title: Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici

text: Anna Maria Luisa's single most enduring act was the "Family Pact". It ensured that all the Medicean art and treasures collected over nearly three centuries of political ascendancy remained in Florence. Cynthia Miller Lawrence, an American art-historian, argues that Anna Maria Luisa thus provisioned for Tuscany's future economy through tourism. Sixteen years after her death, the Uffizi Gallery, built by Cosimo "the Great", the founder of the Grand Duchy, was made open to public viewing.


title: Anna Maria Luisa de' Medici

text: In 2012 after concern caused by the 1966 Flood of the Arno River, her bones were exhumed. A scientific examination found no traces of syphilis, which she had long been thought to have died from.


title: Dark tourism

text: Dark tourism (also Thana tourism (as in Thanatos), black tourism, morbid tourism, or grief tourism) has been defined as tourism involving travel to places historically associated with death and tragedy. More recently, it was suggested that the concept should also include reasons tourists visit that site, since the site's attributes alone may not make a visitor a "dark tourist". The main attraction to dark locations is their historical value rather than their associations with death and suffering. Holocaust tourism contains aspects of both dark tourism and heritage tourism.


title: Dark tourism

text: Dark tourism deals with the philosophical interrogation on death. Visitors who are interested in these spaces manifest their intention to understand others' pain or simply educational goals. Dark tourists imagine often their own finitude through the figure of the Other. Dark tourism helps to enhance the recipient capacity of society as well as giving a lesson to next generations.


title: Dark tourism

text: While there is a long tradition of people visiting recent and ancient settings of death, such as travel to gladiator games in the Roman colosseum, attending public executions by decapitation, and visiting the catacombs, this practice has been studied academically only relatively recently.


title: Dark tourism

text: Travel writers were the first to describe their tourism to deadly places. P. J. O'Rourke called his travel to Warsaw, Managua, and Belfast in 1988 'holidays in hell', or Chris Rojek talking about 'black-spot' tourism in 1993 or the 'milking the macabre'.


title: Dark tourism

text: Academic attention to the subject originated in Glasgow, Scotland: The term 'dark tourism' was coined in 1996 by Lennon and Foley, two faculty members of the Department of Hospitality, Tourism & Leisure Management at Glasgow Caledonian University, and the term 'thanatourism' was first mentioned by A. V. Seaton in 1996, then Professor of Tourism Marketing at the University of Strathclyde.


title: Dark tourism

text: As of 2014, there have been many studies on definitions, labels, and subcategorizations, such as Holocaust tourism and slavery-heritage tourism, and the term continues to be molded outside academia by authors of travel literature. There is very little empirical research on the perspective of the dark tourist.


title: Dark tourism

text: Dark tourism has been formally studied from three main perspectives by a variety of different disciplines:


title: Dark tourism

text: Scholars in this interdisciplinary field have examined many different aspects. Lennon and Foley expanded their original idea in their first book, deploring that "tact and taste do not prevail over economic considerations” and that the "blame for transgressions cannot lie solely on the shoulders of the proprietors, but also upon those of the tourists, for without their demand there would be no need to supply."


title: Dark tourism

text: Whether a tourist attraction is educational or exploitative is defined by both its operators and its visitors. Tourism operators motivated by greed can "milk the macabre" or reexamine tragedies for a learning experience. Tourists consuming dark tourism products may desecrate a place and case studies are needed to probe who gains and loses. Chris Hedges criticized the "Alcatraz narrative as presented by the National Park Service" as "whitewashing", because it "ignores the savagery and injustice of America's system of mass incarceration". By omitting challenging details, the park service furthers a "Disneyfication", per Hedges.


title: Dark tourism

text: Destinations of dark tourism include castles and battlefields such as Culloden in Scotland and Bran Castle and Poienari Castle in Romania; former prisons such as Beaumaris Prison in Anglesey, Wales and the Jack the Ripper exhibition in the London Dungeon; sites of natural disasters or man made disasters, such as Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park in Japan, Chernobyl in Ukraine and the commercial activity at Ground Zero in New York one year after September 11, 2001. It also includes sites of human atrocities, murders, and genocide, such as the Auschwitz concentration camp in Poland, the Nanjing Massacre Memorial Hall in China, the Columbine High School massacre in the United States, the Tuol Sleng Genocide Museum in Cambodia; the sites of the Jeju Uprising in South Korea and the Spirit Lake Internment Camp Centre near La Ferme, Quebec as an example of Canada's internment operations of 1914–1920.


title: Dark tourism

text: In Bali "death and funeral rites have become commodified for tourism ..., where enterprising businesses begin arranging tourist vans and sell tickets as soon as they hear someone is dying." In the U.S., visitors can tour the Holocaust Memorial Museum in Washington D.C. "with an identity card which matches their age and gender with that of a name and photo of a real holocaust victim. Against a backdrop of video interpretation portraying killing squads in action, the pseudo Holocaust victim enters a personal ID into monitors as they wander around the attraction to discover how their real-life counterpart is faring." In Colombia, places associated with Pablo Escobar, the drug lord from the Medellín Cartel, became hotspots for dark tourism through Escobar-themed tours. In Medellín, visitors frequent Roberto Escobar's private museum of his infamous brother, the house where he was killed, and La Catedral, Escobar's prison. Another famous place is the Haciénda Nápoles estate located between Bogotá and Medellín, near Puerto Triunfo.


title: Halftone

text: Halftone is the reprographic technique that simulates continuous-tone imagery through the use of dots, varying either in size or in spacing, thus generating a gradient-like effect. "Halftone" can also be used to refer specifically to the image that is produced by this process.


title: Halftone

text: Where continuous-tone imagery contains an infinite range of colors or greys, the halftone process reduces visual reproductions to an image that is printed with only one color of ink, in dots of differing size (pulse-width modulation) or spacing (frequency modulation) or both. This reproduction relies on a basic optical illusion: when the halftone dots are small, the human eye interprets the patterned areas as if they were smooth tones. At a microscopic level, developed black-and-white photographic film also consists of only two colors, and not an infinite range of continuous tones. For details, see film grain.


title: Halftone

text: Just as color photography evolved with the addition of filters and film layers, color printing is made possible by repeating the halftone process for each subtractive color – most commonly using what is called the "CMYK color model". The semi-opaque property of ink allows halftone dots of different colors to create another optical effect: full-color imagery.


title: Halftone

text: While there were earlier mechanical printing processes that could imitate the tone and subtle details of a photograph, most notably the Woodburytype, expense and practicality prohibited their being used in mass commercial printing that used relief printing.


title: Halftone

text: Previously most newspaper pictures were woodcuts or wood-engravings made from hand-carved blocks of wood that, while they were often copied from photographs, they more resemble hand drawn sketches. Commercial printers wanted a practical way to realistically reproduce photographs onto the printed page, but most common mechanical printing processes can only print areas of ink or leave blank areas on the paper and not a photographic range of tones; only black (or coloured) ink, or nothing. The half-tone process overcame these limitations and became the staple of the book, newspaper and other periodical industry.


title: Halftone

text: William Fox Talbot is credited with the idea of halftone printing. In an 1852 patent he suggested using "photographic screens or veils" in connection with a photographic intaglio process.


title: Halftone

text: Several different kinds of screens were proposed during the following decades. One of the first attempts was by William Leggo with his leggotype while working for the "Canadian Illustrated News". The first printed halftone photograph was an image of Prince Arthur published on October 30, 1869. The "New York Daily Graphic" would later publish "the first reproduction of a photograph with a full tonal range in a newspaper" on March 4, 1880 (entitled "A Scene in Shantytown") with a crude halftone screen.


title: Halftone

text: The first truly successful commercial method was patented by Frederic Ives of Philadelphia in 1881. Although he found a way of breaking up the image into dots of varying sizes, he did not make use of a screen. In 1882, the German patented a halftone process in Germany which he named . His invention was based on the previous ideas of Berchtold and Swan. He used single lined screens which were turned during exposure to produce cross-lined effects. He was the first to achieve any commercial success with relief halftones.


title: Halftone

text: Shortly afterwards, Ives, this time in collaboration with Louis and Max Levy, improved the process further with the invention and commercial production of quality cross-lined screens.


title: Halftone

text: The relief halftone process proved almost immediately to be a success. The use of halftone blocks in popular journals became regular during the early 1890s.


title: Halftone

text: The development of halftone printing methods for lithography appears to have followed a largely independent path. In the 1860s, A. Hoen & Co. focused on methods allowing artists to manipulate the tones of hand-worked printing stones. By the 1880s, Hoen was working on halftone methods that could be used in conjunction with either hand-worked or photolithographic stones.


title: Halftone

text: Prior to digitised images, special photographic techniques were developed to break grayscale images down into discrete points. The earliest of these was "screening" where a coarse-woven fabric screen was suspended before the camera plate to be exposed, breaking the incoming light into a pattern of dots via a combination of interruption and diffraction effects. The photographic plate could then be developed using photo-etching techniques to create a printing plate.


title: Halftone

text: Other techniques used a "screen" consisting of parallel bars (a Ronchi ruling), which was then combined with a second exposure with the same screen orientated at another angle. Another method was to expose through a screen-plate with crossing lines etched into the surface. Later, either photographic contact screens were used, or sometimes no screen at all, exposing directly on a lithographic (extremely high contrast) film with a pre-exposed halftone pattern.


title: Halftone

text: The resolution of a halftone screen is measured in lines per inch (lpi). This is the number of lines of dots in one inch, measured parallel with the screen's angle. Known as the screen ruling, the resolution of a screen is written either with the suffix lpi or a hash mark; for example, "150 lpi" or "150#".


title: Halftone

text: The higher the pixel resolution of a source file, the greater the detail that can be reproduced. However, such increase also requires a corresponding increase in screen ruling or the output will suffer from posterization. Therefore, file resolution is matched to the output resolution. The dots cannot easily be seen by the naked eye, but can be discerned through a microscope or a magnifying glass.


title: Halftone

text: When different screens are combined, a number of distracting visual effects can occur, including the edges being overly emphasized, as well as a moiré pattern. This problem can be reduced by rotating the screens in relation to each other. This "screen angle" is another common measurement used in printing, measured in degrees clockwise from a line running to the left (9 o'clock is zero degrees). These angles are optimized to avoid patterns and reduce overlap, which can cause colors to look dimmer.


