title: Gunasekhar

text: He directed the super-hit romance film, "Sogasu Chooda Tharamaa" (1995), which received the Nandi Award for Best Feature Film. In 1997, Gunasekhar directed the mythological film "Ramayanam", which won the National Film Award for Best Children's Film and was screened at the International Children's Film Festival of India.


title: Gunasekhar

text: His next film was the action thriller "Choodalani Vundi" (1998), which introduced the DTS sound to the Telugu screen and was a box-office hit. The film was later remade into Hindi as, "Calcutta Mail". He then directed the political thriller, "Manoharam" (2000), which again bagged the Nandi Award for Best Story, and the Nandi Award for Best Feature Film.


title: Gunasekhar

text: His 2003 action film, "Okkadu", was a huge critical and commercial success, becoming the highest grossing Telugu film of that year and was remade into various Indian languages. The 2004 drama film, "Arjun", was screened at the International Film Festival of India in the mainstream section.


title: Gunasekhar

text: His latest venture is the historical film, "Rudhramadevi" which was released in October 2015 to widely mixed reviews but despite that it became an average grosser of the year.


title: Richmond (Yorks) (UK Parliament constituency)

text: Richmond (Yorks) is a constituency in North Yorkshire represented in the House of Commons of the UK Parliament since May 2015 by Rishi Sunak, the current Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and leader of the Conservative Party.


text: The constituency presents itself as a safe seat for the Conservative Party, which held it continuously since 1910 (if including the 11 years by the allied Unionist Party from 1918), and in the 2010 general election, Richmond produced the largest numerical and percentage majority for a Conservative, 62.8% of the vote. The Conservative MP and one-time Party leader William Hague held the seat from a by-election in 1989 until he retired from the Commons in 2015. He had held the posts of Leader of the Opposition (1997–2001), Foreign Secretary (2010–2014) and Leader of the House of Commons (2014–2015). His successor Rishi Sunak served as Chancellor of the Exchequer from February 2020 to July 2022 and as Prime Minister from October 2022, while Hague's predecessor Leon Brittan served as Home Secretary. The constituency has thus produced three consecutive MPs who served in the Great Offices of State and two who served as Leader of the Conservative Party.


text: The constituency consists of in the west the entire Richmondshire district and in the east the northern part of Hambleton District. It is a mostly rural seat with an affluent population.


text: Richmond was one of the parliamentary boroughs in the Unreformed House of Commons that dates to the middle of its long existence, first being represented in 1585. In modern times it has been an ultra-safe seat for the Conservative Party.


text: From 1983, the seat was represented by the cabinet minister Leon Brittan, after boundary changes saw his Cleveland and Whitby seat abolished; however, he resigned from the Commons in December 1988 in order to take up the position of vice-president of the European Commission.


text: The ensuing by-election, held in February 1989, was won by William Hague: this was the last by-election won by a Conservative candidate during the Conservative Government of 1979–1997. Hague's win has been attributed in part to the decision by the remnants of the Social Democratic Party (those members that objected to the merger with the Liberal Party the previous year) to contest the election as well as the newly merged Social and Liberal Democrats (who subsequently renamed themselves the Liberal Democrats). The SDP candidate, local farmer Mike Potter, came second, and Hague's majority of 2,634 was considerably smaller than the number of votes (11,589) for the SLD candidate Barbara Pearce. Despite the Labour landslide of 1997, they did not come close to winning the seat, which stayed Conservative with a majority of 10,000. Hague retained the seat at every general election from then on, building the Conservative majority to 23,336, until his decision to step down at the 2015 election.


text: In 1992, the Labour candidate until a few weeks before the election, David Abrahams, was deselected after a series of rows within the local party over his personal life and business interests. It emerged in 2007 that he used the name "David Martin" when dealing with tenants in his various rental properties in the Newcastle area, and that he had claimed that he lived with his wife and son, though he had never been married. Divorcee Anthea Bailey later told a local newspaper she and her 11-year-old son had posed as Mr Abrahams' family as part of a business arrangement so that Abrahams could create "the right impression".


text: At the 2001 general election, Richmond became the Conservatives' safest seat in the UK, both in terms of the actual numerical majority and by percentage, the seat being held by William Hague, then the Conservative leader. Although the numerical majority was surpassed by Buckingham at the 2005 election, Richmond has a smaller electorate and had a greater proportion of Conservative voters so retained the second largest percentage majority. Again in 2010, Richmond was the safest Conservative seat in the country, in terms of numerical and percentage majority. It has been represented since May 2015 by Rishi Sunak, the current Prime Minister of the United Kingdom and leader of the Conservative Party.


text: 1918–1950: The Borough of Richmond, the Urban Districts of Kirklington-cum-Upsland, Masham, and Northallerton, and the Rural Districts of Aysgarth, Bedale, Croft, Leyburn, Northallerton, Reeth, Richmond, Startforth, and Stokesley.


text: 1950–1955: The Borough of Richmond, the Urban District of Northallerton, and the Rural Districts of Aysgarth, Croft, Leyburn, Masham, Northallerton, Reeth, Richmond, Startforth, and Stokesley.


text: 1983–1997: The District of Richmondshire, and the District of Hambleton wards of Appleton Wiske, Bedale, Brompton, Broughton and Greenhow, Carlton Miniott, Crakehall, Great Ayton, Hillside, Leeming, Leeming Bar, Morton-on-Swale, Northallerton North East, Northallerton South East, Northallerton West, Osmotherley, Romanby, Romanby Broomfield, Rudby, Sowerby, Stokesley, Swainby, Tanfield, The Cowtons, The Thorntons, Thirsk, Topcliffe, and Whitestonecliffe.


text: 1997–2010: The District of Richmondshire, and the District of Hambleton wards of Appleton Wiske, Brompton, Broughton and Greenhow, Great Ayton, Leeming Bar, Morton-on-Swale, Northallerton North East, Northallerton South East, Northallerton West, Osmotherley, Romanby, Romanby Broomfield, Rudby, Stokesley, Swainby, and The Cowtons.


text: 2010–present: The District of Richmondshire, and the District of Hambleton wards of Bedale, Brompton, Broughton and Greenhow, Cowtons, Crakehall, Great Ayton, Leeming, Leeming Bar, Morton-on-Swale, Northallerton Broomfield, Northallerton Central, Northallerton North, Osmotherley, Romanby, Rudby, Stokesley, Swainby, and Tanfield.


text: The Richmond constituency covers the Richmondshire district and the northern part of the Hambleton District. It is an affluent rural area with a significant commuter population, covering parts of the North York Moors and Yorkshire Dales National Parks, including Wensleydale and Swaledale. It contains the market towns of Northallerton, Richmond, Leyburn, Bedale, Hawes, and Stokesley, along with Great Ayton and other surrounding villages. It also includes the large army base Catterick Garrison.


text: Palmer resigned after being appointed Lord Chancellor and being elevated to the peerage, becoming Lord Selborne.


text: Another General Election was required to take place before the end of 1915. The political parties had been making preparations for an election to take place and by July 1914, the following candidates had been selected;


title: Strength Through Joy

text: NC Gemeinschaft (KdF; ) was a German state-operated leisure organization in Nazi Germany. It was part of the German Labour Front (), the national labour organization at that time. Set up in November 1933 as a tool to promote the advantages of Nazism to the German people and internationally, while also being utilized to ease the process of the rearmament of Germany. It was also intended to compensate for the poor increases in wages and for the loss of trade union rights. Through its structure of organized events and promotion of propaganda, it was also intended to prevent dissident and anti-state behavior. By 1939, it had become the world's largest tourism operator.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: KdF was composed of several departments that had its own specific goals, with each department organizing different leisure activities. It organized activities such as sporting events on factory floors, art exhibitions, discounted concerts and, most famously and popularly, subsidized holidays and cruise trips. One of its largest departments, although sometimes considered a separate organization altogether, was Beauty of Labour, which concerned itself with physical and sanitary improvements of the workplace. KdF was responsible for the improvement of several factories and sports facilities throughout its operations in the 1930s.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: KdF was supposed to bridge the class divide by making middle-class leisure activities available to the masses. It also sought to bolster the German tourist industry, something it did successfully up until the outbreak of World War II. Official statistics showed that in 1934, 2.3 million people took KdF holidays. By 1938, this figure rose to 10.3 million. With the outbreak of war in 1939, most of the organization's programs were suspended and several projects, such as the Prora holiday resort, were never completed.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: On November 27, 1933, Strength through Joy was announced by Robert Ley as a subset of the German Labour Front whose goal was to provide Germans with access to once-privileged leisure activities such as cruises and the ownership of motorcars. The government feared that increasing wages would dampen the rearmament process and decided to raise living standards differently to influence the opinion of Nazism, and paid for the program by taking deductions from workers' wages. By providing these luxuries, the government hoped that class divisions would be bridged leading to the building of a 'people's community,' and that a common national consciousness would end class conflict and enable all classes to work together for the greater benefit of the nation. A key feature of the people's community was the overall good physical health of the German people, in order to produce a population fit for military service. In addition, it was believed that if workers were given sufficient leisure time and provided with cleaner workplaces morale and productivity would increase, aspects needed of the working class for the rearmament. It initially was intended to focus on the control evening and weekend leisure time, but after positive reception of KdF train trips tourism became an important priority.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: KdF had a number of individual departments. The Beauty of Labour ("Schönheit der Arbeit)" department was devoted to improvements in the workplace, from general hygiene to reduction of sound pollution. Other departments included the Sports Office ("Sportamt)," Adult Education Office ("Volksbildungswerk"), Leisure Time Office ("Amt Feierabend)," the Office for Folklore and Homeland ("Amt für Volkstum und Heimat)," and the Office for Travel, Hiking, and Holidays ("Amt Reisen, Wandern, und Urlaub)."


