title: Brian Harvey

text: In 2014, he released a new single, "Invisible". In 2019, Harvey was making music with rapper Cryptik Soul. He was featured in the songs "A Ghetto Luv Story" and "Bang 'Em Up" on Cryptik Soul's album "Killer's Blood". The album was supported by the singles "Come & Save Me" and "Bang 'Em Up".


title: Brian Harvey

text: On 12 December 2001, Harvey was attacked with a knife in a club car park in Nottingham. In May 2005, after being diagnosed with clinical depression, Harvey was hospitalised after an alleged suicide attempt. On 31 May 2005, he was re-admitted to hospital in a critical condition after falling under the wheels of his car.


title: Grace Ho

text: Grace Ho (; 1907 – 24 June 1996) was the mother of Bruce Lee. She and her husband Lee Hoi-chuen were the parents of Bruce as well as Peter Lee, Robert Lee, Phoebe Lee, and Agnes Lee.


title: Grace Ho

text: Grace Ho was born in 1907 in Shanghai to Cheung King-sin (張瓊仙), a European woman who was Ho Kom-tong's (何甘棠) mistress in Shanghai. Ho Kom-tong was a prominent businessman who had 12 wives and reportedly more than 30 children. Ho Kom-tong was also the younger maternal half-brother of Hong Kong businessman and philanthropist Robert Hotung. Ho eventually adopted Grace.


title: Grace Ho

text: The ethnicity of Grace's mother also remains somewhat uncertain. For many years, it was believed that Grace's mother was of German-Catholic descent. A 2016 investigation by Charles Russo of Vice Media, based on documents that were used for the family’s immigration and genealogical evidence, showed that Grace was actually of English descent on her mother's side.


title: Grace Ho

text: Grace spent part of her childhood in Hong Kong, living at the Ho Tung Gardens in the Peak under the care of Clara Ho Tung, her aunt. Grace later fell in love with her husband-to-be Lee Hoi-chuen (李海泉) from her admiration of his stage art. Grace traveled with Lee in San Francisco on his one-year US tour with the Mandarin Theatre in 1939. Grace reported to the US government in 1939 that her mother was English; when Grace returned to Hong Kong during the Japanese occupation of Hong Kong, she reported that her mother was German because Germany was an ally of Japan at that time. During this tour, Grace gave birth to her fourth child Bruce Lee; Lee Hoi-chuen was performing in New York City at the time of Bruce's birth. Grace's family would all return to Hong Kong in the spring of 1941 only to be stuck there during the Japanese occupation from 1941 to 1945.


title: Grace Ho

text: Grace's three sons would go on to be very successful. Peter Lee, Grace's oldest son, excelled in fencing and meteorology, becoming assistant director of the Hong Kong Observatory. Bruce Lee would become famous in Hollywood and Hong Kong for his films and skill in martial arts, and Robert Lee would become a popular Hong Kong and Macau musician founding the band called the Thunderbirds.


title: Grace Ho

text: Unlike most of her children, Grace was hardly ever seen in the media or on television. Her only appearance on television was with her son Robert in an interview on "Good Night America" with Geraldo Rivera, shortly after Bruce's death.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque (, ) is the county seat of Dubuque County, Iowa, United States, located along the Mississippi River. At the time of the 2020 census, the population of Dubuque was 59,667. The city lies at the junction of Iowa, Illinois, and Wisconsin, a region locally known as the Tri-State Area. It serves as the main commercial, industrial, educational, and cultural center for the area. Geographically, it is part of the Driftless Area, a portion of North America that escaped all three phases of the Wisconsin Glaciation.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is a tourist destination featuring the city's unique architecture and river location. It is home to five institutions of higher education, making it a center for culture and learning. Dubuque has long been a center of manufacturing, the local economy has also diversified to other areas in the 21st century. Alongside previously mentioned industries, the city has large health care, publishing, and financial service sectors.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Spain gained control of the Louisiana Territory west of the Mississippi River following the 1763 defeat of the French; the British took over all territory to the east. The first permanent European settler in what is now Dubuque was Quebecois pioneer Julien Dubuque, who arrived in 1785. In 1788, he received permission from the Spanish government and the local Meskwaki American Indians to mine the area's rich lead deposits. Control of Louisiana and Dubuque's mines shifted briefly back to France in 1800, then to the United States in 1803, following the Louisiana Purchase. The Meskwaki continued to mine with the full support of the U.S. government until 1830 when the Meskwaki were illegally pushed out of the mine region by American prospectors.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The current City of Dubuque was named after Julien Dubuque, settled at the southern end of a large flat plain adjacent to the Mississippi River. The city was officially chartered in 1833, located in unorganized territory of the United States. The region was designated as the Iowa Territory in 1838 and was included in the newly created State of Iowa in 1846. After the lead resources were exhausted, the city became home to numerous industries. Dubuque became a center for the timber industry because of its proximity to forests in Minnesota and Wisconsin, and was later dominated by various millworking businesses. Also important were boat building, brewing, and later, the railroad industry. In 1874, the Diamond Jo Line moved its company headquarters to Dubuque. Diamond Jo Line established a shipyard at Eagle Point in 1878. Just two years later, the company was the largest employer in Dubuque, putting 78 people to work, 75 of whom worked at the shipyard earning their collective $800$1,000 per week in wages.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Between 1860 and 1880, Dubuque was one of the 100 largest urban areas in the United States. Iowa's first church was built by methodists in 1833. Since then, Iowans have followed a variety of religious traditions.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Beginning in the mid-19th century and into the early 20th century, thousands of poor German and Irish Catholic immigrants came to the city to work in the manufacturing centers. The city's large Roman Catholic congregations led to its designation as the seat of the newly established Archdiocese of Dubuque. Numerous convents, abbeys, and other religious institutions were built. The ethnic German and Irish descendants maintain a strong Catholic presence in the city. Nicholas E. Gonner (1835-1892), a Catholic immigrant from Pfaffenthal in Luxembourg, founded the Catholic Publishing Company of Dubuque, Iowa. His son Nicholas E. Gonner Jr. (1870-1922) took over in 1892, editing two German-language weeklies, an English-language weekly, and the "Daily Tribune," the only Catholic daily newspaper ever published in the United States.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Early in the 20th century, Dubuque was one of several sites of a brass era automobile company, Adams-Farwell; like most others, it folded. Subsequently, Dubuque grew significantly, and industrial activity remained its economic mainstay until the 1980s. Tommy John, who pitched for the Dubuque Packers in 1961, recalled that the town was "about 98 percent Catholic" back then. "Dubuque was the epitome of small-town life," John wrote. "The people were friendly, everyone knew everybody else, and there wasn't a thing to do: no excitement, few restaurants or recreation choices, a decaying slum section. So we spent as much time as we could at the ball park...At certain times of the year, the fish flies fester in hordes like a biblical plague." A series of changes in manufacturing and the onset of the "Farm Crisis" in the 1980s led to a large decline in the sector and the city's economy as a whole. In the 1990s, the economy diversified rapidly, shifting away from heavy industry. Tourism, high technology, and publishing are now among the largest and fastest-growing businesses. Dubuque attracts well over 1,500,000 tourists annually, and the number continues to increase. The city has encouraged the development of the America's River Project's tourist attractions in the Port of Dubuque, the expansion of the city's colleges, and the continued growth of shopping centers, such as Asbury Plaza.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which are land and are covered by water.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Downtown Dubuque contains the city's central business district and many of its government and cultural institutions. It is the center of Dubuque's transportation and commercial sectors and the hub of the various outlying districts and neighborhoods. It is in east-central Dubuque, along the Mississippi River, and includes the area north of Maus Park, south of 17th Street, east of the bluff line, and west of the river.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The area is made up of several distinct neighborhoods, each of which has a unique history and character. These include Cable Car Square/Cathedral Square, the Central Business District, Jackson Park/Upper Main, Lower Main, and the Warehouse District. The Warehouse District in particular has experienced massive renovations and an influx in new businesses after a plethora of investments since 2005. Another area of note downtown is the Port of Dubuque, which has had massive new investment and construction since the December 2002 opening of the Grand Harbor Resort and Waterpark. The downtown area includes a number of significant buildings, many of them historic, such as the Shot Tower, St. Raphael's Cathedral, and the Dubuque County Courthouse, reflecting the city's early and continuing importance to the region.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque's North End area was first settled in the late 19th century by working-class German immigrants. The German-American community sought to establish German Catholic churches separate from the Irish Catholic churches downtown and in the South End. The area retains its working-class roots and is home to some of Dubuque's largest factories.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The North End is roughly defined, but generally includes the territory north of 17th Street and east of North Grandview Avenue and Kaufmann Avenue. The area is made up of two main hills (west of Central Avenue, and west of Lincoln Avenue), and two main valleys, the Couler Valley (between the two hills), and the "Point" neighborhood, adjacent to the Mississippi River. It is home to Dubuque's two main cemeteries, Linwood Cemetery (established for Protestants), and Mt. Calvary Cemetery (established for Catholics).