title: Halftone

text: Halftoning is also commonly used for printing color pictures. The general idea is the same, by varying the density of the four secondary printing colors, cyan, magenta, yellow, and black (abbreviation CMYK), any particular shade can be reproduced.


title: Halftone

text: In this case there is an additional problem that can occur. In the simple case, one could create a halftone using the same techniques used for printing shades of grey, but in this case the different printing colors have to remain physically close to each other to fool the eye into thinking they are a single color. To do this the industry has standardized on a set of known angles, which result in the dots forming into small circles or rosettes.


title: Halftone

text: Though round dots are the most commonly used, many dot types are available, each having its own characteristics. They can be used simultaneously to avoid the moiré effect. Generally, the preferred dot shape is also dependent on the printing method or the printing plate.


title: Halftone

text: Digital halftoning has been replacing photographic halftoning since the 1970s when "electronic dot generators" were developed for the film recorder units linked to color drum scanners made by companies such as Crosfield Electronics, Hell, and Linotype-Paul.


title: Halftone

text: In the 1980s, halftoning became available in the new generation of imagesetter film and paper recorders that had been developed from earlier "laser typesetters". Unlike pure scanners or pure typesetters, imagesetters could generate all the elements in a page including type, photographs, and other graphic objects. Early examples were the widely used Linotype Linotronic 300 and 100 introduced in 1984, which were also the first to offer PostScript RIPs in 1985.


title: Halftone

text: Early laser printers from the late 1970s onward could also generate halftones but their original 300 dpi resolution limited the screen ruling to about 65 lpi. This was improved as higher resolutions of 600 dpi and above, and dithering techniques, were introduced.


title: Halftone

text: All halftoning uses a high-frequency/low-frequency dichotomy. In photographic halftoning, the low-frequency attribute is a local area of the output image designated a halftone cell. Each equal-sized cell relates to a corresponding area (size and location) of the continuous-tone input image. Within each cell, the high-frequency attribute is a centered variable-sized halftone dot composed of ink or toner. The ratio of the inked area to the non-inked area of the output cell corresponds to the luminance or graylevel of the input cell. From a suitable distance, the human eye averages both the high-frequency apparent gray level approximated by the ratio within the cell and the low-frequency apparent changes in gray level between adjacent equally spaced cells and centered dots.


title: Halftone

text: Digital halftoning uses a raster image or bitmap within which each monochrome picture element or pixel may be on or off, ink or no ink. Consequently, to emulate the photographic halftone cell, the digital halftone cell must contain groups of monochrome pixels within the same-sized cell area. The fixed location and size of these monochrome pixels compromises the high-frequency/low-frequency dichotomy of the photographic halftone method. Clustered multi-pixel dots cannot "grow" incrementally but in jumps of one whole pixel. In addition, the placement of that pixel is slightly off-center. To minimize this compromise, the digital halftone monochrome pixels must be quite small, numbering from 600 to 2,540, or more, pixels per inch. However, digital image processing has also enabled more sophisticated dithering algorithms to decide which pixels to turn black or white, some of which yield better results than digital halftoning. Digital halftoning based on some modern image processing tools such as nonlinear diffusion and stochastic flipping has also been proposed recently.


title: Halftone

text: The most common method of creating screens, amplitude modulation, produces a regular grid of dots that vary in size. The other method of creating screens, frequency modulation, is used in a process also known as stochastic screening. Both modulation methods are named by analogy with the use of the terms in telecommunications.


title: Halftone

text: Inverse halftoning or descreening is the process of reconstructing high-quality continuous-tone images from the halftone version. Inverse halftoning is an ill-posed problem because different source images can produce the same halftone image. Consequently, one halftone image has multiple plausible reconstructions. Additionally, information like tones and details are discarded during halftoning and thus irrecoverably lost. Due to the variety of different halftone patterns, it is not always obvious which algorithm to use for the best quality.


title: Halftone

text: There are many situations where reconstruction is desired. For artists, it is a challenging task to edit halftone images. Even simple modifications like altering the brightness usually work by changing the color tones. In halftone images, this additionally requires preservation of the regular pattern. The same applies to more complex tools like retouching. Many other image processing techniques are designed to operate on continuous-tone images. For example, image compression algorithms are more efficient for those images. Another reason is the visual aspect since halftoning degrades the quality of an image. Sudden tone changes of the original image are removed due to the limited tone variations in halftoned images. It can also introduce distortions and visual effects like moiré patterns. Especially when printed on newspaper, the halftone pattern becomes more visible due to the paper properties. By scanning and reprinting these images moiré patterns are emphasized. Thus, reconstructing them before reprinting is important to provide a reasonable quality.


title: Halftone

text: The main steps of the procedure are the removal of halftone patterns and reconstruction of tone changes. In the end, it may be necessary to recover details to improve image quality. There are many halftoning algorithms which can be mostly classified into the categories ordered dithering, error diffusion, and optimization-based methods. It is important to choose a proper descreening strategy since they generate different patterns and most of the inverse halftoning algorithms are designed for a particular type of pattern. Time is another selection criteria because many algorithms are iterative and therefore rather slow.


title: Halftone

text: The most straightforward way to remove the halftone patterns is the application of a low-pass filter either in spatial or frequency domain. A simple example is a Gaussian filter. It discards the high-frequency information which blurs the image and simultaneously reduces the halftone pattern. This is similar to the blurring effect of our eyes when viewing a halftone image. In any case, it is important to pick a proper bandwidth. A too-limited bandwidth blurs edges out, while a high bandwidth produces a noisy image because it does not remove the pattern completely. Due to this trade-off, it is not able to reconstruct reasonable edge information.


title: Halftone

text: Further improvements can be achieved with edge enhancement. Decomposing the halftone image into its wavelet representation allows to pick information from different frequency bands. Edges are usually consisting of highpass energy. By using the extracted highpass information, it is possible to treat areas around edges differently to emphasize them while keeping lowpass information among smooth regions.


title: Halftone

text: Another possibility for inverse halftoning is the usage of machine learning algorithms based on artificial neural networks. These learning-based approaches can find the descreening technique that gets as close as possible to the perfect one. The idea is to use different strategies depending on the actual halftone image. Even for different content within the same image, the strategy should be varied. Convolutional neural networks are well-suited for tasks like object detection which allows a category based descreening. Additionally, they can do edge detection to enhance the details around edge areas. The results can be further improved by generative adversarial networks. This type of network can artificially generate content and recover lost details. However, these methods are limited by the quality and completeness of the used training data. Unseen halftoning patterns which were not represented in the training data are rather hard to remove. Additionally, the learning process can take some time. By contrast, computing the inverse halftoning image is fast compared to other iterative methods because it requires only a single computational step.


title: Halftone

text: Unlike other approaches, the lookup table method does not involve any filtering. It works by computing a distribution of the neighborhood for every pixel in the halftone image. The lookup table provides a continuous-tone value for a given pixel and its distribution. The corresponding lookup table is obtained before using histograms of halftone images and their corresponding originals. The histograms provide the distribution before and after halftoning and make it possible to approximate the continuous-tone value for a specific distribution in the halftone image. For this approach, the halftoning strategy has to be known in advance for choosing a proper lookup table. Additionally, the table needs to be recomputed for every new halftoning pattern. Generating the descreened image is fast compared to iterative methods because it requires a lookup per pixel.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Ascidiacea, commonly known as the ascidians, tunicates (in part), and sea squirts (in part), is a polyphyletic class in the subphylum Tunicata of sac-like marine invertebrate filter feeders. Ascidians are characterized by a tough outer "tunic" made of a polysaccharide.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Ascidians are found all over the world, usually in shallow water with salinities over 2.5%. While members of the Thaliacea and Larvacea (Appendicularia) swim freely like plankton, sea squirts are sessile animals after their larval phase: they then remain firmly attached to their substratum, such as rocks and shells.


title: Ascidiacea

text: There are 2,300 species of ascidians and three main types: solitary ascidians, social ascidians that form clumped communities by attaching at their bases, and compound ascidians that consist of many small individuals (each individual is called a zooid) forming colonies up to several meters in diameter.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Sea squirts feed by taking in water through a tube, the oral siphon. The water enters the mouth and pharynx, flows through mucus-covered gill slits (also called pharyngeal stigmata) into a water chamber called the atrium, then exits through the atrial siphon.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Sea squirts are rounded or cylindrical animals ranging from about 0.5 to 10 cm (0.2 to 4 in) in size. One end of the body is always firmly fixed to rock, coral, or some similar solid surface. The lower surface is pitted or ridged, and in some species has root-like extensions that help the animal grip the surface. The body wall is covered by a smooth thick tunic, which is often quite rigid. The tunic consists of cellulose, along with proteins and calcium salts. Unlike the shells of molluscs, the tunic is composed of living tissue, and often has its own blood supply. In some colonial species, the tunics of adjacent individuals are fused into a single structure.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The upper surface of the animal, opposite to the part gripping the substratum, has two openings, or siphons. When removed from the water, the animal often violently expels water from these siphons, hence the common name of "sea squirt". The body itself can be divided into up to three regions, although these are not clearly distinct in most species. The pharyngeal region contains the pharynx, while the abdomen contains most of the other bodily organs, and the postabdomen contains the heart and gonads. In many sea squirts, the postabdomen, or even the entire abdomen, are absent, with their respective organs being located more anteriorly.


