title: In a Lonely Place

text: "In a Lonely Place" was based on the 1947 novel of the same name by Dorothy B. Hughes. Some controversy exists between admirers of the film and admirers of the novel (who view the film as a watered down adaptation), as Edmund H. North's script takes some elements of the novel but is ultimately a different story. Hughes was not bothered by the changes made by North and praised Grahame's performance as Gray.


title: In a Lonely Place

text: The strongest difference between the two works lies in the protagonist; the film's Dixon Steele is a screenwriter with an unconventional life and a decent person with fatally poor impulse control, prone to wild overreaction when enraged. The novel's Steele is a limited third-person view from Steele's perspective, reminiscent of the first-person in noir, à la "The Killer Inside Me". Steele is a charlatan who pretends to be a novelist while sponging money from his overbearing uncle. While still receiving what he perceives as a small monthly allowance from his uncle, Steele murders a wealthy young man and assumes his identity, in a manner similar to Patricia Highsmith's Tom Ripley. (Hughes' character pre-dates Ripley and may have influenced him.) The film follows the question of whether Steele finally went too far in his anger and committed the murder to a tragic end. Even though he is proved innocent, his rage at the cloud of suspicion has driven the woman he loves away for good. No question of Steele's innocence exists in the novel, which follows the investigation of a murder Steele plainly committed and his interference in the investigation for his own ends.


title: In a Lonely Place

text: Curtis Hanson, in the DVD featurette 'In A Lonely Place Revisited', further analyses the similarities and differences between the novel and the film. He notes that there is a parallel in the film between Steele's adaptation of a novel for film and the adaptation of "In a Lonely Place" for film. He also notes that a difference between Steele in the film and Steele in the novel is their respective treatment of women. In the novel Steele pursues women and the first chapter details his pursuit of a woman. In the film, Steele is pursued by women.


title: In a Lonely Place

text: Hughes' novel was out of print for decades, until re-released by The Feminist Press at CUNY in 2003, which edition was still in print in 2010. Penguin Books published a paperback edition in the UK in 2010 as part of their Modern Classics imprint, and the Library of America included it in the first volume of their "Women Crime Writers" collection. Second-hand copies are readily available.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Coffee preparation is the process of turning coffee beans into a beverage. While the particular steps vary with the type of coffee and with the raw materials, the process includes four basic steps: raw coffee beans must be roasted, the roasted coffee beans must then be ground, and the ground coffee must then be mixed with hot or cold water (depending on the method of brewing) for a specific time (brewed), the liquid coffee extraction must be separated from the used grounds, and finally, if desired, the extracted coffee is combined with other elements of the desired beverage, such as sweeteners, dairy products, dairy alternatives, or toppings (such as shaved chocolate).


title: Coffee preparation

text: Coffee is usually brewed hot, at close to the boiling point of water, immediately before drinking, yielding a hot beverage capable of scalding if splashed or spilled; if not consumed promptly, coffee is often sealed into a vacuum flask or insulated bottle to maintain its temperature. In most areas, coffee may be purchased unprocessed, or already roasted, or already roasted and ground. Whole roast coffee or ground coffee is often vacuum packed to prevent oxidation and lengthen its shelf life. Especially in hot climates, some find cold or iced coffee more refreshing. This can be prepared well in advance as it maintains its character when stored cold better than as a hot beverage.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Even with the same roast, the character of the extraction is highly dependent on distribution of particle sizes produced by the grinding process, temperature of the grounds after grinding, freshness of the roast and grind, brewing process and equipment, temperature of the water, character of the water itself, contact time with hot water (less sensitive with cold water), and the brew ratio employed. Preferred brew ratios of water to coffee often fall into the range of 15–18:1 by mass; even within this fairly small range, differences are easily perceived by an experienced coffee drinker. The sensitivity and nuance of coffee extraction has resulted in the formation of a vast (and sometimes obsessive) artisanal brewing culture and community. Processes can range from extremely manual (e.g. hand grinding with manual pour-over in steady increments) to totally automated by a single appliance with a reservoir of roast beans which it automatically measures and grinds, and water, which it automatically heats and doses. Another common style of automated coffee maker is fed a single-serving "pod" of pre-measured coffee grounds for each beverage.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Characteristics which may be emphasized or deemphasized by different preparation methods include: acidity (brightness), aroma (especially more delicate floral and citrus notes), mouthfeel (body), astringency, bitterness (both positive and negative), and the duration and intensity of flavour perception in the mouth (finish). The addition of sweeteners, dairy products (e.g. milk or cream), or dairy alternatives (e.g. almond milk) also changes the perceived character of the brewed coffee. Principally, dairy products mute delicate aromas and thicken mouthfeel (particularly when frothed), while sweeteners mask astringency and bitterness.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Roasting coffee transforms the chemical and physical properties of green coffee beans. When roasted, the green coffee bean expands to nearly double its original size, changing in color and density. As the bean absorbs heat, its color shifts to yellow, then to a light "cinnamon" brown, and then to a rich dark brown color. During roasting, oils appear on the surface of the bean. The roast will continue to darken until it is removed from the heat source.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Coffee can be roasted with ordinary kitchen equipment (frying pan, grill, oven, popcorn popper) or by specialised appliances. A "coffee roaster" is a special pan or apparatus suitable to heat up and roast green coffee beans.


title: Coffee preparation

text: The fineness of the grind strongly affects brewing. Brewing methods that expose coffee grounds to heated water for longer require a coarser grind than faster brewing methods. Beans that are too finely ground for the brewing method in which they are used will expose too much surface area to the heated water and produce a bitter, harsh, "over-extracted" taste. At the other extreme, an overly coarse grind will produce weak coffee unless more is used. Due to the importance of a grind's fineness, a uniform grind is highly desirable.


title: Coffee preparation

text: If a brewing method is used in which the time of exposure of the ground coffee to the heated water is adjustable, then a short brewing time can be used for finely ground coffee. This produces coffee of equal flavor yet uses less ground coffee. A blade grinder does not cause frictional heat buildup in the ground coffee unless used to grind very large amounts as in a commercial operation. A fine grind allows the most efficient extraction but coffee ground too finely will slow down filtration or screening.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Ground coffee deteriorates faster than roasted beans because of the greater surface area exposed to oxygen. Many coffee drinkers grind the beans themselves immediately before brewing.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Used coffee grounds can be reused for hair care or skin care as well as in the garden. These can also be used as biodiesel fuel.


title: Coffee preparation

text: There are four methods of grinding coffee for brewing: burr-grinding, chopping, pounding, and roller grinding.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Burr mills use two revolving abrasive elements, such as wheels or conical grinding elements, between which the coffee beans are crushed or "torn" with little frictional heating. The process of squeezing and crushing of the beans releases the coffee's oils, which are then more easily extracted during the infusion process with hot water, making the coffee taste richer and smoother.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Both manually and electrically powered mills are available. These mills grind the coffee to a fairly uniform size determined by the separation of the two abrasive surfaces between which the coffee is ground; the uniform grind produces a more even extraction when brewed, without excessively fine particles that clog filters.


title: Coffee preparation

text: These mills offer a wide range of grind settings, making them suitable to grind coffee for various brewing systems such as espresso, drip, percolators, French press, and others. Many burr grinders, including almost all domestic versions, are unable to achieve the extremely fine grind required for the preparation of Turkish coffee; traditional Turkish hand grinders are an exception.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Burr grinders are of two types - conical burrs and flat wheel burrs. Both of them grind coffee bean consistently and with uniform size. Almost every burr coffee grinder grinds at low noise, offer large hopper for storing whole coffee bean, easy to use with portafilter for espresso grind, body made with stainless steel or ceramic with modern design as well as slow operating system ensures fine grind all the time.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Coffee beans can be chopped by using blades rotating at high speed (20,000 to 30,000 rpm), either in a blade grinder designed specifically for coffee and spices, or in a general use home blender. Devices of this sort are cheaper than burr grinders, but the grind is not uniform and will produce particles of widely varying sizes, while ideally all particles should have the same size, appropriate for the method of brewing. Moreover, the particles get smaller and smaller during the grinding process, which makes it difficult to achieve a consistent grind from batch to batch.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Blade grinders create “coffee dust” that can clog up sieves in espresso machines and French presses, and are best suited for drip coffee makers. They are not recommended for grinding coffee for use with pump espresso machines.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Arabic coffee and Turkish coffee require that the grounds be almost powdery in fineness, finer than can be achieved by most burr grinders. Pounding the beans with a mortar and pestle can pulverise the coffee finely enough.


title: Coffee preparation

text: In a roller grinder, the beans are ground between pairs of corrugated rollers. A roller grinder produces a more even grind size distribution and heats the ground coffee less than other grinding methods. However, due to their size and cost, roller grinders are used exclusively by commercial and industrial scale coffee producers.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Water-cooled roller grinders are used for high production rates as well as for fine grinds such as Turkish and espresso.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Coffee can be brewed in several different ways, but these methods fall into four main groups depending on how the water is introduced to the coffee grounds: decoction (through boiling), infusion (through steeping), gravitational feed (used with percolators and in drip brewing), or pressurised percolation (as with espresso).


title: Coffee preparation

text: Brewed coffee, if kept hot, will deteriorate rapidly in flavor, and reheating such coffee tends to give it a "muddy" flavour, as some compounds that impart flavor to coffee are destroyed if this is done. Even at room temperature, deterioration will occur; however, if kept in an oxygen-free environment it can last almost indefinitely at room temperature, and sealed containers of brewed coffee are sometimes commercially available in food stores in America or Europe, with refrigerated bottled coffee drinks being commonly available at convenience stores and grocery stores in the United States. Canned coffee is particularly popular in Japan and South Korea.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Electronic coffee makers boil the water and brew the infusion with little human assistance and sometimes according to a timer. Some such devices also grind the beans automatically before brewing.