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The South End was traditionally the Irish American neighborhood, and became known as Little Dublin. It centered around southern portions of Downtown Dubuque. Remnants of Irish culture still survive, with Irish pubs such as Murph's South End Tap and The Lift, and stores such as Shamrock Imports still operating. Irish culture in Dubuque also revolves around the city's Irish Catholic churches, St. Columbkille's, St. Patrick's, and St. Raphael's Cathedral.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The South End is now much larger, including all the land south of Dodge Street, east of Fremont Avenue, and north of the Key West area. It has many of the city's "old money" neighborhoods, especially along South Grandview and Fremont Avenues and around the Dubuque Golf & Country Club. Many South End neighborhoods have a more spacious and park-like appearance, contrasting with the more urban North End.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque's West End is a large, mostly suburban area settled almost entirely after the Second World War. Development was spurred by the onset of the massive baby-boom generation and sharply higher demand for new housing. Expansion began with the construction of the John Deere Homes in the Hillcrest Park neighborhood, which were financed by Deere & Company for its workers. Soon after, many large shopping centers were built, including Plaza 20, and the then-largest enclosed shopping mall in Iowa, Kennedy Mall.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The area continues to expand rapidly, with new subdivisions and shopping centers stretching out for miles from downtown. The West End is not clearly defined, but is generally considered to include all the suburban-style growth west of North Grandview Avenue, the University of Dubuque, and the Valentine Park neighborhood. The area is home to a wide variety of mostly middle-class neighborhoods and city parks, but also includes many of the city's largest schools, industrial parks, and all its large shopping centers. The area's expansion has also led to rapid growth in suburban Asbury and exurban Peosta, Iowa, both of which adjoin the West Side. The west side has also been acknowledged by a viral YouTube video named Rappin' for Jesus, where a church named the "West Dubuque Second Church of Christ" was mentioned. Both the video and church were made up, and the video was labeled as a hoax.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque has a humid continental climate (Köppen "Dfa"), which gives it four distinct seasons. The weather is not as extreme as that in other parts of the Midwest, such as Minnesota or Wisconsin. Spring is usually wet and rainy, summers are sunny and warm, autumn is mild, and winters are typically cloudy and snowy.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is the primary city in the Dubuque Metropolitan Statistical Area (MSA). It is at the junction of four major highways and two major railroads. Its location along the river has formed the city into a regional hub. The Dubuque area is the general area encompassing Dubuque, Iowa. The MSA proper includes the entirety of Dubuque County. The official population of the Dubuque County was 93,653 as of the 2010 population estimates.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: As of the census of 2020, the population was 59,667. The population density was . There were 27,174 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 85.1% White, 6.3% Black or African American, 1.3% Pacific Islander, 1.2% Asian, 0.4% Native American, 1.3% from other races, and 4.4% from two or more races. Ethnically, the population was 3.7% Hispanic or Latino of any race and 83.8% Non-Hispanic White.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: As of the census of 2010, there were 57,637 people, 23,506 households, and 13,888 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 25,029 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 91.7% White, 4.0% African American, 0.3% Native American, 1.1% Asian, 0.5% Pacific Islander, 0.6% from other races, and 1.8% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 2.4% of the population.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: There were 23,505 households, of which 27.4% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 43.6% were married couples living together, 11.1% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.3% had a male householder with no wife present, and 40.9% were non-families. 33.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.28 and the average family size was 2.92.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The median age in the city was 38 years. 21.4% of residents were under the age of 18; 13% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 23.3% were from 25 to 44; 25.9% were from 45 to 64; and 16.5% were 65 years of age or older. The gender makeup of the city was 48.4% male and 51.6% female.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: As of the census of 2000, there were 57,686 people, 22,560 households, and 14,303 families residing in the city. The population density was . There were 23,819 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 96.15% White, 1.21% Black or African American, 0.19% Native American, 0.68% Asian, 0.11% Pacific Islander, 0.69% from other races, and 0.96% from two or more races. 1.58% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: There were 22,560 households, out of which 30.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 50.3% were married couples living together, 10.0% had a female householder with no husband present, and 36.6% were non-families. 31.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 12.6% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.37 and the average family size was 2.99.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Age spread: 23.6% under the age of 18, 11.8% from 18 to 24, 26.5% from 25 to 44, 21.6% from 45 to 64, and 16.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 90.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 86.2 males.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The median income for a household in the city was $36,785, and the median income for a family was $46,564. Males had a median income of $31,543 versus $22,565 for females. The per capita income for the city was $19,616. About 5.5% of families and 9.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 9.3% of those under age 18 and 12.5% of those age 65 or over.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Since its founding, Dubuque has had, and continues to have, a strong religious tradition. Local Catholic settlers established what would become the first Christian church in Iowa, St. Raphael's Cathedral, in 1833. The city also played a key role in the expansion of the Catholic Church into the Western United States, as it was the administrative center for Catholics in what is now Iowa, Minnesota, North Dakota, and South Dakota. Many important Catholic religious leaders have lived in Dubuque, including its first bishop, Mathias Loras; Fr Samuel Mazzuchelli, OP; Clement Smyth; and Mother Mary Frances Clarke, BVM. Catholic parishes around the city include Saint Raphael's, Saint Mary's,


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Sacred Heart, Holy Ghost, Saint Patrick's, Saint Joseph the Worker, Resurrection, Saint Columbkille's, and Saint Anthony's.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Since the 1870s the religious character of the area has been shaped by the Catholic Church. In 2010, Catholic adherents who regularly attended services made up about 53% of Dubuque County residents. This contrasts with Iowa as a whole, which was about 17% Catholic in 2010. In addition to churches, 5 religious colleges, 4 area convents, and a nearby abbey and monastery add to the city's religious importance. Dubuque is also the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dubuque, which directly administers 1/4 of Iowa's territory for the church, and is the head of the Ecclesiastical Province of Dubuque, the entire state of Iowa.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The city proper is home to 52 different churches (11 Catholic, 40 Protestant, 1 Orthodox), 1 Jewish synagogue, and 1 mosque. Most of non-Catholic population in the city belongs to various Protestant denominations. Dubuque is home to three theological seminaries: St. Pius X Seminary, a minor (college) seminary for Catholic men discerning a call to ordained priesthood, the University of Dubuque Theological Seminary, with the Presbyterian Church USA, and the Wartburg Theological Seminary, with the Evangelical Lutheran Church in America. The latter two institutions train both lay and ordained ministers for placements in churches nationwide.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: For many years, Dubuque's economy was centered on manufacturing companies such as Deere and Company and Flexsteel Industries. While industry still plays a major role in the city, the economy has diversified a great deal in the last decade. Health care, education, tourism, publishing, and financial services are all important sectors of the city's expanding business climate. Several major companies are either headquartered in Dubuque or have a significant presence in the city.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Other companies with a large presence in the area include McGraw Hill Education, Duluth Trading Company, Alliant Energy, Woodward Communications, Swiss Valley Farms, the Metrix Company, Rite-Hite Company, and Tschiggfrie Excavating Co.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: In recent years, Dubuque's economy has grown very rapidly. In 2005, the city had the 22nd-highest job growth rate in the nation, far outpacing the rest of Iowa. This was a level of growth similar to those of Austin, Texas, and Orlando, Florida, among others. The city created over 10% of the new jobs in Iowa in 2005, and the number of jobs in Dubuque County reached new all-time highs, with over 57,000 people working in nonfarming jobs. Many new and existing businesses have announced significant expansion plans, including Sedgwick CMS, McGraw-Hill Higher Education, Deere and Company, Cottingham & Butler, Quebecor World Inc., and Namasco.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The City of Dubuque operates on the council-manager form of government, employing a full-time city manager and part-time city council. The city manager, Michael C. Van Milligen, runs the day-to-day operations of the city, and serves as the city's executive leader.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque has been using its city-owned Community Broadband Network to become a smart city. In 2014, city government officials created four apps to monitor data related to water use, electricity use, transit patterns, and waste recycling efforts. The City of Dubuque Sustainability Coordinator, Cori Burbach, stated this was "for educating citizens and implementing behavior changes that they control based on the data these applications provide". However, Dubuque has been reaching the limits of its network and lack sufficient services from giant providers.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Policy and financial decisions are made by the city council, which serves as the city's legislative body. The council comprises the mayor, Roy D. Buol, who serves as its chairman, 4 ward-elected members, and 2 at-large members. The city council members are: Brent M. Shaw (Ward 1), Luis Del Toro (Ward 2), Kate M. Larson (Ward 3), Jake A. Rios (Ward 4), Ric W. Jones (at-large), and David T. Resnick (at-large). The city council meets at 6 P.M. on the first and third Mondays of every month in the council chamber of the Historic Federal Building. The city is divided into 4 electoral wards and 21 precincts, as stated in Chapter 17 of the Dubuque City Code.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: In the 89th Iowa General Assembly, Dubuque is represented by Senators Pam Jochum (D) for Senate District 29 and Carrie Koelker (R) for Senate District 50 in the Iowa Senate, and Representatives Charles Isenhart (D) for House District 100, Shannon Lundgren (R) for House District 57, and Lindsay James (D) for House District 99 in the Iowa House of Representatives.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: At the federal level in the 117th Congress, it is within Iowa's 1st congressional district, represented by Ashley Hinson (R) in the U.S. House of Representatives. Dubuque, and all of Iowa are represented by U.S. Senators Chuck Grassley (R) and Joni Ernst (R).


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: For most of its history, the people in Dubuque have been mostly Democratic. This was due to the large numbers of working-class people and Catholics living in the city.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: At times, Dubuque was called "The State of Dubuque" because the political climate in Dubuque was very different from the rest of Iowa.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Notably, however, at the turn of the twentieth century, the United States Congress was led by two Dubuque Republicans. Representative David B. Henderson ascended to Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives in 1899, at the same time Senator William B. Allison served as Chairman of the U.S. Senate Republican Conference, an office now known as Senate Majority Leader.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is served by the Dubuque Community School District, which covers roughly the eastern half of Dubuque County and enrolled 10,735 students in 20 school buildings in 2006. The district has 13 elementary schools, three middle schools, three high schools, and one preschool complex. It is among the fastest-growing school districts in Iowa, adding over 1,000 students in the last five years.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The city has a large number of students who attend private schools. All Catholic schools are run by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dubuque. The Archdiocese oversees the Holy Family Catholic Schools, which operates 11 schools in the city, including nine early childhood programs, four elementary schools (one of which is a Spanish immersion program), one middle school, and one high school, Wahlert Catholic High School. , Holy Family Catholic Schools enrolled 1,954 students in grades K-12.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque also has one Lutheran Church–Missouri Synod affiliated elementary school, the Dubuque Lutheran School.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is home to a large number of higher education institutions. Loras College and Clarke University are two four-year colleges operated by the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Dubuque. Protestant colleges in the city include the University of Dubuque, which is associated with the Presbyterian Church (USA), and Emmaus Bible College, connected with the Plymouth Brethren movement.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Three theological seminaries operate in the city: St. Pius X Seminary (Roman Catholic, associated with Loras College), the University of Dubuque Theological Seminary (Presbyterian), and Wartburg Theological Seminary (Lutheran).