title: Ascidiacea

text: As its name implies, the pharyngeal region is occupied mainly by the pharynx. The large buccal siphon opens into the pharynx, acting like a mouth. The pharynx itself is ciliated and contains numerous perforations, or stigmata, arranged in a grid-like pattern around its circumference. The beating of the cilia sucks water through the siphon, and then through the stigmata. A long ciliated groove, or endostyle, runs along one side of the pharynx, and a projecting ridge along the other. The endostyle may be homologous with the thyroid gland of vertebrates, despite its differing function.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The pharynx is surrounded by an atrium, through which water is expelled through a second, usually smaller, siphon. Cords of connective tissue cross the atrium to maintain the general shape of the body. The outer body wall consists of connective tissue, muscle fibres, and a simple epithelium directly underlying the tunic.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The pharynx forms the first part of the digestive system. The endostyle produces a supply of mucus which is then passed into the rest of the pharynx by the beating of flagella along its margins. The mucus then flows in a sheet across the surface of the pharynx, trapping planktonic food particles as they pass through the stigmata, and is collected in the ridge on the dorsal surface. The ridge bears a groove along one side, which passes the collected food downwards and into the oesophageal opening at the base of the pharynx.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The oesophagus runs downwards to a stomach in the abdomen, which secretes enzymes that digest the food. An intestine runs upwards from the stomach parallel to the oesophagus and eventually opens, through a short rectum and anus, into a cloaca just below the atrial siphon. In some highly developed colonial species, clusters of individuals may share a single cloaca, with all the atrial siphons opening into it, although the buccal siphons all remain separate. A series of glands lie on the outer surface of the intestine, opening through collecting tubules into the stomach, although their precise function is unclear.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The heart is a curved muscular tube lying in the postabdomen, or close to the stomach. Each end opens into a single vessel, one running to the endostyle, and the other to the dorsal surface of the pharynx. The vessels are connected by a series of sinuses, through which the blood flows. Additional sinuses run from that on the dorsal surface, supplying blood to the visceral organs, and smaller vessels commonly run from both sides into the tunic. Nitrogenous waste, in the form of ammonia, is excreted directly from the blood through the walls of the pharynx, and expelled through the atrial siphon.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Unusually, the heart of sea squirts alternates the direction in which it pumps blood every three to four minutes. There are two excitatory areas, one at each end of the heart, with first one being dominant, to push the blood through the ventral vessel, and then the other, pushing it dorsally.


title: Ascidiacea

text: There are four different types of blood cell: lymphocytes, phagocytic amoebocytes, "nephrocytes" and "morula cells". The nephrocytes collect waste material such as uric acid and accumulate it in "renal vesicles" close to the digestive tract. The morula cells help to form the tunic, and can often be found within the tunic substance itself. In some species, the morula cells possess pigmented reducing agents containing iron (hemoglobin), giving the blood a red colour, or vanadium (hemovanadin) giving it a green colour. In that case the cells are also referred to as "vanadocytes".


title: Ascidiacea

text: The ascidian central nervous system is formed from a plate that rolls up to form a neural tube. The number of cells within the central nervous system is very small. The neural tube is composed of the sensory vesicle, the neck, the visceral or tail ganglion, and the caudal nerve cord. The anteroposterior regionalization of the neural tube in ascidians is comparable to that in vertebrates.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Although there is no true brain, the largest ganglion is located in the connective tissue between the two siphons, and sends nerves throughout the body. Beneath this ganglion lies an exocrine gland that empties into the pharynx. The gland is formed from the nerve tube, and is therefore homologous to the spinal cord of vertebrates.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Sea squirts lack special sense organs, although the body wall incorporates numerous individual receptors for touch, chemoreception, and the detection of light.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Almost all ascidians are hermaphrodites and conspicuous mature ascidians are sessile. The gonads are located in the abdomen or postabdomen, and include one testis and one ovary, each of which opens via a duct into the cloaca. Broadly speaking, the ascidians can be divided into species which exist as independent animals (the solitary ascidians) and those which are interdependent (the colonial ascidians). Different species of ascidians can have markedly different reproductive strategies, with colonial forms having mixed modes of reproduction.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Solitary ascidians release many eggs from their atrial siphons; external fertilization in seawater takes place with the coincidental release of sperm from other individuals. A fertilized egg spends 12 hours to a few days developing into a free-swimming tadpole-like larva, which then takes no more than 36 hours to settle and metamorphose into a juvenile.


title: Ascidiacea

text: As a general rule, the larva possesses a long tail, containing muscles, a hollow dorsal nerve tube and a notochord, both features clearly indicative of the animal's chordate affinities. But one group, the molgulid ascidians, have evolved tailless species on at least four separate occasions, and even direct development. A notochord is formed early in development, and always consist of a row of exactly 40 cells. The nerve tube enlarges in the main body, and will eventually become the cerebral ganglion of the adult. The tunic develops early in embryonic life, and extends to form a fin along the tail in the larva. The larva also has a statocyst and a pigmented cup above the mouth, which opens into a pharynx lined with small clefts opening into a surrounding atrium. The mouth and anus are originally at opposite ends of the animal, with the mouth only moving to its final (posterior) position during metamorphosis.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The larva selects and settles on appropriate surfaces using receptors sensitive to light, orientation to gravity, and tactile stimuli. When its anterior end touches a surface, papillae (small, finger-like nervous projections) secrete an adhesive for attachment. Adhesive secretion prompts an irreversible metamorphosis: various organs (such as the larval tail and fins) are lost while others rearrange to their adult positions, the pharynx enlarges, and organs called ampullae grow from the body to permanently attach the animal to the substratum. The siphons of the juvenile ascidian become orientated to optimise current flow through the feeding apparatus. Sexual maturity can be reached in as little as a few weeks. Since the larva is more advanced than its adult, this type of metamorphosis is called 'retrogressive metamorphosis'. This feature is a landmark for the 'theory of retrogressive metamorphosis or ascidian larva theory'; the true chordates are hypothesized to have evolved from sexually mature larvae.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Some ascidians, especially in Molgulidae family, have direct development in which the embryo develops directly into the juvenile without developing a tailed larva.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Colonial ascidians reproduce both asexually and sexually. Colonies can survive for decades. An ascidian colony consists of individual elements called "zooids". Zooids within a colony are usually genetically identical and some have a shared circulation.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Different colonial ascidian species produce sexually derived offspring by one of two dispersal strategies – colonial species are either broadcast spawners (long-range dispersal) or philopatric (very short-range dispersal). Broadcast spawners release sperm and ova into the water column and fertilization occurs near to the parent colonies. Resultant zygotes develop into microscopic larvae that may be carried great distances by oceanic currents. The larvae of sessile forms which survive eventually settle and complete maturation on the substratum- then they may bud asexually to form a colony of zooids.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The picture is more complicated for the philopatrically dispersed ascidians: sperm from a nearby colony (or from a zooid of the same colony) enter the atrial siphon and fertilization takes place "within" the atrium. Embryos are then brooded within the atrium where embryonic development takes place: this results in macroscopic tadpole-like larvae. When mature, these larvae exit the atrial siphon of the adult and then settle close to the parent colony (often within meters). The combined effect of short sperm range and philopatric larval dispersal results in local population structures of closely related individuals/inbred colonies. Generations of colonies which are restricted in dispersal are thought to accumulate adaptions to local conditions, thereby providing advantages over newcomers.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Trauma or predation often results in fragmentation of a colony into subcolonies. Subsequent zooid replication can lead to coalescence and circulatory fusion of the subcolonies. Closely related colonies which are proximate to each other may also fuse if they coalesce and if they are histocompatible. Ascidians were among the first animals to be able to immunologically distinguish self from non-self as a mechanism to prevent unrelated colonies from fusing to them and parasitizing them.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Sea squirt eggs are surrounded by a fibrous vitelline coat and a layer of follicle cells that produce sperm-attracting substances. In fertilization, the sperm passes through the follicle cells and binds to glycosides on the vitelline coat. The sperm's mitochondria are left behind as the sperm enters and drives through the coat; this translocation of the mitochondria might provide the necessary force for penetration. The sperm swims through the perivitelline space, finally reaching the egg plasma membrane and entering the egg. This prompts rapid modification of the vitelline coat, through processes such as the egg's release of glycosidase into the seawater, so no more sperm can bind and polyspermy is avoided. After fertilization, free calcium ions are released in the egg cytoplasm in waves, mostly from internal stores. The temporary large increase in calcium concentration prompts the physiological and structural changes of development.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The dramatic rearrangement of egg cytoplasm following fertilization, called ooplasmic segregation, determines the dorsoventral and anteroposterior axes of the embryo. There are at least three types of sea squirt egg cytoplasm: ectoplasm containing vesicles and fine particles, endoderm containing yolk platelets, and myoplasm containing pigment granules, mitochondria, and endoplasmic reticulum. In the first phase of ooplasmic segregation, the myoplasmic actin-filament network contracts to rapidly move the peripheral cytoplasm (including the myoplasm) to the vegetal pole, which marks the dorsal side of the embryo. In the second phase, the myoplasm moves to the subequatorial zone and extends into a crescent, which marks the future posterior of the embryo. The ectoplasm with the zygote nucleus ends up at the animal hemisphere while the endoplasm ends up in the vegetal hemisphere.


title: Ascidiacea

text: "Ciona intestinalis" is a hermaphrodite that releases sperm and eggs into the surrounding seawater almost simultaneously. It is self-sterile, and thus has been used for studies on the mechanism of self-incompatibility. Self/non-self-recognition molecules play a key role in the process of interaction between sperm and the vitelline coat of the egg. It appears that self/non-self recognition in ascidians such as "C. intestinalis" is mechanistically similar to self-incompatibility systems in flowering plants. Self-incompatibility promotes out-crossing, and thus provides the adaptive advantage at each generation of masking deleterious recessive mutations (i.e. genetic complementation).


title: Ascidiacea

text: "Ciona savignyi" is highly self-fertile. However, non-self sperm out-compete self-sperm in fertilization competition assays. Gamete recognition is not absolute allowing some self-fertilization. It was speculated that self-incompatibility evolved to avoid inbreeding depression, but that selfing ability was retained to allow reproduction at low population density.