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Sports Office organized tennis, skiing, and likewise sports that the working class were previously unable to partake in. Its main concerns were in building 'everyday joy' and improving the health of the masses, and KdF took a keen interest in building the physicality and bodily strength of the German population. Physical education classes and gymnastic events were scheduled on weekends and after working hours, but also included skiing and hiking trips. It also encouraged workers to partake in physical exercise and sports, encouraging employers to provide access to facilities and equipment during work hours and after hours.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Adult Education Office was headed by Fritz Leutloff. Its goal was to educate Germans on cultural and artistic topics. 'Popular education' programs had been taken over when the government began imposing Gleichschaltung, but the programs offered by the Adult Education Office were not centralized by KdF until 1936 when the Reichskulturkammer and KdF began stern cooperation. Plans had been proposed by 1939 to designate KdF as a chamber of culture, but ultimately fell through due to backlash from Alfred Rosenberg and Rudolph Hess.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Leisure Time Office enabled workers to attend theatres and concerts by organizing local events and offering discounted tickets. It also organized concerts and events to take place in factories. As the Adult Education Office focused more on propaganda and refined education, the Leisure Time Office was more concerned with the recreational aspects of spare time.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The largest and most profitable department was the Office for Travel, Hiking, and Holidays, headed by Bodo Lafferentz"." Organizing both domestic and international excursions, for the first time workers were able to travel at length. This was achieved by offering discounts on travel and tour packages, sending thousands of Germans on holidays before 1939.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Office for Folklore and Homeland was tasked with organizing smaller Nazi organizations that promoted the 'folklore' and the idea of Lebensraum, but was dissolved in 1934.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: Following its inception, KdF began to provide a wide range of activities at an affordable price, ranging from concerts and theatre trips to weekend trips and holidays. Workers could enter KdF competitions and win prizes that would send them and their families to local events, or on extended trips either in Germany or abroad. Many of their events occurring after the work day and on weekends, the government sought not only to create a positive and productive environment, but also to dissuade potential anti-state activities.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: Borrowing from the Italian fascist organization "Dopolavoro" ('After Work'), but extending its influence into the workplace as well through the Beauty of Labour department, the KdF rapidly developed a wide range of activities and quickly grew into one of Nazi Germany's largest organizations. Wardens were posted in every factory and workshop employing more than 20 people. It strove to improve the hygiene of workplaces, by providing toilets, locker rooms, and proper washing facilities. It also looked to improve air quality and reduce noise for workers. The government offered tax incentives as encouragement, and by 1938 the conditions of 34,000 workplaces had improved considerably. This was largely achieved by workers completing renovations while on unpaid overtime.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: KdF stressed that partaking in sports would encourage physical health and a healthy attitude, and as such the Sports Office began to organize physical education events for workers. Under supervision of the National Socialist League of the Reich for Physical Exercise, by 1936 sports and physical training were implemented in factories, and employees under the age of 18 were required to spend time in their workweek performing exercise. The Sports Office also pushed employers to build recreation facilities on work grounds, such as tennis courts, and offered tax incentives as encouragement. Official estimates by the German Labour Front show that by 1939, approximately 3,000 sports facilities were created and over 12 million sports courses were organized through these efforts. Overall, it sought heightened physical and mental health for workers, important aspects for potential citizens living in the 'people's community.'


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Leisure Time Office and Adult Education Office, seeking to educate adults in arts and culture as well as to ensure they spend their time profitably, took steps to provide access to events for workers. To do as such, exhibitions, concerts and cultural events were held within factories to ensure workers had the ability to attend. Exhibitions of art created by exclusively German artists, plays and musicals, and concerts were organized and admission for workers was either very cheap or free. Some art exhibitions featured art created by workers, oftentimes created in classes organized by the KdF. At all exhibitions, the art was for sale. In some cases, renowned composers such as Wilhelm Brueckner Rueggeber and Wilhelm Furtwängler led the Berlin Philharmonic orchestra in these performances, while at other times concerts would be conducted by local composers and played by local orchestras.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Sports Office organized several sports events and classes throughout the operation of KdF. In the summer months, activities such as horse riding, sailing, and swimming were offered with KdF emphasizing track and field activities. Gymnastics became an increasingly popular sport for German women during this time. During the winter, KdF organized activities such as skiing, ice skating, and winter hiking. Most of its activities and events occurred on weekends, and its volunteers, who were mostly unsalaried schoolteachers, taught exercise and sports classes. KdF would use local school gymnasiums or meeting halls and offer courses people could attend without prior registration, known as 'open courses,' for the price of 30 pfennings per 90 minutes. 'Closed courses' required participants to register for the entire course, cost 80 pfennings per 90 minutes, and often covered more skilled sports such as boxing, golf, and rowing. Activities organized early in KdF's existence often deliberately left out competition, training, and expectations of high performance. This was intended to focus the course on the production of joy and improvement of the population's health. Another reason for it may have been that the government sought to prevent opposition between participating groups, and rather promote and encourage cooperation. In 1939, KdF was awarded the Olympic Cup by the International Olympic Committee.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Leisure Time Office offered a variety of different activities and discounts for workers. Offering discounted ticket packages to theatres for films, musicals, and plays for workers in cities, KdF also organized events to occur in rural areas by utilizing buses, called "Theaterzüge," equipped with film projectors and loudspeakers as well as organizing productions using mobile stages. With the approval of the propaganda ministry, the Great Theatre ("Großes Schauspielhaus)" in Berlin was renamed the 'Theatre of the People' ("Theater des Volkes") and was established as the official theatre of KdF, with numerous other KdF theatres opening in major cities. The Adult Education Office similarly used these theatres for showings of propaganda films, as well as the film buses. Employing civilian performers as well as organizing performances of their own orchestras, by 1938 KdF had sponsored and offered ticket packages to performances such as "As You Like It" by William Shakespeare and "Journey's End" by R.C. Sherriff, but over time the performances would be replaced almost entirely by propagandistic pieces. Other notable performances included "Wibbel the Tailor" and "The Land of Smiles." Following the declaration of total war, most musicians and performers utilized by the KdF were used for troop entertainment.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Office for Travel, Hiking, and Holidays offered various discounted vacation trips, ranging in length from day and weekend trips to one week or upwards of three weeks. Taking travelers via rail and bus to their destinations, within Germany or its occupied and annexed territories, the office organized activities such as hiking trips and swimming excursions. In most destinations hotelkeepers and some local businesses saw increased profits thanks to the increasing number of tourists, as did the "Deutsche Reichsbahn" (German National Railway). Popular extended holiday destinations included the Alps, the Black Forest, and the coasts of the North Sea and Baltic Sea, but most of the trips booked were overnight or over a weekend. Two weeks after the Anschluss, when SS-Gruppenführer Josef Bürckel became "Reichskommissar für die Wiedervereinigung" ('Reich Commissioner for Reunification') as well as Gauleiter, the first five KdF trains with some 2,000 Austrian workers left for Passau, where they were ceremonially welcomed. While Bürckel announced that he did not expect all of the travelers to return as National Socialists, he did expect them to look him in the eyes and say, "I tried hard to understand you." Many KdF travelers complained of their trips, noting poor travel conditions, second-class treatment by locals and the KdF alike, and little free time, thanks to the regimentation of activities.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: Most famously, the office also offered discounted cruise trips to German citizens. Although not initially planned to be a program offered by KdF, the initial successes of the cruises led to six large ships, including the MV "Wilhelm Gustloff" and the Mv "Goya", being built specifically for use by KdF while a further six were chartered. They were first ships to be built specifically for cruises. They were collectively known as the KdF fleet, with the Robert Ley being considered as its flagship. Through these cruises Nazism was promoted internationally, and KdF travelers therefore were expected to represent its positively by dressing modestly and behaving appropriately. Ship events included masquerades, political and educational lectures, and events dedicated to displaying customs of individual German regions, such as shows of dance groups performing dances from their home regions. Drinking alcohol was prohibited, and the government planted spies on ships instructed to pose as passengers and monitor participants' behavior. Cruise trips were sometimes offered as prizes in KdF competitions, but were largely affordable; an eighteen-day trip to Madeira cost 120 Reichsmarks, the equivalent to about four weeks' average salary at the time, and a seven-day trip to Norway cost about 50 Reichsmarks. Although cruises were inexpensive, workers were often greatly underrepresented on these voyages, with most of KdF's cruise participants being from the middle class. Following Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union, tourism opportunities were suspended and the organization shifted to more domestic activities and troop entertainment; up until this point, KdF had sold more than 45 million package tours and excursions, totaling over 700,000 German travelers.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Nazi government also sought to attract tourists from abroad, a task performed by , one of the secretaries of the ('Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda'). A series of multilingual and colourful brochures, titled "Deutschland", advertised Germany as a peaceful, idyllic and progressive country, on one occasion even portraying the ministry's boss, , grinning in an unlikely photo series of the Cologne carnival.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: Following Germany's invasion of the Soviet Union, tourism opportunities were suspended and the organization shifted to more domestic activities; up until this point, KdF had sold more than 45 million package tours and excursions. By 1939, it had 7,000 employees and over 135,000 volunteers.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: KdF formed 'troop-care units' ("Truppenbetreuung") in 1935, and after the invasion of Poland in 1939 the Ministry of Public Enlightenment and Propaganda created the 'Caring for the Troops' department of KdF, with Goebbels appointing Hans Hinkel as its head. The equivalent of the United States' USO, the troop-care units utilized portable stages and civilian performers such as musicians and actors, hiring them for up to 100 Reichsmarks per day. Many of the hired performers had little experience or were considered third-rate. By the end of 1941 it had become a massive program, as troop-care units had staged over 300,000 performances across every theater of war, including Africa. Hinkel described the units in official propaganda as equally essential as the Wehrmacht, stating that soldiers and artists had a special bond through their allegiance to Hitler, and were "an essential part of modern war and human leadership in National Socialist Greater Germany." Seeking also to ensure the heightened physical and mental health of troops, other forms of light KdF entertainment were made available such as art exhibitions and sports. Entertainment by troop-care units was not exclusive to the Wehrmacht, as they were also tasked to put on shows for SS guards in concentration camps and 'Ethnic Germans' living in occupied territory. Germany's troop-care units remain a lightly researched topic.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: Several KdF cruise ships were requisitioned into the Kriegsmarine and converted to serve as hospital ships. The "Robert Ley" was requisitioned in August 1939 and converted to serve as a hospital ship after only six months of operation. The ship would be converted several times to serve different purposes throughout World War II and was bombed by the Royal Air Force in the port of Hamburg on 9 March 1945 where the wreckage remained afloat until June 1947, when it was towed to the UK and scrapped. The "MV Wilhelm Gustloff," requisitioned in September 1939, was designated as "Lazarettschiff D" and converted to serve as a hospital ship. In November 1940, medical equipment was removed from the ship and it was converted to serve as a barracks ship. Tasked with transporting civilians and military personnel during Operation Hannibal, the "Lazarettschiff D" was sunk on 30 January 1945 while returning to Germany from Prussia, killing an estimated 9,934. It was one of the deadliest maritime disasters in history.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: KdF's most ambitious programme for German workers was to set up production of an affordable car, the "KdF-Wagen", which later became the Volkswagen Beetle ("Volkswagen" being German for 'People's Car'). This was originally a project undertaken at Hitler's request by the engineer Ferdinand Porsche. When the German car industry was unable to meet Hitler's demand that the Volkswagen be sold at 1,000 Reichsmarks or less, the project was taken over by the German Labour Front (; DAF). Now working for the DAF, Porsche built a new Volkswagen factory in at a huge cost, partly met by raiding the DAF's accumulated assets and misappropriating the dues paid by DAF members.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The Volkswagen was sold to German workers on an installment plan, where buyers of the car made payments and posted stamps in a stamp-savings book, which, when full, would be redeemed for the car. Due to the shift of wartime production, no private citizen ever received a "KdF-Wagen", although after the war, Volkswagen did give some customers a 200 DM discount for their stamp-books. The Beetle factory was then primarily converted to produce the , the German equivalent of the Jeep. The few Beetles that were produced went to the diplomatic corps and military officials.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: An important propaganda tool in Nazi Germany was the radio, something that Goebbels realized and attempted to utilize. At his request, engineer Otto Greissing developed the 'people's receiver,' or 'people's radio' ("Volksempfänger.)" The original model was the VE301 and exhibited in August 1933 at the cost of 76 Reichsmarks, the equivalent to two weeks' average salary at the time. A cheaper model was later produced, the DKE38 (sometimes called the "Goebbels-Schnauze" – "Goebbels' snout" – by the German public) and was used as the base of a KdF branded radio. Giving poor Germans access to this medium for the first time, it cost 35 Reichsmarks and the option of paying with an installment plan was offered. Cheaply produced, these radios suffered from a short reception range, but it was deemed acceptable as long as the radios could receive "Deutschlandsender" and the local "Reichssender." The radios were designed to be produced as cheaply as possible, and because the act of listening to non-German radio stations had become a criminal offense, it is speculated that the short reception range was a purposeful feature. Penalties ranged from fines and confiscation of radios to, particularly later in the war, sentencing to a concentration camp or capital punishment.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: A number of films were produced to promote KdF, usually showing workers engaging in the many activities offered by the organization. One, for example, was produced by UFA titled "Henkel - ein deutsches Werk in seiner Arbeit," which showcased the improved conditions of factories. Groups were shown engaging in calisthenics, going on walks through company grounds, and checking out books from the company library.