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Other post-secondary schools in the area include Northeast Iowa Community College, which operates its largest campus in nearby Peosta, Iowa and has a satellite campus in Dubuque; the Roman Catholic Divine Word College missions seminary in nearby Epworth, Iowa; and Capri Cosmetology College in Dubuque.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The University of Wisconsin-Platteville is another major university about 20 miles northeast of Dubuque in Platteville, Wisconsin.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is the health care center of a large region covering eastern Iowa, northwestern Illinois, and southwestern Wisconsin. On March 15, 2012, the Commonwealth Fund released its first Scorecard on Local Health System Performance; it ranked Dubuque second in the nation. The city is home to two major hospitals that, together, have 421 beds. Mercy Medical Center - Dubuque is the largest hospital in the city with 263 beds, and one of only three in Iowa to achieve "Magnet Hospital" status. Magnet Hospitals must meet and maintain strict standards, deeming them some of the best medical facilities in the country. Mercy specializes in various cardiac-related treatments, among other things, and is affiliated with Trinity Health, one of the largest Catholic health delivery system in the United States.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque's other hospital is The Finley Hospital, which is a member of UnityPoint Health's network of hospitals. Finley is JCAHO accredited, and had 158 beds. It is unofficially Dubuque's "cancer hospital," as it has significant oncology-related facilities, including the Wendt Regional Cancer Center. The hospital campus has expanded in recent years, with the construction of several new buildings.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Among other health care facilities, the city is home to two major outpatient clinics. Medical Associates Clinic is the oldest multi-specialty group practice clinic in Iowa, and currently operates two major outpatient clinics in Dubuque, its "East" and "West" campuses. It is affiliated with Mercy Medical Center — Dubuque, and also operates its own HMO, Medical Associates Health Plans. Affiliated with the Finley Hospital is Dubuque Internal Medicine, which was Iowa's largest internal medicine group practice clinic.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is served by four U.S. Highways (20, 151, 61 and 52) and one state highway (3). Highway 20 is the city's busiest east–west thoroughfare, connecting to Rockford (and I-39/I-90) and Chicago to the east, over the Julien Dubuque Bridge. In the west, it connects to Waterloo. Highways 151 and 61 run north–south through the city, with a shared expressway for part of the route. Highways 52 and 61 both connect Dubuque with the Twin Cities (Minnesota) to the north, with 61 connecting to Davenport (and I-74/I-80), and 52 connecting to Bellevue to the south and then Clinton via U.S. Route 67. Highway 151 connects Dubuque with Madison, Wisconsin (and I-39/I-90/I-94) (via the Dubuque–Wisconsin Bridge) to the northeast and Cedar Rapids to the southwest. Dubuque has four-lane, divided highway connections with Cedar Rapids, Davenport, Madison, and Waterloo.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Iowa State Highway 3 begins in Dubuque, connecting the city with central and western Iowa. The four-lane divided Northwest Arterial (former Iowa State Highway 32) acts as a beltway for parts of the North End and West Side, connecting Highways 3 and 20. Less than from the junction of the Northwest Arterial and Highway 20, the Southwest Arterial is a expressway carrying Highway 52 southeast from Highway 20 to Highways 151 and 61 near Key West and the Dubuque Regional Airport.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque and its region are served by the general-aviation Dubuque Regional Airport . The airport currently has one carrier, Envoy Air, (a division of American Airlines) which operates three non-stop jet flights daily to Chicago O'Hare International Airport. Northwest Airlines regional partner Mesaba operating under Northwest Airlink used to have daily service to Dubuque. Northwest operated twice daily flights to and from Minneapolis-Saint Paul International Airport using Saab 340 aircraft. These flights began June 2008 and ended on August 31, 2009. Northwest Airlines offered service to Dubuque prior to 9/11.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The Dubuque Regional Airport has reported steadily increasing passenger numbers over the years, and, until recently, had service from three different carriers prior to 9/11. In early November 2007, it was announced that October 2007 was the best month ever for American Eagle airline at the Dubuque Regional Airport, according to Robert Grierson, Dubuque Regional Airport manager: "We had 4,510 total revenue passenger enplanements; that is a record for American Eagle in Dubuque. American Eagle averaged a 79.82 percent enplanement load factor. Load factors are determined by how many revenue passengers were on the plane versus how many seats are available."


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Currently, a $23 million new terminal is being built to modernize and expand the airport. Improvements include a larger terminal, new access road, and expanded aviation parking. The new terminal at the Dubuque Regional Airport was expected to open in 2016.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: In Dubuque, public transportation is provided by the city transit division The Jule. The Jule operates multiple bus routes and on-demand paratransit Minibus service throughout the city. The routes are based out of one or more of the three transfer locations and run in 30-minute loops. These loops serve neighborhoods, shopping areas, medical offices, and industrial parks and provide connections to other areas of the city with the 15-minute cross-town Express route. The system's three major transfer stations are Downtown Intermodal (9th & Elm St), Midtown (North Grandview & University Avenues), and the West End (Kennedy Circle/John F. Kennedy Road).


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The Dubuque Intermodal Transportation Center serves as the primary intercity bus hub in Dubuque. Burlington Trailways and Lamers Bus Lines both serve the city.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque was served by passenger rail until 1981. As of 2022, only the freight railroads Canadian National and Canadian Pacific serve the city.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque has a number of notable parks, particularly Eagle Point Park and the Mines of Spain State Recreation Area.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque's waterfront features the Ice Harbor and, just north of it, the Diamond Jo Casino and Grand River Event Center.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is also the home of the Colts Drum and Bugle Corps. The Colts are a Drum Corps International World Class ensemble and tour the country each summer to attend competitions. Each summer, the Colts and Dubuque host "Music on the March", a Drum Corps International-sanctioned marching competition at Dubuque Senior High School.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The arts organization Voices Productions spearheaded a project to incorporate large murals by street artists Gaia (artist), Werc and Gera and others in downtown Dubuque. So far over 30 murals have been painted. The original concept for the project was developed by Sam Mulgrew, Gene Tully and Wendy Rolfe.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: The city is home to the Dubuque Fighting Saints. They began playing in the Tier I Junior A United States Hockey League in the fall of 2010 at the new Mystique Ice Center. Dubuque was home to the original Fighting Saints team from 1980 to 2001, when the team relocated to Tulsa, Oklahoma. From 2001 to 2010, the Dubuque Thunderbirds replaced the Fighting Saints playing in the Tier III Junior A Central States Hockey League at the Five Flags Center. The 2010-11 Fighting Saints were USHL Clark Cup champions after defeating the Green Bay Gamblers three games to one in the best-of-five Clark Cup Final. In 2013, the Fighting Saints again won the Clark Cup, defeating the Fargo Force three games to none in the final. The team averaged over 2,600 fans per game in the 2013-14 regular season, the highest average in team history.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is also home to an Open Division soccer team, Union Dubuque F.C. On October 26, 2017, Union Dubuque announced that it would play in the United Premier Soccer League, a Tier 1 league of the United States Adult Soccer Association, beginning in the league's spring 2018 season. The club is also eligible to participate in the Lamar Hunt U.S. Open Cup. Following the 2019 season, Union Dubuque F.C. announced that it would be joining the newly formed Midwest Premier League along with several nearby clubs.


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque is also home to the 2015 ASA D Northern National champions, Kass & Co. Kass & Co. went 6–0 on the weekend of September 5 and 6 and won the championship game pretty easily with a final score of 30–4 in 5 innings. Even after he ran into the fence on a 600-foot home run by the opposing team, later described as "Pure stupidity", Dan Lucey declared "This is a great day for Dubuque, Iowa."


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque's daily newspaper, the "Telegraph Herald", had a daily circulation of nearly 31,000 as of January 27, 2007. Other papers and journals operating in the city include "Tri-State Business Times" (monthly business paper), "365ink Magazine" (biweekly alt/cultural magazine), "Julien's Journal" (monthly lifestyle magazine), the "Dubuque Advertiser" (advertisement paper), and the "Tri-States Sports Look" (local sports publication).