title: Ascidiacea

text: "Botryllus schlosseri" is a colonial tunicate able to reproduce both sexually and asexually. "B. schlosseri" is a sequential (protogynous) hermaphrodite, and in a colony, eggs are ovulated about two days before the peak of sperm emission. Thus self-fertilization is avoided, and cross-fertilization is favored. Although avoided, self-fertilization is still possible in "B. schlosseri". Self-fertilized eggs develop with a substantially higher frequency of anomalies during cleavage than cross-fertilized eggs (23% vs. 1.6%). Also a significantly lower percentage of larvae derived from self-fertilized eggs metamorphose, and the growth of the colonies derived from their metamorphosis is significantly lower. These findings suggest that self-fertilization gives rise to inbreeding depression associated with developmental deficits that are likely caused by expression of deleterious recessive mutations.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Many colonial sea squirts are also capable of asexual reproduction, although the means of doing so are highly variable between different families. In the simplest forms, the members of the colony are linked only by rootlike projections from their undersides known as stolons. Buds containing food storage cells can develop within the stolons and, when sufficiently separated from the 'parent', may grow into a new adult individual.


title: Ascidiacea

text: In other species, the postabdomen can elongate and break up into a string of separate buds, which can eventually form a new colony. In some, the pharyngeal part of the animal degenerates, and the abdomen breaks up into patches of germinal tissue, each combining parts of the epidermis, peritoneum, and digestive tract, and capable of growing into new individuals.


title: Ascidiacea

text: In yet others, budding begins shortly after the larva has settled onto the substrate. In the family Didemnidae, for instance, the individual essentially splits into two, with the pharynx growing a new digestive tract and the original digestive tract growing a new pharynx.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Apurinic/apyrimidinic (AP) sites are a common form of DNA damage that inhibit DNA replication and transcription. AP endonuclease 1 (APEX1), an enzyme produced by "C. intestinalis", is employed in the repair of AP sites during early embryonic development. Lack of such repair leads to abnormal development. "C. intestinalis" also has a set of genes that encode proteins homologous to those employed in the repair of DNA interstrand crosslinks in humans.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The exceptional filtering capability of adult sea squirts causes them to accumulate pollutants that may be toxic to embryos and larvae as well as impede enzyme function in adult tissues. This property has made some species sensitive indicators of pollution.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Over the last few hundred years, most of the world's harbors have been invaded by non-native sea squirts that have clung to ship hulls or to introduced organisms such as oysters and seaweed. Several factors, including quick attainment of sexual maturity, tolerance of a wide range of environments, and a lack of predators, allow sea squirt populations to grow rapidly. Unwanted populations on docks, ship hulls, and farmed shellfish cause significant economic problems, and sea squirt invasions have disrupted the ecosystem of several natural sub-tidal areas by smothering native animal species.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Sea squirts are the natural prey of many animals, including nudibranchs, flatworms, molluscs, rock crabs, sea stars, fish, birds, and sea otters. They are also eaten by humans in many parts of the world, including Japan, Korea, Chile, and Europe (where they are sold under the name "sea violet"). As chemical defenses, many sea squirts intake and maintain an extremely high concentration of vanadium in the blood, have a very low pH of the tunic due to acid in easily ruptured bladder cells, and (or) produce secondary metabolites harmful to predators and invaders. Some of these metabolites are toxic to cells and are of potential use in pharmaceuticals.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Ascidians are soft-bodied animals, and for this reason their fossil record is almost entirely lacking. The earliest reliable ascidians is "Shankouclava shankouense" from the Lower Cambrian Maotianshan Shale (South China). There are also two enigmatic species from the Ediacaran period with some affinity to the ascidians – "Ausia" from the Nama Group of Namibia and "Burykhia" from the Onega Peninsula, White Sea of northern Russia.


title: Ascidiacea

text: They are also recorded from Lower Jurassic (Bonet and Benveniste-Velasquez, 1971; Buge and Monniot, 1972) and the Tertiary from France (Deflandre-Riguard, 1949, 1956; Durand, 1952; Deflandre and Deflandre-Rigaud, 1956; Bouche, 1962; Lezaud, 1966; Monniot and Buge, 1971; Varol and Houghton, 1996). Older (Triassic) records are ambiguous. The representatives of the genus Cystodytes (family Polycitoridae) have been described from the Pliocene of France by Monniot (1970, 1971) and Deflandre-Rigaud (1956), and from Eocene of France by Monniot and Buge (1971), and lately from the Late Eocene of S Australia by Łukowiak (2012).


title: Ascidiacea

text: The ascidians were on morphological evidence treated as sister to the Thaliacea and Appendicularia, but molecular evidence shows that ascidians are polyphyletic within the Tunicata, as shown in the cladogram.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Sea pineapple ("Halocynthia roretzi") is cultivated in Japan ("hoya", "maboya") and Korea ("meongge"). When served raw, they have a chewy texture and peculiar flavor likened to "rubber dipped in ammonia" which has been attributed to a naturally occurring chemical known as cynthiaol. "Styela clava" is farmed in parts of Korea where it is known as "mideoduk" and is added to various seafood dishes such as agujjim. Tunicate bibimbap is a specialty of Geojae island, not far from Masan.


title: Ascidiacea

text: "Microcosmus" species from the Mediterranean Sea are eaten in France ("figue de mer", "violet"), Italy ("limone di mare", "uova di mare") and Greece ("fouska", "φούσκα"), for example raw with lemon, or in salads with olive oil, lemon and parsley.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The "piure" ("Pyura chilensis") is used in the cuisine of Chile – it is consumed both raw and used in seafood stews like bouillabaisse.


title: Ascidiacea

text: "Pyura praeputialis" is known as "cunjevoi" in Australia. It was once used as a food source by Aboriginal people living around Botany Bay, but is now used mainly for fishing bait.


title: Ascidiacea

text: A number of factors make sea squirts good models for studying the fundamental developmental processes of chordates, such as cell-fate specification. The embryonic development of sea squirts is simple, rapid, and easily manipulated. Because each embryo contains relatively few cells, complex processes can be studied at the cellular level, while remaining in the context of the whole embryo.


title: Ascidiacea

text: The eggs of some species contain little yolk and are therefore transparent making them transparency ideal for fluorescent imaging. Its maternally-derived proteins are naturally associated with pigment (in a few species only), so cell lineages are easily labeled, allowing scientists to visualize embryogenesis from beginning to end.


title: Ascidiacea

text: Sea squirts are also valuable because of their unique evolutionary position: as an approximation of ancestral chordates, they can provide insight into the link between chordates and ancestral non-chordate deuterostomes, as well as the evolution of vertebrates from simple chordates. The sequenced genomes of the related sea squirts "Ciona intestinalis" and "Ciona savignyi" are small and easily manipulated; comparisons with the genomes of other organisms such as flies, nematodes, pufferfish and mammals provides valuable information regarding chordate evolution. A collection of over 480,000 cDNAs have been sequenced and are available to support further analysis of gene expression, which is expected to provide information about complex developmental processes and regulation of genes in vertebrates. Gene expression in embryos of sea squirts can be conveniently inhibited using Morpholino oligos.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: Jason Pierre Jones (born June 3, 1967) is a Canadian-American actor, comedian and writer. He was a correspondent on "The Daily Show with Jon Stewart" from 2005 to 2015. From 2016 to 2019 Jones starred in the TBS comedy series "The Detour", which he created with his wife Samantha Bee.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: Jones was born and raised in Hamilton, Ontario. He attended Hill Park Secondary School and then Ryerson Theatre School in Toronto. He is married to Samantha Bee, the host of "Full Frontal with Samantha Bee" and fellow former "The Daily Show" correspondent; they have three children: daughter Piper Bee-Jones (born 2006), son Fletcher Bee-Jones (born 2008), and daughter Ripley Bee-Jones (born 2010). In 2014, he became a United States citizen.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: In September 2005, Jones joined "The Daily Show" cast as a contributor. When his wife left the show in late December for family leave, Jones was promoted to a full-time correspondent. He won a significant following at "The Daily Show" while writing a few pieces about the Denmark cartoons, Carl Monday, and . Before Rob Corddry left "The Daily Show" he said: "Jason Jones has raised the bar too high. I just can't say the things he says to people." His exposé on the real values of Wasilla, Alaska remains one of the most popular segments on the "Daily Show" website. In 2014, Jones temporarily left "The Daily Show" to appear in a pilot for the sitcom "Love Is Relative".


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: In June 2009, Jones was sent to Tehran just prior to the controversial 2009 presidential election. His reports in Iran included an interview with "Newsweek" journalist Maziar Bahari, who was arrested after the disputed June 2009 presidential elections. During Bahari's time in prison, his interrogators charged him with espionage and used Jones' interview as evidence against him. Bahari later clarified saying that the charges were fabricated. Jones appeared as himself in the film version of Bahari's ordeal, "Rosewater", encountering Bahari before taping their interview. The film was written and directed by "Daily Show" host Jon Stewart. Another segment in Iran poked fun at Iranians' greater knowledge of the United States compared with Americans' knowledge of Iran. The segment along with a 2011 piece in which he invited cameras to view his vasectomy, are regarded by "TV Guide" as his signature segments on the program.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: On October 7, 2014, he co-hosted "The Daily Show" with his wife Samantha Bee, in the absence of Jon Stewart. He also disclosed on that episode that he had recently become an American citizen.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: Jason Jones announced that he would leave "The Daily Show" in 2015 and begin work on "The Detour", a TBS show which he co-wrote and executive produced with wife Samantha Bee.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: Jones was sent as a mock reporter to cover the 2014 Sochi Olympics. During his visit he often lampooned Russian culture and its perceived police state. For example in an episode, Jones tried to find a protest area in Sochi and was forced to drive well outside of the city to an abandoned parking lot which was designated as the zone for protesters; however even then he was approached by police officers and asked to leave due to not having appropriate documentation. During an interview with opposition figure Alexei Navalny, the crew's cameras and other electronic equipment were jammed as they entered an apartment to conduct the interview.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: Jones also managed to hold a mock interview with Mikhail Gorbachev where he insisted Gorbachev put up the wall which is a play on president Ronald Reagan's plea to Gorbachev to "tear down" the Berlin Wall. Navalny was arrested several days after his interview with Jones, which was also satirized by Jon Stewart. Jones was able to interview Sergey Markov, a prominent Russian politician and academic. During the interview Jones questioned Markov about Russia's stance on gay rights, to which Markov responded that there are no issues with gay rights in Russia and that "you are absolutely free to make sex with this table." The statement has since achieved notoriety with regards to Russia's stance on LGBT rights. During the program Jones also described Russia as a conservative paradise, noting the nation's relatively low flat tax, pro-gun stance, opposition to gay marriage, and the powerful influence of the Orthodox church. He also remarked that Russia may be the "ultimate red state."