title: Strength Through Joy

text: The ('After-work organization') was the "planned" structuring of daily leisure time within KdF's programme, attempted by the National Socialists through individual state agencies, including the ('Office for After-Work Activity') and the ('Office for Popular Education'). In National Socialist usage, the term "after-work organization" was increasingly applied to the entire area of organized leisure activity, including holidays.


title: Body shape

text: Human body shape is a complex phenomenon with sophisticated detail and function. The general shape or figure of a person is defined mainly by the molding of skeletal structures, as well as the distribution of muscles and fat. Skeletal structure grows and changes only up to the point at which a human reaches adulthood and remains essentially the same for the rest of their life. Growth is usually completed between the ages of 13 and 18, at which time the epiphyseal plates of long bones close, allowing no further growth (see Human skeleton).


title: Body shape

text: Many aspects of body shape vary with gender and the female body shape especially has a complicated cultural history. The science of measuring and assessing body shape is called anthropometry.


title: Body shape

text: During puberty, differentiation of the male and female body occurs for the purposes of reproduction. In adult humans, muscle mass may change due to exercise, and fat distribution may change due to hormone fluctuations. Inherited genes play a large part in the development of body shape.


title: Body shape

text: Because females have around 1/4 the amount of testosterone of a male, the testosterone-dependent features do not develop to the same extent.


title: Body shape

text: Skeletal structure frames the overall shape of the body and does not alter much after maturity. Males are, on average, taller, but body shape may be analyzed after normalizing with respect to height. The length of each bone is constant, but the joint angle will change as the bone moves.


title: Body shape

text: Widening of the hip bones occurs as part of the female pubertal process, and estrogens (the predominant sex hormones in females) cause a widening of the pelvis as a part of sexual differentiation. Hence females generally have wider hips, permitting childbirth. Because the female pelvis is flatter, more rounded and proportionally larger, the head of the fetus may pass during childbirth. The sacrum in females is shorter and wider, and also directed more toward the rear (see image). This sometimes affects their walking style, resulting in hip sway. The upper limb in females have an outward angulation (carrying angle) at elbow level to accommodate the wider pelvis. After puberty, hips are generally wider than shoulders. However, not all females adhere to this stereotypical pattern of secondary sex characteristics. Both male and female hormones are present in the human body, and though only one of them is predominant in an adult, the other hormone has effects on body shape to some extent.


title: Body shape

text: Widening of the shoulders occurs as part of the male pubertal process. Expansion of the ribcage is caused by the effects of testosterone during puberty.


title: Body shape

text: Body shape is affected by body fat distribution, which is correlated to current levels of sex hormones. Unlike bone structure, muscles and fat distribution may change from time to time, depending on food habits, exercises and hormone levels.


title: Body shape

text: Estrogen causes fat to be stored in the buttocks, thighs, and hips in females. When females reach menopause and the estrogen produced by ovaries declines, fat migrates from their buttocks, hips and thighs to their waists. Later fat is stored in the belly, similar to men. Thus females generally have relatively narrow waists and large buttocks, and this along with wide hips make for a wider hip section and a lower waist–hip ratio compared to men. Hormonal and genetic factors may produce male-like distribution of fat in women i.e. around the belly instead of buttocks and thighs.


title: Body shape

text: Estrogen increases fat storage in the body, which results in more fat stored in the female body. Body fat percentage guidelines are higher for females, as this may serve as an energy reserve for pregnancy. Males generally deposit fat around waists and abdomens (producing an "apple shape").


title: Body shape

text: Testosterone helps build and maintain muscles through exercise. On average, men have around 10 times more testosterone than women. Prominent muscles of the body include the latissimus dorsi, trapezius, pectoral muscles (muscles critical for a strong erect posture) as well as biceps and triceps in the arms and quadriceps and hamstrings in the thighs.


title: Body shape

text: Females have enlarged breasts due to functional mammary glands, which develop from puberty onward due to the effects of estrogen. Mammary glands do not contain muscle tissue. The shape of female breasts is affected by age, genetic factors, and body weight.


title: Body shape

text: Being overweight or underweight causes change in the human body's shape as well as posture and walking style. This is measured using Body Mass Index (BMI) or waist circumference. Depending on the BMI, a body may be referred to as slim, overweight, or obese.


title: Body shape

text: Dieting, in conjunction with exercise, may be used to bring and keep the BMI within a healthy or desired range.


title: Body shape

text: A person can calculate BMI, that is body mass index, to check that where they lie in terms of weight and height. A BMI between 18.5 and 24.9 is ideal.


title: Body shape

text: A person with a BMI below 18.5 is classed as underweight, above 24.9 is overweight and a BMI of 30 or higher is defined as Obese.


title: Body shape

text: The fats and carbohydrates in food constitute the majority of energy used by the body. They are measured cumulatively in the USA and many other places in calories and in kilojoules in some other parts of the world.


title: Body shape

text: Body shape has effects on body posture and gait, and has a major role in physical attraction. This is because a body's shape implies an individual's hormone levels during puberty, which implies fertility, and it also indicates current levels of sex hormones. A pleasing shape also implies good health and fitness of the body. Posture also affects body shape as different postures significantly alter body measurements, which thus can alter a body’s shape.


title: Body shape

text: According to the Heart and Stroke Foundation of Canada, those people with a larger waist (apple shaped) have higher health risks than those who carry excess weight on the hips and thighs (pear shaped). People with apple shaped bodies who carry excess weight are at greater risk of high blood pressure, Type 2 diabetes and high cholesterol.


title: Body shape

text: Different forms of exercises are practiced for the fitness of the body and also for health. It is a common belief that targeted exercise reduces fat in specific parts of the body —for example, that exercising muscles around the belly reduces fat in the belly. This, however, is now proven to be a misconception; these exercises may change body shape by improving muscle tone but any fat reduction is not specific to the locale. Spot reduction exercises are not useful unless you plan proper exercise regime to lose overall calories. But exercising reduces fat throughout the body, and where fat is stored depends on hormones. Liposuction is surgery commonly used in developed societies to remove fat from the body.