title: Coffee preparation

text: The French press is considered one of the oldest and simplest methods to brew coffee. Despite its simplicity, it can be a little tricky. The most important part of the process is to not leave the coffee in the French press for too long after pressing.


title: Coffee preparation

text: The aromatic oils in coffee are released at 96 °C (205 °F), which is just below boiling, while the bitter acids are released when the water has reached boiling point.


title: Coffee preparation

text: The simplest method is to put the ground coffee in a cup, pour hot water over it and let cool while the grounds sink to the bottom. This is a traditional method for making a cup of coffee that is still used in parts of Indonesia. This method, known as "mud coffee" in the Middle East owing to an extremely fine grind that results in a mud-like sludge at the bottom of the cup, allows for extremely simple preparation, but drinkers then have to be careful if they want to avoid drinking grounds either from this layer or floating at the surface of the coffee, which can be avoided by dribbling cold water onto the "floaters" from the back of a spoon. If the coffee beans are not ground finely enough, the grounds do not sink.


title: Coffee preparation

text: "Cowboy coffee" is made by heating coarse grounds with water in a pot, letting the grounds settle and pouring off the liquid to drink, sometimes filtering it to remove fine grounds. While the name suggests that this method was used by cowboys, presumably on the trail around a campfire, it is used by others; some people prefer this method.


title: Coffee preparation

text: "Turkish coffee" (aka Arabic coffee, etc.), a very early method of making coffee, is used in the Middle East, North Africa, East Africa, Turkey, Greece, the Balkans, and Russia. Very finely ground coffee, optionally sugar, and water are placed in a narrow-topped pot, called a "cezve" (Turkish), "kanaka" (Egyptian), "briki" (Greek), "džezva" (Štokavian) or "turka" (Russian) and brought to the boil then immediately removed from the heat. It may be very briefly brought to the boil two or three times. Turkish coffee is sometimes flavored with cardamom, particularly in Arab countries. The resulting strong coffee, with foam on the top and a thick layer of grounds at the bottom, is drunk from small cups.


title: Coffee preparation

text: A "cafetière", or "French press," is a tall, narrow cylinder with a plunger that includes a metal or nylon fine mesh filter. The grounds are placed in the cylinder, and off-the-boil water is then poured into it. The coffee and hot water are left in the cylinder for a few minutes (typically 4–7 minutes) and then the plunger is gently pushed down, leaving the filter immediately above the grounds, allowing the coffee to be poured out while the filter retains the grounds. Depending on the type of filter, it is important to pay attention to the grind of the coffee beans, though a rather coarse grind is almost always called for. A plain glass cylinder may be used, or a vacuum flask arrangement to keep the coffee hot; this is not to be confused with a vacuum brewer—see below.


title: Coffee preparation

text: "Coffee bags" are used less often than tea bags. They are simply disposable bags containing coffee; the grounds do not exit the bag as it mixes with the water, so no extra filtering is required.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Malaysian and some Caribbean and South American styles of coffee are often brewed using a ""sock,"" which is actually a simple muslin bag, shaped like a filter, into which coffee is loaded, then steeped in hot water. This method is especially suitable for use with local-brew coffees in Malaysia, primarily of the varieties "Robusta" and "Liberica" which are often strong-flavored, allowing the ground coffee in the sock to be reused.


title: Coffee preparation

text: A "vacuum brewer" consists of two chambers: a pot below, atop which is set a bowl or funnel with its siphon descending nearly to the bottom of the pot. The bottom of the bowl is blocked by a filter of glass, cloth or plastic, and the bowl and pot are joined by a gasket that forms a tight seal. Water is placed in the pot, the coffee grounds are placed in the bowl, and the whole apparatus is set over a burner. As the water heats, it is forced by the increasing vapor pressure up the siphon and into the bowl where it mixes with the grounds. When all the water possible has been forced into the bowl the infusion is allowed to sit for some time before the brewer is removed from the heat. As the water vapor in the lower pot cools, it contracts, forming a partial vacuum and drawing the coffee down through the filter.


title: Coffee preparation

text: "Drip brew coffee," also known as filtered coffee, is made by letting hot water drip onto coffee grounds held in a coffee filter surrounded by a filter holder or brew basket. Drip brew makers can be simple filter holder types manually filled with hot water, or they can use automated systems as found in the popular electric drip coffee-maker. Strength varies according to the ratio of water to coffee and the fineness of the grind, but is typically weaker in taste and contains a lower concentration of caffeine than espresso, though often (due to size) more total caffeine. By convention, regular coffee brewed by this method is served by some restaurants in a brown or black pot (or a pot with a brown or black handle), while decaffeinated coffee is served in an orange pot (or a pot with an orange handle).


title: Coffee preparation

text: A variation is the traditional "Neapolitan flip coffee pot", or Napoletana, a drip brew coffee maker for the stovetop. It consists of a bottom section filled with water, a middle filter section, and an upside-down pot placed on the top. When the water boils, the coffee maker is flipped over to let the water filter through the coffee grounds.


title: Coffee preparation

text: The common "electric percolator," which was in almost universal use in the United States prior to the 1970s, and is still popular in some households today, differs from the pressure percolator described above. It uses the pressure of the boiling water to force it to a chamber above the grounds, but relies on gravity to pass the water down through the grounds, where it then repeats the process until shut off by an internal timer. Some coffee aficionados hold the coffee produced in low esteem because of this multiple-pass process. Others prefer gravity percolation and claim it delivers a richer cup of coffee in comparison to drip brewing.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Indian filter coffee uses an apparatus typically made of stainless steel. There are two cylindrical compartments, one sitting on top of the other. The upper compartment has tiny holes (less than ~0.5 mm). And then there is the pierced pressing disc with a stem handle, and a covering lid. The finely ground coffee with 15–20% chicory is placed in the upper compartment, the pierced pressing disc is used to cover the ground coffee, and hot water is poured on top of this disk. Unlike the regular drip brew, the coffee does not start pouring down immediately. This is because of the chicory, which holds on to the water longer than just the ground coffee beans can. This causes the beverage to be much more potent than the American drip variety. 2–3 teaspoonfuls of this decoction is added to a 100–150 ml milk. Sugar is then sometimes added by individual preference.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Another variation is cold brew coffee, sometimes known as "cold press." Cold water is poured over coffee grounds and allowed to steep for eight to twenty-four hours. The coffee is then filtered, usually through a very thick filter, removing all particles. This process produces a very strong concentrate which can be stored in a refrigerated, airtight container for up to eight weeks. The coffee can then be prepared for drinking by adding hot water to the concentrate at a water-to-concentrate ratio of approximately 3:1, but can be adjusted to the drinker's preference. The coffee prepared by this method is very low in acidity with a smooth taste, and is often preferred by those with sensitive stomachs. Others, however, feel this method strips coffee of its bold flavor and character. Thus, this method is not common, and there are few appliances designed for it.


title: Coffee preparation

text: The amount of coffee used affects both the strength and the flavor of the brew in a typical drip-brewing filtration-based coffee maker. The softer flavors come out of the coffee first and the more bitter flavors only after some time, so a large brew will tend to be both stronger and more bitter. This can be modified by stopping the filtration after a planned time and then adding hot water to the brew instead of waiting for all the water to pass through the grounds.


title: Coffee preparation

text: In addition to the "cold press", there is a method called "Cold Drip Coffee". Also known as "Dutch Ice Coffee" (and very popular in Japan), instead of steeping, this method very slowly drips cold water into the grounds, which then very slowly pass through a filter. Unlike the cold press (which functions similar to a French Press) which takes eight to twenty-four hours, a Cold Drip process only takes about two hours, with taste and consistency results similar to that of a cold press.


title: Coffee preparation

text: "Espresso" is made by forcing hot water at 91–95 °C (195–204 °F) under a pressure of between eight and eighteen bars (800–1800 kPa, 116–261 psi), through a lightly packed matrix, called a "puck," of finely ground coffee. The 30–60 ml (1–2 oz) beverage is served in demitasse cups; sugar is often added. It is consumed during the day at cafes and from street vendors, or after an evening meal. It is the basis for many coffee drinks. It is one of the most concentrated forms of coffee regularly consumed, with a distinctive flavor provided by crema, a layer of flavorful emulsified oils in the form of a colloidal foam floating on the surface, which is produced by the high pressure. Espresso is more viscous than other forms of brewed coffee.


title: Coffee preparation

text: The "moka pot", also known as the "Italian coffeepot" or the "caffettiera," is a three-chamber design which boils water in the lower section. The generated steam pressure, about one bar (100 kPa, 14.5 psi), forces the boiling water up through coffee grounds held in the middle section, separated by a filter mesh from the top section. The resultant coffee (almost espresso strength, but without the crema) is collected in the top section. Moka pots usually sit directly on a stovetop heater or burner. Some models have a transparent glass or plastic top.


title: Coffee preparation

text: "Single-serving coffee" machines force hot water under low pressure through a coffee pod composed of finely ground coffee sealed between two layers of filter paper or through a proprietary capsule containing ground coffee. Examples include the pod-based Senseo and Home Café systems and the proprietary Tassimo and Keurig K-Cup systems.


title: Coffee preparation

text: The "AeroPress" is another recent invention, which is a mechanical, non-electronic device where pressure is simply exerted by the user manually pressing a piston down with their hand, forcing medium-temperature water through coffee grounds in about 30 seconds (into a single cup.) This method produces a smoother beverage than espresso, falling somewhere between the flavor of a "moka pot" and a "French Press".