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: Jones has also done various television work with his Canadian sketch comedy troupe The Bobroom, and was the host of "Craft Corner Deathmatch" on the Style Network in 2005. He also co-wrote, co-starred in, and co-produced the 2004 film "Ham & Cheese" with fellow Bobroom alumnus Mike Beaver; the film was nominated for six Canadian Comedy Awards in 2005. He has had minor roles in numerous feature films including the 2002 Syfy original film "Terminal Invasion" and the 2003 film "Public Domain", the latter also starred Don McKellar, Nicole DeBoer, and Beaver.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: He appeared in the TV show "Queer as Folk", as well as appearing on the CBS sitcom "How I Met Your Mother" as "Tony". Jones has appeared twice on the NBC series "Law & Order" as Len Pewels, host of the fictional "Len Pewels' America". In 2008, Jones worked on a CBS sitcom about a celebrity chef (to be played by Jones), with his wife (to be played by Samantha Bee). Jones and Bee starred as husband and wife in a movie entitled "Coopers' Camera" (USA "Cooper's Christmas"), in which their Christmas was recorded on a brand new (1985, at the time) camera.


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: Jones next appeared in a series of television advertisements, including a series for beer brand Molson and appearing as Greg Gregger in Budweiser's short films "The Best Man" and "The Company Man", as well as in some 30-second commercials. Jones had a supporting role in the 2009 movie "All About Steve". In early 2010, he starred in a sitcom pilot for ABC called "How to be a Better American" but it was not picked up as a series. He also made cameo appearances in the 2012 film "Pitch Perfect", its 2015 sequel "Pitch Perfect 2", the 2013 film "The Art of the Steal" and the 2015 films "Hot Tub Time Machine 2" and "The Night Before". In 2014, Jones starred in the pilot for the sitcom "Love is Relative" as the character "Nate".


title: Jason Jones (actor)

text: He worked with his wife, Samantha Bee, on development of a show for TBS, "The Detour". TBS ordered the pilot, written by Jason Jones and Samantha Bee in October 2014. The show is based on the real life couple's own experience with family vacations. It was picked up for ten episodes in February 2015. On April 6, 2016, the show was renewed for a second season, ahead of the first-season premiere the same month. The second season premiered on February 21, 2017. On April 25, 2017, TBS renewed the series for a third season, which premiered on January 23, 2018. The fourth and final season premiered on June 18, 2019.


title: Ariana Savalas

text: Ariana Savalas is an American actress, singer, songwriter, burlesque performer, and the daughter of actor Telly Savalas. She is a resident headlining performer and emcee for Postmodern Jukebox. She was one of the original members of the group alongside Haley Reinhart, Casey Abrams, Robyn Adele Anderson, and Morgan James.


title: Ariana Savalas

text: Savalas tours with the band and has appeared in a number of the group's YouTube videos, two of her videos in the top five most popular videos in the group's history.


title: Ariana Savalas

text: She has been called the Dita Von Teese of music, fusing her original music with elements of traditional vaudeville and burlesque. She was described by "Las Vegas Magazine" as "the musical burlesque queen" and "the mistress of the modern Moulin Rouge".


title: Ariana Savalas

text: Savalas was born in Los Angeles, California, but was raised in Minnesota following her father's death in 1994. She attended an all-girls Catholic convent school in her teenage years before graduating early and moving to London to pursue a career in performance. She studied Shakespeare and acting at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London and is a member of Playhouse West, a repertory theater directed by Jeff Goldblum.


title: Ariana Savalas

text: Before turning to burlesque, Savalas toured and recorded in Europe as a pop singer in her teens with European producer Jack White. She made a guest appearance as Bobby Lainsford on the CBS hit drama "Criminal Minds" in 2010. Savalas began her music career in Los Angeles as a singer/songwriter playing venues on the Sunset Strip, such as the Whisky a Go Go and Hard Rock Cafe.


title: Ariana Savalas

text: Savalas' first jazz EP, "Sophisticated Lady", was a combination of her original compositions as well as two standards from the Great American Songbook, including the song "Sophisticated Lady" by Duke Ellington, Mitchell Parish, and Irving Mills which she named the record after. Savalas was widely known in the cabaret world headlining in venues such as the New York Friars' Club and Michael Feinstein's late New York cabaret Feinstein's. She was the opening act for saxophone legend Kenny G and has toured the world with 14 time Grammy nominee Dave Koz.


title: Ariana Savalas

text: Savalas was introduced to Scott Bradlee in 2015 and began collaborating on online videos and touring with the band soon after. They have performed at venues such as Radio City Music Hall, The Greek Theater, and the O2 Academy in London. Savalas was their first female emcee, and hosted the first-ever PMJ PBS special "Postmodern Jukebox: The New Classics".


title: Ariana Savalas

text: Savalas began incorporating her own music into live shows, drawing influences from the Weimar Republic era of German Cabaret and the Moulin Rouge. Her 2019 live album, "The Ménage a Tour! Live from Las Vegas" was a showcase of music, songwriting, dance, comedy, and burlesque. Savalas released a single and music video for her original song "Legendary Lover" in early 2020.


title: Ariana Savalas

text: Savalas released her debut full studio record, "The Dead Dance", in early 2020. The album was released exclusively under Cargo Records in Germany and digitally worldwide. The first single, "Memory", features trumpet player Brian Newman.


title: Foxtail millet

text: Foxtail millet, scientific name Setaria italica (synonym "Panicum italicum" L.), is an annual grass grown for human food. It is the second-most widely planted species of millet, and the most grown millet species in Asia. The oldest evidence of foxtail millet cultivation was found along the ancient course of the Yellow River in Cishan, China, carbon dated to be from around 8,000 years before present. Foxtail millet has also been grown in India since antiquity.


title: Foxtail millet

text: Other names for the species include dwarf setaria, foxtail bristle-grass, giant setaria, green foxtail, Italian millet, German millet, and Hungarian millet.


title: Foxtail millet

text: The small seeds, around in diameter, are encased in a thin, papery hull which is easily removed in threshing. Seed color varies greatly between varieties.


title: Foxtail millet

text: In India, foxtail millet is still an important crop in its arid and semi-arid regions. In South India, it has been a staple diet among people for a long time from the Sangam period. It is referred to often in old Tamil texts and is commonly associated with Lord Muruga and his consort Valli.


title: Foxtail millet

text: In China, foxtail millet is the most common millet and one of the main food crops, especially among the poor in the dry northern part of that country. In Southeast Asia, foxtail millet is commonly cultivated in its dry, upland regions. In Europe and North America it is planted at a moderate scale for hay and silage, and to a more limited extent for birdseed.


title: Foxtail millet

text: In the northern Philippines, foxtail millet was once an important staple crop, until its later replacement by wet-rice and sweet potato cultivation.


title: Foxtail millet

text: It is a warm season crop, typically planted in late spring. Harvest for hay or silage can be made in 65–70 days with a typical yield of of green matter or of hay. Harvest for grain is in 75–90 days with a typical yield of of grain. Its early maturity and efficient use of available water make it suitable for raising in dry areas.


title: Foxtail millet

text: Diseases of foxtail millet include leaf and head blast disease caused by "Magnaporthe grisea", smut disease caused by "Ustilago crameri", and green ear caused by "Sclerospora graminicola". The unharvested crop is also susceptible to attack by birds and rodents. Insect pests include "Atherigona atripalpis", the foxtail millet shoot fly.


title: Foxtail millet

text: The wild antecedent of foxtail millet has been securely identified as "Setaria viridis", which is interfertile with foxtail millet; wild or weedy forms of foxtail millet also exist. Zohary and Hopf note that the primary difference between the wild and cultivated forms is "their seed dispersal biology. Wild and weedy forms shatter their seed while the cultivars retain them."</ref> The reference genome for foxtail millet was completed in 2012. Genetic comparisons also confirm that "S. viridis" is the antecedent of "S. italica".


title: Foxtail millet

text: The earliest evidence of the cultivation of this grain comes from the Peiligang culture of China, which also cultivated "Panicum miliaceum", but foxtail millet became the predominant grain only with the Yangshao culture. More recently, the Cishan culture of China has been identified as the earliest to domesticate foxtail millet around 6500–5500 BC.


title: Foxtail millet

text: The earliest evidence for foxtail millet cultivation outside of its native distribution is at Chengtoushan in the Middle Yangtze River region, dating to around 4000 BC. In southern China, foxtail millet reached the Chengdu Plain (Baodun) at around 2700 BC and Guangxi (, near the Vietnamese border) at around 3000 BC. Foxtail millet also reached Taiwan (Nankuanli, Dapenkeng culture) at around 2800 BC and the Tibetan Plateau (Karuo) at around 3000 BC.


title: Foxtail millet

text: Foxtail millet likely reached Southeast Asia via multiple routes. The earliest evidence for foxtail millet in Southeast Asia comes from various sites in the Khao Wong Prachan Valley in central Thailand, with the site at providing the earliest date with direct AMS dating to around 2300 BC.


title: Foxtail millet

text: The earliest evidence for foxtail millet in East Siberia comes from the archaeological site at Krounovka 1 in Primorsky Krai, dating to around 3620–3370 BC. The earliest direct evidence for foxtail millet in Korea come from Dongsam-dong Shell Midden, a Jeulmun site in southern Korea, with a direct AMS date of around 3,360 BC. In Japan, the earliest evidence for foxtail millet comes from the Jōmon site at Usujiri in Hokkaido, dating to around 4,000 BP.


title: Foxtail millet

text: Foxtail millet arrived in Europe later; carbonized seeds first appear in the second millennium BC in central Europe. The earliest definite evidence for its cultivation in the Near East is at the Iron Age levels at Tille Hoyuk in Turkey, with an uncorrected radiocarbon date of about 600 BC.