title: Body shape

text: The general body shapes of female and male bodies both have significant social and cultural symbolism. Physical attractiveness is closely associated with traits that are considered typical of either sex. The body mass index (BMI), waist-to-hip ratio, and especially waist-to-chest ratio in men have been shown in studies to rank as overall more desirable to women. To be deemed to have an "athletic built"/build is usually a reference to wide shoulders, a muscular upper body and well-developed upper-arm muscles which are all traits closely associated with masculinity, similarly to other specifics of the male sex, like beards. These traits are seen more sexually attractive to women and also associated with higher intelligence, good leadership qualities and better health.


title: Body shape

text: Classifications of female body sizes are mainly based on the circumference of the bust–waist–hip (BWH), as in 36–24–36 (inches) respectively. In this case, the waist–hip ratio is 24/36 = 0.67. Many terms or classifications are used to describe body shape types:


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Nicholas and Alexandra is a 1971 British epic historical drama film directed by Franklin J. Schaffner, from a screenplay written by James Goldman and Edward Bond, based on Robert K. Massie's 1967 book of the same name, which is a partial account of the last ruling Russian monarch, Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, and his wife, Tsarina Alexandra. It stars Michael Jayston and Janet Suzman in the titular roles.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: "Nicholas and Alexandra" was theatrically released on 13 December 1971 by Columbia Pictures to mixed reviews and commercial failure, grossing $7 million on a $9 million budget. Regardless, the film received six nominations at the 44th Academy Awards, including for the Best Picture, and won two awards; Best Art Direction and Best Costume Design.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: In 1904, Tsarina Alexandra Feodorovna, wife of Tsar Nicholas II of Russia, gives birth to their fifth child and first son, Alexei. Despite pleas from Grand Duke Nicholas and Count Sergei Witte, Nicholas refuses to end the Russo-Japanese War or accept demands for a constitutional monarchy, believing that doing either will make him look weak. The following year, Alexandra meets Grigori Rasputin, a Siberian peasant passing as a holy man, at a gala celebrating the birthday of Dowager Empress Marie and turns to him for guidance after court physician Dr. Botkin diagnoses Alexei with haemophilia.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Father Georgy Gapon organizes a workers' procession, hoping to present Nicholas with a petition calling for political representation. Armed soldiers open fire on the crowd as they approach the Winter Palace, killing hundreds. The events of Bloody Sunday, coupled with the subsequent end of the disastrous Russo-Japanese War, prompt Nicholas to create the Duma.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Eight years later, Nicholas meets with Prime Minister Pyotr Stolypin while holidaying at the Livadia Palace with the rest of the family. Stolypin presents Nicholas with police reports about Rasputin's dissolute behavior, which is damaging the Tsar's reputation; Nicholas dismisses Rasputin from the court. Alexandra demands his return, as she believes only Rasputin can stop Alexei's bleeding attacks, but Nicholas stands firm.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: The 1913 Romanov Tercentenary celebrations occur and a lavish Royal Tour across Imperial Russia ensues, but crowds are thin. Other national festivities and Church celebrations go ahead, but at an event at the Kiev Opera House, Stolypin is assassinated. Nicholas responds by executing the assassins, but also by permitting the police to terrorize the peasants and dissolving the Duma.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Alexei falls at the Spała Hunting Lodge, which leads to a bleeding attack so severe that it is presumed he will die. The Tsarina writes to Rasputin, who responds with words of comfort. Alexei recovers and Rasputin returns.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: When World War I begins, Nicholas orders a full mobilization of the Imperial Russian Army on the German border, prompting Germany to declare war and activate a series of its alliances that escalates the war. A year later, with the war going badly for Russia on the Eastern Front, Alexandra persuades him to take personal command of the troops; he leaves for the front, taking over from his experienced cousin, Grand Duke Nicholas.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Alexandra is left in charge at home and, under Rasputin's influence, makes poor decisions. Nicholas is visited by his mother Dowager Empress Feodorovna, who scolds him about neglecting domestic issues and implores him to eliminate Rasputin and send Alexandra to Livadia. Concerned about Rasputin's influence, Grand Duke Dmitri and Prince Felix Yusupov invite Rasputin to a party in December 1916. They assassinate Rasputin, albeit after several clumsy murder attempts.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Even with Rasputin dead Alexandra continues her misrule. The army is ill supplied, and starving and freezing workers revolt in St. Petersburg in March 1917. Nicholas decides to return to Tsarskoye Selo too late and is forced to abdicate in his train.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: The family with Dr. Botkin and attendants leave Tsarskoye Selo and are exiled by Kerensky to Tobolsk in Siberia in August 1917 after Nicholas is told that none of Russia's Allies, who he applied to for political asylum, including Nicholas' own cousin George V of the United Kingdom, will grant them sanctuary because of Nicholas' past abuses of power over his people. They live in a spartan house in the tundra but with decent guards. In October 1917, Russia falls to the Bolsheviks, who intend to take the royal family to Moscow to stand trial. However, when Moscow is captured by the White Army during the Russian Civil War, the royals are diverted to Ipatiev House in Yekaterinburg. Under harsher conditions they are guarded by the cold-blooded Yakov Yurovsky and his equally cold blooded troops. When a Soviet soldier grabs Alexei's gold chain and strikes the child, his bodyguard Nagorny leaps to his defense. Nagorny is taken away and shot, although Yurovsky promises punishment for the thief.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: The family receives a batch of withheld letters from friends and relatives and laugh together as they read through them. In the early hours of 17 July 1918, the Bolsheviks awaken the family and Dr. Botkin, telling them they must be transferred again. As they are waiting in the cellar, Yurovsky and his assistants enter the room and open fire.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Producer Spiegel tackled "Nicholas and Alexandra" when he was shut out from working with director David Lean on "Doctor Zhivago", which was also set against the backdrop of revolutionary Russia. Spiegel had alienated Lean when the two worked together on the film "Lawrence of Arabia", pressing the perfectionist director in order to get the movie finished on time. Spiegel initially tried to make "Nicholas and Alexandra" without buying the rights to the book by Robert K. Massie, claiming that the historical account was in public domain but, eventually, Spiegel purchased the rights and hired writer James Goldman to adapt Massie's book as a screenplay.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Goldman, who had written the popular play and film "The Lion in Winter", labored on draft after draft as directors came and went (George Stevens, Anthony Harvey, Joseph Mankiewicz, Charles Jarrot, Jack Gold, Ken Russell, Lindsay Anderson, and John Boorman were all attached to the project at one point). After seeing "Patton", Goldman recommended Franklin J. Schaffner.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Spiegel turned to former collaborators John Box for production design, and cinematographer Freddie Young ("Lawrence of Arabia") to give the production the epic touch he felt it needed. Principal photography took place in Spain and Yugoslavia.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Spiegel had to work with stricter budget constraints from Columbia Studios than before. He had wanted Peter O'Toole as Rasputin and Vanessa Redgrave as Alexandra but was constrained. Notable actors such as Laurence Olivier, Irene Worth, Michael Redgrave and Jack Hawkins appeared in the film, but actor Rex Harrison turned down a supporting role as too small.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Tom Baker, a member of the Royal National Theatre, was recommended for the role of Rasputin by Laurence Olivier, then the director of the company.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Despite the detailed production design, photography, and strong performances from the cast, "Nicholas and Alexandra" failed to find the large audience it needed to be a financial success. However, it was chosen by the American National Board of Review as one of the Top 10 Films of 1971.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: The review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes reported that 67% of critics have given the film a positive review based on 15 reviews, with an average rating of 6.20/10. On Metacritic, the film has an average score of 57 out of 100 based on 10 reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun Times" gave it two-and-a-half stars out of four, writing "If the movie isn't exactly stirring, however, it is undeniably interesting, especially after the intermission."


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: "Halliwell's Film and Video Guide" described "Nicholas and Alexandra" as an "inflated epic of occasional interest, mainly for its sets" and "generally heavy going", awarding it one star from a possible four. In 2013, Alex von Tunzelmann wrote for "The Guardian", ""Nicholas and Alexandra" boasts terrific performances and gorgeous production design, but it's bloated and unwieldy. There is more history here than the film-makers know what to do with." For "Radio Times", Tom Hutchinson awarded the film three stars out of five, describing it as a "sumptuous, if overlong, epic" which "shows the stretchmarks of too much padding" and "overwhelms us with its detail, though Tom Baker is a lot of fun as the leering mystic Rasputin". Stanley Kauffmann of "The New Republic" described the film as 'flabby'.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: There is at least one anachronism; Peter Stolypin had been assassinated in 1911, two years before the Romanov dynasty tercentenary in which he is portrayed as being alive before being assassinated.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: At the 15th Annual Grammy Awards (1973), Richard Rodney Bennett was nominated for Best Original Score Written for a Motion Picture or a Television Special.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: "Nicholas and Alexandra" received a home video release on VHS in 1987 by RCA/Columbia Pictures Home Video and reissued in the 1990s by Columbia Tristar Home Video.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: Its DVD release was on 27 July 1999 from Sony Pictures Home Entertainment. The DVD featured a vintage 14-minute featurette on the production of the film and six more minutes of scenes and dialogue not found on previous VHS tapes.


title: Nicholas and Alexandra

text: The film received a Blu-ray release in February 2013 from Twilight Time. The Blu-ray featured three featurettes on the production of the film covering the makeup, costume designs and actresses playing the Tsar's daughters in the film. It also contained the original theatrical trailer as well as an isolated music score. The latter was presented in stereo even though the sound on the Blu-ray was presented in mono. The Blu-ray release was limited to only 3,000 copies. This film is also available for sale or rent as a video online download through both Amazon and Apple's iTunes Store, with Amazon's online file containing the six more minutes of scenes and dialogue that Apple's iTunes file doesn't.


title: Generaloberst

text: A ("colonel general") was the second-highest general officer rank in the German "Reichswehr" and "Wehrmacht", the Austro-Hungarian Common Army, the East German National People's Army and in their respective police services. The rank was equal to a four-star full general but below a general field marshal. The rank was equivalent to a "Generaladmiral" in the "Kriegsmarine" until 1945 or to a "Flottenadmiral" in the "Volksmarine" until 1990. It was the highest ordinary military rank and the highest military rank awarded in peacetime; the higher rank of general field marshal was awarded only in wartime by the head of state. In general, a "Generaloberst" had the same privileges as a general field marshal.