title: Coffee preparation

text: Proper brewing of coffee requires using the correct amount of coffee grounds, extracted to the correct degree (largely determined by the correct time), at the correct temperature using the water of balanced mineral composition. SCAA defines a precise composition of water for the barista championships.


title: Coffee preparation

text: More technically, coffee brewing consists of dissolving (solvation) soluble flavors from the coffee grounds in water. Specialized vocabulary and guidelines exist to discuss this, primarily various "ratios," which are used to optimally brew coffee. The key concepts are:


title: Coffee preparation

text: A subtler issue is "which" solubles are dissolved – this depends both on solubility of different substances at different temperatures, and changes over the course of extraction. Different substances are extracted during the first 1% of brewing time than in the period from 19% extraction to 20% extraction. This is primarily affected by "temperature".


title: Coffee preparation

text: Brewing guidelines are summarised by "Brewing Control Charts" which graph these elements, and center around an "ideal" rectangle indicating the target brewing range. The yield in the horizontal ("x"-axis), the strength is the vertical ("y"-axis), and a given brewing ratio determines a radial line, since for a giving brewing ratio the strength is directly proportional to the yield.


title: Coffee preparation

text: "Ideal yield" is widely agreed to be 20±2% (18–22%), while "ideal strength" for brewed coffee varies. American standards for "ideal strength" are generally considered to be between 1.25±0.10% (1.15–1.35%), while Norwegian standards are about 1.40±0.10% (1.30–1.50%). European standards fall in the middle range at 1.20–1.45%.


title: Coffee preparation

text: These are most easily achieved with a brewing ratio of 55 g/L (55 grams of coffee per litre of water) for American standards, to 63 g/L in Norwegian standards, yielding approximately 14–16 grams of coffee for a standard cup. These guidelines apply regardless of brewing method, with the following exceptions:


title: Coffee preparation

text: Coffee in all these forms is made with roasted and ground coffee and hot water, the used grounds either remaining behind or being filtered out of the cup or jug after the main soluble compounds have been extracted. The fineness of grind required differs for the various brewing methods.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Instant coffee is made commercially by drying prepared coffee; the resulting soluble powder is dissolved in hot water by the user, and sugar/sweeteners and milk or creamers are added as desired.


title: Coffee preparation

text: Alcoholic spirits and liqueurs can be added to coffee, often sweetened and with cream floated on top. These beverages are often given names according to the alcoholic addition:


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: A double wishbone suspension is an independent suspension design for automobiles using two (occasionally parallel) wishbone-shaped arms to locate the wheel. Each wishbone or arm has two mounting points to the chassis and one joint at the knuckle. The shock absorber and coil spring mount to the wishbones to control vertical movement. Double wishbone designs allow the engineer to carefully control the motion of the wheel throughout suspension travel, controlling such parameters as camber angle, caster angle, toe pattern, roll center height, scrub radius, scuff and more.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: The double-wishbone suspension can also be referred to as "double A-arms", though the arms themselves can be A-shaped, L-shaped, or even a single bar linkage. A single wishbone or A-arm can also be used in various other suspension types, such as variations of the MacPherson strut. The upper arm is usually shorter to induce negative camber as the suspension jounces (rises), and often this arrangement is titled an "SLA" or "short long arms" suspension. When the vehicle is in a turn, body roll results in positive camber gain on the lightly loaded inside wheel, while the heavily loaded outer wheel gains negative camber.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: Between the outboard end of the arms is a knuckle. The knuckle contains a kingpin for horizontal radial movement in older designs, and rubber or trunion bushings for vertical hinged movement. In newer designs, a ball joint at each end allow for all movement. Attached to the knuckle at its center is a bearing hub, or in many older designs, a spindle to which the wheel bearings are mounted.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: To resist fore-aft loads such as acceleration and braking, the arms require two bushings or ball joints at the body.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: At the knuckle end, single ball joints are typically used, in which case the steering loads have to be taken via a steering arm, and the wishbones look A- or L-shaped. An L-shaped arm is generally preferred on passenger vehicles because it allows a better compromise of handling and comfort to be tuned in. The bushing in line with the wheel can be kept relatively stiff to effectively handle cornering loads while the off-line joint can be softer to allow the wheel to recess under fore-aft impact loads. For a rear suspension, a pair of joints can be used at both ends of the arm, making them more H-shaped in plan view. Alternatively, a fixed-length driveshaft can perform the function of a wishbone as long as the shape of the other wishbone provides control of the upright. This arrangement has been successfully used in the Jaguar IRS. In elevation view, the suspension is a 4-bar link, and it is easy to work out the camber gain (see camber angle) and other parameters for a given set of bushing or ball-joint locations. The various bushings or ball joints do not have to be on horizontal axes, parallel to the vehicle centre line. If they are set at an angle, then anti-dive and anti-squat geometry can be dialled in.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: In many racing cars, the springs and dampers are relocated inside the bodywork. The suspension uses a bellcrank to transfer the forces at the knuckle end of the suspension to the internal spring and damper. This is then known as a "push rod" if bump travel "pushes" on the rod (and subsequently the rod must be joined to the bottom of the upright and angled upward). As the wheel rises, the push rod compresses the internal spring via a pivot or pivoting system. The opposite arrangement, a "pull rod", will pull on the rod during bump travel, and the rod must be attached to the top of the upright, angled downward. Locating the spring and damper inboard increases the total mass of the suspension, but reduces the unsprung mass, and also allows the designer to make the suspension more aerodynamic.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: A short long arms suspension (SLA) is also known as an unequal length double wishbone suspension. The upper arm is typically an A-arm, and is shorter than the lower link, which is an A-arm or an L-arm, or sometimes a pair of tension/compression arms. In the latter case the suspension can be called a multi-link, or dual ball joint suspension.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: The four-bar linkage mechanism formed by the unequal arm lengths causes a change in the camber of the vehicle as it rolls, which helps to keep the contact patch square on the ground, increasing the ultimate cornering capacity of the vehicle. It also reduces the wear of the outer edge of the tire.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: SLAs can be classified as short spindle, in which the upper ball joint on the spindle is inside the wheel, or long spindle, in which the spindle tucks around the tire and the upper ball joint sits above the tire.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: Short spindle SLAs tend to require stiffer bushings at the body, as the braking and cornering forces are higher. Also they tend to have poorer kingpin geometry, due to the difficulty of packaging the upper ball joint and the brakes inside the wheel.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: Long spindle SLAs tend to have better kingpin geometry, but the proximity of the spindle to the tyre restricts fitting oversized tyres, or snowchains. The location of the upper balljoint may have styling implications in the design of the sheetmetal above it.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: SLAs require some care when setting up their bump steer characteristic, as it is easy to end up with excessive, or curved, bump steer curves.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: The double wishbone suspension was introduced in the 1930s. French car maker Citroën began using it in their 1934 Rosalie and Traction Avant models. Packard Motor Car Company of Detroit, Michigan, used it on the Packard One-Twenty from 1935, and advertised it as a safety feature. During that time MacPherson strut was still in the area of aviation technology and was derived from aircraft landing mechanism. Later on, until 1951, Ford Company decided to use the MacPherson strut on small production cars, the English Ford Consul and Ford Zephyr. Thus, the double wishbone was applied early in automobile history and there is no genetic relationship between MacPherson strut and double wishbone suspension.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: Double wishbones have traditionally been considered to have superior dynamic characteristics as well as load-handling capabilities, and are therefore commonly found on sports cars and racing cars throughout automotive history. Examples of cars with double wishbone suspension include the Aston Martin DB7, the Mazda MX-5, and the third through eighth generation of the Honda Accord. Short long arms suspension, a type of double wishbone suspension, is very common on front suspensions for medium-to-large cars such as the Peugeot 407, Citroën C5, and the first two generations of the Mazda6/Atenza.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: The double wishbone suspension provides the engineer more design choices than some other types do. It is fairly easy to work out the effect of moving each joint, so the kinematics of the suspension can be tuned easily and wheel motion can be optimized. It is also easy to work out the loads that different parts will be subjected to which allows more optimised lightweight parts to be designed. They also provide increasing negative camber gain all the way to full jounce travel, unlike the MacPherson strut, which provides negative camber gain only at the beginning of jounce travel and then reverses into positive camber gain at high jounce amounts.


title: Double wishbone suspension

text: Double wishbone suspensions are more complex, impose more difficult packaging constraints and are thus often more expensive than other systems like a MacPherson strut. Due to the increased number of components within the suspension setup, it takes much longer to service and is heavier than an equivalent MacPherson design. At the other end of the scale, it offers less design choice than the more costly and complex multi-link suspension system.


title: Chaos gods

text: A chaos deity is a deity or more often a figure or spirit in mythology associated with or being a personification of primordial chaos. The following is a list of chaos deities in various mythologies.


title: Mamiko Noto

text: Noto was born in Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan. After graduating from Baba Elementary School in Kanazawa City in 1992, she entered Kanazawa City Koshomachi Junior High School. In 1995, Noto entered Hokuriku Gakuin High School. After graduating from high school in 1998, Noto attended Yoyogi Animation Gakuin for a year, after which she became a trainee at the Osawa office. There, she was in charge of the script for episode 21 of the UHF anime, "Tōka Gettan", first broadcast in April 2007.


title: Mamiko Noto

text: Noto was introduced as a person from her hometown of Ishikawa Prefecture in the morning edition of the "Hokkoku Shimbun" column, "In the distance," dated April 7, 2008. She agreed to appear as a voice actress in the seventh volume of Haruka Nogizaka's Secret. The scene where she encounters Haruka at the CD release event is depicted with the impression that "the voice and characters are similar to Haruka." In volume nine, she reappears as "N's" and depicts the workplace and the scene of accepting autograph requests.