title: Douro

text: The Douro (, , ; ; ) is the highest-flow river of the Iberian Peninsula. It rises near Duruelo de la Sierra in Soria Province, central Spain, meanders south briefly then flows generally west through the north-west part of central Spain and into northern Portugal, to its mouth at Porto, the second largest city of Portugal. At its mouth it meets the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Douro

text: The scenic Douro railway line runs close to the river. Adjacent areas produce port (a mildly fortified wine) and other agricultural produce. A small tributary of the river has the Côa Valley Paleolithic Art site which is considered important to the archaeological pre-historic patrimony, designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site. Within Spain, it flows through the middle of the autonomous community of Castile and León, with the basin spanning through the northern half of the Meseta Central. The latter includes wine producing areas such as the Ribera del Duero DOP.


title: Douro

text: The Latin name "Durius" was likely a Celtic name before overwhelming Romanization of both main Iberian languages. If so the Celtic root is "*dubro-" (in which family of languages the final vowel sound often changes with context, as in Latin). In modern Welsh, "dŵr" is "water," which is cognate with "dour" in modern Breton, "dobhar" in Irish and gives rise to Dover on the Dour and the other modest rivers the Dever and Deveron (Dubh Èireann) in British Isles. In Roman times, the river was personified as a god, Durius.


title: Douro

text: A folk-etymological derivation suggests that the name comes from the Portuguese or Spanish for "golden".


title: Douro

text: The drainage basin was depopulated in the 8th century. According to Claudio Sánchez-Albornoz this was a deliberate act by Alfonso I of Asturias for the defence of his Kingdom, which led the area to be named Repoblación.


title: Douro

text: The Douro "vinhateiro" (vine-land) of the Douro Valley in Portugal, long devoted to vineyards, has been designated by UNESCO as a World Heritage Site. The wine was taken downriver in flat-bottom boats called "rabelos", to be stored in barrels in cellars in Vila Nova de Gaia, just across the river from Porto. Nowadays port is transported there in tanker trucks.


title: Douro

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, dams with locks were built along the river, allowing river traffic into the upper regions in Spain and along the border.


title: Douro

text: In 1998, Portugal and Spain signed the Albufeira Convention, an agreement on the sharing of trans-boundary rivers to include the Douro, Tagus and Guadiana. The convention superseded an agreement on the Douro, signed in 1927, that was expanded in 1964 and 1968 to include tributaries.


title: Douro

text: It is the third-longest river in the Iberian Peninsula after the Tagus and Ebro. Its total length is , of which only sections of the Portuguese section, being below a fall/rapids line, are naturally navigable, by modest rivercraft.


title: Douro

text: In its Spanish section, the Douro crosses the great Castilian "meseta" and meanders through five provinces of the autonomous community of Castile and León: Soria, Burgos, Valladolid, Zamora, and Salamanca, passing through the towns of Soria, Almazán, Aranda de Duero, Tordesillas, and Zamora.


title: Douro

text: The most important tributaries in this region are the Pisuerga, passing through Valladolid, and the Esla, which passes through Zamora. This region is generally semi-arid plains, with wheat and in some places, especially near "Aranda de Duero", with vineyards, in the Ribera del Duero wine region. Sheep rearing is also still important.


title: Douro

text: For , the river forms part of the national border line between Spain and Portugal, in a region of narrow canyons. It formed a historical barrier to invasions, creating a cultural/linguistic divide. In these isolated areas, in which the Aldeadávila Dam impounds the river, there are protected areas: the International Douro Natural Park (on the Portuguese side) and the Arribes del Duero Natural Park (on the Zamoran margin).


title: Douro

text: The Douro fully enters Portuguese territory just after the confluence with the Águeda River; once the Douro enters Portugal, major population centres are less frequent along the river. Except for Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia at the river mouth, the only population centres of any note are Foz do Tua, Pinhão and Peso da Régua. Tributaries here are small, merging into the Douro along the canyons; the most important are Côa, Tua, Sabor, Corgo, Tavora, Paiva, Tâmega, and Sousa. None of these small, fast-flowing rivers is navigable.


title: Douro

text: Major Spanish riverside towns include Soria, Almazán, Aranda de Duero, Tordesillas, Zamora and major Portuguese towns include Miranda do Douro, Foz Côa, Peso da Régua, Lamego, Vila Nova de Gaia, and Porto. The most populous cities along the Douro River are Valladolid and Zamora in Spain, and Porto and Vila Nova de Gaia in Portugal. The latter two are located at the mouth of the Douro at the Atlantic Ocean.


title: Douro

text: In Portugal, the Douro flows through the districts of Bragança, Guarda, Viseu, Vila Real, Aveiro and Porto. Porto is the main hub city in northern Portugal. Its historic centre has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site because of its significant architecture and history.


title: Douro

text: These reaches of the Douro have a microclimate allowing for cultivation of olives, almonds, and especially grapes, which are important for making port. The region around Pinhão and São João da Pesqueira is considered to be the centre of port, with its "quintas" (or farms/estates) that extend along the steep slopes of the river valleys. In the 21st century, many of these are owned by multinational, reputed wine companies.


title: Douro

text: Recently, a prosperous tourist industry has developed based on river excursions from Porto to points along the Upper Douro valley.


title: Douro

text: The Douro railway line () was completed in 1887; it connects Porto, Rio Tinto, Ermesinde, Valongo, Paredes, Penafiel, Livração, Marco de Canaveses, Régua, Tua and Pocinho.


title: Douro

text: Pocinho is near the very small city of Foz Côa, which is close to Côa Valley Paleolithic Art site. This is considered important to the archaeological pre-historic patrimony, and it has been designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.


title: Douro

text: Fifteen dams have been built on the Douro to regulate the water flow, generate hydroelectric power, and allow navigation through locks. Beginning at the headwaters, the first five dams are in Spain: Cuerda del Pozo, Los Rábanos, San José, Villalcampo and Castro Dams. The next five downstream are along the Portuguese-Spanish border; the first three are owned and operated by Portugal: (Miranda, Picote and Bemposta Dams), while the next two belong to Spain: (Aldeadávila and Saucelle Dams).