title: Generaloberst

text: A literal translation of "Generaloberst" would be "uppermost general", but it is often translated as "colonel-general" by analogy to "Oberst", "colonel", such as in countries in which the rank was adopted like Russia (, "general-polkovnik"). "Oberst" derives from the superlative form of Germanic "ober" ("upper"), cognate to English "over" and so "superior general" might be a more idiomatic rendering.


title: Generaloberst

text: The rank was created in 1854, originally for Emperor William I, the Prince of Prussia, because members of the royal family were traditionally not promoted to the rank of field marshal and it was limited to wartime.


title: Generaloberst

text: In the 19th century, the rank was largely honorary and usually held only by members of the princely families or the Governor of Berlin. The regular promotion of professional officers to the grade did not begin until 1911.


title: Generaloberst

text: Since the rank of "Generalfeldmarschall" was reserved for wartime promotions, the additional distinction of a "Colonel general with the rank of field marshal" () was created. Such generals were entitled to wear three pips and a marshal's crossed batons on their shoulder boards, compared to the three pips of a Colonel General; however, this was changed to four pips in 1911.


title: Generaloberst

text: "Generaloberst" was the second-highest general officer rank, below field marshal, in the Prussian Army as well as in the German Empire (1871–1918), the Weimar Republic (1921–1933), the "Wehrmacht" (which included the "Luftwaffe", established in 1935) of Nazi Germany (1933–45) and the East German "Nationale Volksarmee" (1949–1991). As military ranks were often used for other uniformed services, the rank was also used by the Waffen-SS and the "Ordnungspolizei" of Nazi Germany and the "Volkspolizei" and "Stasi" of East Germany. In East Germany, the rank was junior to the general of the army ("Armeegeneral"), as well as to the briefly-extant and never-awarded rank of "Marschall der DDR".


title: Generaloberst

text: In 1915 the "Generaloberst" – "Vezérezredes" rank was introduced to the Austro-Hungarian Common Army. It was the second highest behind the "Feldmarschall" – "Tábornagy" rank.


title: Generaloberst

text: Rank insignia of the German Empire 1871 until 1918, here shoulder strap of the German Imperial Army: twisted of silver- and golden-braids with three stars to "Colonel general" .


title: Generaloberst

text: In the Land Forces and Air Forces of the National People's Army, as well as the Border Troops of the German Democratic Republic "Generaloberst" was in line to Soviet military doctrine third general officer rank in that particular general's rank group. Pertaining to the NATO-Rangcode it might have been comparable to the three-star rank (OF-8).


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The Honda CBR600F is a CBR series ' four-cylinder sport bike made by Honda. The first model of the CBR600F was sold from 1987 to 1990 and is known in the US as the Hurricane. In Austria and Mexico, a smaller version, called CBR500F, was offered. The subsequent models are designated as CBR600F2, F3, F4 and F4i respectively. In 2011, Honda released a more modern model with the same name.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The original CBR600F along with the CBR750F and CBR1000F was Honda's first inline four-cylinder, fully-faired sport bike. The style was said to be influenced by a brief European trend toward a smooth and completely enclosed fairing such as in the Ducati Paso.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The CBR600F2 was made from 1991 to 1994. It was introduced to replace the original CBR600F Hurricane and was considered one of Honda's most modern and innovative sport bikes. Development of the CBR600F2 began in early 1989. Hurricane LPL Ishikawa led the development of the new bike, known internally as MV9 but also called the F2, an alphanumeric that led to its official name: CBR600F2.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The F2's development began with meetings to discuss concepts and sketches for the new bike. A few months later, an F2 prototype was produced. Painted black, the bike looked faster and sleeker than the more blocky first generation bike and test results were superior: few motorcycles in the 1990s had the performance ability of the F2.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The CBR600F3 is the third generation of the CBR600F series. It replaced the F2, and was produced from 1995 to 1998. It had a modified engine, ram-air intake and cartridge forks. The 1997 and 1998 models also came with a deeper oil pan, sleeker tail fairings, seat and taillight, and a revised engine head netting about a gain over 1995–1996 models. The CDI and ram-air system were also revised to allowed for smoother throttle curve over the 1995–1996 models, which could sometimes be jerky. The last made 1998 models came with another revised engine head which resulted in a slight power gain. In 1999, it was replaced by the CBR600F4.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: In 1996 and 1998, the F3 was also sold in "Smokin' Joe's Replica" versions in the US, Canada and Australia (1998 only).


title: Honda CBR600F

text: "Cycle World" tested the F3's acceleration from 0– at 3 seconds and 0– at 10.9 seconds at . "Motorcycle Consumer News" recorded a 0– time of 3.36 seconds and a quarter mile time of 11.03 seconds at .


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The CBR600F4 was produced between 1999 and 2000. It is the last of the CBR600 series of Honda sport bikes to be carbureted. An aluminium twin-spar frame which reduced frame weight was used, and the engine crankcase was designed to share the swingarm pivot. Through a reduction of internal friction and weight, combined with larger valves, shorter stroke and a bigger bore, higher revs were enabled. The spark plug caps had ignition coils built into them. Slightly larger carbs were added and the oil cooler was now located by the oil filter. A new suspension had larger forks and used Fireblade parts. The front brakes were upgraded and the rear wheel increased to with new 3-spoke wheels. The F4 is fitted with Honda's HISS engine immobilizer system.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The phrase "Dedicated to Super Evaluators Dirk Vandenberg and Josef Boyd" are embossed in raised letters on the inside of the F4's upper fairing; the dedication to two of Honda R&D's senior product developers who were killed during the final testing of this model.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The CBR600F4i was produced from 2001 to 2006. The upgraded F4i is a modified F4 with numerous engine, chassis and bodywork changes.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The 2001 US F4i had a new subframe which raises the seat by that allows for more storage room and improved two-tier seat. The new tail unit has less padding and a higher perch for the passenger. The F4i's taillight is smaller with a new dual-bulb configuration. The F4i had a new dash layout with a large analog tachometer. The new LCD digital display had a speedometer, odometer, clock, engine temperature read-out, amber shift light and trip meters. The single largest change aside from the styling is the addition of high-pressure PGM-FI (programmed fuel injection) system — thus the model designation "F4i". In a number of countries, the bike was sold in both the "normal" and "Sport" variants, the Sport having a two-part seat, no grab rail and no main stand (though the main stand mounting holes remained). Fuel injection allows for more precise fuel metering and delivery over a wider rpm range, while providing better throttle response and reducing emissions. The injectors reside one per cylinder and work with throttle bodies. Each injector has four nozzles, and together the injectors add up to over the F4.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The weight of the wheels was reduced. The rotor carriers moved out closer to the brake calipers to reduce weight and to improve rigidity. But stopping power still was not on par with other bikes in the class. There is additional bracing on the steering head for more response, better feedback and feel from the front end. The suspension has also been tweaked with less high-speed damping and a little more low-speed damping with the shock and fork being more street-bias.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: Additional engine changes include a lighter camshaft sprocket and increased valve spring pressure (two springs per intake valve) which allow for higher revving. There are new piston rings that slide with less friction and increased internal engine oil flow. Redline is now 14,200 rpm, 700 rpm higher than the previous year's F4. To increase the bike's pulling capabilities at high speeds, the fifth and sixth gears have been shortened slightly and the rear sprocket was enlarged from 45 teeth to 46, also adding one clutch plate for greater durability to now making 8. The oiling holes in the camshafts have been enlarged by (to ) and piston ring friction has been decreased to aid cooling at the higher rev ceiling. Spring pressures on the intake and exhaust valves have been increased to avoid valve float. Also, there are now two valve springs (inner and outer) on the intake side instead of the single item that resides on the exhaust side.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: The F4i's new bodywork carries a more racy look and provides a 3% reduction in drag. It also houses a new dual headlight front cowl design which uses 40% brighter H7 bulbs compared to the old H4 bulbs. The headlights are dual multi-reflector units covered by a one-piece flexiglass lens. The turn stalks are shorter and the mirrors are now positioned higher and closer to the rider. The elimination of carburetors allowed for a slightly larger air box and a larger fuel tank. And a fuel consumption of .


title: Honda CBR600F

text: In 2001 and 2002, in recognition of Honda's association with MotoGP champion Valentino Rossi and its 500th motorcycle Grand Prix victory, the CBR600F4i was also released in Europe and Australia (2001 & 2002 only) in two "Rossi Replica" versions.


title: Honda CBR600F

text: In 2011, Honda released the new CBR600F model built in Italy for the European markets that was not released in America. It continues the legacy of the CBR-F line. To honor the German rider Stefan Bradl, Honda Germany launched a special edition of the CBR600F, called CBR600F LCR. It featured an Arrow titanium exhaust, Progrip handlebar grips, a rear hugger, single seat cover and an LCR sticker kit as well as combined braking and ABS. The CBR600F shares most of the components with the CB600F Hornet naked bike such as inverted fork though longer by and aluminium mono-backbone frame. It is wrapped in a multi-layered full fairing that lowers drag and protects the rider from windblast as well as new instruments, bars and tank. It also retains a similar relaxed seating position to minimise rider fatigue. The 2011 CBR600F also shares the engine of the highly revised CB600F model that came out in April 2007. This engine is a detuned version of that which is available in the 2007 CBR600RR giving a maximum output power of approximately at 12,000 rpm and of torque at 10,500 rpm.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: Beartown (original title in ) is a novel by Swedish writer Fredrik Backman. The novel, noted as "hockey literature", centers on a declining youth hockey team in a small town. The story follows the events leading up to the rape of 15-year-old girl Maya Andersson by the star junior hockey player Kevin Erdahl, and the consequences for Maya and Kevin, the players, their families, friends, and the community which has a long-standing reputation as a hockey town. It is the first book in the "Beartown" series, followed by "Us Against You" and "The Winners".