title: Dubuque, Iowa

text: Dubuque and surrounding areas are in the Cedar Rapids/Waterloo/Dubuque broadcast media market, which is monitored by the A.C. Nielsen Company for audience research data for advertisers. For years, Dubuque had a local TV news station, KFXA/KFXB Fox 28/40. In 2004, that station became an affiliate of CTN. Dubuque-based TV news is now on KWWL-TV7 (Waterloo), and KCRG-TV9 (Cedar Rapids); both operate news bureaus in the city and cover most of its major stories. Since the closing of KFXA/KFXB, KWWL has captured a majority of Dubuque's local news market.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Bandido (born April 17, 1995) is a Mexican "luchador enmascarado" (masked professional wrestler) who is primarily known for his work in the promotions Lucha Libre Elite (LLE), The Crash Lucha Libre and Dragon Gate (DG). He is also a former one time ROH World Champion. Bandido is currently signed to AEW.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: He is a fourth-generation wrestler, a relative of Apóstol Jr., Myzteziz Jr., and cousin of Magia Blanca. Bandido's real name is not publicly known, which is often the case with masked wrestlers in Mexico.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Bandido previously worked under the ring names "Magnífico II" and "Cielito" but since 2016, he has used the ring character Bandido, who wears a mask that incorporates a bandana covering the lower part of his face in the style of Wild West outlaw. Bandido regularly teams with Flamita, forming a duo known as "Mexa Blood". Bandido is a one time PWG World Champion, and with Flamita and Rey Horus he has held the ROH World Six-Man Tag Team Championship. He is the winner of PWG's 2019 Battle of Los Angeles, and ROH's 2021 Survival of the Fittest tournaments.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Bandido was born on April 17, 1995, in Torreón, Coahuila, Mexico. He is the grandson of Julián Arellano Orihuela—who is known as "Tony Arellano"—and the great-grandson of Julián Arellano Varela, who was known under the ring name "El Húngaro" ("The Hungarian"). Bandido's cousin Magia Blanca is also a professional wrestler in the Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre promotion. He is also related to Myzteziz Jr. who wrestles in Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: The wrestler later known as Bandido began training in the wrestling school Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre in Mexico City, where he was primarily trained by Franco Columbo, Hijo del Gladiador and Último Guerrero for his in-ring debut. Because Bandido has never been unmasked in the ring, his birth name is not a matter of public knowledge, a tradition in Mexico for masked wrestlers.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: For his debut, Bandido adopted the ring name "Magnífico II" and formed a tag team known as "Los Magníficos" ("The Magnificent Ones") with his cousin, who worked as Magnífico I. The duo worked for various promotions on the Mexican Independent circuit including Wrestling Martin Calderon (WMC), Cara Lucha and Lucha Memes. In 2015, Magnífico II traveled to England, where he worked a show that was promoted by El Hijo del Santo.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: In mid-2015 Magnífico II began working for El Hijo del Santo's "Todo x el Todo" promotion, wrestling under the name "Cielito", named after the song Cielito Lindo. On October 5, 2015, Cielito unsuccessfully challenged Ángel Blanco Jr. for the WWA World Welterweight Championship.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: In mid-2016 "Los Magníficos" split up and Magnífico I started working for CMLL under the name "Magia Blanca" and Magnífico II began working for Lucha Libre Elite (LLE), adopting a new in-ring character called "El Bandido". His character, ring gear and mask were inspired by the Wild West bandit stereotype. His new mask incorporated a bandana that covered his nose and mouth, a stylized "Lone Ranger"-style markings around the eyes and a horseshoe on his forehead. On November 18, 2016, El Bandido outlasted Golden Magic, Argos, Emperador Azteca, Ciclón Ramírez Jr., Imposible, Eterno, Flamita, Diamante and Zumbido in a "torneo cibernético" elimination match to become the first Lucha Libre Elite Welterweight Champion. LLE closed 2017, but Bandido defended the LLE Welterweight Championship at least once after the promotion closed.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: On September 28, 2017, Bandido defeated Ángel Blanco Jr. to win the WWA World Welterweight Championship in a show in Aguascalientes. In December, 2017 Bandido and Laredo Kid outlasted Perro Callejero Jr., Apando Negro Jr., Bestia 666, Crazy Latino, Dr. Polux, Emperador Azteca, Extreme Tiger, Murciélago Plateado Jr. and Rey Horus to win the G21 "Torneo Gran Alternativa" tournament.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Starting in 2018, Bandido started to work more for promotions outside Mexico, primarily in the United States, where he often teamed with Flamita under the team name "MexaBlood". Through Flamita's contacts in Japan, Bandido worked his first two tours with Dragon Gate in January and June 2018. During the British promotion Progress Wrestling's tour of the United States, Bandido and Flamita defeated A. R. Fox and Chris Brookes to win the Progress Tag Team Championship. Bandido teamed up with Rey Mysterio and Rey Fénix in the main event of the Indy wrestling super show All In, losing to The Golden Elite team of Kota Ibushi and The Young Bucks (Matt Jackson and Nick Jackson). MexaBlood traveled to England at the end of September 2018 to work once more for Progress Wrestling. On September 30, the duo lost the Progress Tag Team Championship to Aussie Open (Kyle Fletcher and Mark Davis).


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: In March 2020, Bandido participated in the 2020 16 Carat Gold, held by Westside Xtreme Wrestling (wXw). On night one, he defeated Julian Pace in the first round. On night two, Mike Bailey defeated him in the quarter-final. The match was well received by the crowd in attendance, who pelted the two men with coins and notes in appreciation. On night three, Bandido teamed with Pace and Jeff Cobb, defeated the team of Black Taurus, Hektor Invictus and Puma King.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Bandido came to Mexican national attention through his work for The Crash Lucha Libre as the promotion began expanding to touring nationally. His debut with the promotion was on November 29, 2017, where Bandido, Damián 666 and M-ximo lost to the team of Bestia 666, Garza Jr. and Mr. 450. On March 17, 2018, Bandido and Flamita defeated the teams Aeroboy and Séptimo Dragón, and The Rascalz (Dezmond Xavier and Zachary Wentz) to win the vacant The Crash Tag Team Championship. Two months later, Bandido became a double champion in The Crash when he won The Crash Cruiserweight Championship, defeating Dezmond Xavier and Laredo Kid for the vacant championship. Mexa Blood were stripped of the tag team championship on October 7 for reasons that were never made public. On March 23, 2019, Jonathan Gresham won The Crash Cruiserweight Championship from Bandido; the match also included Flamita and Shane Strickland. After losing the cruiserweight title, Bandido challenged Rey Horus for The Crash Heavyweight Championship on July 5 and lost. In November 2019, Bandido defeated Rey Horus and Marty Scurll to win the heavyweight championship in a show in Tijuana.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: On March 23, 2018, at the "Time Is A Flat Circle" event, Bandido made his Pro Wrestling Guerrilla (PWG) debut, losing in a tag team effort with Flamita against The Rascalz (Zachary Wentz and Dezmond Xavier). He was brought back for All-Star Weekend 14, which took place during the month of April. Bandido lost against Taiji Ishimori on Night One but went on to gain his first PWG victory against Rey Horus the next evening. His winning streak continued into May, when Bandido defeated Robbie Eagles at Bask in His Glory. Bandido kept winning consecutive matches after entering PWG's annual Battle of Los Angeles (BOLA) tournament. He defeated T-Hawk in the opening round, Flamita in the quarterfinals, and Joey Janela in the semifinals. Entering the final round, he was the last man eliminated by eventual winner Jeff Cobb. After his national exposure in the tournament, it was reported that WWE, the world's largest wrestling promotion, was interested in signing Bandido to a full-time contract. In October, he defeated Rey Fénix at "Smokey and the Bandido".


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: On September 19, 20, and 22; Bandido participated in the 2019 Pro Wrestling Guerrilla Battle of Los Angeles. He defeated Puma King in the first round (which was also for the Ironman Heavymetalweight Championship), Brody King in the quarterfinals, and Dragon Lee in the semi-finals. He defeated David and Jonathan Gresham in a three-way elimination match final to win the Battle of Los Angeles. After his BOLA victory, Bandido went on to defeat Jeff Cobb on December 20, to win the PWG World Championship. He would retain the title until May 1, 2022, when he lost it against Daniel Garcia.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: In mid-2018, Lucha Libre AAA Worldwide (AAA) began a storyline in which LLE (no longer a separate promotion) invaded AAA. As part of the "Invasion" storyline, AAA brought in several former LLE wrestlers including Bandido, who with Flamita and Aramís made his AAA debut, losing to "El Nuevo Poder del Norte" (Carta Brava Jr., Mocho Cota Jr. and Tito Santana). Bandido was featured in his first major AAA storyline when he participated in a three-way match against Flamita and Fénix for the right to challenge for the AAA Mega Championship. Fénix won the match and the title match. At AAA's biggest show of the year Triplemanía XXVI, MexaBlood defeated Team AAA (Aero Star and Drago), Team Elite (Laredo Kid and Golden Magic) and Team Impact! (DJZ and Andrew Everett) to become the top contenders for the AAA World Tag Team Championship. Bandido's last AAA appearance was at Héroes Inmortales XII, where and Flamita lost a three-way tag team match for the AAA World Tag Team Championship to "Los Mercenarios" (Rey Escorpión and El Texano Jr.) in a match that also included Andrew Everett and DJZ.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: In late 2018, it was reported Bandido has signed a full-time contract with the U.S.-based promotion Ring of Honor (ROH). In an interview, Bandido later said he turned down an offer from "the biggest company in the world" (referring to WWE) and instead chose to sign with ROH. He also turned down an offer to work for All Elite Wrestling he received around the time of his ROH negotiations. Bandido made his debut for the promotion at their January 12, 2019, television tapings, defeating Mark Haskins. He later joined a group called "Lifeblood", which was formed by Juice Robinson and also includes David Finlay, Mark Haskins, Tracy Williams and Tenille Dashwood. The following day, Bandido defeated P.J. Black as part of ROH's Honor Reigns Supreme supercard event. For many years he appeared with Rey Horus And Flamita As The Mexa Squad which they would soon win the ROH 6-Man Tag Team Championships a few months later they would lose it to Shane Taylor Promotions.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: After winning the 2021 ROH Survival of the Fittest tournament to earn the title shot, Bandido would go on to win the ROH World Championship from Rush at Best in the World on July 11, marking his first major world championship.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Bandido lost the ROH Championship to Jonathan Gresham on April 1, 2022, during the Supercard of Honor XV at the Curtis Culwell Center in Garland, Texas.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Bandido made his New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) debut on May 13, 2019, in a tag team match that also involved Rocky Romero and Yuya Uemura losing to the team of Jado, Robbie Eagles and El Phantasmo. He participated in the Best of the Super Juniors 27 tournament, where he defeated Douki, Ren Narita, Ryusuke Taguchi, Robbie Eagles, and Rocky Romero, but lost to El Phantasmo, Yoh, Will Ospreay, and Bushi, ending up with 10 points overall.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Bandido made his debut for the Mexican promotion Consejo Mundial de Lucha Libre (CMLL) following a brief stint in 2016 as part of CMLL's 2019 "Leyendas Mexicanas" supercard show. Bandido, Volador Jr. and Valiente defeated "Nueva Generacion Dinamitas" (El Cuatrero, Sansón and Forastero). For the 2020 "Torneo Nacional de Parejas Increíbles" ("National Incredible Teams" tournament), he teamed up with rival Último Guerrero. In the storyline of their tournament participation, the two got along for the first two rounds, defeating Flyer and Hechicero in the first round and Diamante Azul/Gilbert el Boricua in the second. During the semi-final match Guerrero accidentally hit Bandido, leading to the team's loss to Carístico and Forastero. Bandido would leave CMLL on April 10, 2021.


title: Bandido (wrestler)

text: Bandido made his debut for All Elite Wrestling on the September 28th edition of "AEW Dynamite", where he received his rematch for the ROH World Championship, against champion Chris Jericho, but lost the match. On November 11th, it was finally reported Bandido officially signed with AEW after a bout with Rush.


title: Damdami Taksal

text: The Damdamī Ṭaksāl is an orthodox Sikh cultural and educational organization, based in India. Its headquarters are located in the town of Mehta Chowk, approximately 40 km north of the city of Amritsar. It has been described as a seminary or “moving university” of the Sikh countryside.