title: Mamiko Noto

text: Noto's voice has been described as a "whisper voice" and a "healing voice". Yasunori Honda commented, "There is no such thing as a muddy voice. This is a place that was born with a natural nature and is a little out of the ordinary, isn't it?"


title: Mamiko Noto

text: Since the mid-2000s, she has been increasingly in charge of narration. Her voice is heard in promotional commercials such as for Mitsubishi Electric, Kewpie Corporation, and "Avocado.com." Aside from commercials, she is also in charge of the anime "Inadvertently Penelope" and the DVD "The Scottish Fold Brothers: Atom & Luke."


title: Mamiko Noto

text: "Hanasaku Iroha" is set in Ishikawa prefecture, and with Noto coming from Ishikawa prefecture, she also supervises the Kanazawa dialect in the work. It has been noted that Noto requested her parents' cooperation, and in the staff roll of the seventh episode, "People of the Noto family" are credited as supervisors of the Kanazawa dialect.


title: Mamiko Noto

text: On November 23, 2011, Glory Heaven released Noto's debut single, "Ao no Kiseki." The OP / ED theme of the radio "Mamiko Noto / Earth NOTE," for which she is a personality, is recorded. Before that, she released the CD "Scoop! / 7 days after" in collaboration with Ayako Kawasumi, who often co-stars at the same office.


title: Mamiko Noto

text: Noto announced her marriage on September 14, 2018. Noto announced the birth of her first child on February 1, 2019.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: DNA paternity testing is the use of DNA profiles to determine whether an individual is the biological parent of another individual. Paternity testing can be especially important when the rights and duties of the father are in issue and a child's paternity is in doubt. Tests can also determine the likelihood of someone being a biological grandparent. Though genetic testing is the most reliable standard, older methods also exist, including ABO blood group typing, analysis of various other proteins and enzymes, or using human leukocyte antigen antigens. The current techniques for paternity testing are using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and restriction fragment length polymorphism (RFLP). Paternity testing can now also be performed while the woman is still pregnant from a blood draw.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: DNA testing is currently the most advanced and accurate technology to determine parentage. In a DNA paternity test, the result (called the 'probability of parentage) is 0% when the alleged parent is not biologically related to the child, and the probability of parentage is typically 99.99% when the alleged parent is biologically related to the child. However, while almost all individuals have a single and distinct set of genes, rare individuals, known as "chimeras", have at least two different sets of genes, which can result in a false negative result if their reproductive tissue has a different genetic make-up from the tissue sampled for the test.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: The DNA test is performed by collecting buccal (cheek) cells found on the inside of a person's cheek using a buccal or cheek swab. These swabs have wooden or plastic stick handles with a cotton on synthetic tip. The collector rubs the inside of a person's cheek to collect as many buccal cells as possible, which are then sent to a laboratory for testing. Samples from the alleged father or mother and the child would be needed.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: It is possible to determine who the biological father of the fetus is while the woman is still pregnant through procedures called chorionic villus sampling or amniocentesis. Chorionic villus sampling retrieves placental tissue in either a transcervical or transabdominal manner. Amniocentesis retrieves amniotic fluid by inserting a needle through the pregnant mother's abdominal wall. These procedures are highly accurate because they are taking a sample directly from the fetus; however, there is a small risk for the woman to miscarry and lose the pregnancy as a result. Both CVS and Amnio require the pregnant woman to visit a genetic specialist known as a maternal-fetal medicine specialist who will perform the procedure.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Advances in genetic testing have led to the ability to identify the biological father while the woman is still pregnant. There is a small amount of fetal DNA (cffDNA) present in the mother's blood during pregnancy. This allows for accurate fetal DNA paternity testing during pregnancy from a blood draw with no risk of miscarriage. Studies have shown that cffDNA can first be observed as early as 7 weeks gestation, and the amount of cffDNA increases as the pregnancy progresses.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: The DNA of an individual is the same in every somatic (nonreproductive) cell. Sexual reproduction brings the DNA of both parents together to create a unique combination of genetic material in a new cell, so the genetic material of an individual is derived from the genetic material of each parent in equal amounts; this genetic material is known as the nuclear genome of the individual, because it is found in the nucleus.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Comparing the DNA sequence of one person to that of another can prove if one of them was derived from the other, but DNA paternity tests are not currently 100% accurate. Specific sequences are examined to see if they were copied verbatim from one individual's genome; if so, then the genetic material of one individual could have been derived from that of the other (i.e. one is the parent of the other). This is called Autosomal DNA testing. It is currently the gold standard in paternity testing as it allows a comparison of the child’s DNA to that of the mother and alleged father. The genetic contribution to the child from the mother can be evaluated, resulting in possible genotypes for the true father. If the alleged father cannot be excluded as the true father, then statistical calculations can be conducted to determine how likely the alleged father is the true father compared to if another random man was the true father.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Besides nuclear DNA, mitochondria also have their own genetic material called mitochondrial DNA. Mitochondrial DNA comes only from the mother, without any shuffling. Proving a relationship based on comparison of the mitochondrial genome is much easier than that based on the nuclear genome. However, testing the mitochondrial genome can prove only if two individuals are related by common descent through maternal lines only from a common ancestor and is, thus, of limited value (i.e., it could not be used to test for paternity).


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In testing the paternity of a male child, comparison of the Y chromosome can be used, since it is passed directly from father to son. However, similar to mitochondrial DNA, the Y chromosome is passed through the paternal line. Meaning two brothers share the Y chromosome of their father. Therefore if one brother is the suspected father, his biological brother could also be the father based on Y chromosomal data alone. This is true with any male related to the suspected father on the paternal line. For this reason autosomal DNA testing would be a more precise paternity testing method.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In the US, the AABB has regulations for DNA paternity and family relationship testing, but AABB accreditation is not required. DNA test results are legally admissible if the collection and the processing follows a chain of custody. Similarly in Canada, the SCC has regulations on DNA paternity and relationship testing, but this accreditation, while recommended, is not required.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: The Paternity Testing Commission of the International Society for Forensic Genetics has taken up the task of establishing the biostatistical recommendations in accordance with the ISO/IEC 17025 standards. Bio-statistical evaluations of paternity should be based on a likelihood ratio principle - yielding the Paternity Index, PI. The recommendations provide guidance on concepts of genetic hypotheses and calculation concerns needed to produce valid PIs, as well as on specific issues related to population genetics.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: The first form of any kind of parental testing was blood typing, or matching blood types between the child and alleged parent, which became available in the 1920s, after scientists recognized that blood types, which had been discovered in the early 1900s, were genetically inherited. Under this form of testing, the blood types of the child and parents are compared, and it can be determined whether there is any possibility of a parental link. For example, two O blood type parents can produce a child only with an O blood type, and two parents with a B blood type can produce a child with either a B or an O blood type. This often led to inconclusive results, as 30% of the entire population can be excluded from being the possible parent under this form of testing. In the 1930s, serological testing, which tests certain proteins in the blood, became available, with a 40% exclusion rate.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In the 1960s, highly accurate genetic paternity testing became a possibility when HLA typing was developed, which compares the genetic fingerprints on white blood cells between the child and alleged parent. HLA tests could be done with 80% accuracy but could not distinguish between close relatives. Genetic parental testing technology advanced further with the isolation of the first restriction enzyme in 1970. Highly accurate DNA parental testing became available in the 1980s with the development of RFLP. In the 1990s, PCR became the standard method for DNA parental testing: a simpler, faster, and more accurate method of testing than RFLP, it has an exclusion rate of 99.99% or higher.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: The DNA parentage test that follows strict chain of custody can generate legally admissible results that are used for child support, inheritance, social welfare benefits, immigration, or adoption purposes. To satisfy the chain-of-custody legal requirements, all tested parties have to be properly identified and their specimens collected by a third-party professional who is not related to any of the tested parties and has no interest in the outcome of the test.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: The quantum of evidence needed is clear and convincing evidence: that is, more evidence than an ordinary case in civil litigation, but less than beyond a reasonable doubt required to convict a defendant in a criminal case.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In recent years, immigration authorities in various countries, such as the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, France, and others, may accept DNA parentage test results from immigration petitioners and beneficiaries in a family-based immigration case when primary documents that prove biological relationship are missing or inadequate.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In the U.S., immigration applicants bear the responsibility of arranging and paying for DNA testing. The U.S. immigration authorities require that the DNA test, if pursued, be performed by one of the laboratories accredited by the AABB (formerly American Association of Blood Banks). Similarly, in Canada, the laboratory needs to be accredited by the Standards Council of Canada.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Although paternity tests are more common than maternity tests, there may be circumstances in which the biological mother of the child is unclear: examples include cases of an adopted child attempting to reunify with his or her biological mother, potential hospital mix-ups, and in vitro fertilization where the laboratory may have implanted an unrelated embryo inside the mother.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Other factors, such as new laws regarding reproductive technologies using donated eggs and sperm and surrogate mothers, can also mean that the female giving birth is not necessarily the legal mother of the child. For example, in Canada, the federal "Human Assisted Reproduction Act" provides for the use of hired surrogate mothers. The legal mother of the child may be the egg donor. Similar laws are in place in the United Kingdom and Australia.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In Brazil in 2019, two male identical twins were ordered to both pay maintenance for a child fathered by one of them, because the father could not be identified with DNA.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Peace-of-mind parentage tests are widely available on the internet. For a parentage test (paternity or maternity) to be admissible for legal purposes, such as for changing a birth certificate, Family Law Court proceedings, visa/citizenship applications or child support claims, the process must comply with the "Family Law Regulations 1984" (Cth). Further, the laboratory processing the samples must be accredited by the National Association of Testing Authorities (NATA).