title: Beartown (novel)

text: In 2018, the Rockingham County School Board removed the book from the reading list of McMichael High, a high school in North Carolina, when parents described it as "vulgar" and "graphic".


title: Beartown (novel)

text: The junior hockey team is the backbone of the small town of Beartown, where a win in the national games would mean more resources given to the team. The star of the team is 17-year-old Kevin Erdahl, whose talent is so outstanding that the entire junior team has been built around him since he was about seven years old. Peter Andersson is the General Manager of the team, and the new coach is David, after the previous coach was fired by the council for not focusing on winning enough. Peter's family consists of his wife Kira, and his children Maya and Leo. Maya is close friends with another girl, Ana.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: The novel opens with the team and the community preparing for a key semi-final game. Recognizing that lack of speed is a weakness, Sune and David agree to add underage junior Amat to improve their chances. Amat is grateful to be on the team, especially for his mother, who works as a cleaner. Beartown wins the semi-final, at least partly because the opposing team was not prepared to defend Amat's speed.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: On the night of the semi-final victory, Kevin's parents are out of town. This gives Kevin the opportunity to host a big party for his team and many other teenagers from the community. At the party, many of the teenagers are drinking and indulging in marijuana use and the team members boast about having sex with the supportive female fans. Maya and Kevin sneak off to an upstairs bedroom to make out. Maya resists Kevin's advances, and he proceeds to rape her. Amat, himself drunk and harboring feelings for Maya, stumbles in to witness the rape. Maya takes advantage of Amat's intrusion to free herself from Kevin.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: Maya has had a crush on Kevin for some time and is devastated by his attack. She struggles to cope for a week, knowing that reporting the crime will tear the town apart. After a week from her rape, she tells her parents, who are furious and immediately report the crime to the police. Kevin is pulled from playing in the final happening that day, to the anger and shock of the rest of the team. They play the final without Kevin and lose.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: As the news spread of Maya's accusation and the team's loss in the final, many people in the town turn against Maya's family. Kevin's father believes that Maya's accusation is a lie and that Peter, out of jealousy, intentionally reported it the day of the final to cause the team to lose. Kevin's father pushes the sponsors and the council board to fire Peter. He also attempts to bribe Amat into silence by giving his mother a better job, but his mother refuses, telling him to be honest.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: The hockey club holds a vote to decide whether Peter should be fired from his position as General Manager. Amat testifies as a witness on how he saw Kevin rape Maya, much to the anger of the rest of the team. The town’s barkeep believes Maya and Amat’s story and convinces a large group of hockey fans to vote in Peter’s favor, resulting in Peter keeping his job. However, David is frustrated with Peter’s “mixing of politics and hockey” and moves to a neighboring town, bringing with him Kevin and most of the team, along with the town's sponsors. Only Amat, and three other players stay back to support Beartown.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: The rape case against Kevin is dropped due to insufficient evidence. Maya continues to suffer distress and decides she must either kill herself or kill Kevin to be relieved of the pain. Late at night, Maya surprises Kevin with a shotgun and forces him to kneel in front of her. Maya thrusts the gun to a whimpering Kevin's forehead and pulls the trigger, but he doesn’t die as she intentionally didn’t load the gun. Maya reasons that the fear Kevin felt at the moment she pulled the trigger will continue to haunt him for the rest of his life, just as the rape will haunt her.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: In the end, the events of the subsequent ten years are sketched out. Maya is a popular guitarist, and has a chance encounter with Kevin (who is now married). Maya recognizes Kevin and realizes she can expose him in public, but chooses not to. When he leaves shaken, his wife asks him who Maya is, and Kevin tells her the whole truth.


title: Beartown (novel)

text: In 2020, a five-episode miniseries adaptation called "Björnstad" was added to HBO Nordic. The series premiered as "Beartown" on HBO in North America on February 22, 2021. It received generally positive reviews from critics. It is no longer available on HBO in the US.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The Irish Republican Brotherhood (IRB; ) was a secret oath-bound fraternal organisation dedicated to the establishment of an "independent democratic republic" in Ireland between 1858 and 1924. Its counterpart in the United States of America was initially the Fenian Brotherhood, but from the 1870s it was Clan na Gael. The members of both wings of the movement are often referred to as "Fenians". The IRB played an important role in the history of Ireland, as the chief advocate of republicanism during the campaign for Ireland's independence from the United Kingdom, successor to movements such as the United Irishmen of the 1790s and the Young Irelanders of the 1840s.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: As part of the New Departure of the 1870s–80s, IRB members attempted to democratise the Home Rule League. and its successor, the Irish Parliamentary Party, as well as taking part in the Land War. The IRB staged the Easter Rising in 1916, which led to the establishment of the first Dáil Éireann in 1919. The suppression of Dáil Éireann precipitated the Irish War of Independence and the signing of the Anglo-Irish Treaty in 1921, ultimately leading to the establishment of the Irish Free State, which excluded the territory of Northern Ireland.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: In 1798 the United Irishmen, which had initially been an open political organisation, but which was later suppressed by the British establishment in Ireland and so became a secret revolutionary organisation, rose in rebellion, seeking an end to British rule in Ireland and the establishment of an Irish Republic. The rebellion was suppressed, but the principles of the United Irishmen were to have a powerful influence on the course of Irish history.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Following the collapse of the rebellion, the British prime minister William Pitt introduced a bill to abolish the Irish parliament and manufactured a Union between Ireland and Britain. Opposition from the Protestant oligarchy that controlled the parliament was countered by the widespread and open use of bribery. The Act of Union was passed, and became law on 1 January 1801. The Catholics, who had been excluded from the Irish parliament, were promised emancipation under the Union. This promise was never kept, and caused a protracted and bitter struggle for civil liberties. It was not until 1829 that the British government reluctantly conceded Catholic emancipation. Though leading to general emancipation, this process simultaneously disenfranchised the small tenants, known as 'forty shilling freeholders', who were mainly Catholics. This resulted in the Irish Catholic electorate going from 216,000 voters to 37,000. A massive reduction in the number of Catholics being able to vote.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Daniel O’Connell, who had led the emancipation campaign, then attempted the same methods in his campaign, to have the Act of Union with Britain repealed. Despite the use of petitions and public meetings which attracted vast popular support, the government thought the Union was more important than Irish public opinion.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: During the early 1840s, the younger members of the repeal movement became impatient with O’Connell's over-cautious policies, and began to question his intentions. Later they were what came to be known as the Young Ireland movement. In 1842 three of the Young Ireland leaders, Thomas Davis, Charles Gavan Duffy and John Blake Dillon, launched the "Nation" newspaper. In the paper they set out to create a spirit of pride and an identity based on nationality rather than on social status or religion. Following the collapse of the Repeal Association and with the arrival of famine, the Young Irelanders broke away completely from O’Connell in 1846.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The blight that destroyed the potato harvest between 1845 and 1850 caused a massive human tragedy. An entire social class of small farmers and labourers were to be virtually wiped out by hunger, disease and emigration. The "laissez-faire" economic thinking of the government ensured that help was slow, hesitant and insufficient. Between 1845 and 1851 the population fell by almost two million, or about a third of the total.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: That the people starved while livestock and grain continued to be exported, quite often under military escort, left a legacy of bitterness and resentment among the survivors. The waves of emigration because of the famine and in the years following, also ensured that such feelings were not confined to Ireland, but spread to England, the United States, Australia, and every country where Irish emigrants gathered.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Shocked by the scenes of starvation and greatly influenced by the revolutions then sweeping Europe, the Young Irelanders moved from agitation to armed rebellion in 1848. The attempted rebellion failed after a small skirmish in Ballingary, County Tipperary, coupled with a few minor incidents elsewhere. The reasons for the failure were obvious, the people were totally despondent after three years of famine, having been prompted to rise early resulted in an inadequacy of military preparations, which caused disunity among the leaders.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The government quickly rounded up many of the instigators, those who could, fled across the seas, and their followers dispersed. A last flicker of revolt in 1849, led by among others James Fintan Lalor, was equally unsuccessful.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: John Mitchel, the most committed advocate of revolution, had been arrested early in 1848 and transported to Australia on the purposefully created charge of Treason-felony. He was to be joined by other leaders, such as William Smith O'Brien and Thomas Francis Meagher who had both been arrested after Ballingary. John Blake Dillon escaped to France, as did three of the younger members, James Stephens, John O'Mahony and Michael Doheny.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: After the collapse of the 1848 rebellion James Stephens and John O'Mahony went to Europe to avoid arrest. In Paris they supported themselves through teaching and translation work and planned the next stage of "the fight to overthrow British rule in Ireland." Stephens in Paris, set himself three tasks, during his seven years of exile. They were, to keep alive, pursue knowledge, and master the technique of conspiracy. At this time Paris particularly, was interwoven with a network of secret political societies. They became members of one of the most powerful of these societies and acquired the secrets of some of the ablest and "most profound masters of revolutionary science" which the 19th century had produced, as to the means of inviting and combining people for the purposes of successful revolution.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: In 1853, O'Mahony went to America and founded the Emmet Monument Association. In early 1856, Stephens began making his way back to Ireland, stopping first in London. On arriving in Dublin, Stephens began what he described as his three thousand mile walk through Ireland, meeting some of those who had taken part in the 1848/49 revolutionary movements, including Philip Gray, Thomas Clarke Luby and Peter Langan.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: In the autumn of 1857, a messenger, Owen Considine arrived from New York with a message for Stephens from members of the Emmet Monument Association, calling on him to get up an organisation in Ireland. Considine also carried a private letter from O’Mahony to Stephens which was a warning as to the condition of the organisation in New York, which was overseen by Luby and Stephens at the time. Both had believed that there was a strong organisation behind the letter, only later to find it was a number of loosely linked groups.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: On 23 December Stephens dispatched Joseph Denieffe to America with his reply which was disguised as a business letter, and dated and addressed from Paris. In his reply Stephens outlined his conditions and his requirements from the organisation in America. Stephens demanded uncontrolled power and £100 a month for the first three months. Denieffe returned on 17 March 1858 with the acceptance of Stephens terms and £80. Denieffe also reported that there was no actual organised body of sympathisers in New York but merely a loose knot of associates. This disturbed Stephens but he went ahead regardless and that evening, St. Patrick's Day, the Irish Republican Brotherhood commenced.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The original oath, with its clauses of secrecy was drawn up by Luby under Stephens' direction in Stephens' room in Donnelly's which was situated behind Lombard Street. Luby then swore Stephens in and he did likewise.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Those present in Langan's, lathe-maker and timber merchant, 16 Lombard Street for that first meeting apart from Stephens and Luby were Peter Langan, Charles Kickham, Joseph Denieffe and Garrett O'Shaughnessy. Later it would include members of the "Phoenix National and Literary Society", which was formed in 1856 by Jeremiah O'Donovan Rossa in Skibbereen.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The IRB was organised into circles, a "circle" was analogous to a regiment, that the "centre" or A, who might be considered equivalent to a colonel, who chose nine B's, or captains, who in their turn chose nine C's, or sergeants, who in their turn chose nine D's, who constituted the rank and file. In theory an A should only be known to the B's; a B, to his C's: and a C, to his D's; but this rule was often violated.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Dublin Castle was the seat of government administration in Ireland and was appointed by the British cabinet and was accountable only to the cabinet, not to the House of Commons and not to the Irish people or their political representatives. Irish MPs could speak at Westminster in protest about the actions of the administration, but its privileges were unchallengeable as Irish representation in the House of Commons was only one sixth of the total and far too small.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Fenianism therefore, according to O'Mahony was symbolised by two principles: Firstly, that Ireland had a natural right to independence, and secondly, that that right could be won only by an armed revolution. Because of their belief in republicanism, that is, the "common people are the rightful rulers of their own destiny", the founding members saw themselves as "furious democrats in theory" and declared their movement to be "wholly and unequivocally democratic". Being a democrat and egalitarian in the mid 19th century was tantamount to being a revolutionary, and was something to be feared by political establishments.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: It was Stephens "firm resolution to establish a democratic republic in Ireland; that is, a republic for the weal of the toiler", and that this would require a complete social revolution before the people could possibly become republicans.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: In propagating republican principles, they felt, the organisation would create this virtual democracy within the country, which would form the basis of an independence movement.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The Fenians soon established themselves in Australia, South America, Canada and, above all, in the United States, as well as in the large cities of England, such as London, Manchester, Liverpool, and Glasgow, in Scotland.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The original IRB oath, as quoted by Thomas Clarke Luby and John O'Leary, and which is among several versions in James Stephens's own papers, ran:


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: This oath was significantly revised by Stephens in Paris in the summer of 1859. He asked Luby to draw up a new text, omitting the secrecy clause. The omitting of the secrecy clause was outlined in a letter from Stephens to John O'Mahony on 6 April 1859 and the reasons for it. 'Henceforth,’ wrote Luby to O’Leary "we denied that we were technically a secret body. We called ourselves a military organization; with, so to speak, a legionary oath like all soldiers."


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The IRB was re-organised at a convention in Manchester in July 1867. An 11-man Supreme Council was elected to govern the movement. They would eventually be representatives from the seven districts in which the organisation was organised: the Irish provinces of Ulster, Munster, Leinster and Connacht, as well as Scotland, North England, and South England. The remaining four members were co-opted. The Supreme Council elected three of its members to the executive, which consisted of a president, secretary, and a treasurer. The Council met twice a year, usually in the spring and the summer. In Manchester August 1867 Thomas Kelly was declared Chief Organiser of the Irish Republic (COIR), in succession to Stephens. The arrest and subsequent rescue of Kelly with Timothy Deasy in September 1867 resulted in the execution of the Manchester Martyrs. Kelly escaped to USA and remained associated with the IRB.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Late in 1858 Stephens travelled to the United States to secure support and financial backing. He was unsuccessful, however, in winning the support of former Young Irelanders such as John Mitchel and Thomas Francis Meagher. Eventually, he joined with John O'Mahoney and Michael Doheny to form the Fenian Brotherhood, intended as the American sister organisation of the IRB, with O'Mahoney as its president. The precise relationship between the two organisations was never properly set out. In the early 1870s the Fenian Brotherhood was superseded as the main American support organisation by Clan na Gael, of which John Devoy was a leading member. The IRB and Clan na Gael reached a "compact of agreement" in 1875, and in 1877 the two organisations established a joint "revolutionary directory". This effectively gave Devoy control over the Supreme Council in Ireland, which was reliant on Clan na Gael for funds.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The movement was denounced by the British establishment, the press, the Catholic Church and Irish political elite, as had been all Irish Republican movements at that point.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The Tories, disturbed by the increase in republican propaganda, particularly in America, launched a propaganda campaign in the Irish press to discredit the American Fenians. They presented them as enemies of Catholicism quoting negative comments by some American Catholic bishops. As in Irish-America, likewise Ireland and England, the Catholic hierarchy felt the growth of nationalist politics among Irishmen was essentially dangerous. Therefore, during the 1860s and succeeding decades, the upper or middle classes who controlled the Irish press were very apprehensive in the growth of democratic politics in Ireland, which represented to them a threat of anarchy and revolution.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: It was feared that if Britain was given any reason to renew coercion, Catholic interests in both Ireland and England would be undermined. In addition, the small class of Irish Catholic merchants, lawyers and gentry who had prospered under the Union felt anxious for the same reasons. By 1864, the Tories had coined the phrase 'Fenianism' to describe all that was considered potentially bothersome among Irishmen on both sides of the Atlantic.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Fenianism as a term was then used by the British political establishment to depict any form of mobilisation among the lower classes and, sometimes, those who expressed any Irish nationalist sentiments. They warned people about this threat to turn decent civilised society on its head such as that posed by trade unionism to the existing social order in England. The same term was taken up by members of the Irish Catholic hierarchy, who also began denouncing "Fenianism" in the name of the Catholic religion. One Irish Bishop, David Moriarty of Kerry, declared that "when we look down into the fathomless depth of this infamy of the heads of the Fenian conspiracy, we must acknowledge that eternity is not long enough, nor hell hot enough to punish such miscreants."


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: In mid-1863 Stephens informed his colleagues he wished to start a newspaper, with financial aid from O’Mahony and the Fenian Brotherhood in America. The offices were established at 12 Parliament Street, almost at the gates of Dublin Castle. The first edition of the "Irish People" appeared on 28 November 1863. The staff of the paper along with Kickham were Luby and Denis Dowling Mulcahy as the editorial staff. O’Donovan Rossa and James O’Connor were in charge of the business office, with John Haltigan being the printer. John O'Leary was brought from London to take charge in the role of Editor. Shortly after the establishment of the paper, Stephens departed on an American tour, and to attend to organisational matters.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: American Fenians made plans for a rising in Ireland, but the plans were discovered on 15 July 1865 when an emissary lost them at Kingstown railway station. They found their way to Dublin Castle and to Superintendent Daniel Ryan head of G Division. Ryan had an informer within the offices of the "Irish People" named Pierce Nagle, he supplied Ryan with an "action this year" message on its way to the IRB unit in Tipperary. With this information, Ryan raided the offices of the "Irish People" on Thursday 15 September, followed by the arrests of O’Leary, Luby and O’Donovan Rossa. The last edition of the paper is dated 16 September 1865.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Before leaving, Stephens entrusted to Luby a document containing secret resolutions on the Committee of Organization or Executive of the IRB. Though Luby intimated its existence to O’Leary, he did not inform Kickham as there seemed no necessity. This document would later form the basis of the prosecution against the staff of the Irish People. The document read:


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Kickham was caught after a month on the run. Stephens would also be caught, but with the support of Fenian prison warders, John J. Breslin and Daniel Byrne was less than a fortnight in Richmond Bridewell when he vanished and escaped to France. David Bell evaded arrest, escaping first to Paris and then to New York