title: Damdami Taksal

text: In 1706, after the Battle of Muktsar, the army of Guru Gobind Singh camped at Sabo Ki Talwandi. This acted as a "damdamā", or halting place (lit. "breathing place"), and is now the site of Takht Sri Damdamā Sahib. That year, Guru Gobind Singh is said to have founded a distinguished school of exegesis, later headed up by Baba Deep Singh. Damdamā Sahib was considered to be the highest seat of learning for the Sikhs during the 18th century, and Damdami Taksal claims direct historical ties to Guru Gobind Singh, who entrusted it with the responsibility of teaching the reading ("santhyā"), analysis ("vichār") and recitation of the Sikh scriptures, and Baba Deep Singh. The word "ṭaksāl" (lit. 'mint') refers to an education institute; which is a community of students who associate themselves with a particular "sant" (lit. spiritual leader or saint).


title: Damdami Taksal

text: The main center of the present-day Damdami Taksal (Jatha Bhindran-Mehta) is located at "Gurdwārā Gurdarshan Parkāsh" in Mehta, Amritsar. It is actually a branch of a major school of traditional Sikh learning known as the "Bhindrāṅ Ṭaksāl" which is based Mehta. Although, this Taksal was established in 1906 by Sundar Singh (1883-1930) of Boparai Kalan in Ludhiana. It achieved prominence through its second incumbent, Gurbachan Singh Khalsa (1902-1969) of Bhindran Kalan, hence its name. He devoted his entire life to teaching the enunciation and intonation in reciting the Sikh scriptures. He trained a large number of "gianīs", traditional Sikh scholars, through his mobile seminary. When he died in 1969 he was succeeded by two contenders, Giani Mohan Singh (1919-2020), leading the original "Bhindrāṅ Kalāṅ" branch in Ludhiana and Kartar Singh Khalsa (1932-1977), leading the "Mehtā" branch in Amritsar district.


title: Damdami Taksal

text: During much of the mid-1900s, Gurbachan Singh Khalsa was a prominent "sant" teaching a large number of students and remains an influential figure. The influence of Bhindran Taksal is attested by the fact that its alumni include the "mukkh granthī" (chief reader of Sikh scriptures) at the Golden Temple, "jathedārs" of various Sikh takhts, and "granthīs" of major gurdwaras.


title: Damdami Taksal

text: The Damdami Taksal also had a history of dispute with the Indian government, as a previous leader, Kartar Singh Khalsa, had been a severe critic of the excesses of Indira Gandhi’s Emergency rule. In 1975, a large event to commemorate the 300th anniversary martyrdom of Guru Tegh Bahadur was attended by Indira Gandhi and Kartar Singh Khalsa. This was the starting point of tensions between Damdami Taksal and the Central Government under Congress. The dispute was about who was the leader and who had the greater authority over the Sikh people, the Guru Granth Sahib or Indira Gandhi.


title: Damdami Taksal

text: The Damdami Taksal was first brought to wider national attention by Jarnail Singh Bhindranwale during the 1978 Sikh–Nirankari clashes, the Anandpur Resolution, the Dharam Yudh Morcha of 1982, and later the Khalistan movement and insurgency.


title: Damdami Taksal

text: During British Colonial rule, Sunder Singh Bhindranwala set about purging diversity in Sikh doctrine, ritual and practice, hoping to have a uniform Sikh community. Part of this strategy was to have a "Rehat Maryada" i.e. standardised code of conduct .


title: Damdami Taksal

text: Sunder Singh was succeeded by Gurbachan Singh Khalsa in 1930, after whom Kartar Singh Bhindranwala continued his work in 1961. Kartar Singh established Gurdwara Gurdarshan Parkash at Mehta, Amritsar. In 1977, after the death of Kartar Singh, Jarnail Singh Bhindranwala became the head of Damdami Taksal.


title: Damdami Taksal

text: Thakur Singh Bhindranwala took over his Taksal when Jarnail Singh Bhindranwala was killed in 1984 by the military on Harmander Sahib, referred to as Operation Bluestar. After the death of Thakur Singh, the leadership of Taksal was handed over to Ram Singh Khalsa by SGPC in January 2005. though the senior leadership and members of Taksal accepted Harnam Singh Khalsa as the successor. In July 2017, Taksal chief Harnam Singh Khalsa was hailed as the successor to Jarnail Singh Bhindrawala by the SGPC.


title: Damdami Taksal

text: The Damdami Taksal have their own Sikh Code of Conduct, the "Gurmat Rehat Maryada", which differs from the "Rehat Maryada" published by the Shiromani Gurdwara Prabandhak Committee. Some differences include the reading of "Ragmala" after "Akhand Path" and not eating meat, fish, and eggs. Damdami Taksal is somewhat influenced by the Nirmala school of thought as the eleventh leader of Damdami Taksal, Bishan Singh Muralewale, studied under Nirmala Sants such as Pundit Tara Singh and Pundit Sadhu Singh during the late 19th century.


title: Euryale ferox

text: "Euryale ferox," commonly known as prickly waterlily, makhana or Gorgon plant, is a species of water lily found in southern and eastern Asia, and the only extant member of the genus "Euryale". The edible seeds, called fox nuts or "makhana" when dried, are eaten in Asia.


title: Euryale ferox

text: Though normally classified in the water lily family, Nymphaeaceae, the species is occasionally regarded as a distinct family, Euryalaceae. Unlike other water lilies, the pollen grains of "Euryale" have three nuclei.


title: Euryale ferox

text: "Euryale" "ferox" is a perennial plant native to eastern Asia and southern Asia, and is found from northeast India to Korea and Japan, as well as parts of eastern Russia. The Indian state of Bihar produces 90% of the world's fox nuts. It grows in water, producing bright purple flowers. The leaves are large and round, often more than a meter (3 feet) across, with a leaf stalk attached in the centre of the lower surface. The underside of the leaf is purplish, while the upper surface is green. The leaves have a quilted texture, although the stems, flowers, and leaves which float on the surface are covered in sharp prickles. Other leaves are submerged. In India, "Euryale" normally grows in ponds and wetlands.


title: Euryale ferox

text: The plant produces starchy white seeds that are edible. The plant is cultivated for its seeds in lowland ponds in India, China, and Japan. The Chinese have cultivated the plant for centuries. More than 96,000 hectares of Bihar, India, were set aside for cultivation of "Euryale" in 1990–1991. The plant grows best in locations with hot, dry summers and cold winters. Seeds are collected in the late summer and early autumn, and may be eaten raw or cooked.


title: Euryale ferox

text: In the northern and western parts of India, "Euryale ferox" seeds are often roasted or fried, which causes them to pop like popcorn. These are then eaten, often with a sprinkling of oil and spices. They are also used in other types of cooking, especially to make a porridge or pudding called kheer.


title: Euryale ferox

text: Evidence from archaeobotany indicates that "Euryale ferox" was a frequently collected wild food source during the Neolithic period in the Yangtze region, with large numbers of finds coming from the sites of Kuahuqiao, Hemudu, and Tianluoshan. The earliest recorded use of "E. ferox" was found in Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel, among artifacts of the Acheulean culture 750–790,000 years ago.


title: Relative clause

text: A relative clause is a clause that modifies a noun or noun phrase and uses some grammatical device to indicate that one of the arguments in the relative clause refers to the noun or noun phrase. For example, in the sentence "I met a man who wasn't too sure of himself", the subordinate clause "who wasn't too sure of himself" is a relative clause since it modifies the noun "man" and uses the pronoun "who" to indicate that the same "man" is referred to in the subordinate clause (in this case as its subject).


title: Relative clause

text: In many European languages, relative clauses are introduced by a special class of pronouns called "relative pronouns", such as "who" in the example just given. In other languages, relative clauses may be marked in different ways: they may be introduced by a special class of conjunctions called "relativizers", the main verb of the relative clause may appear in a special morphological variant, or a relative clause may be indicated by word order alone. In some languages, more than one of these mechanisms may be possible.


title: Relative clause

text: A bound relative clause, the type most often considered, qualifies an explicit element (usually a noun or noun phrase) appearing in the main clause, and refers back to that element by means of some explicit or implicit device within the relative clause.


title: Relative clause

text: The relative clause may also function as an "embedded clause" within a main (or higher-level) clause, thereby forming a "matrix sentence". The noun in the main clause that the relative clause modifies is called the "head noun", or (particularly when referred back to by a relative pronoun) the "antecedent".


title: Relative clause

text: For example, in the English sentence "The person whom I saw yesterday went home", the relative clause "whom I saw yesterday" modifies the head noun "person", and the relative pronoun "whom" refers back to the referent of that noun. The sentence is equivalent to the following two sentences: "I saw a person yesterday. The person went home." The shared argument need not fulfill the same role in both clauses; in this example the same person is referred to by the subject of the matrix clause, but the direct object of the relative clause.


title: Relative clause

text: A free relative clause (or fused relative), on the other hand, does not have an explicit antecedent external to itself. Instead, the relative clause itself takes the place of an argument in the matrix clause. For example, in the English sentence "I like what I see", the clause "what I see" is a free relative clause, because it has no antecedent, but itself serves as the object of the verb "like" in the main clause. Alternatively, one could argue that the free relative clause has a zero as its antecedent.


title: Relative clause

text: Bound relative clauses may or may not be restrictive. A restrictive relative clause is a relative clause that functions as a restrictive modifier. A non-restrictive relative clause is a relative clause that is not a restrictive relative clause. Whereas a "non-restrictive" or "non-defining" relative clause merely provides supplementary information, a "restrictive" or "defining" relative clause modifies the meaning of its head word (restricts its possible referent). For example:


title: Relative clause

text: In speaking, it is natural to make slight pauses around non-restrictive clauses, and in English this is shown in writing by commas (as in the examples). However, many languages distinguish the two types of relative clauses in this way only in speaking, not in writing. Another difference in English is that only restrictive relative clauses may be introduced with "that" or use the "zero" relative pronoun (see English relative clauses for details).


title: Relative clause

text: A non-restrictive relative clause may have a whole sentence as its antecedent rather than a specific noun phrase; for example:


title: Relative clause

text: Here, "which" refers not to the bed or the cat but to the entire proposition expressed in the main clause, namely the situation of the cat being allowed on the bed.


