/1991).


title: Savanna Samson

text: In 2000, she left that work as a dancer intending to become a porn film star. She choose the name Savanna Samson. The surname Samson, taken from the biblical figure, was added later in her career to distinguish her from porn actress Savannah. While at Scores, she met her future husband, wine merchant Daniel Oliveros. They have a son together.


title: Savanna Samson

text: Samson's move into the adult film business began in 2000, after she wrote a letter to Italian porn actor and director Rocco Siffredi, asking to work with him. She initially wanted to make a movie in order to fulfill a fantasy, after her husband had given her the idea, and hoped to keep it a secret. But her first movie, "Rocco Meats An American Angel In Paris", was nominated for "Best Foreign Release" at the AVN Awards. Afterward, she got what she described as "porn fever" and worked to make further movies. Her family soon discovered her film career when she appeared on "The Howard Stern Show" and "Entertainment Tonight". Samson stated in 2006: "My parents are devastated by my career choices".


title: Savanna Samson

text: In April 2002, she signed an exclusive contract with Vivid Entertainment. She continued to live in New York, and commuted to California to shoot films for the company. Samson was among three Vivid Girls to be profiled in an early-2003 issue of "Vanity Fair", as part of an annual roundup of the entertainment industry. The Girls were featured alongside mainstream actors, such as Daniel Day-Lewis and Julianne Moore, in a double-page photograph taken at Elton John's home on the French Riviera.


title: Savanna Samson

text: Sansom was also one of several Vivid Girls who wrote material for the book "How to Have a XXX Sex Life: The Ultimate Vivid Guide", published by ReganBooks on July 20, 2004. Samson helped promote the book with appearances on "The O'Reilly Factor" and "The Howard Stern Show". In May 2004, she joined several other porn actresses and began to write as a columnist for AVNInsider.com. At the 2004 AVN Awards, Samson won "Best Actress – Film" and "Best Group Sex Scene – Film" for her role in "Looking In", a 2003 film about four suburban couples who have a view into each other's houses.


title: Savanna Samson

text: Along with comedian Thea Vidale, Samson hosted the 2005 AVN Awards. She also won awards that year for "Best All-Girl Sex Scene – Film" and "Best Group Sex Scene – Film".


title: Savanna Samson

text: In February 2005, Samson began co-hosting a daily music-and-talk radio show on the Internet station Electric Eye Radio. Later in the year, she was featured alongside Jenna Jameson in Vivid's high-budget remake of the classic adult film "The Devil in Miss Jones". Samson's role as Miss Jones earned her the 2006 AVN Awards for "Best Actress – Film" and "Best All-Girl Sex Scene – Film". During her acceptance speech, she expressed gratitude for this support from her peers and said "most of my family is pretty ashamed of what I do".


title: Savanna Samson

text: Samson announced in early 2006 that she had started her own production company, Savanna Samson Productions, which would release one film a year, to be distributed exclusively by Vivid. During 2006, Samson appeared on "The Tyra Banks Show", "The Dr. Keith Ablow Show", "Secret Lives of Women", and for the second time, "Saturday Night Live". Michael Lucas' 2006 gay-porn remake of "La Dolce Vita" featured a cameo appearance by Samson, which in 2007 won her the GayVN Award for "Best Non-Sexual Performance".


title: Savanna Samson

text: Early in 2007, Samson signed a record contract with Koch Records, now known as E1 Music, who had approached her after hearing her sing during a radio tour. On May 3, 2007, she appeared as a guest on the WNYC public radio series, "The Tristan Mysteries", to discuss Richard Wagner's opera "Tristan und Isolde". A long-time Wagner fan, Samson said, "I think I'm in a unique position to discuss the sensual aspects of the 'Tristan and Isolde' characters and of opera in general".


title: Savanna Samson

text: In June 2007, Savanna Samson Productions released its first title, "Any Way You Want Me", an interactive movie directed by and starring Samson. She also appeared in the 2007 film "Debbie Does Dallas ... Again", a sequel to the 1978 classic "Debbie Does Dallas", as well as its "making of" series that was broadcast weekly on Showtime. The film gained her a 2008 AVN Award for "Best Group Sex Scene – Film".


title: Savanna Samson

text: In April 2008, Samson became a political correspondent on Fox News's late-night talk show "Red Eye w/ Greg Gutfeld". She had made several previous appearances on the show, and in 2007 had endorsed New York Republican mayor Rudy Giuliani's presidential candidacy.


title: Savanna Samson

text: In September 2008 her debut album, "Possession", was released, and her first single, a title track co-written by Samson during the breakup of her marriage. Commenting on the theme of the song, she said, "People see me nude and having sex and think they know me and that I'm available, but I'm no more available than Angelina Jolie". Later in the month, she had a cameo role on "The Daily Show", in which she portrayed "CBS Evening News" anchor Katie Couric in a commercial for a fictional action-adventure show. In the appearance, Samson asks "Daily Show" correspondent Jason Jones, "Hey, Jones, you really think you've got the balls for that story?" She began writing a sex-advice column for the adult entertainment site XCritic.com in June 2009, having previously written such columns for "Men’s Fitness" magazine and AdultFriendFinder.com.