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: During the latter part of 1866, Stephens endeavoured to raise funds in America for a fresh rising planned for the following year. He issued a bombastic proclamation in America announcing an imminent general rising in Ireland; but he was himself soon afterwards deposed by his confederates, among whom dissension had broken out.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: The Fenian Rising proved to be a "doomed rebellion", poorly organised and with minimal public support. Most of the Irish-American officers who landed at Cork, in the expectation of commanding an army against England, were imprisoned; sporadic disturbances around the country were easily suppressed by the police, army and local militias.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: On 22 November 1867 three Fenians, William Philip Allen, Michael O'Brien, and Michael Larkin known as the Manchester Martyrs, were executed in Salford for their attack on a police van to release Fenians held captive earlier that year.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: On 13 December 1867 the Fenians exploded a bomb in attempt to free one of their members being held on remand at Clerkenwell Prison in London. The explosion damaged nearby houses, killed 12 people and caused 120 injuries. None of the prisoners escaped. The bombing was later described as the most infamous action carried out by the Fenians in Great Britain in the 19th century. It enraged the public, causing a backlash of hostility in Britain which undermined efforts to establish home rule or independence for Ireland.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: In 1882, a breakaway IRB faction calling itself the Irish National Invincibles assassinated the British Chief Secretary for Ireland Lord Frederick Cavendish and his secretary, in an incident known as the Phoenix Park Murders.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: In March 1883 the London Metropolitan Police's Special Irish Branch was formed, initially as a small section of the Criminal Investigation Department, to monitor IRB activity.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: By the start of the 20th century, the IRB was a stagnating organisation, concerned more with Dublin municipal politics than the establishment of a republic according to F. S. L. Lyons. A younger generation of Ulster republicans aimed to change this, and in 1905 Denis McCullough and Bulmer Hobson founded the Dungannon Clubs. Inspired by the Volunteers of 1782, the purpose of these clubs was to discourage enlistment into the British Army, and encourage enlistment into the IRB, with the overall goal of complete independence from Britain in the form of an Irish Republic. They were joined by Seán Mac Diarmada, and in 1908 he and Hobson relocated to Dublin, where they teamed up with veteran Fenian Tom Clarke. Clarke had been released from Portland Prison in October 1898 after serving fifteen and a half years, and had recently returned to Ireland after living in the United States. Sent by John Devoy and the Clan na Gael to reorganise the IRB, Clarke set about to do just that. In 1909 the young Michael Collins was introduced to the brotherhood by Sam Maguire. By 1914 the Supreme Council was largely purged of its older, tired leadership, and was dominated by enthusiastic men such as Hobson, McCullough, Patrick McCartan, John MacBride, Seán Mac Diarmada, and Tom Clarke. The latter two were to be the primary instigators of the Easter Rising in 1916.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Following the establishment of the Ulster Volunteers in 1912, whose purpose was to resist Home Rule, by force if necessary, the IRB were behind the initiative which eventually led to the inauguration of the Irish Volunteers in November 1913. Though the Volunteers' stated purpose was not the establishment of a republic, the IRB intended to use the organisation to do just that, recruiting high-ranking members into the IRB, notably Joseph Plunkett, Thomas MacDonagh, and Patrick Pearse, who was co-opted to the Supreme Council in 1915. These men, together with Clarke, MacDermott, Éamonn Ceannt and eventually James Connolly of the Irish Citizen Army, constituted the Military Committee, the sole planners of the Rising.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: Following the Rising some republicans—notably Éamon de Valera and Cathal Brugha—left the organization, which they viewed as no longer necessary, since the Irish Volunteers now performed its function. The IRB, during the 1919–21 War of Independence, was under the control of Michael Collins, who was secretary, and subsequently president, of the Supreme Council. Volunteers such as Séumas Robinson said afterwards that the IRB by then was "moribund where not already dead", but there is evidence that it was an important force during the war.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: When the Anglo-Irish Treaty was signed on 6 December 1921, it was debated by the Supreme Council, which voted to accept it by eleven votes to four. Those on the Supreme Council who opposed the Treaty included former leader Harry Boland, Austin Stack and Liam Lynch. Anti-Treaty republicans like Ernie O'Malley, who fought during the Civil War against the Treaty, saw the IRB as being used to undermine the Irish Republic. The IRB became quiescent during the Civil War, which ended in May 1923, but it emerged again later that year as a faction within the National Army that supported Minister for Defence Richard Mulcahy against the "Old IRA", which fought against the recruitment of ex-British Army personnel and the demobilization of old IRA men. This came to a head with the Army Mutiny of 1924, in the wake of which Mulcahy resigned and other IRB members of the army were dismissed by acting President of the Executive Council Kevin O'Higgins. The IRB subsequently dissolved itself, although it is not known whether a formal decision was taken, or it simply ceased to function.


title: Irish Republican Brotherhood

text: What follows is a list of known IRB presidents. As no formal records exist for the IRB, accurate dates cannot be provided in all cases.


title: Gottgläubig

text: In Nazi Germany, gottgläubig (literally: "believing in God") was a Nazi religious term for a form of non-denominationalism practised by those Germans who had officially left Christian churches but professed faith in some higher power or divine creator. Such people were called "Gottgläubige" ("believers in God"), and the term for the overall movement was "Gottgläubigkeit" ("belief in God"); the term denotes someone who still believes in a God, although without having any institutional religious affiliation. These National Socialists were not favourable towards religious institutions of their time, nor did they tolerate atheism of any type within their ranks. The 1943 "Philosophical Dictionary" defined "gottgläubig" as: "official designation for those who profess a specific kind of piety and morality, without being bound to a church denomination, whilst however also rejecting irreligion and godlessness." In the 1939 census, 3.5% of the German population identified as "gottgläubig".


title: Gottgläubig

text: In the 1920 National Socialist Programme of the National Socialist German Workers' Party (NSDAP), Adolf Hitler first mentioned the phrase "Positive Christianity". The Nazi Party did not wish to tie itself to a particular Christian denomination but with Christianity in general, and sought freedom of religion for all denominations "so long as they do not endanger its existence or oppose the moral senses of the Germanic race." (point 24).


title: Gottgläubig

text: When Hitler and the NSDAP got into power in 1933, they sought to assert state control over the churches, on the one hand through the "Reichskonkordat" with the Roman Catholic Church, and the forced merger of the German Evangelical Church Confederation into the Protestant Reich Church on the other. This policy seems to have gone relatively well until late 1936, when a "gradual worsening of relations" between the Nazi Party and the churches saw the rise of "Kirchenaustritt" ("leaving the church"). Although there was no top-down official directive to revoke church membership, some Nazi Party members started doing so voluntarily and put other members under pressure to follow their example. Those who left the churches were designated as "Gottgläubige" ("believers in God"), a term officially recognised by the Interior Minister Wilhelm Frick on 26 November 1936. He stressed that the term signified political disassociation from the churches, not an act of religious apostasy. The term "dissident", which some church leavers had used up until them, was associated with being "without belief" ("glaubenslos"), whilst most of them emphasized that they still believed in a God, and thus required a different word.


title: Gottgläubig

text: The Nazi Party ideologue Alfred Rosenberg was the first to leave his church on 15 November 1933, but for the next three years he would be the only prominent Nazi leader to do so. In early 1936, SS leaders Heinrich Himmler and Reinhard Heydrich terminated their membership of the Roman Catholic Church, followed by a number of "Gauleiter" including Martin Mutschmann (Saxony), Carl Röver (Weser-Ems), and Robert Heinrich Wagner (Baden). In late 1936, especially Roman Catholic party members left the church, followed in 1937 by a flood of primarily Protestant party members. Hitler himself never repudiated his membership of the Roman Catholic Church; in 1941, he told his General Gerhard Engel: "I am now as before a Catholic and will always be so." However, the shifting actual religious views of Adolf Hitler remain unclear due to conflicting accounts from Hitler's associates such as Otto Strasser, Martin Bormann, Joseph Goebbels, and others.


title: Gottgläubig

text: People who identified as "gottgläubig" could hold a wide range of religious beliefs, including non-clerical Christianity, Germanic Neopaganism, a generic non-Christian theism, deism, and pantheism. Strictly speaking, "Gottgläubigen" were not even required to terminate their church membership, but strongly encouraged to.


title: Gottgläubig

text: By the decree of the Reich Ministry of the Interior of 26 November 1936, this religious descriptor was officially recognised on government records. The census of 17 May 1939 was the first time that German citizens were able to officially register as "gottgläubig". Out of 79.4 million Germans, 2.7 million people (3.5%) claimed to be "gottgläubig", compared to 94.5% who either belonged to the Protestant or Roman Catholic churches, 300,000 Jews (0.4%), 86,000 adherents of other religions (including Muslims, Buddhists, Hindus, Germanic Neopagans and other religious sects and movements, 0.1%), and 1.2 million (1.5%) who had no faith ("glaubenslos"). Paradoxically, Germans living in urban areas, where support for the Nazi Party was the lowest, were the most likely to identify as "gottgläubig", the five highest rates being found in Berlin (10.2%), Hamburg (7.5%), Vienna (6.4%), Düsseldorf (6.0%), and Essen (5.3%).


title: Gottgläubig

text: The term still appeared sporadically a few years after the war, and was recognised in the 1946 census inside the French Occupation Zone, before it faded from official documents.


title: Gottgläubig

text: "Reichsführer-SS" Heinrich Himmler, himself a former Roman Catholic, was one of the main promoters of the "gottgläubig" movement. He was hostile towards Christianity, its values, the churches and their clergy. However, Himmler declared: "As National Socialists, we believe in a Godly worldview." He insisted on the existence of a creator-God, who favoured and guided the Third Reich and the German nation, as he announced to the SS: "We believe in a God Almighty who stands above us; he has created the earth, the Fatherland, and the Volk, and he has sent us the Führer. Any human being who does not believe in God should be considered arrogant, megalomaniacal, and stupid and thus not suited for the SS." He did not allow atheists into the SS, arguing that their "refusal to acknowledge higher powers" would be a "potential source of indiscipline".


title: Gottgläubig

text: Himmler was not particularly concerned by the question how to label this deity; God Almighty, the Ancient One, Destiny, "Waralda", Nature etc. were all acceptable, as long as they referred to some "higher power that had created this world and endowed it with the laws of struggle and selection that guaranteed the continued existence of nature and the natural order of things." According to Himmler, "Only he who opposes belief in a higher power is considered godless"; everyone else was "gottgläubig", but should be thus outside of the church. SS members were put under pressure to identify as "gottgläubig" and revoke their church membership, if necessary under the threat of expulsion.


title: Gottgläubig

text: The SS personnel records show that most of its members who left the church of their upbringing, did so just before or shortly after joining the SS. The Sicherheitsdienst (SD) members were the most willing corps within the SS to withdraw from their Christian denominations and change their religious affiliation to "gottgläubig" at 90%. Of the SS officers, 74% of those who joined the SS before 1933 did so, while 68% who joined the SS after 1933 would eventually declare themselves "gottgläubig". Of the general SS membership, 16% had left their churches by the end of 1937.


title: Diprotodontia

text: Diprotodontia (, from Greek "two forward teeth") is the largest extant order of marsupials, with about 155 species, including the kangaroos, wallabies, possums, koala, wombats, and many others. Extinct diprotodonts include the hippopotamus-sized "Diprotodon", and "Thylacoleo", the so-called "marsupial lion".