title: Relative clause

text: Relative clauses may be either finite clauses (as in the examples above) or non-finite clauses. An example of a non-finite relative clause in English is the infinitive clause "on whom to rely", in the sentence "She is the person on whom to rely".


title: Relative clause

text: For example, the English sentence "The person that I saw yesterday went home" can be described as follows:


title: Relative clause

text: The following sentences indicate various possibilities (only some of which are grammatical in English):


title: Relative clause

text: There are four main strategies for indicating the role of the shared noun phrase in the embedded clause. These are typically listed in order of the degree to which the noun in the relative clause has been reduced, from most to least:


title: Relative clause

text: In this strategy, there is simply a gap in the relative clause where the shared noun would go. This is normal in English, for example, and also in Chinese and Japanese. This is the most common type of relative clause, especially in verb-final languages with prenominal relative clauses, but is also widespread among languages with postnominal externally headed relative clauses.


title: Relative clause

text: There may or may not be any marker used to join the relative and main clauses. (Languages with a case-marked relative pronoun are technically not considered to employ the gapping strategy even though they do in fact have a gap, since the case of the relative pronoun indicates the role of the shared noun.) Often the form of the verb is different from that in main clauses and is to some degree nominalized, as in Turkish and in English reduced relative clauses.


title: Relative clause

text: In non-verb-final languages, apart from languages like Thai and Vietnamese with very strong politeness distinctions in their grammars, gapped relative clauses tend, however, to be restricted to positions high up in the accessibility hierarchy. With obliques and genitives, non-verb-final languages that do not have politeness restrictions on pronoun use tend to use pronoun retention. English is unusual in that "all" roles in the embedded clause can be indicated by gapping: e.g. "I saw the person who is my friend", but also (in progressively less accessible positions cross-linguistically, according to the "accessibility hierarchy" described below) "... who I know", "... who I gave a book to", "... who I spoke with", "... who I run slower than". Usually, languages with gapping disallow it beyond a certain level in the accessibility hierarchy, and switch to a different strategy at this point. Classical Arabic, for example, only allows gapping in the subject and sometimes the direct object; beyond that, a resumptive pronoun must be used. Some languages have no allowed strategies at all past a certain point—e.g. in many Austronesian languages, such as Tagalog, all relative clauses must have the shared noun serving the subject role in the embedded clause. In these languages, relative clauses with shared nouns serving "disallowed" roles can be expressed by passivizing the embedded sentence, thereby moving the noun in the embedded sentence into the subject position. This, for example, would transform "The person who I gave a book to" into "The person who was given a book by me". Generally, languages such as this "conspire" to implement general relativization by allowing passivization from "all" positions — hence a sentence equivalent to "The person who is run slower than by me" is grammatical. Gapping is often used in conjunction with case-marked relative pronouns (since the relative pronoun indicates the case role in the embedded clause), but this is not necessary (e.g. Chinese and Japanese both using gapping in conjunction with an indeclinable complementizer).


title: Relative clause

text: This is a type of gapped relative clause, but is distinguished by the fact that the role of the shared noun in the embedded clause is indicated indirectly by the case marking of the marker (the relative pronoun) used to join the main and embedded clauses. All languages which use relative pronouns have them in clause-initial position: though one could conceivably imagine a clause-final relative pronoun analogous to an adverbial subordinator in that position, they are unknown.


title: Relative clause

text: Some languages have what are described as "relative pronouns" (in that they agree with some properties of the head noun, such as number and gender) but which do not actually indicate the case role of the shared noun in the embedded clause. Classical Arabic has "relative pronouns" which are case-marked, but which agree in case with the "head" noun. Case-marked relative pronouns in the strict sense are almost entirely confined to European languages, where they are widespread except among the Celtic family and Indo-Aryan family. The influence of Spanish has led to their adaption by a very small number of Native American languages, of which the best known are the Keresan languages.


title: Relative clause

text: In this type, the position relativized is indicated by means of a personal pronoun in the same syntactic position as would ordinarily be occupied by a noun phrase of that type in the main clause—known as a "resumptive pronoun". It is equivalent to saying "The woman who I saw her yesterday went home". Pronoun retention is very frequently used for relativization of inaccessible positions on the accessibility hierarchy. In Persian and Classical Arabic, for example, resumptive pronouns are required when the embedded role is other than the subject or direct object, and optional in the case of the direct object. Resumptive pronouns are common in non-verb-final languages of Africa and Asia, and also used by the Celtic languages of northwest Europe and Romanian ("Omul pe care l-am văzut ieri a mers acasă"/"The man who I saw him yesterday went home"). They also occur in deeply embedded positions in English, as in "That's the girl that I don't know what she did", although this is sometimes considered non-standard.


title: Relative clause

text: Only a very small number of languages, of which the best known is Yoruba, have pronoun retention as their sole grammatical type of relative clause.


title: Relative clause

text: In the nonreduction type, unlike the other three, the shared noun occurs as a "full-fledged noun phrase" in the embedded clause, which has the form of a full independent clause. Typically, it is the head noun in the main clause that is reduced or missing. Some languages use relative clauses of this type with the normal strategy of embedding the relative clause next to the head noun. These languages are said to have "internally headed" relative clauses, which would be similar to the (ungrammatical) English structure "[You see the girl over there] is my friend" or "I took [you see the girl over there] out on a date". This is used, for example, in Navajo, which uses a special relative verb (as with some other Native American languages).


title: Relative clause

text: A second strategy is the "correlative"-clause strategy used by Hindi and other Indo-Aryan languages, as well as Bambara. This strategy is equivalent to saying "Which girl you see over there, she is my daughter" or "Which knife I killed my friend with, the police found that knife". It is "correlative" because of the corresponding "which ... that ..." demonstratives or "which ... she/he/it ..." pronouns, which indicate the respective nouns being equated. The shared noun can either be repeated entirely in the main clause or reduced to a pronoun. There is no need to front the shared noun in such a sentence. For example, in the second example above, Hindi would actually say something equivalent to "I killed my friend with which knife, the police found that knife".


title: Relative clause

text: Dialects of some European languages, such as Italian, do use the nonreduction type in forms that could be glossed in English as "The person just passed us by, she introduced me to the chancellor here."


title: Relative clause

text: In general, however, nonreduction is restricted to verb-final languages, though it is more common among those that are head-marking.


title: Relative clause

text: The positioning of a relative clause before or after a head noun is related to the more general concept of branching in linguistics. Languages that place relative clauses after their head noun (so-called "head-initial" or "VO" languages) generally also have adjectives and genitive modifiers following the head noun, as well as verbs preceding their objects. French, Spanish and Arabic are prototypical languages of this sort. Languages that place relative clauses before their head noun (so-called "head-final" or "OV" languages) generally also have adjectives and genitive modifiers preceding the head noun, as well as verbs following their objects. Turkish and Japanese are prototypical languages of this sort. Not all languages fit so easily into these categories. English, for example, is generally head-first, but has adjectives preceding their head nouns, and genitive constructions with both preceding and following modifiers ("the friend of my father" vs. "my father's friend"). Chinese has the "VO" order, with verb preceding object, but otherwise is generally head-final.


title: Relative clause

text: The antecedent of the relative clause (that is, the noun that is modified by it) can in theory be the subject of the main clause, or its object, or any other verb argument. In many languages, however, especially rigidly left-branching, dependent-marking languages with prenominal relative clauses, there are major restrictions on the role the antecedent may have "in the relative clause".


title: Relative clause

text: Edward Keenan and Bernard Comrie noted that these roles can be ranked cross-linguistically in the following order from most accessible to least accessible:


title: Relative clause

text: This order is called the accessibility hierarchy. If a language can relativize positions lower in the accessibility hierarchy, it can always relativize positions higher up, but not vice versa. For example, Malagasy can relativize only subject and Chukchi only absolutive arguments, whilst Basque can relativize absolutives, ergatives and indirect objects, but not obliques or genitives or objects of comparatives. Similar hierarchies have been proposed in other circumstances, e.g. for pronominal reflexes.


title: Relative clause

text: English can relativize all positions in the hierarchy. Here are some examples of the NP and relative clause usage from English:


title: Relative clause

text: Languages that cannot relativize directly on noun phrases low in the accessibility hierarchy can sometimes use alternative voices to "raise" the relevant noun phrase so that it can be relativized. The most common example is the use of applicative voices to relativize obliques, but in such languages as Chukchi antipassives are used to raise ergative arguments to absolutive.


title: Relative clause

text: These passivized sentences get progressively more ungrammatical in English as they move down the accessibility hierarchy; the last two, in particular, are so ungrammatical as to be almost unparsable by English speakers. But languages with severe restrictions on which roles can be relativized are precisely those that can passivize almost any position, and hence the last two sentences would be normal in those languages.


title: Relative clause

text: A further example is languages that can relativize only subjects and direct objects. Hence the following would be possible:


title: Relative clause

text: The other ungrammatical examples above would still be ungrammatical. These languages often allow an oblique object to be moved to the direct object slot by the use of the so-called "applicative voice", much as the passive voice moves an oblique object to the subject position. The above examples expressed in an applicative voice might be similar to the following (in not necessarily grammatical English):


title: Relative clause

text: Modern grammars may use the accessibility hierarchy to order productions—e.g. in Head-Driven Phrase Structure Grammar the hierarchy corresponds to the order of elements on the "subcat" list, and interacts with other principles in explanations of binding facts. The hierarchy also figures in


title: Relative clause

text: In English, a relative clause follows the noun it modifies. It is generally indicated by a relative pronoun at the start of the clause, although sometimes simply by word order. If the relative pronoun is the object of the verb in the relative clause, it comes at the beginning of the clause even though it would come at the end of an independent clause ("She is the woman "whom" I saw", not "She is the woman I saw "whom"").


title: Relative clause

text: The choice of relative pronoun can be affected by whether the clause modifies a human or non-human noun, by whether the clause is restrictive or not, and by the role (subject, direct object, or the like) of the relative pronoun in the relative clause.