title: Savanna Samson

text: Samson made her mainstream acting debut in the "30 Rock" episode, "Into the Crevasse", which first aired on October 22, 2009. In the episode, she plays a porn version of Tina Fey's character, Liz Lemon. In 2011, Samson was inducted into the AVN Hall of Fame.


title: Savanna Samson

text: According to the Internet Adult Film Database, as of May 2010 Samson had appeared in 90 adult movies, including compilations containing recycled scenes. A 2006 article in "The New York Times" reported that she earns from $20,000 to over $100,000 per film, depending on sales, with each one taking from three days to two weeks to make. An "Adult Video News" article written in February 2006 stated that Samson had five years left on her contract with Vivid.


title: Savanna Samson

text: Despite enjoying her career in the adult film industry, Samson had other ambitions. In 2005, while on vacation in Tuscany, Italy, she decided she could "leave a mark on this world" by making wine. Then married to a wine merchant, she had frequently traveled to Italy and France, and often fantasized about owning her own vineyard. When she was a child, she had helped her family make wine in the basement of their house in Watertown, New York.


title: Savanna Samson

text: She formed the company, Savanna Samson Wines, and asked Italian winemaker and consultant Roberto Cipresso to help find a blend of grapes local to Tuscany that would produce her ideal flavor. They eventually chose a mixture of 70 percent Cesanese, 20 percent Sangiovese and 10 percent Montepulciano, which produced a red wine that she named "Sogno Uno," meaning 'Dream One.' Its label played on Samson's notoriety as a porn star, featuring a side view of her wearing only a see-through gown and high heels. Wine critic Robert M. Parker, Jr. gave Sogno Uno a rating of 90 to 91 out of 100, and described it as "awfully good". A gala launch was held for the wine at a Manhattan restaurant on February 27, 2006. By June 2007, her company had produced two more wines.


title: Bardiche

text: A bardiche , berdiche, bardische, bardeche, or berdish is a type of polearm used from the 14th to 17th centuries in Europe. Ultimately a descendant of the medieval sparth or Danish axe, the bardiche proper appears around 1400, but there are numerous medieval manuscripts that depict very similar weapons beginning c. 1250. The bardiche differs from the halberd in having neither a hook at the back nor a spear point at the top.


title: Bardiche

text: The use of bardiches started in early 14th century Austria and in Scandinavia in the late 15th century. In the 16th century the bardiche became a weapon associated with streltsy (Russian guardsmen armed with firearms).


title: Bardiche

text: [The broad-headed axe] was succeeded by the "berdiche", a pole-axe, longer in shaft and having the narrow lower end of tall blade rounded inward and braced against the shaft. At first this lower end of the blade merely touched the wooden shaft; it then became fastened to it; next it embraced the shaft, developing for this purpose an encircling loop, like the main ring which forms the socket of the axe-head. This “generalized” type of pole-axe was common to all countries of Europe before the year 1400. It was essentially the butcher's heavy weapon with which he clave the head of an ox. It was this primitive halberd which the Swiss mountaineers used in their early struggle with Austria, and at Sempach and Mortgarten it destroyed much splendid armor. But in battle it was found useful not only for chopping but for thrusting, hence the narrowing of the front end of its plate.The blade varied greatly in shape, but was most often a long, cleaver-type blade. The distinction was in how the blade was attached to the pole. The bardiche blade was attached to the pole either via two sockets (one at the top of the pole and one lower, at the base of the blade) or one socket at the top and one surface mount at the base, effectively mounting the heavy blade to the wooden shaft. This construction is also seen in Scottish polearms, such as the Lochaber axe and Jeddart staff, and bardiches are known to have been imported into Scotland in the 16th and 17th centuries. Depending on the design of the particular weapons in question, at times a bardiche may greatly resemble a voulge.


title: Bardiche

text: While the blade was often very long for an axe (usually exceeding 2 feet (60 cm)) the shaft was one of the shortest of all polearms; rarely did it exceed 5 feet (1.5 m) in length. It relied more on the weight of its heavy blade to do the damage than a swing from a long pole. This makes the bardiche more similar to the Danish axe, in some respects, than to a true polearm.


title: Bardiche

text: In Russia and in Poland this weapon was used to rest handguns upon when firing. It was standard equipment for the "streltsy" (literally "shooters") corps (foot, mounted and dragoons) and also for the Polish infantry (a shorter version invented by King Jan III Sobieski).


title: Josh Henderson

text: Joshua Baret Henderson (born October 25, 1981) is an American actor, model, and singer. Henderson is best known for his lead role as John Ross Ewing III in the TNT revival of "Dallas" (2012–2014). He played Austin McCann on the ABC television series "Desperate Housewives" (2006–2007), and appeared in films like "Step Up". He became widely known after his appearance on The WB singing competition show "Popstars 2", where he was one of the winners selected to be a member of the pop group Scene 23.


title: Josh Henderson

text: Henderson was born in Dallas, Texas, the son of Sharon Lea Henderson. He grew up in Tulsa, Oklahoma, where he graduated from Memorial High School in 2000. Due to heterochromia, Henderson's eyes are of different colors; his left eye is green, while the right is blue. Henderson graduated from Tulsa Memorial Senior High School, where he enjoyed playing sports, particularly baseball.