title: Reliability engineering

text: A common reliability metric is the number of software faults per line of code (FLOC), usually expressed as faults per thousand lines of code. This metric, along with software execution time, is key to most software reliability models and estimates. The theory is that the software reliability increases as the number of faults (or fault density) decreases. Establishing a direct connection between fault density and mean-time-between-failure is difficult, however, because of the way software faults are distributed in the code, their severity, and the probability of the combination of inputs necessary to encounter the fault. Nevertheless, fault density serves as a useful indicator for the reliability engineer. Other software metrics, such as complexity, are also used. This metric remains controversial, since changes in software development and verification practices can have dramatic impact on overall defect rates.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Software testing is an important aspect of software reliability. Even the best software development process results in some software faults that are nearly undetectable until tested. Software is tested at several levels, starting with individual units, through integration and full-up system testing. All phases of testing, software faults are discovered, corrected, and re-tested. Reliability estimates are updated based on the fault density and other metrics. At a system level, mean-time-between-failure data can be collected and used to estimate reliability. Unlike hardware, performing exactly the same test on exactly the same software configuration does not provide increased statistical confidence. Instead, software reliability uses different metrics, such as code coverage.


title: Reliability engineering

text: The Software Engineering Institute's capability maturity model is a common means of assessing the overall software development process for reliability and quality purposes.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Structural reliability or the reliability of structures is the application of reliability theory to the behavior of structures. It is used in both the design and maintenance of different types of structures including concrete and steel structures. In structural reliability studies both loads and resistances are modeled as probabilistic variables. Using this approach the probability of failure of a structure is calculated.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Reliability for safety and reliability for availability are often closely related. Lost availability of an engineering system can cost money. If a subway system is unavailable the subway operator will lose money for each hour the system is down. The subway operator will lose more money if safety is compromised. The definition of reliability is tied to a probability of not encountering a failure. A failure can cause loss of safety, loss of availability or both. It is undesirable to lose safety or availability in a critical system.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Reliability engineering is concerned with overall minimisation of failures that could lead to financial losses for the responsible entity, whereas safety engineering focuses on minimising a specific set of failure types that in general could lead to loss of life, injury or damage to equipment.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Reliability hazards could transform into incidents leading to a loss of revenue for the company or the customer, for example due to direct and indirect costs associated with: loss of production due to system unavailability; unexpected high or low demands for spares; repair costs; man-hours; re-designs or interruptions to normal production.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Safety engineering is often highly specific, relating only to certain tightly regulated industries, applications, or areas. It primarily focuses on system safety hazards that could lead to severe accidents including: loss of life; destruction of equipment; or environmental damage. As such, the related system functional reliability requirements are often extremely high. Although it deals with unwanted failures in the same sense as reliability engineering, it, however, has less of a focus on direct costs, and is not concerned with post-failure repair actions. Another difference is the level of impact of failures on society, leading to a tendency for strict control by governments or regulatory bodies (e.g. nuclear, aerospace, defense, rail and oil industries).


title: Reliability engineering

text: Safety can be increased using a 2oo2 cross checked redundant system. Availability can be increased by using "1oo2" (1 out of 2) redundancy at a part or system level. If both redundant elements disagree the more permissive element will maximize availability. A 1oo2 system should never be relied on for safety. Fault-tolerant systems often rely on additional redundancy (e.g. 2oo3 voting logic) where multiple redundant elements must agree on a potentially unsafe action before it is performed. This increases both availability and safety at a system level. This is common practice in Aerospace systems that need continued availability and do not have a fail-safe mode. For example, aircraft may use triple modular redundancy for flight computers and control surfaces (including occasionally different modes of operation e.g. electrical/mechanical/hydraulic) as these need to always be operational, due to the fact that there are no "safe" default positions for control surfaces such as rudders or ailerons when the aircraft is flying.


title: Reliability engineering

text: The above example of a 2oo3 fault tolerant system increases both mission reliability as well as safety. However, the "basic" reliability of the system will in this case still be lower than a non-redundant (1oo1) or 2oo2 system. Basic reliability engineering covers all failures, including those that might not result in system failure, but do result in additional cost due to: maintenance repair actions; logistics; spare parts etc. For example, replacement or repair of 1 faulty channel in a 2oo3 voting system, (the system is still operating, although with one failed channel it has actually become a 2oo2 system) is contributing to basic unreliability but not mission unreliability. As an example, the failure of the tail-light of an aircraft will not prevent the plane from flying (and so is not considered a mission failure), but it does need to be remedied (with a related cost, and so does contribute to the basic unreliability levels).