title: Relative clause

text: In English, as in some other languages (such as French; see below), non-restrictive relative clauses are set off with commas, but restrictive ones are not:


title: Relative clause

text: The status of "that" as a relative pronoun is not universally agreed. Traditional grammars treat "that" as a relative pronoun, but not all contemporary grammars do: e.g. the Cambridge Grammar of the English Language (pp. 1056–7) makes a case for treating "that" as a subordinator instead of a relative pronoun; and the British National Corpus treats "that" as a subordinating conjunction even when it introduces relative clauses. One motivation for the different treatment of "that" is that there are differences between "that" and "which" (e.g., one can say "in which" but not "in that", etc.).


title: Relative clause

text: The system of relative pronouns in French is as complicated as, but similar in many ways to, the system in English.


title: Relative clause

text: When the pronoun is to act as the direct object of the relative clause, ' is generally used, although ', which is inflected for grammatical gender and number, is sometimes used in order to give more precision. For example, any of the following is correct and would translate to "I talked to his/her father and mother, whom I already knew":


title: Relative clause

text: However, in the first sentence, "whom I already knew" refers only to the mother; in the second, it refers to both parents; and in the third, as in the English sentence, it could refer either only to the mother, or to both parents.


title: Relative clause

text: When the pronoun is to act as the subject of the relative clause, ' is generally used, though as before, ' may be used instead for greater precision. (This is less common than the use of " with direct objects, however, since verbs in French often reflect the grammatical number of their subjects.)


title: Relative clause

text: Contrary to English, the relative pronoun can never be omitted in French, not even when the relative clause is embedded in another relative clause.


title: Relative clause

text: When the pronoun is to act in a possessive sense, where the preposition "de" (of/from) would normally be used, the pronoun " ("whose") is used, but does not act as a determiner for the noun "possessed":


title: Relative clause

text: This construction is also used in non-possessive cases where the pronoun replaces an object marked by ":


title: Relative clause

text: More generally, in modern French, " can signal the topic of the following clause, without replacing anything in this clause:


title: Relative clause

text: When the pronoun is to act as the object of a preposition (other than when ' is used), ' is generally used, though " can be used if the antecedent is human.


title: Relative clause

text: There exists a further complication when the antecedent is a non-human indefinite pronoun. In that case, ' cannot be used because it must agree in gender with its head, and an indefinite pronoun has no gender. Instead, ', which usually means "what", is used.


title: Relative clause

text: The preposition always appears before the pronoun, and the prepositions ' and ' (at/to) contract with ' to form ' and ', or with ' to form ' and '.


title: Relative clause

text: Aside from their highly inflected forms, German relative pronouns are less complicated than English. There are two varieties. The more common one is based on the definite article "der", "die", "das", but with distinctive forms in the genitive ("dessen", "deren") and in the dative plural ("denen"). Historically this is related to English "that". The second, which is more literary and used for emphasis, is the relative use of "welcher", "welche", "welches", comparable with English "which". As in most Germanic languages, including Old English, both of these varieties inflect according to gender, case and number. They take their gender and number from the noun which they modify, but the case from their function in their own clause.


title: Relative clause

text: The relative pronoun "dem" is neuter singular to agree with "Haus", but dative because it follows a preposition in its own clause. On the same basis, it would be possible to substitute the pronoun "welchem".


title: Relative clause

text: However, German uses the uninflecting "was" ('what') as a relative pronoun when the antecedent is "alles", "etwas" or "nichts" ('everything', 'something', 'nothing').


title: Relative clause

text: Alternatively, particularly in formal registers, participles (both active and passive) can be used to embed relative clauses in adjectival phrases:


title: Relative clause

text: Unlike English, which only permits relatively small participle phrases in adjectival positions (typically just the participle and adverbs), and disallows the use of direct objects for active participles, German sentences of this sort can embed clauses of arbitrary complexity.


title: Relative clause

text: In Latin, relative clauses follow the noun phrases they modify, and are always introduced using relative pronouns. Relative pronouns, like other pronouns in Latin, agree with their antecedents in gender and number, but not in case: a relative pronoun's case reflects its role in the relative clause it introduces, while its antecedent's case reflects the antecedent's role in the clause that contains the relative clause. (Nonetheless, it is possible for the pronoun and antecedent to be in the same case.) For example:


title: Relative clause

text: In the former example, "urbēs" and "quae" both function as subjects in their respective clauses, so both are in the nominative case; and due to gender and number agreement, both are feminine and plural. In the latter example, both are still feminine and plural, and "urbēs" is still in the nominative case, but "quae" has been replaced by "quās", its accusative-case counterpart, to reflect its role as the direct object of "vīdī".


title: Relative clause

text: For more information on the forms of Latin relative pronouns, "see" the section on relative pronouns in the article on Latin declension.


title: Relative clause

text: However, there is a phenomenon in Ancient Greek called "case attraction", where the case of the relative pronoun can be "attracted" to the case of its antecedent.


title: Relative clause

text: In this example, although the relative pronoun should be in the accusative case, as the object of "obtain", it is attracted to the genitive case of its antecedent ("of the freedom...").


title: Relative clause

text: The Ancient Greek relative pronoun ὅς, ἥ, ὅ ("hós, hḗ, hó") is unrelated to the Latin word, since it derives from Proto-Indo-European : in Proto-Greek, "y" before a vowel usually changed to "h" (debuccalization). Cognates include Sanskrit relative pronouns "yas, yā, yad" (where "o" changed to short "a").


title: Relative clause

text: The Greek definite article ὁ, ἡ, τό ("ho, hē, tó") has a different origin, since it is related to the Sanskrit demonstrative "sa, sā" and Latin "is-tud".


title: Relative clause

text: Information that in English would be encoded with relative clauses could be represented with complex participles in Ancient Greek. This was made particularly expressive by the rich suite of participles available, with active and passive participles in present, past and future tenses. This is called the attributive participle.


title: Relative clause

text: Serbo-Croatian uses exactly the same principle as Latin does. The following sentences are the Latin examples translated to Serbo-Croatian (the same sentences apply to the Croatian, Serbian, Bosnian, and Montenegrin standard variants of the pluricentric language):


title: Relative clause

text: In the first sentence, "koji" is in the nominative, and in the second "koje" is in the accusative. Both words are two case forms of the same relative pronoun, that is inflicted for gender (here: masculine), number (here: plural), and case.


title: Relative clause

text: An alternative relativizing strategy is the use of the non-declinable word "što" 'that' to introduce a relative clause. This word is used together with a resumptive pronoun, i.e. a personal pronoun that agrees in gender and number with the antecedent, while its case form depends on its function in the relative clause. The resumptive pronoun never appears in subject function.


title: Relative clause

text: Relative clauses are relatively frequent in modern Serbo-Croatian since they have expanded as attributes at the expense of the participles performing that function. The most frequently used relative pronoun is "koji". There are several ongoing changes concerning "koji". One of them is the spread of the genitive-accusative syncretism to the masculine inanimate of the pronoun. The cause lies in the necessity to disambiguate the subject and the object by morphological means. The nominative-accusative syncretism of the form "koji" is inadequate, so the genitive form "kojeg" is preferred:


title: Relative clause

text: The Celtic languages (at least the modern Insular Celtic languages) distinguish two types of relative clause: direct relative clauses and indirect relative clauses. A direct relative clause is used where the relativized element is the subject or the direct object of its clause (e.g. "the man "who" saw me", "the man "whom" I saw"), while an indirect relative clause is used where the relativized element is a genitival (e.g. "the man "whose" daughter is in the hospital") or is the object of a preposition (e.g. "the man "to whom" I gave the book"). Direct relative clauses are formed with a relative pronoun (unmarked for case) at the beginning; a gap (in terms of syntactic theory, a trace, indicated by ("t)" in the examples below) is left in the relative clause at the pronoun's expected position.


title: Relative clause

text: The direct relative particle "a" is not used with "mae" ("is") in Welsh; instead the form "sydd" or "sy'" is used:


title: Relative clause

text: Indirect relative clauses are formed with a relativizer at the beginning; the relativized element remains "in situ" in the relative clause.


title: Relative clause

text: Although both the Irish relative pronoun and the relativizer are 'a', the relative pronoun triggers lenition of a following consonant, while the relativizer triggers eclipsis (see Irish initial mutations).


title: Relative clause

text: Both direct and indirect relative particles can be used simply for emphasis, often in answer to a question or as a way of disagreeing with a statement. For instance, the Welsh example above, "y dyn a welais" means not only "the man whom I saw", but also "it was the man (and not anyone else) I saw"; and "y dyn y rhois y llyfr iddo" can likewise mean "it was the man (and not anyone else) to whom I gave the book".


title: Relative clause

text: In Biblical Hebrew, relative clauses were headed with the word "asher", which could be either a relative pronoun or a relativizer. In later times, "asher" became interchangeable with the prefix "she-" (which is also used as a conjunction, with the sense of English "that"), and in Modern Hebrew, this use of "she-" is much more common than "asher", except in some formal, archaic, or poetic writing. In meaning, the two are interchangeable; they are used regardless of whether the clause is modifying a human, regardless of their grammatical case in the relative clause, and regardless of whether the clause is restrictive.


title: Relative clause

text: Further, because Hebrew does not generally use its word for "is", "she-" is used to distinguish adjective phrases used in epithet from adjective phrases used in attribution:


title: Relative clause

text: Since 1994, the official rules of Modern Hebrew (as determined by the Academy of the Hebrew Language) have stated that relative clauses are to be punctuated in Hebrew the same way as in English (described above). That is, non-restrictive clauses are to be set off with commas, while restrictive clauses are not:


title: Relative clause

text: Nonetheless, many speakers of Modern Hebrew still use the pre-1994 rules, which were based on the German rules (described above). Except for the simple adjective-phrase clauses described above, these speakers set off all relative clauses, restrictive or not, with commas:


title: Relative clause

text: One major difference between relative clauses in Hebrew and those in (for example) English is that in Hebrew, what might be called the "regular" pronoun is not always suppressed in the relative clause. To reuse the prior example:


title: Relative clause

text: More specifically, if this pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, it is always suppressed. If it is the direct object, then it is usually suppressed, though it is also correct to leave it in. (If it is suppressed, then the special preposition "et", used to mark the direct object, is suppressed as well.) If it is the object of a preposition, it must be left in, because in Hebrew—unlike in English—a preposition cannot appear without its object. When the pronoun is left in, "she-" might more properly be called a relativizer than a relative pronoun.