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Personal paternity-testing kits are available. The Standards Council of Canada regulates paternity testing in Canada whereby laboratories are ISO 17025-approved. In Canada, only a handful of labs have this approval, and it is recommended that testing is performed in these labs. Courts also have the power to order paternity tests during divorce cases.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In China, paternity testing is legally available to fathers who suspect their child is not theirs. Chinese law also requires a paternity test for any child born outside the one-child policy for the child to be eligible for a "hukou", or family registration record. Family tie formed by adoption can also only be confirmed by a paternity test. A large number of Chinese citizens seek paternity testing each year, and this has given rise to many unlicensed illegal testing centers being set up.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: DNA paternity testing is solely performed on decision of a judge in case of a judiciary procedure in order either to establish or contest paternity or to obtain or deny child support. Private DNA paternity testing is illegal, including through laboratories in other countries, and is punishable by up to a year in prison and a €15,000 fine. The French Council of State has described the law's purpose as upholding the "French regime of filiation" and preserving "the peace of families."


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Under the Gene Diagnostics Act of 2009, secret paternity testing is illegal. Any paternity testing must be conducted by a licensed physician or by an expert with a university degree in science and special education in parentage testing, and the laboratory carrying out genetic testing must be accredited according to ISO/IEC 17025. Full informed consent of both parents is required, and prenatal paternity testing is prohibited, with the exception of sexual abuse and rape cases. Any genetic testing done without the other parent's consent is punishable with a €5,000 fine. Due to an amendment of the civil law section 1598a in 2005, any man who contests paternity no longer automatically severs legal rights and obligations to the child.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: A paternity test with any legal standing must be ordered by a family court. Though parents have access to "peace of mind" parental tests through overseas laboratories, family courts are under no obligation to accept them as evidence. It is also illegal to take genetic material for a parental test from a minor over 16 years of age without the minor's consent. Family courts have the power to order paternity tests against the will of the father in divorce and child support cases, as well as in other cases such as determining heirs and settling the question involving the population registry. A man seeking to prove that he is not the father of the child registered as his is entitled to a paternity test, even if the mother and natural guardian object. Paternity tests are not ordered when it is believed it could lead to the murder of the mother, and until 2007, were not ordered when there was a chance that the child of a married woman could have been fathered by a man other than her husband, thereby making the child a "mamzer" under Jewish law.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: DNA paternity testing for personal knowledge is legal, and home test kits are available by mail from representatives of AABB- and ISO 17025-certified laboratories. DNA Paternity Testing for official purposes, such as sustento (child support) and inheritance disputes, must follow the Rule on DNA Evidence A.M. No. 06-11-5-SC, which was promulgated by the Philippine Supreme Court on October 15, 2007. Tests are sometimes ordered by courts when proof of paternity is required.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In Spain, peace-of-mind paternity tests are a "big business," partly due to the French ban on paternity testing, with many genetic testing companies being based in Spain.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In the United Kingdom, there were no restrictions on paternity tests until the "Human Tissue Act 2004" came into force in September 2006. Section 45 states that it is an offence to possess without appropriate consent any human bodily material with the intent of analysing its DNA. Legally declared fathers have access to paternity-testing services under the new regulations, provided the putative parental DNA being tested is their own. Tests are sometimes ordered by courts when proof of paternity is required. In the UK, the Ministry of Justice accredits bodies that can conduct this testing. The Department of Health produced a voluntary code of practice on genetic paternity testing in 2001. This document is currently under review, and responsibility for it has been transferred to the Human Tissue Authority.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In the 2018 case of Anderson V Spencer the Court of Appeal permitted for the very first time DNA samples taken from a Deceased person to be used for paternity testing.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: In the United States, paternity testing is fully legal, and fathers may test their children without the consent or knowledge of the mother. Paternity testing take-home kits are readily available for purchase, though their results are not admissible in court and are for personal knowledge only.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Only a court-ordered paternity test may be used as evidence in court proceedings. If parental testing is being submitted for legal purposes, including immigration, testing must be ordered through a lab that has AABB accreditation for relationship DNA testing.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: The legal implications of a parentage result test vary by state and according to whether the putative parents are unmarried or married. If a parentage test does not meet forensic standards for the state in question, a court-ordered test may be required for the results of the test to be admissible for legal purposes. For unmarried parents, if a parent is currently receiving child support or custody, but DNA testing later proves that the man is not the father, support automatically stops. However, in many states, this testing must be performed during a narrow window of time, if a voluntary acknowledgement of parentage form has already been signed by the putative father; otherwise, the results of the test may be disregarded by law, and in many cases, a man may be required to pay child support, though the child is biologically unrelated. In a few states, if the mother is receiving the support, then that alleged father has the right to file a lawsuit to get back any money that he lost from paying support. As of 2011, in most states, unwed parents confronted with a voluntary acknowledgement of parentage form are informed of the possibility and right to request a DNA paternity test. If testing is refused by the mother, the father may not be required to sign the birth certificate or the voluntary acknowledgement of parentage form for the child. For wedded putative parents, the husband of the mother is presumed to be the father of the child. But, in most states, this presumption can be overturned by the application of a forensic paternity test; in many states, the time for overturning this presumption may be limited to the first few years of the child's life.


title: DNA paternity testing

text: Reverse paternity determination is the ability to establish the biological father when the father of that person is not available. The test uses the STR alleles in mother and her child, other children and brothers of the alleged father, and deduction of genetic constitution of the father by the basis of genetic laws, all to create a rough amalgamation. This can compare the father's DNA when a direct sample of the father's DNA is unavailable. An episode of "Solved" shows this test being used to know if a blood sample matches with the victim of a kidnapping.


title: Top Management (TV series)

text: Top Management () is a 2018 South Korean series that premiered on October 31, 2018 on YouTube Premium. It is based on an original novel by Jang Woo-san about idols who dream about going on stage, which was published in 2015 by Munpia. The series stars Seo Eun-soo, Ahn Hyo-seop and Cha Eun-woo.


title: Top Management (TV series)

text: The story centers on Eun-sung, a former girl idol trainee with the power to foresee the future, who becomes the manager of the aspiring, but struggling, boy idol group "S.O.U.L."


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The Green Line is a light rail system run by the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority (MBTA) in the Boston, Massachusetts, metropolitan area. It is the oldest MBTA subway line, and with tunnel sections dating from 1897, the oldest subway in North America. It runs underground through downtown Boston, and on the surface into inner suburbs via six branches on radial boulevards and grade-separated alignments. With an average daily weekday ridership of 137,700 in 2019, it is the third most heavily used light rail system in the country. The line was assigned the green color in 1967 during a systemwide rebranding because several branches pass through sections of the Emerald Necklace of Boston.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The four branches are the remnants of a large streetcar system, which began in 1856 with the Cambridge Horse Railroad and was consolidated into the Boston Elevated Railway several decades later. The branches all travel downtown through the Tremont Street subway, the oldest subway tunnel in North America. The Tremont Street subway opened its first section on September 1, 1897, to take streetcars off overcrowded downtown streets; it was extended five times over the next five decades. The streetcar system peaked in size around 1930 and was gradually replaced with trackless trolleys and buses, with cuts as late as 1985. The new D branch opened on a converted commuter rail line in 1959. The Green Line Extension project extended two branches into Somerville and Medford in 2022.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The Green Line's core is the central subway, a group of tunnels which run through downtown Boston. The Tremont Street subway runs roughly north–south through downtown, with stations at , , , , and – all with connections to other lines of the MBTA subway system. The Boylston Street subway runs roughly east–west through the Back Bay neighborhood, with stations at , , , and ; it connects to the Tremont Street subway at Boylston. The Huntington Avenue subway diverges from the Boylston Street subway at a flat junction west of Copley, running southwest with stations at and . A branch of the Tremont Street subway, disused since 1962, runs south from Boylston to the former Pleasant Street incline.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: B and C branch service terminates at Government Center, while D and E branch service continues north from downtown Boston. North of North Station, the line inclines up to the Lechmere Viaduct, which crosses the Charles River with an elevated station at . The elevated Lechmere station is located on the Green Line Extension viaduct, which continues north to a flying junction with two branches:


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The Green Line A branch was the northernmost of the branches, running from the Blandford Street portal (still used by the B branch), west to Watertown, mostly street-running. The bus replaced the streetcar line in 1969. The A branch diverged from Commonwealth Avenue west of Boston University and ran to a terminus in Watertown, across the Charles River from Watertown Square, until 1969. Although the route-letter scheme had been introduced two years prior to its closure, the "A" designation was never signed on streetcars to Watertown. It was, however, included in the destination signs on the Boeing-Vertol LRVs ordered in the mid-1970s, when reopening service to Watertown was under consideration. The "A" line tracks remained in non-revenue service to access maintenance facilities at Watertown until 1994.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The Pleasant Street portal hosted two services in its final days. The to City Point ended in 1953, and the to Egleston was cut back to Lenox Street in 1956, cut back to the portal in 1961, and ended operation in 1962. Prior to that, the ran out Tremont Street to Dover Street and Washington Street, ending at , and last running in 1938.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The last two routes to continue beyond the Canal Street portal both ran to Sullivan. The ran via Main Street, last running in 1948, and the via Bunker Hill Street last ran in 1949. Until 1997 trains continued to use the portal and its North Station surface station as a terminal.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: In addition to the lines that later became the E branch, the predecessors to the and split in Brookline, one branch running into the current "E" tracks and into the Boylston Street portal, and the other running up Brookline Street to end at Massachusetts Avenue station. These were truncated in 1932 into a shorter route from Brookline Village to the subway via the Boylston Street portal, which itself stopped running in 1938 (being cut back to Brigham Circle short-turn trips), three years before the closure of that portal.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The last "foreign" cars to operate in the subway were those of the Eastern Massachusetts Street Railway, running from the Canal Street portal to the Brattle Loop at Scollay Square until 1935. It was then that the old Mystic River Bridge to Chelsea was closed to streetcars and the lines were replaced by bus service; the next year the BERy bought the Eastern Mass Chelsea Division and through-routed it with its lines connecting to the East Boston Tunnel at Maverick.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Like the three other MBTA subway lines, the line uses standard gauge tracks. However, instead of heavy rail metro rolling stock, the Green Line uses modern streetcars (light rail vehicles) as heavy rail stock would be inappropriate for the surface branches with their numerous grade crossings.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Only MBTA operated vehicles are included here, not cars from the Boston Elevated Railway "(BERy)" era.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: When it opened at the end of the 19th century, the Tremont Street subway was not intended as a full-scale rapid transit line (though it was built to pre-metro standards), but to allow ordinary streetcars to bypass the worst street congestion in downtown Boston. Operations by several different companies were eventually consolidated into the Boston Elevated Railway, which ran a mixture of car types. After receiving a test unit in 1937, the BERy began to standardize on PCC streetcars, acquiring 320 units between 1941 and 1951 plus an additional 25 in 1959 to phase out the last older cars.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Two older streetcars are on display on the unused outer inbound track at Boylston station, which formerly carried cars coming from the Pleasant Street portal. Car #5734, a Type 5 A-1 car built in 1924 and retired in 1959, is owned by the Seashore Trolley Museum, but resides semipermanently in Boston. PCC #3295, built in 1951 and retired in 1986, is owned by the MBTA. The cars were formerly used for fantrips, the most recent one being in 1998.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: In the early 1970s, light rail—which had largely disappeared from North America after the slow decline of streetcar systems from the 1920s to the 1950s—was reintroduced as a method of urban renewal less expensive than conventional metro systems. In 1971, as part of a program to supply further work to defense contractors as the Vietnam War wound down, the Urban Mass Transit Administration selected Boeing Vertol as systems manager for a project to design a new generic light rail vehicle. The UMTA hoped that this "US Standard Light Rail Vehicle" would jumpstart the development of transit lines just as the standardized PCC streetcars had done decades prior.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Boston (with its older streetcar tunnel systems) and San Francisco (with a new Muni Metro streetcar tunnel being built as part of BART construction) were chosen as the testbeds for this new rolling stock. The vehicle was designed as the largest rolling stock that would fit through the Tremont Street tunnel, the Muni Metro's Twin Peaks Tunnel, and SEPTA's subway–surface lines tunnel. The new cars were faster—a top speed of versus the PCC's —and had an articulated middle section for higher capacity.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Boeing began construction of 175 cars for the MBTA in May 1973. The first LRVs entered service on the D branch in December 1976 but were immediately beset with problems. Certain cars frequently derailed on tight turns in the Riverside, Boston College and Lechmere yards. Battery trays, air conditioners—mounted under the cars, continually drawing in dirt and debris from under the car when in the tunnels—and air compressors all suffered numerous failures; the plug-style doors had trouble sealing properly; and traction motors failed sooner than expected.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Desperate for reliable rolling stock, in 1977 MBTA launched an overhaul program to extend the availability of its older PCC cars. A total of 34 cars, primarily out-of-service wrecks and parts cars, were rebuilt to as-new condition. , some of these rebuilt PCC cars still run on the Ashmont–Mattapan High Speed Line.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: After years of fighting between the MBTA and Boeing-Vertol, both sides reached a settlement in 1979. MBTA was allowed to reject the final 40 SLRVs, and Boeing would return $40 million to MBTA for the cost of repairs and modifications to several cars.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: In the early 1980s, with a final settlement with Boeing in place, MBTA started looking for new equipment to supplement and replace the problematic LRVs.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: In 1980, the MBTA tested Canadian Light Rail Vehicles for three months to determine whether they could be used on the Green Line. The MBTA ultimately found them unsuitable.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Ultimately, the MBTA purchased LRVs from the Japanese firm Kinki Sharyo. These Type 7 were designed with the best features of the US SLRV, the Canadian LRV, and the PCC cars. A total of 120 Type 7 vehicles were purchased, 100 were delivered between 1986 and 1988, and an additional 20 cars ordered and delivered in 1997.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Low-floor LRVs were added starting in 1998, allowing for accessible boarding directly from slightly raised platforms. MBTA ordered 100 of these Type 8 cars from Italian company AnsaldoBreda. The first Type 8s entered revenue service in March 1999, and quickly proved problematic and difficult to maintain: the first cars failed every , far short of the specified by the MBTA, and were prone to derailment at higher speeds as well as brake problems, echoing the problems with the Boeing stock. In December 2004, the MBTA canceled orders for the cars still to be delivered as part of the authority's nine-year, US$225 million deal with Breda. One year later, in December 2005 the MBTA announced that it had entered into a restructuring of the deal, reducing the order to 85 cars (with spare parts to be provided in lieu of the 15 remaining cars), and providing for the remaining payment under the original deal only if the cars met performance requirements. Construction of the last car under the order was completed on December 14, 2006. Ultimately, 10 additional cars would be assembled and delivered in late 2007, with five spare shells retained (95 cars in service). The MBTA was criticized for their failure to assess Bredas' reliability before entering into the deal, and during delivery. The agency was also forced to spend an additional to modify tracks to prevent derailments and the Type 8 fleet was unable to be used on the D branch (where cars reach full speed) after those modifications were complete in 2008.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: As the final Type 8s were delivered, the last of the Boeing-Vertol cars were retired in March 2007 and all except ten of the cars were scrapped. Of the remaining cars, six were sold to the US Government and are now in Pueblo, Colorado for testing purposes, one was given to the Seashore Trolley Museum, and three were retained by the MBTA for work service.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: In 2006, as part of a legal settlement, the MBTA committed to always operate at least one low-floor car in each train, with no trains consisting only of Type 7 cars.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Of the 120 Type 7 cars, 103 were overhauled by Alstom in Hornell, New York. The work includes new propulsion systems, climate control systems and interiors as well as exterior work. The pilot car for the program left in October 2012 and was returned in November 2014, with the last car overhauled in April 2019.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Twenty-four new Type 9 Green Line cars were delivered between 2017 and 2020. Revenue service began in late 2018 and all 24 cars were planned to enter service by the fall of 2019, although actual acceptance continued through 2021. The Type 9 cars will provide additional rolling stock to allow for Green Line Extension operations, and will not replace any of the existing fleet. The cars were made by CAF USA, Inc., with the shells and frames made in Spain, and final assembly and testing done at their plant in Elmira, New York. , the first unit had been expected to enter passenger service in Spring 2018, with all 24 cars in service by the end of the year. The first Type 9 car, #3900, began revenue service on December 21, 2018.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Planning for a Type 10 fleet—which would replace all Type 7 and Type 8 cars in the mid-2020s—began in 2018 with plans for a fully low floor fleet. At long, Type 10 cars would be significantly longer than the existing fleet, and carry twice as many passengers as existing cars. The MBTA released a request for proposals in December 2019, with notice to proceed expected to be given in 2021. In June 2021, the MBTA indicated that the initial order would be for 102 LRVs operating as single-car trains, with two-car trains deferred for a later project with federal funding. Manufacturer bids were due in July 2021.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The MBTA awarded a $811 million contract to CAF USA on August 31, 2022, to manufacture 102 seven-segment Type 10 "Supercar" LRVs. Four pilot vehicles are to be delivered in spring 2026, with deliveries of two LRVs per month from spring 2027 to spring 2031. The contract included options for additional LRVs. As a separately-funded project, Lake Street Yard will be fully reconstructed to support Type 10 vehicles, with Riverside Yard and the GLX Vehicle Maintenance Facility also modified. When the Type 10 cars are delivered, the Type 9 fleet is expected to be transferred over to the Ashmont–Mattapan High-Speed Line, replacing the PCC streetcars.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The Red Line, Blue Line, and Orange Line run rapid transit cars and use stations with high platforms level with the car floor providing easy access for the disabled. The Green Line originated as a streetcar line, and used a variety of streetcars before converting to light rail vehicles.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Originally all the Green Line stations had platforms at track level, and passengers had to ascend several steps up into the vehicles. This limited accessibility for persons with disabilities. To address this issue and comply with changing federal and state laws, additional facilities have been added:


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Beginning in the 1850s, Boston sprouted a large network of horsecar lines, the first public transit in the city. The West End Street Railway was created by the state legislature in 1887 to build a single line, but soon consolidated many of the existing lines into a single privately owned system with consistent fares and route designations. The Allston – Park Square line (which served the general area of the A branch) was the first section to be converted to electric traction in 1889. It used modified existing horsecars outfitted with Frank J. Sprague's revolutionary electrical equipment, which had first been demonstrated the previous year in Richmond, Virginia. In 1897, the West End Street Railway property was handed over to the Boston Elevated Railway (BERy) in the form of a 24-year lease, and the companies were ultimately combined.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: By the early 1890s, the sheer quantity of streetcars during peak periods was clogging the streets of downtown Boston. The Tremont Street subway, the first passenger subway in North America, was opened in stages in 1897 and 1898, with underground stations at Boylston, Park Street, Scollay Square, Adams Square, and Haymarket. The Main Line Elevated was run through the tunnel from 1901, displacing through-running streetcars, until it was rerouted to its own Washington Street Tunnel in 1908, and the streetcars were returned to the Tremont tunnel.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Though initially intended merely to clear streetcars from the busiest sections of downtown streets, the Tremont Street subway became useful as a rapid transit service in its own right. The 1912 completion of the Causeway Street Elevated and Lechmere Viaduct extended grade-separated service to Lechmere Square in Cambridge, and in 1922 the Lechmere transfer station was built. In 1914, the Boylston Street subway opened as a westward extension to just short of Kenmore Square, and in 1933 Kenmore station and short tunnel extensions towards two surface lines were added. In 1941, the Huntington Avenue subway and its two additional underground stations removed the last surface streetcars from downtown Boston.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Beginning in the 1930s, the massive surface streetcar system was "bustituted" with buses and trackless trolleys which had lower operating costs and more flexible routes. As the 1950s closed out, the only remaining streetcar lines were the Watertown Line, Commonwealth Avenue Line, Beacon Street Line, Arborway Line, and the Lenox Street Line plus several short turn services. In 1959, the Boston and Albany Railroad's Highland Branch was converted to the Riverside Line, a fully grade-separated suburban service. In 1961, the last through service to Lenox Street via the Pleasant Street portal ended, though a Pleasant Street – Boylston shuttle continued for one more year. In 1963, part of the original subway was rebuilt under Government Center, abandoning and partially demolishing Adams Square station.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: In 1947, the now-bankrupt BERy was replaced by the public Metropolitan Transit Authority (M.T.A.). The new agency was unpopular, even spawning a popular protest song; in 1964, it was replaced with the Massachusetts Bay Transportation Authority which had an expanded funding area to preserve suburban commuter rail lines. In 1967, as part of a systemwide rebranding that included new station names and color names for the transit lines, the remaining streetcar services were designated the "Green Line" because several of them traveled near the Emerald Necklace park system. The streetcar lines were given letter designations: "A" to the Watertown Line, "B" to the Commonwealth Avenue Line, "C" to the Beacon Street Line, "D" to the Riverside Line, and "E" to the Arborway Line.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The Watertown Line ran mostly in mixed traffic after diverging from Commonwealth Avenue; it was permanently replaced with buses in 1969. The section of the Arborway Line past Heath Street was "temporarily" – ultimately permanently – bustituted in 1985. In 2001, with new low-floor streetcars entering service, the MBTA began retrofitting underground stations and major surface stops with low raised platforms for accessibility for all. In 2004, the Causeway Street Elevated was replaced with a new tunnel under the Boston Garden, which consolidated the Orange Line and Green Line at a new North Station "superstation", while continuing to connect to Commuter Rail service north of Boston.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The name "Green Line" was assigned in 1967 as part of a major reorganization of the MBTA system's branding. In the 1970s, the Green Line and all other MBTA lines were re-evaluated by the Boston Transportation Planning Review for region-wide efficacy and future modernization alternatives initiated as far as physical plant and operating measures.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: , each of the four branches operate on 7 or 7.5-minute headways during weekday peak hours, and 7.5 to 12 minute headways at other times. Vehicle usage ranges from 44 trains (88 cars) to 60 trains (120 cars).


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Unlike the MBTA heavy rail subway lines, the Green Line has only limited central control and monitoring. This also means that it has lagged behind the other three rail lines in the availability of countdown signs and "next train" arrival information. The line is signalled with advisory wayside signals, except on surface portions in street medians or in-street running. Wayside signal territory stretches from Lechmere to the surface portals at Kenmore, and along the entire length of the D–Riverside branch. There are no automatic protection devices, but the cars have track brakes, giving the ability to stop quickly under control of the operator. Interlockings are controlled through a wayside Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI) system that relies on the operator properly entering the destination manually on a roto-wheel in the train cab at the beginning of a run.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The line is monitored from the Operations Control Center (OCC). Responsibility for controlling service is shared by the control room and field personnel along the right of way. Track circuit and signal indications are not transmitted to the operational personnel sites. In lieu of track circuit indications, the AVI system is displayed in the control room to provide a periodic update to train position wherever AVI detectors exist. The AVI system user interface was solely text based until the current control room was opened, in which a new schematic display based on AVI data was instituted. Track circuit indications are available digitally in signal houses at the Park Street interlocking, at the new North Station interlocking, and at the new Kenmore interlocking, but are not transmitted to OCC. In January 2013, the MBTA announced plans to add full vehicle location tracking on the Green Line for countdown signs and smartphone applications, including using AVI data in the tunnels and GPS receivers on the surface lines. The first real-time data—location data on the surface lines—became available in October 2014. Full tracking was expected by early 2015.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The MBTA typically runs two-car trains at all times. The last scheduled use of one-car trains on weekdays was in March 2007. Three-car trains were added on the B and D branches in 2010 – their first use since 2005 – and a four-car train was tested in April 2011. In March 2011, the number of three-car trains was substantially increased, including use on the E branch. However, three-car trains suffered from reliability problems and slow boarding. The use of three-car trains ended in March 2016.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The MBTA approved a $82.6 million contract in May 2019 for a train protection system for the Green Line. The system will enforce red signals and automatically stop a train if it approaches another train too closely. The project was 28% complete by December 2021; installation of in-vehicle electronics was scheduled to be complete by September 2023, with wayside installation complete in June 2024 and full operation that December. A reallocation of funds in January 2022 shortened the project timeline, with completion expected in 2023.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Aside from the terminal stations, several locations have turnaround loops or crossover switches where trains can reverse direction for short turns. Two of these, where northbound trains can turn southbound, are regularly used as the downtown terminals for the branches:


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Several other loops and crossovers are not used in regular revenue service, but may be used during construction work or service disruptions, or for non-revenue trains:


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The Red, Orange, and Blue lines have block signalling systems that make tracking the location of trains easier. Signs in most station on those lines began to display real-time train information in late 2012 and early 2013, while data feeds have been available for smartphone applications since 2010. However, the wayside signalling system used in the Green Line's tunnels and the D branch does not provide for that level of tracking, nor do the basic stop/go signals used on the street-level branch lines. In January 2013, the MBTA announced plans to provide full tracking data for the Green Line by 2015, allowing use of smartphone applications and in-station countdown signs. The $13.4 million system is funded by MassDOT; it uses existing Automatic Vehicle Identification (AVI) systems plus additional sensors in the tunnels, and GPS receivers on the surface sections.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: In September 2013, the MBTA announced that "Next Train" signs would be unveiled at Kenmore that month. On October 23, 2014, location tracking data became available for Green Line trains above ground. Arrival predictions for surface stations – including the activation of countdown signs along the D branch – and underground tracking and predictions were to be rolled out in two phases by early 2015. In March 2015, the MBTA announced that enough AVI equipment had been installed to allow the release of some underground data by April. Most underground data was live by August, but trains near Park Street and Boylston waited until September.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The first predictive countdown signs on the Green Line were activated at Newton Centre and Newton Highlands on April 24, 2015, followed shortly by other D branch stations. Countdown signs at Kenmore and Hynes were activated in August 2015. Signs at Copley and Arlington plus eastbound-only signs from Boylston through Science Park were activated in October 2015. The final set of signs – those on the westbound platforms of Science Park through Boylston – were activated in January 2016. Because holding and short-turning trains at the downtown terminals makes time-based predictions unreliable, the signs instead show how many stops away a train is.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The Green Line Extension (GLX) project added two new branches into the northern suburbs of Somerville and Medford. The project opened in two phases in 2022 at a total cost of $2.28 billion. The rebuilt Lechmere station and the Union Square Branch to opened on March 21, 2022, as an extension of the D branch (briefly the E branch). The Medford Branch opened to on December 12, 2022 as an extension of the E branch, with intermediate stations at , , , and . The total project cost is estimated to be $2.28 billion: $0.996 billion from the federal government and $1.28 billion from the state. Daily ridership on the extension is projected to be 45,000 by 2030.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The GLX begins at the north end of the Lechmere Viaduct, with a new elevated line continuing north for about parallel to the O'Brien Highway. The former surface-level Lechmere station will be replaced by an elevated station on the new alignment. The two branches split with an aerial flying junction on the Red Bridge viaduct in the Inner Belt area. The Union Square Branch runs west from Red Bridge, sharing the Fitchburg Line right of way. The Medford Branch runs northwest from Red Bridge, sharing the Lowell Line right of way. Like the existing D branch, the new branches are fully grade-separated, with no level crossings. A new vehicle storage yard and maintenance facility is located in the Inner Belt area, with leads from both branches at Red Bridge. An extension of the Somerville Community Path runs along the Medford Branch south of Lowell Street, with a high bridge carrying it above the Red Bridge viaduct.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: An extension north from Lechmere was first proposed in the 1920s, and again several times during the 20th century. To settle a lawsuit with the Conservation Law Foundation to mitigate increased automobile emissions from the Big Dig, the Commonwealth of Massachusetts agreed in 1990 to extend the Green Line from Lechmere to Medford Hillside through Somerville and Medford, two suburbs underserved by the MBTA relative to their population densities, commercial importance, and proximity to Boston. After delays in planning, the state agreed in 2006 to complete the project by 2014. The preferred alternative from the 2009 Draft Environmental Impact Report added the Union Square Branch; the Medford Branch terminus was set as College Avenue, with a potential future extension to .