title: Douro

text: The Douro's last five dams are in Portugal, and allow for navigation: Pocinho, Valeira, Régua, Carrapatelo, and Crestuma–Lever dams. Vessels with a maximum length of and width of can pass through the five locks. The highest lock, at Carrapatelo Dam, has a maximum lift of . The waters of Pocinho lake reach above sea level. Unannounced releases of water from upstream Spanish dams occasionally causes navigation issues in these locks.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Cluny Abbey (; , formerly also "Cluni" or "Clugny"; ) is a former Benedictine monastery in Cluny, Saône-et-Loire, France. It was dedicated to Saint Peter.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: The abbey was constructed in the Romanesque architectural style, with three churches built in succession from the 4th to the early 12th centuries. The earliest basilica was the world's largest church until the St. Peter's Basilica construction began in Rome.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Cluny was founded by Duke William I of Aquitaine in 910. He nominated Berno as the first abbot of Cluny, subject only to Pope Sergius III. The abbey was notable for its stricter adherence to the Rule of St. Benedict, whereby Cluny became acknowledged as the leader of western monasticism. In 1790 during the French Revolution, the abbey was sacked and mostly destroyed, with only a small part surviving.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Starting around 1334, the Abbots of Cluny maintained a townhouse in Paris known as the Hôtel de Cluny, which has been a public museum since 1843. Apart from the name, and the building itself, it no longer possesses anything originally connected with Cluny.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: In 910, William I, Duke of Aquitaine "the Pious", and Count of Auvergne, founded the Benedictine Abbey of Cluny on a modest scale, as the motherhouse of the Congregation of Cluny. The deed of gift included vineyards, fields, meadows, woods, waters, mills, serfs, and lands both cultivated and uncultivated. Hospitality was to be given to the poor, strangers, and pilgrims. It was stipulated that the monastery would be free from local authorities, lay or ecclesiastical, and subject only to the Pope, with the proviso that even he could not seize the property, divide or give it to someone else or appoint an abbot without the consent of the monks. William placed Cluny under the protection of Saints Peter and Paul, with a curse on anyone who should violate the charter. With the Pope across the Alps in Italy, this meant the monastery was essentially independent.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: In donating his hunting preserve in the forests of Burgundy, William released Cluny Abbey from all future obligations to him and his family other than prayer. Contemporary patrons normally retained a proprietary interest and expected to install their kinsmen as abbots. William appears to have made this arrangement with Berno, the first abbot, to free the new monastery from such secular entanglements and initiate the Cluniac Reforms. The appropriate deeds made all assets of the added Abbey sacred, and to take them was to commit sacrilege. Soon, Cluny began to receive bequests from around Europe – from the Holy Roman Empire to the Spanish kingdoms from southern England to Italy. It became a powerful monastic congregation that owned and operated the network of monasteries and priories, under the authority of the central abbey at Cluny. It was a highly original and successful system, The Abbots of Cluny became leaders on the international stage and the monastery of Cluny was considered the grandest, most prestigious and best-endowed monastic institution in Europe. The height of Cluniac influence was from the second half of the 10th century through the early 12th. The first nuns were admitted to the Order during the 11th century.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: The reforms introduced at Cluny were in some measure traceable to the influence of Benedict of Aniane, who had put forward his new ideas at the first great meeting of the abbots of the order held at Aachen (Aix-la-Chapelle) in 817. Berno had adopted Benedict's interpretation of the Rule previously at Baume Abbey.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Cluny was not known for the severity of its discipline or its asceticism, but the abbots of Cluny supported the revival of the papacy and the reforms of Pope Gregory VII. The Cluniac establishment found itself closely identified with the Papacy. In the early 12th century, the order lost momentum under poor government. It was subsequently revitalized under Abbot Peter the Venerable (died 1156), who brought lax priories back into line and returned to stricter discipline. Cluny reached its apogee of power and influence under Peter, as its monks became bishops, legates, and cardinals throughout France and the Holy Roman Empire. But by the time Peter died, newer and more austere orders such as the Cistercians were generating the next wave of ecclesiastical reform. Outside monastic structures, the rise of English and French nationalism created a climate unfavourable to the existence of monasteries autocratically ruled by a head residing in Burgundy. The Papal Schism of 1378 to 1409 further divided loyalties: France recognizing a pope at Avignon and England one at Rome, interfered with the relations between Cluny and its dependent houses. Under the strain, some English houses, such as Lenton Priory, Nottingham, were naturalized (Lenton in 1392) and no longer regarded as alien priories, weakening the Cluniac structure.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: By the time of the French Revolution, revolutionary hatred of the Catholic Church led to the suppression of the order in France in 1790 and the monastery at Cluny was almost totally demolished in 1810. Later, it was sold and used as a quarry until 1823. Today, little more than one of the original eight towers remains of the whole monastery.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Modern excavations of the Abbey began in 1927 under the direction of Kenneth John Conant, American architectural historian of Harvard University, and continued (although not continuously) until 1950.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Cluny developed a highly centralized form of government entirely foreign to Benedictine tradition. While most Benedictine monasteries remained autonomous and associated with each other only informally, Cluny created a large, federated order in which the administrators of subsidiary houses served as deputies of the Abbot of Cluny and answered to him. The Cluniac houses, being directly under the supervision of the Abbot of Cluny, the head of the Order, were styled priories, not abbeys. The priors, or chiefs of priories, met at Cluny once a year to deal with administrative issues and to make reports. Many other Benedictine monasteries, even those of earlier formation, came to regard Cluny as their guide. When in 1016 Pope Benedict VIII decreed that the privileges of Cluny be extended to subordinate houses, there was further incentive for Benedictine communities to join the Cluniac Order.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Partly due to the Order's opulence, the Cluniac monasteries of nuns were not seen as being particularly cost-effective. The Order did not have an interest in founding many new houses for women, so their presence was always limited.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: The customs of Cluny represented a shift from the earlier ideal of a Benedictine monastery as an agriculturally self-sufficient unit. This was similar to the contemporary villa of the more Romanized parts of Europe and the manor of the more feudal parts, in which each member did physical labor as well as offering prayer. In 817 St Benedict of Aniane, the "second Benedict", developed monastic constitutions at the urging of Louis the Pious to govern all the Carolingian monasteries. He acknowledged that the Black Monks no longer supported themselves by physical labor. Cluny's agreement to offer perpetual prayer ("laus perennis", literally "perpetual praise") meant that it had increased a specialization in roles.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: As perhaps the wealthiest monastic house of the Western world, Cluny hired managers and workers to do the traditional labour of monks. The Cluniac monks devoted themselves to almost constant prayer, thus elevating their position into a profession. Despite the monastic ideal of a frugal life, Cluny Abbey commissioned candelabras of solid silver and gold chalices made with precious gems for use at the abbey Masses. Instead of being limited to the traditional fare of broth and porridge, the monks ate very well, enjoying roasted chickens (a luxury in France then), wines from their vineyards and cheeses made by their employees. The monks wore the finest linen religious habits and silk vestments at Mass. Artifacts exemplifying the wealth of Cluny Abbey are today on display at the Musée de Cluny in Paris.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: O God, by whose grace thy servants, the Holy Abbots of Cluny, enkindled with the fire of thy love, became burning and shining lights in thy Church : Grant that we also may be aflame with the spirit of love and discipline, and may ever walk before thee as children of light; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who with thee, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, liveth and reigneth, one God, now and forever.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: O God, by whose grace your servants the Holy Abbots of Cluny, Kindled with the flame of your love, became burning and shining lights in your Church: Grant that we also may be aflame with the spirit of love and discipline, and walk before you as children of light; through Jesus Christ our Lord, who lives and reigns with you, in the unity of the Holy Spirit, one God, now and forever.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: All but one of the English and Scottish Cluniac houses which were larger than cells were known as priories, symbolising their subordination to Cluny. The exception was the priory at Paisley which was raised to the status of an abbey in 1245 answerable only to the Pope. Cluny's influence spread into the British Isles in the 11th century, first at Lewes, and then elsewhere. The head of their order was the Abbot at Cluny. All English and Scottish Cluniacs were bound to cross to France to Cluny to consult or be consulted unless the abbot chose to come to Britain, which occurred five times in the 13th century and only twice in the 14th.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: At Cluny, the central activity was the liturgy; it was extensive and beautifully presented in inspiring surroundings, reflecting the new personally-felt wave of piety of the 11th century. Monastic intercession was believed indispensable to achieving a state of grace, and lay rulers competed to be remembered in Cluny's endless prayers; this inspired the endowments in land and benefices that made other arts possible.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: The fast-growing community at Cluny required buildings on a large scale. The examples at Cluny profoundly affected architectural practice in Western Europe from the tenth through the twelfth centuries. The three successive churches are conventionally called Cluny I, II and III. The construction of Cluny II, ca. 955–981, begun after the destructive Hungarian raids of 953, led the tendency for Burgundian churches to be stone-vaulted. In building the third and final church at Cluny, the monastery constructed what was to remain the largest building in Europe until the 16th century when the new St. Peter's in Rome was rebuilt.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: The building campaign was financed by the annual "census" established by Ferdinand I of León, ruler of a united León-Castile, some time between 1053 and 1065. (Alfonso VI re-established it in 1077, and confirmed it in 1090.) Ferdinand fixed the sum at 1,000 golden "aurei", an amount which Alfonso VI doubled in 1090. This was the biggest annuity that the Order ever received from king or layman, and it was never surpassed. Henry I of England's annual grant from 1131 of 100 marks of silver, not gold, seemed little by comparison. The Alfonsine census enabled Abbot Hugh (who died in 1109) to undertake construction of the huge third abbey church. When payments in aurei later lapsed, the Cluniac order suffered a financial crisis that crippled them during the abbacies of Pons of Melgueil (1109–1125) and Peter the Venerable (1122–1156). The Spanish wealth donated to Cluny publicized the rise of the Spanish Christians, and drew central Spain for the first time into the larger European orbit.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: The Cluny library was one of the richest and most important in France and Europe. It was a storehouse of numerous very valuable manuscripts. During the religious conflicts of 1562, the Huguenots sacked the abbey, destroying or dispersing many of the manuscripts. Of those that were left, some were burned in 1790 by a rioting mob during the French Revolution. Others still were stored away in the Cluny town hall.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: The French Government worked to relocate such treasures, including those that ended up in private hands. They are now held by the "Bibliothèque nationale de France" at Paris. The British Museum holds some sixty or so charters originating from Cluny.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: In the fragmented and localized Europe of the 10th and 11th centuries, the Cluniac network extended its reforming influence far. Free of lay and episcopal interference, and responsible only to the papacy (which was in a state of weakness and disorder, with rival popes supported by competing nobles), Cluny was seen to have revitalized the Norman church, reorganized the royal French monastery at Fleury and inspired St Dunstan in England. There were no official English Cluniac priories until that of Lewes in Sussex, founded by the Anglo-Norman earl William de Warenne "c" 1077. The best-preserved Cluniac houses in England are Castle Acre Priory, Norfolk, and Wenlock Priory, Shropshire. It is thought that there were only three Cluniac nunneries in England, one of them being Delapré Abbey at Northampton.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Until the reign of Henry VI, all Cluniac houses in England were French, governed by French priors and directly controlled from Cluny. Henry's act of raising the English priories to independent abbeys was a political gesture, a mark of England's nascent national consciousness.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: The early Cluniac establishments had offered refuges from a disordered world but by the late 11th century, Cluniac piety permeated society. This is the period that achieved the final Christianization of the heartland of Europe.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Well-born and educated Cluniac priors worked eagerly with local royal and aristocratic patrons of their houses, filled responsible positions in their chanceries and were appointed to bishoprics. Cluny spread the custom of veneration of the king as patron and support of the Church, and in turn the conduct of 11th-century kings, and their spiritual outlook, appeared to undergo a change. In England, Edward the Confessor was later canonized. In Germany, the penetration of Cluniac ideals was effected in concert with Henry III of the Salian dynasty, who had married a daughter of the duke of Aquitaine. Henry was infused with a sense of his sacramental role as a delegate of Christ in the temporal sphere. He had a spiritual and intellectual grounding for his leadership of the German church, which culminated in the pontificate of his kinsman, Pope Leo IX. The new pious outlook of lay leaders enabled the enforcement of the Truce of God movement to curb aristocratic violence.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Within his order, the Abbot of Cluny was free to assign any monk to any house; he created a fluid structure around a central authority that was to become a feature of the royal chanceries of England and of France, and of the bureaucracy of the great independent dukes, such as that of Burgundy. Cluny's highly centralized hierarchy was a training ground for Catholic prelates: four monks of Cluny became popes: Gregory VII, Urban II, Paschal II and Urban V.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: An orderly succession of able and educated abbots, drawn from the highest aristocratic circles, led Cluny, and the first six abbots of Cluny were all canonized:


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Odilo continued to reform other monasteries, but as Abbot of Cluny, he also exercised tighter control of the order's far-flung priories.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Starting from the 12th century, Cluny had serious financial problems mainly because of the cost of building the third abbey (Cluny III). Charity given to the poor also increased the expenditure. As other religious orders such as the Cistercians in the 12th and then the Mendicants in the 13th century arose within the Western Christian church, the competition gradually weakened the status and influence of the abbey. Furthermore, poor management of the abbey's estates and the unwillingness of its subsidiary priories to pay their share of the annual taxable quotas annually reduced Cluny's total revenues.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: In response to these issues, Cluny raised loans against its assets but this saddled the religious order with debt. Throughout the late Middle Ages, conflicts with its priories increased. This waning influence was shadowed by the increasing power of the Pope within the Catholic Church. By the start of the 14th century, the pope was frequently naming the abbots of Cluny.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Although the monks – who never numbered more than 60 – lived in relative luxury during this period, the political and religious wars of the 16th century further weakened the abbey's status in Christendom. For instance with the Concordat of Bologna in 1516 overseen by Antoine Duprat, Francis I, the king of France, gained the power to appoint the abbot of Cluny from Pope Leo X.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Over the next 250 years, the abbey never regained its power or position within European Christianity. Seen as an example of the excesses of the" Ancien Régime", the monastic buildings and most of the church were destroyed in the French Revolution. Its extensive library and archives were burned in 1793 and the church was given up to plundering. The abbey's estate was sold in 1798 for 2,140,000 francs. Over the next twenty years the Abbey's immense walls were quarried for stone that was used in rebuilding the town.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Although it was the largest church in Christendom until the completion of Rome's St. Peter's Basilica in the early 17th century, little remains of the original buildings. In total the surviving parts amount to about 10% of the original floor space of Cluny III. These include the southern transept and its bell-tower, and the lower parts of the two west front towers. In 1928, the site was excavated by the American archaeologist Kenneth J. Conant with the backing of the Medieval Academy of America. Ruined bases of columns convey the size of the former church and monastery.