title: Reliability engineering

text: When using fault tolerant (redundant) systems or systems that are equipped with protection functions, detectability of failures and avoidance of common cause failures becomes paramount for safe functioning and/or mission reliability.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Quality often focuses on manufacturing defects during the warranty phase. Reliability looks at the failure intensity over the whole life of a product or engineering system from commissioning to decommissioning. Six Sigma has its roots in statistical control in quality of manufacturing. Reliability engineering is a specialty part of systems engineering. The systems engineering process is a discovery process that is often unlike a manufacturing process. A manufacturing process is often focused on repetitive activities that achieve high quality outputs with minimum cost and time.


title: Reliability engineering

text: The everyday usage term "quality of a product" is loosely taken to mean its inherent degree of excellence. In industry, a more precise definition of quality as "conformance to requirements or specifications at the start of use" is used. Assuming the final product specification adequately captures the original requirements and customer/system needs, the quality level can be measured as the fraction of product units shipped that meet specifications. Manufactured goods quality often focuses on the number of warranty claims during the warranty period.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Quality is a snapshot at the start of life through the warranty period and is related to the control of lower-level product specifications. This includes time-zero defects i.e. where manufacturing mistakes escaped final Quality Control. In theory the quality level might be described by a single fraction of defective products. Reliability, as a part of systems engineering, acts as more of an ongoing assessment of failure rates over many years. Theoretically, all items will fail over an infinite period of time. Defects that appear over time are referred to as reliability fallout. To describe reliability fallout a probability model that describes the fraction fallout over time is needed. This is known as the life distribution model. Some of these reliability issues may be due to inherent design issues, which may exist even though the product conforms to specifications. Even items that are produced perfectly will fail over time due to one or more failure mechanisms (e.g. due to human error or mechanical, electrical, and chemical factors). These reliability issues can also be influenced by acceptable levels of variation during initial production.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Quality and reliability are, therefore, related to manufacturing. Reliability is more targeted towards clients who are focused on failures throughout the whole life of the product such as the military, airlines or railroads. Items that do not conform to product specification will generally do worse in terms of reliability (having a lower MTTF), but this does not always have to be the case. The full mathematical quantification (in statistical models) of this combined relation is in general very difficult or even practically impossible. In cases where manufacturing variances can be effectively reduced, six sigma tools have been shown to be useful to find optimal process solutions which can increase quality and reliability. Six Sigma may also help to design products that are more robust to manufacturing induced failures and infant mortality defects in engineering systems and manufactured product.


title: Reliability engineering

text: In contrast with Six Sigma, reliability engineering solutions are generally found by focusing on reliability testing and system design. Solutions are found in different ways, such as by simplifying a system to allow more of the mechanisms of failure involved to be understood; performing detailed calculations of material stress levels allowing suitable safety factors to be determined; finding possible abnormal system load conditions and using this to increase robustness of a design to manufacturing variance related failure mechanisms. Furthermore, reliability engineering uses system-level solutions, like designing redundant and fault-tolerant systems for situations with high availability needs (see Reliability engineering vs Safety engineering above).


title: Reliability engineering

text: Note: A "defect" in six-sigma/quality literature is not the same as a "failure" (Field failure | e.g. fractured item) in reliability. A six-sigma/quality defect refers generally to non-conformance with a requirement (e.g. basic functionality or a key dimension). Items can, however, fail over time, even if these requirements are all fulfilled. Quality is generally not concerned with asking the crucial question "are the requirements actually correct?", whereas reliability is.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Once systems or parts are being produced, reliability engineering attempts to monitor, assess, and correct deficiencies. Monitoring includes electronic and visual surveillance of critical parameters identified during the fault tree analysis design stage. Data collection is highly dependent on the nature of the system. Most large organizations have quality control groups that collect failure data on vehicles, equipment and machinery. Consumer product failures are often tracked by the number of returns. For systems in dormant storage or on standby, it is necessary to establish a formal surveillance program to inspect and test random samples. Any changes to the system, such as field upgrades or recall repairs, require additional reliability testing to ensure the reliability of the modification. Since it is not possible to anticipate all the failure modes of a given system, especially ones with a human element, failures will occur. The reliability program also includes a systematic root cause analysis that identifies the causal relationships involved in the failure such that effective corrective actions may be implemented. When possible, system failures and corrective actions are reported to the reliability engineering organization.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Some of the most common methods to apply to a reliability operational assessment are failure reporting, analysis, and corrective action systems (FRACAS). This systematic approach develops a reliability, safety, and logistics assessment based on failure/incident reporting, management, analysis, and corrective/preventive actions. Organizations today are adopting this method and utilizing commercial systems (such as Web-based FRACAS applications) that enable them to create a failure/incident data repository from which statistics can be derived to view accurate and genuine reliability, safety, and quality metrics.