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The planned completion was delayed to 2018 in 2011, and to 2020 in 2014. A groundbreaking ceremony was held in December 2012. The project was expected to cost about $2.2 billion, with half of that paid by the Federal Transit Administration (FTA). However, in 2015 it became clear that the project would cost $3 billion, putting its future in doubt. The project was value engineered to reduce its cost: station designs were simplified, several bridge reconstructions eliminated, the Community Path extension shortened, and the maintenance facility reduced in size. The FTA approved the modified $2.3 billion plan on April 4, 2017. The contact was rebid with a provision for the optional restoration of six of the elements deleted in the 2016 plan. The winning bid, selected in November 2017, included six optional elements, including canopies and additional elevators at stations, public art, a full-size vehicle maintenance facility, and the full extension of the Community Path to East Cambridge. Construction reached 20% completion in November 2019; it was over 50% completed by October 2020, and 80% by June 2021.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: The majority of the Green Line opened by 1959, long before the 1990 Americans with Disabilities Act mandated that new construction be fully accessible. The MBTA began modifying Red, Orange, and Blue Line stations for accessibility in the late 1980s; however, Green Line stations were not modified until the late 1990s, when the Type 8 vehicles were under construction. The MBTA began the Light Rail Accessibility Program in 1996. Because modifying the numerous stations all at once would be prohibitively expensive, the MBTA designated "key stations" – largely those with high ridership or bus connections – for prioritization.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Riverside station was completely rebuilt with raised accessible platforms around 1998. and (both of which already had elevators from previous projects) were outfitted with portable lifts for temporary accessibility around 2000, as were and ten surface stations. Between 2001 and 2003, 16 surface stations (4 on the B branch, 4 on the C branch, 3 on the D branch, and 5 on the E branch) were retrofitted with raised platforms. The 13 B, C, and E branch stations collectively cost $32 million. Construction of raised platforms was completed at Park Street and Haymarket around 2003; Prudential was also reconstructed that year by the developer of 111 Huntington Avenue. The fully accessible underground "superstation" at North Station opened in 2004. Wooden mini-high platforms, allowing level boarding on older Type 7 LRVs, were installed at eight Green Line stations in 2006–07 as part of the settlement of "Joanne Daniels-Finegold, et al. v. MBTA".


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Renovations for accessibility were completed at in 2009, and in 2010, and in 2011. A two-year closure of ended in 2016 with the opening of the accessible transfer station. This left only and (both with renovations planned for the mid-2020s) and as inaccessible stations in the central subway. As part of the Green Line Extension, Lechmere was replaced by a fully accessible elevated station in 2022.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: Other projects have moved towards full accessibility of the surface branches. was made accessible in 2006. Renovations completed in 2009 made accessible for the first time, and replaced the lifts at and . A reconstruction of (replacing lifts) was completed in 2022. Construction of two accessible stations ( and ) on the B branch to replace four non-accessible stations took place in 2021. Temporary work to make accessible was done in 2019; a full reconstruction will begin in 2022. Renovations for the four remaining non-accessible D branch stations are planned to begin in mid-2023. Construction of additional accessibility modifications on the B and C branches is expected to take place in 2023–24. In 2021, the MBTA indicated plans to modify the Heath Street–Brigham Circle section of the E branch with accessible platforms to replace the existing non-accessible stopping locations.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: This listing includes only the Green Line section between and , which are served by multiple branches. For stops served by only one branch, see , , , and . All stations in the central subway have prepaid fare areas (fare control).


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: On May 28, 2008, two D branch trains collided in Newton. The operator of one of the trains was killed and numerous riders were taken to area hospitals with injuries of varying degrees of seriousness. While it was originally thought that cell phone use was responsible for the accident, the cause was officially determined to be an episode of micro-sleep caused by the driver's sleep apnea.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: On May 8, 2009, two trolleys rear-end collided underground between Park Street and Government Center when the driver of one of the trolleys, 24-year-old Aiden Quinn, was text messaging his girlfriend while driving. Quinn had run through a red light before the crash, which injured 46 people. MBTA officials estimated that the cost of the crash was $9.6 million. A strict ban on cell phone usage by MBTA operators was later enacted.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: On October 8, 2012, two E branch trolleys collided in the 700 block of Huntington Avenue near Brigham Circle when one derailed into the other, injuring three people including a train operator. The next month on November 29, two trolleys collided at low speed at Boylston, injuring several dozen passengers.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: On March 10, 2014, a D branch trolley with passengers aboard derailed in the tunnel just west of Kenmore Station, near the flat junction between the "D" and "C" branches. A second train had to brake suddenly to avoid hitting the derailed train. Ten people were treated for moderate injuries.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: In October 2016, "The Boston Globe" reported that the Green Line had the highest number of derailments and accidents on light rail lines in the United States in 2015. The number of incidents had been increasing for several years due to deferred maintenance on tracks and wheels, which resulted in more low-speed derailments of Type 8 cars.


title: Green Line (MBTA)

text: As part of its crash investigations, the National Transportation Safety Board recommended in 2009 that the Green Line be outfitted with positive train control to prevent collisions. The MBTA decided in 2012 not to implement PTC, estimating the cost at $645 million to $721 million. In 2015, as crashes continued to happen, the NTSB complained the agency was moving too slowly identifying a feasible alternative. In 2019, the MBTA awarded a contract to implement a similar safety system by 2024, at a cost of $170 million. A train would automatically brake if a driver violates a traffic signal, or if cameras or radar detect an obstacle.


title: Fried egg

text: A fried egg, also known as sunny-side up is a cooked dish made from one or more eggs which are removed from their shells and placed into a frying pan and fried. They are traditionally eaten for breakfast in many countries but may also be served at other times of the day.


title: Fried egg

text: Fried eggs ('; singular ') are a crucial part of such traditional German dishes as ' (the egg is fried on one side with an unbroken yolk, and served "sunny side up" atop an open ham sandwich) or ' / ' / "Fernfahrerschnitzel" ("trucker's schnitzel") – a similarly prepared fried egg served on a '.


title: Fried egg

text: Fried eggs over (or side-by-side with) pan-fried potatoes is another common dish, sometimes served with spinach as a third component of the meal. Some German cooks break the yolk and distribute it across the surface of the white during the frying.


title: Fried egg

text: All of the above are typically lunch, rather than breakfast, dishes, although eggs themselves (like boiled or scrambled eggs) are a common part of a German breakfast.


title: Fried egg

text: In Bangladesh and India, fried eggs are commonly served alone or as an accompaniment to bread. It may also occasionally be served with dosa, paratha, or roti. During or after the frying stage, they are sometimes sprinkled lightly with condiments such as black pepper, chili powder, green chili, and salt.


title: Fried egg

text: A fried egg is commonly referred to as a "poached egg" in Indian English. In central and northern India's English-speaking middle classes and mid-level restaurants, "single-fried" refers to sunny side up (also known as a "bullseye") and "double-fried" to over hard. Street food parlance uses "half-fry" as a base term with "half fry bina palti" (un-flipped) meaning sunny side up and "half fry palti maarke" or "alti palti" (flipped) meaning over easy/medium/hard where the customer oversees the flip and says when.


title: Fried egg

text: In Cambodia, a fried egg is often served on top of a common dish called beef lok lak. It is made of a ring of spinach, onion finely shaven, and tomato with either a portion of venison or beef with gravy, topped with a fried egg, either duck or chicken egg.


title: Fried egg

text: In Vietnam, a fried egg (Trứng ốp la) served over white rice, topped with a dab of oyster or hoisin sauce, is also popular in east Asia. Fried eggs are also sometimes used in a "bánh mì".


title: Fried egg

text: Fried egg prepared sunny side up is known as ""volské oko"" or ""sázené vejce"" in Czech cuisine and they are served either alone as part of breakfast, or for lunch with side of spinach and boiled potatoes.


title: Fried egg

text: In Egypt, fried eggs are a common breakfast food. They are fried in fat such as vegetable oil, butter or ghee and served either plain or with other foodstuffs such as tomatoes, cheese, sausage or minced meat with onions and spices; they may also be served with ful medames (slow-cooked fava beans).


title: Fried egg

text: In Indonesia, fried eggs are served either as "telur ceplok" or "telur mata sapi" (Indonesian for "bull's eye egg") which refer to sunny side up eggs, as "telur dadar" (omelette) or as "telur orak-arik" (scrambled eggs). The fried eggs are either "setengah matang" which is half cooked with still runny yolk or "matang" which is well done. When speaking English, an Indonesian waiter may ask if you want the egg fried "one side" or "two sides". Fried eggs, especially as bull's eye egg, is a popular toppings for Indonesian fried rice ("nasi goreng") and fried noodle ("mie goreng"), either freshly prepared noodle or cooked from instant noodle Indomie Mi goreng.


title: Fried egg

text: A simple dish of fried sunny side up egg, served on top of steamed rice drizzled with "kecap manis" sweet soy sauce, is a favourite dish among Indonesian children. Other than served with rice, fried eggs might be served with bread as sandwich for breakfast. Seasoning include salt and pepper, sweet soy sauce, sometimes hot and spicy "sambal" chili paste.


title: Fried egg

text: Fried eggs can be served on toast, or in a sandwich, with bacon, sausages, and a variety of condiments. Eggs are often part of the full breakfast commonly eaten in Britain and Ireland. Fried eggs are often served with ham or gammon steak as a popular pub meal. The egg is cooked on a high heat and hot fat, oil or water may be splashed onto the top of the egg to baste it and cook the white. They are usually cooked without turning over.


title: Fried egg

text: In Portugal and Brazil, a runny egg placed over a steak with a side dish of rice and black beans and fried potatoes is called a ", literally "horse-riding steak".


title: Fried egg

text: A similar dish, with the name " in Spanish, is also common in Argentina, Ecuador, and Uruguay (called "churrasco"); fried potatoes and salad replace the beans and rice.