title: Cluny Abbey

text: Since 1901 it has been a center of the "École nationale supérieure d'arts et métiers" (ENSAM), an elite school of engineering.


title: Mark Dawson

text: Mark Richard Dawson (born 4 February 1960) is a British-American entertainment manager and CEO of Dawson, Reeves and Zutaut Entertainment Group (otherwise known as DRZ Entertainment Group), based in Los Angeles.


title: Mark Dawson

text: Dawson was born in London, the first son of the actor and game show host Richard Dawson and the actress Diana Dors. A young Dawson appeared with his father on a few early episodes of "Family Feud". He worked as an assistant to the producer Mark Goodson and as a showcase and question writer for "The Price Is Right", "Concentration", "The Better Sex", "Match Game" and "Family Feud". He was once introduced by his father on an episode of "Family Feud" to promote his band The Midnight Ives and had an appearance with Ronnie Mars on "Dinah!". He served as a creative consultant of the latter show's second run, with his father as host from 1994 to 1995. Dawson was also an associate producer at Rastar Productions and at NBC for "You Bet Your Life", a remake based on a Groucho Marx TV program from the 1950s that his father's production company produced in the 1980s. In 2001, he was hired by Paul Schrader as a technical advisor for the movie "Auto Focus".


title: Mark Dawson

text: In March 1979, Dawson married Cathy Hughart, an assistant producer on his father's "Family Feud" show. "I could not have chosen a classier spouse for my son or a more wonderful person than Cathy," Richard Dawson said. The two later divorced.


title: Mark Dawson

text: Mark Dawson married Eleydis Carrasco September 2019 in Colombia. Together they have a Daughter named Victoria Dawson born on 23 October 2018.


title: Mark Dawson

text: Dawson manages the all-female tribute band The Iron Maidens, the cover band Crabby Patty and the all-female heavy metal band Phantom Blue. Drummer Linda McDonald is a member of all three bands. In 2008, with Brad and Tom Zutaut, he developed a tribute bands television show for New Wave Entertainment.


title: Mark Dawson

text: Diana Dors allegedly claimed to have hidden away more than £2 million in various banks across Europe. In 1982, allegedly she gave Dawson a sheet of paper on which, she told him, was a code that would reveal the whereabouts of the money. His stepfather Alan Lake supposedly knew the key that would crack the code, but when Lake committed suicide very soon after Dors' death, Dawson was left with an apparently unsolvable puzzle.


title: Mark Dawson

text: He sought out computer forensic specialists Inforenz, who recognised the encryption as the Vigenère cipher. Inforenz then used their own cryptanalysis software to suggest a ten-letter decryption key, DMARYFLUCK (short for Diana Mary Fluck, Dors's real name). With the aid of a bank statement found among Alan Lake's papers, Inforenz was then able to decode the existing material to reveal a list of surnames and towns only – suggesting that there must be a second page that would reveal first names and bank details, to complete the message. As this second page has never come to light, no money has ever been traced. In 2003, Channel 4 made a television programme about the mystery.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Martín Palermo (; born 7 November 1973) is an Argentine football manager and former player who played as a striker. He is the current manager of Platense.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Palermo played for Boca Juniors and the Argentina national team. A prolific goalscorer, he is Boca Juniors' all-time top scorer with 236 goals, and is placed 7th among all-time Primera División top scorers with 227 goals in 408 matches.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Palermo also played in Argentina for Estudiantes de La Plata and in Spain for Villarreal, Real Betis, and Alavés. During his playing career, he was nicknamed "Loco" (, ) and "Titán" (, ). In a 2008 poll, Boca Juniors fans chose him as the greatest idol in the club's history


title: Martín Palermo

text: In 2012, Carlos Salvador Bilardo recommended him to direct Estudiantes de La Plata "He can direct it, he is a man from the club. Whenever I recommended someone for Estudiantes, with Sabella and Simeone they came out champions"


title: Martín Palermo

text: Born in La Plata, Palermo began his career at Estudiantes de La Plata and later transferred to Boca Juniors. His good goal average and performances in international matches led European teams Lazio, Real Betis, and Milan to be interested in signing him up. But on 13 November 1999, in a game against Colón, he had a complete tear of the anterior cruciate ligament of his right knee; before leaving and without knowing the seriousness of the injury, he scored his 100th goal in the Argentine First Division.


title: Martín Palermo

text: He took six months to recover from the injury. On 24 May 2000, he returned, playing the last fifteen minutes of the quarterfinal match of the Copa Libertadores against River Plate and scoring a goal, leaving the score at 3–0 to Boca Juniors (the first match had ended 1–2).


title: Martín Palermo

text: He played in the Intercontinental Cup in 2000, scoring the two goals in Boca's 2–1 victory over Real Madrid, winning the man of the match award and catching the attention of football clubs in Spain.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Palermo signed with the up-and-coming team Villarreal of the Spanish La Liga on 19 January 2001 in a €7,600,000 transfer. In his second season with the team on 29 November, after scoring a goal, Palermo stood on a small concrete wall, which collapsed under the weight of Villarreal's fans and broke both the tibia and fibula of his left leg, leading to two months of inactivity. Palermo never regained his form, and after two and half seasons with Villarreal, on 20 August 2003, he left the club.


title: Martín Palermo

text: The following day Palermo signed a contract with Real Betis, but in March 2004, after very little success with the club, he left. Later that month he signed with Alavés of the Spanish second division.


title: Martín Palermo

text: On 13 July 2004, after three and a half years of playing in Spain for Villarreal, Real Betis, and Alavés, Palermo returned to Boca Juniors. On 17 December he scored his 100th goal with Boca on the final of the 2004 Copa Sudamericana a 2–0 victory over Bolívar.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Palermo, once again back in top form, remained one of the best scorers in the Argentine league, scoring 11 goals in three consecutive matches (2006 Clausura, 2006 Apertura and top scorer of the 2007 Clausura). During the 2007 Clausura tournament he had several memorable moments, on 25 February he scored a half pitch goal in the last seconds of a 3–1 victory over Independiente and two weeks later, on 10 March, he scored three goals against his former team Estudiantes in a 3–1 Boca victory at La Plata. It was the fourth hat-trick of his career. A game later, on 18 March, he scored a career-high of four goals in the 5–1 victory against Gimnasia de la Plata, Estudiantes de La Plata's arch-rivals.


title: Martín Palermo

text: The following season the 2007 Apertura, he continued to be among the Argentine league top scorers with 13 goals. His best game that season was on 16 September, in a game against Banfield, in which he scored four goals, in the 6–0 Boca victory.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Palermo scored his fifth career hat-trick in a 3–0 Boca Juniors victory, a must-win game played in Jalisco, Mexico, against Atlas on 21 May 2008.


title: Martín Palermo

text: At the beginning of the 2008 Apertura, on 24 August he suffered yet another serious injury, this time he injured his anterior cruciate and tore his medial collateral ligament during the 2–1 victory against Lanús, with an expected recovery period of 5 to 8 months.


title: Martín Palermo

text: After this was known, Argentine coach Alfio Basile said that he had chosen him to play for the national team for the following match in the World Cup qualifiers


title: Martín Palermo

text: Palermo's first goal since his injury came on the fourth game he played, during a 3–1 victory over Huracán on 1 March in the 2009 Clausura; this was Martín Palermo's 195 goal with Boca Juniors, breaking Francisco Varallo record of 194 goals in the professional era. Nearly two months later. on 30 April, Martín scored a bicycle kick goal, which gave him 200 goals with Boca Juniors, in a 3–0 victory against Deportivo Táchira.


title: Martín Palermo

text: During the 2009 Apertura, on 4 October in a game against Vélez Sársfield, Martín Palermo scored a very special goal (a header that traveled around 38.9 meters). This goal gave him 200 goals in the Argentine First Division and also gave Boca a 3–2 victory.


title: Martín Palermo

text: On 22 July 2010, at 36 years of age, Palermo announced that he had renewed his contract with Boca Juniors for one year and that he will retire at the end of the contract.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Martín Palermo scored his sixth career hat-trick on 19 September 2010 in a 3–1 Boca victory over Colón.


title: Martín Palermo

text: On 13 December 2010, Palermo scored his 300th career goal in the final match of the 2010 Apertura in a 1–1 draw against Gimnasia de La Plata.


title: Martín Palermo

text: On 24 April 2011, Martin scored the third goal of Boca Juniors against Huracán in a 3–0 away win, with that goal Palermo cut a streak of 10 matches without scoring. Then he scored in the next consecutive matches against Independiente, Argentinos Juniors and in the 2–0 victory over River Plate in the Superclasico.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Palermo achieved legendary status in Boca in the last few years, thanks to his many memorable goals for both the club and the Argentina national team. On 12 June 2011, Palermo played his last home match at La Bombonera, after the match Martín was honored by the Boca Juniors and was given several gifts, among them being one of the goal frames of the stadium.


title: Martín Palermo

text: Palermo officially retired from football on 18 June 2011, in a 2–2 draw against his classic rival Gimnasia de La Plata. He provided a headed assistance for Boca's second goal in the last minute of the match, marking the end of a 19-year playing career at senior level.


title: Martín Palermo

text: With the Argentina national football team, Palermo has played fifteen matches and scored nine goals. He is in the Guinness Book of World Records for missing three penalties for Argentina in a single international match against Colombia in the 1999 Copa América; the first penalty rebounded off the crossbar; the second penalty went over; the third was saved by the Colombian goalkeeper, Miguel Calero. Though his international career seemed to be over at the end of 1999, the 2008 Argentine national coach Alfio Basile stated that he had been considering offering Palermo a return to international football and was disappointed that Palermo was injured at the time.