title: Reliability engineering

text: It is extremely important for an organization to adopt a common FRACAS system for all end items. Also, it should allow test results to be captured in a practical way. Failure to adopt one easy-to-use (in terms of ease of data-entry for field engineers and repair shop engineers) and easy-to-maintain integrated system is likely to result in a failure of the FRACAS program itself.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Some of the common outputs from a FRACAS system include Field MTBF, MTTR, spares consumption, reliability growth, failure/incidents distribution by type, location, part no., serial no., and symptom.


title: Reliability engineering

text: The use of past data to predict the reliability of new comparable systems/items can be misleading as reliability is a function of the context of use and can be affected by small changes in design/manufacturing.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Systems of any significant complexity are developed by organizations of people, such as a commercial company or a government agency. The reliability engineering organization must be consistent with the company's organizational structure. For small, non-critical systems, reliability engineering may be informal. As complexity grows, the need arises for a formal reliability function. Because reliability is important to the customer, the customer may even specify certain aspects of the reliability organization.


title: Reliability engineering

text: There are several common types of reliability organizations. The project manager or chief engineer may employ one or more reliability engineers directly. In larger organizations, there is usually a product assurance or specialty engineering organization, which may include reliability, maintainability, quality, safety, human factors, logistics, etc. In such case, the reliability engineer reports to the product assurance manager or specialty engineering manager.


title: Reliability engineering

text: In some cases, a company may wish to establish an independent reliability organization. This is desirable to ensure that the system reliability, which is often expensive and time-consuming, is not unduly slighted due to budget and schedule pressures. In such cases, the reliability engineer works for the project day-to-day, but is actually employed and paid by a separate organization within the company.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Because reliability engineering is critical to early system design, it has become common for reliability engineers, however, the organization is structured, to work as part of an integrated product team.


title: Reliability engineering

text: Some universities offer graduate degrees in reliability engineering. Other reliability professionals typically have a physics degree from a university or college program. Many engineering programs offer reliability courses, and some universities have entire reliability engineering programs. A reliability engineer must be registered as a professional engineer by the state or province by law, but not all reliability professionals are engineers. Reliability engineers are required in systems where public safety is at risk. There are many professional conferences and industry training programs available for reliability engineers. Several professional organizations exist for reliability engineers, including the American Society for Quality Reliability Division (ASQ-RD), the IEEE Reliability Society, the American Society for Quality (ASQ), and the Society of Reliability Engineers (SRE).


title: Reliability engineering

text: A group of engineers have provided a list of useful tools for reliability engineering. These include: PTC Windchill software, RAM Commander software, RelCalc software, Military Handbook 217 (Mil-HDBK-217), 217Plus and the NAVMAT P-4855-1A manual. Analyzing failures and successes coupled with a quality standards process also provides systemized information to making informed engineering designs.


title: Reliability engineering

text: http://standards.sae.org/ja1000/1_199903/ SAE JA1000/1 Reliability Program Standard Implementation Guide


title: Reliability engineering

text: In the UK, there are more up to date standards maintained under the sponsorship of UK MOD as Defence Standards. The relevant Standards include:


title: Reliability engineering

text: These can be obtained from DSTAN. There are also many commercial standards, produced by many organisations including the SAE, MSG, ARP, and IEE.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja (; ) is Azerbaijan's third largest city, with a population of around 335,600. The city has been a historic and cultural center throughout most of its existence. It was the capital of the Ganja Khanate until 1804; after Qajar Iran ceded it to the Russian Empire following the Treaty of Gulistan in 1813, it became part of the administrative divisions of the Georgia Governorate, Georgia-Imeretia Governorate, Tiflis Governorate, and Elizavetpol Governorate. Following the dissolution of the Russian Empire and the Transcaucasian Democratic Federative Republic, it became a part of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, followed by Azerbaijan SSR, and, since 1991, the Republic of Azerbaijan.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The name Ganja derives from the Persian word "ganj" ("treasure"; "treasury", Middle Persian "ganza"). The city was renamed "Yelisavetpol" () during the Russian Empire period. After its incorporation into the Soviet Union it was initially renamed back to Ganja ("Gyandzha"), but in 1935 the name was changed again to "Kirovabad" (), a name which the city retained throughout most of the rest of the Soviet period. In 1989, during perestroika, the city regained its original name of Ganja (), which is known as "Gyandzha" (, ), "Gandzak" (), and "Ganjeh" () in Russian, Armenian and Persian, respectively.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: According to medieval Arabic sources, the city of Ganja was founded in 859–60 by Muhammad ibn Khalid ibn Yazid ibn Mazyad, the Arab governor of the region during the reign of the caliph Al-Mutawakkil, and so-called because of a treasure unearthed there. According to the legend, the Arab governor had a dream where a voice told him that there was a treasure hidden under one of the three hills around the area where he camped. The voice told him to unearth it and use the money to found a city. He did so and informed the caliph about the money and the city. Caliph made Muhammad the hereditary governor of the city on the condition that he would give the money he found to the caliph. The foundation of the city by Arabs is confirmed by the medieval Armenian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi, who mentions that the city of Ganja was founded in 846–47 in the canton of Arshakashen by the son of Khazr Patgos, "a furious and merciless man".


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: However, the Persian origin of Ganja's name suggests that there was an older pre-Islamic town there. According to some sources, it changed hands between Persians, Khazars and Arabs even in the 7th century. The area in which Ganja is located was known as "Arran" from the 9th to 12th century; its urban population spoke mainly in the Persian language.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Historically an important city of the South Caucasus, Ganja has been part of the Sassanid Empire, Great Seljuk Empire, Kingdom of Georgia, Atabegs of Azerbaijan, Khwarezmid Empire, Il-Khans, Timurids, Qara Qoyunlu, Ak Koyunlu, the Safavid, the Afsharid, the Zand and the Qajar empires of Persia/Iran. Prior to the Iranian Zand and Qajar rule, following Nader Shah's death, it was ruled locally for a few decades by the khans/dukes of the Ganja Khanate, who themselves were subordinate to the central rule in mainland Iran and were a branch of the Iranian Qajar family. Ganja is also the birthplace of the famous Persian poet Nizami Ganjavi.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The people of Ganja experienced a temporary cultural decline after an earthquake in 1139, when the city was taken by king Demetrius I of Georgia and its gates taken as trophies which is still kept in Georgia, and again after the Mongol invasion in 1231. The city was revived after the Safavids came to power in 1501, and incorporated all of Azerbaijan and beyond into their territories. The city came under brief occupation by the Ottomans between 1578–1606 and 1723–1735 during the prolonged Ottoman-Persian Wars, but nevertheless stayed under intermittent Iranian suzerainty from the earliest 16th century up to the course of the 19th century, when it was forcefully ceded to neighbouring Imperial Russia.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: For a short period, Ganja was renamed Abbasabad by Shah Abbas after war against the Ottomans. He built a new city to the southwest of the old one, but the name changed back to Ganja during the time. During the Safavid rule, it was the capital of the Karabakh province. In 1747, Ganja became the center of the Ganja Khanate for a few decades following the death of Nader Shah, until the advent of the Iranian Zand and Qajar dynasties. The khans/dukes who de facto self-ruled the khanate, were subordinate to the central rule in mainland Iran and were from a branch of the Iranian Qajar family.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: From the late 18th century, Russia actively started to increase its enroachments into Iranian and Turkish territory to the south. Following the annexation of eastern Georgia in 1801, Russia was now keen to conquer the rest of the Iranian possessions in the Caucasus. Russian expansion into the South Caucasus met particularly strong opposition in Ganja. In 1804, the Russians, led by General Pavel Tsitsianov, invaded and sacked Ganja, sparking the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813. Some western sources assert that "the capture of the city was followed by a massacre of up to 3,000 inhabitants of Ganja by the Russians". They also claim that "500 of them were slaughtered in a mosque where they had taken refuge, after an Armenian apprised the Russians that there might have been 'Daghestani robbers' among them".