title: Relative clause

text: The Hebrew relativizer "she-" 'that' "might be a shortened form of the Hebrew relativizer "‘asher" 'that', which is related to Akkadian "‘ashru" 'place' (cf. Semitic *"‘athar"). Alternatively, Hebrew "‘asher" derived from "she-", or it was a convergence of Proto-Semitic "dhu" (cf. Aramaic "dī") and "‘asher" [...] Whereas Israeli "she-" functions both as complementizer and relativizer, "ashér" can only function as a relativize."


title: Relative clause

text: In Modern Standard and Classical Arabic there is a relative pronoun (in Arabic: ) "allaḏī" (masculine singular), feminine singular "allatī", masculine plural "allaḏīna", feminine plural "allawātī", masculine dual "allaḏānī" (nominative) / "allaḏayni" (accusative and genitive), feminine dual "allatānī" (nom.) / "allataynī" (acc. and gen.).


title: Relative clause

text: Its usage has two specific rules: it agrees with the antecedent in gender, number and case, and it is used only if the antecedent is definite. If the antecedent is indefinite, no relative pronoun is used. The former is called "jumlat sila" (conjunctive sentence) while the latter is called "jumlat sifa" (descriptive sentence).


title: Relative clause

text: In Colloquial Arabic the multiple forms of the relative pronoun have been levelled in favour of a single form, a simple conjunction, which in most dialects is "illi", and is never omitted. So in Palestinian Arabic the above sentences would be:


title: Relative clause

text: As in Hebrew, the regular pronoun referring to the antecedent is repeated in the relative clause - literally, "the boy whom I saw him in class..." (the "-hu" in "ra'aituhu" and the "-ō" in "shuftō"). The rules of suppression in Arabic are identical to those of Hebrew: obligatory suppression in the case that the pronoun is the subject of the relative clause, obligatory retention in the case that the pronoun is the object of a preposition, and at the discretion of the speaker if the pronoun is the direct object. The only difference from Hebrew is that, in the case of the direct object, it is preferable to retain the pronoun rather than suppress it.


title: Relative clause

text: Japanese does not employ relative pronouns to relate relative clauses to their antecedents. Instead, the relative clause directly modifies the noun phrase as an attributive verb, occupying the same syntactic space as an attributive adjective (before the noun phrase).


title: Relative clause

text: In fact, since so-called "i-adjectives" in Japanese are technically intransitive stative verbs, it can be argued that the structure of the first example (with an adjective) is the same as the others. A number of "adjectival" meanings, in Japanese, are customarily shown with relative clauses consisting solely of a verb or a verb complex:


title: Relative clause

text: Often confusing to speakers of languages which use relative pronouns are relative clauses which would in their own languages require a preposition with the pronoun to indicate the semantic relationship among the constituent parts of the phrase.


title: Relative clause

text: Here, the preposition "in" is missing from the Japanese ("missing" in the sense that the corresponding postposition would be used with the main clause verb in Japanese) Common sense indicates what the meaning is in this case, but the "missing preposition" can sometimes create ambiguity.


title: Relative clause

text: In this case, (1) is the context-free interpretation of choice, but (2) is possible with the proper context.


title: Relative clause

text: In Georgian, there are two strategies for forming relative clauses. The first is similar to that of English or Latin: the modified noun is followed by a relativizer that inflects for its embedded case and may take a postposition. The relativized noun may be preceded by a determiner.


title: Relative clause

text: A second, more colloquial, strategy is marked by the invariant particle რომ "rom". This particle is generally the second word of the clause, and since it does not decline, is often followed by the appropriately cased third-person pronoun to show the relativized noun's role in the embedded clause. A determiner precedes the relativized noun, which is also usually preceded by the clause as a whole.


title: Relative clause

text: Such relative clauses may be internally headed. In such cases, the modified noun moves into the clause, taking the appropriate declension for its role therein (thus eliminating the need for the third person pronouns in the above examples), and leaves behind the determiner (which now functions as a pronoun) in the matrix clause.


title: Relative clause

text: Indonesian, a zero-copula language that does not mark verb tense, allows a variety of types of relative clause, normally restrictive. They are usually introduced by the relative pronoun "yang", which stands for "who"/"which"/"what"/"that".


title: Relative clause

text: "Yang" is not allowed as the object of a relative clause, so that Indonesian cannot exactly reproduce structures such as "the house that Jack built". Instead, a passive form of construction must be used:


title: Relative clause

text: Tagalog uses the gapping strategy to form relative clauses, with the complementizer, "na" / "=ng" 'that', separating the head, which is the noun being modified, from the actual relative clause. In (1a) below, "lalaki" 'man' serves as the head, while "nagbigay ng bigas sa bata" 'gave rice to the child' is the relative clause.


title: Relative clause

text: The gap inside the relative clause corresponds to the position that the noun acting as the head would have normally taken, had it been in a declarative sentence. In (1a), the gap is in subject position within the relative clause. This corresponds to the subject position occupied by "ang lalaki" 'the man' in the declarative sentence in (1b).


title: Relative clause

text: There is a constraint in Tagalog on the position from which a noun can be relativized and in which a gap can appear: A noun has to be the subject within the relative clause in order for it to be relativized. The phrases in (2) are ungrammatical because the nouns that have been relativized are not the subjects of their respective relative clauses. In (2a), the gap is in direct object position, while in (2b), the gap is in indirect object position.


title: Relative clause

text: The correct Tagalog translations for the intended meanings in (2) are found in (3), where the verbs have been passivized in order to raise the logical direct object in (3a) and the logical indirect object in (3b) to subject position. (Tagalog can have more than one passive voice form for any given verb.)


title: Relative clause

text: Tagalog relative clauses can be left-headed, as in (1a) and (3), right-headed, as in (4), or internally headed, as in (5).


title: Relative clause

text: In (4), the head, "lalaki" 'man', is found after or to the right of the relative clause, "nagbigay ng bigas sa bata" 'gave rice to the child'. In (5), the head is found in some position inside the relative clause. When the head appears to the right of or internally to the relative clause, the complementizer appears to the left of the head. When the head surfaces to the left of the relative clause, the complementizer surfaces to the right of the head.


title: Relative clause

text: There are exceptions to the subjects-only constraint to relativization mentioned above. The first involves relativizing the possessor of a noun phrase within the relative clause.


title: Relative clause

text: In (6), the head, "bata" 'child', is the owner of the injured finger. The phrase "ang daliri" 'the finger' is the subject of the verb, "nasugatan" 'was injured'.


title: Relative clause

text: When an oblique noun phrase is relativized, as in (7a), "na" 'that', the complementizer that separates the head from the relative clause, is optional. The relative clause itself is also composed differently. In the examples in (1a), and in (3) to (6), the relative clauses are simple declaratives that contain a gap. However, the relative clause in (7a) looks more like an indirect question, complete with the interrogative complementizer, "kung" 'if', and a pre-verbally positioned WH-word like "saan" 'where', as in (7b). The sentence in (7c) is the declarative version of the relative clause in (7a), illustrating where the head, "ospital" 'hospital', would have been "before" relativization. The question in (7d) shows the direct question version of the subordinate indirect question in (7b).


title: Relative clause

text: If in English a relative clause would have a copula and an adjective, in Hawaiian the antecedent is simply modified by the adjective: "The honest man" instead of "the man who is honest". If the English relative clause would have a copula and a noun, in Hawaiian an appositive is used instead: "Paul, an apostle" instead of "Paul, who was an apostle".


title: Relative clause

text: If the English relative pronoun would be the subject of an intransitive or passive verb, in Hawaiian a participle is used instead of a full relative clause: "the people fallen" instead of "the people who fell"; "the thing given" instead of "the thing that was given". But when the relative clause's antecedent is a person, the English relative pronoun would be the subject of the relative clause, and the relative clause's verb is active and transitive, a relative clause is used and it begins with the relative pronoun "nana": "The one who me (past) sent" = "the one who sent me".


title: Relative clause

text: If in English a relative pronoun would be the object of a relative clause, in Hawaiian the possessive form is used so as to treat the antecedent as something possessed: "the things of me to have seen" = "the things that I saw"; "Here is theirs to have seen" = This is what they saw".


title: Relative clause

text: In Mandarin Chinese, the relative clause is similar to other adjectival phrases in that it precedes the noun that it modifies, and ends with the relative particle "de" (的). If the relative clause is missing a subject but contains an object (in other words, if the verb is transitive), the main-clause noun is the implied subject of the relative clause:


title: Relative clause

text: If the object but not the subject is missing from the relative clause, the main-clause noun is the implied object of the relative clause:


title: Relative clause

text: If both the subject and the object are missing from the relative clause, then the main-clause noun could either be the implied subject or the implied object of the relative clause; sometimes which is intended is clear from the context, especially when the subject or object of the verb must be human and the other must be non-human:


title: Relative clause

text: But sometimes ambiguity arises when it is not clear from the context whether the main-clause noun is intended as the subject or the object of the relative clause:


title: Relative clause

text: However, the first meaning (in which the main-clause noun is the subject) is usually intended, as the second can be unambiguously stated using a passive voice marker:


title: Relative clause

text: Sometimes a relative clause has both a subject and an object specified, in which case the main-clause noun is the implied object of an implied preposition in the relative clause:


title: Relative clause

text: It is also possible to include the preposition explicitly in the relative clause, but in that case it takes a pronoun object (a personal pronoun with the function of a relative pronoun):


title: Relative clause

text: Free relative clauses are formed in the same way, omitting the modified noun after the particle "de". As with bound relative clauses, ambiguity may arise; for example, "eat (particle)" may mean "that which is eaten", i.e. "food", or "those who eat".


title: Relative clause

text: In Hawaiian Creole English, an English-based creole also called Hawaiian Pidgin or simply Pidgin, relative clauses work in a way that is similar to, but not identical to, the way they work in English. As in English, a relative pronoun that serves as the object of the verb in the relative clause can optionally be omitted: For example,