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: With their military superiority, the Russians were victorious in the Russo-Persian War of 1804–1813. By the Treaty of Gulistan that followed, Iran was forced to cede the Ganja Khanate to Russia. The Iranians briefly managed to oust the Russians from Ganja during the 1826 offensive during the Russo-Persian War of 1826–1828, but the resulting Treaty of Turkmenchay made its inclusion into the Russian Empire permanent. It was renamed "Yelizavetpol" (Елизаветполь) after the wife of Alexander I of Russia, Elizabeth, and in 1840 became the capital of the Elizavetpol uezd and later in 1868, the Elizavetpol Governorate. The Russian name of the city was rejected by the local Azerbaijanis who continued call it "Ganja".


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja—known then as Yelisavetpol—was one of the main sites of the Armenian–Tatar massacres of 1905–07. In 1918, Ganja became the temporary capital of the Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, at which point it was renamed Ganja again, until Baku was recaptured from the British-backed Centrocaspian Dictatorship. In April 1920, the Red Army occupied Azerbaijan. In May 1920, Ganja was the scene of an abortive anti-Soviet rebellion, during which the city was heavily damaged by fighting between the insurgents and the Red Army. In 1935, Joseph Stalin renamed the city Kirovabad after Sergei Kirov. In 1991, Azerbaijan re-established its independence, and the ancient name of the city was given back. For many years the 104th Guards Airborne Division of the Soviet Airborne Troops was based in the town.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Reconstruction in the 21st century has led to dramatic changes in the city's urban development, transforming the old Soviet city into a hub of high-rise, mixed-use buildings.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: In 2008, Ganja Mausoleum Gates were built on the basis of sketches of ancient Ganja gates made by local master Ibrahim Osmanoğlu in 1063.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: In 2020, during the Nagorno-Karabakh conflict, Ganja came under bombardment by Armenian armed forces several times, killing 32 civilians and injuring dozens more. On 11 October, a residential apartment block in Azerbaijan's city of Ganja was destroyed overnight in an Armenian missile strike, killing 10 civilians and wounding 34 others. The Armenian MoD denied that this came from its territory, while Artsakh stated that Armenian forces had targeted and destroyed the Ganja military airbase on Ganja International Airport, which they alleged was used to bombard Artsakh's capital Stepanakert and also stated that the Azerbaijani population were given warning to move away from military facilities to avoid collateral damage. Subsequently, both a correspondent reporting from the scene for a Russian media outlet and the airport director denied that the airport, which was not operational since March due to the COVID-19 pandemic, had been shelled. On 17 October, 21 civilians were killed and more than 50 injured when an Armenian SCUD B ballistic missile hit a residential area in Ganja.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja, located 400–450 meters (1312 to 1476 ft) above the sea level, lies on the Ganja-Dashkasan plain in the Kur-Araz lowland in the west of Azerbaijan, 375 km (33 mi) away from Baku. It is situated at the north-eastern foothills of the Lesser Caucasus mountain ranges on the Ganjachay river.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The city borders on the administrative rayons of Goygol to the south, west and north-west and Samukh to the north-east.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Today, Ganja is divided into 2 "rayons" (administrative districts). The mayor, presently Niyazi Bayramov embodies the executive power of the city. Ganja includes 6 administrative settlements, namely Hajikend, Javadkhan, Shixzamanli, Natavan, Mahsati and Sadilli.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Kapaz District () was established on 21 November 1980 according to the decision of Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR. The district consists of 2 administrative territorial units and 6 administrative settlements. It has an area of approximately 70 square kilometers (27 sq mi) with the population of 178,000.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Nizami District () was also established on 21 November 1980 according to the decision of Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan SSR as Ganja raion of Kirovabad city. When Ganja's historic name was restored and the city was renamed as Ganja instead of Kirovabad in 1989, the district was also renamed as Nizami rayon. The district consists of 2 administrative territorial units. The area of the district is roughly 39 square kilometers (15 sq mi) and population is 148,000.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja is the third largest city of Azerbaijan after Baku and Sumqayit with about 335,600 residents. The city is also inhabited by a large number of Azerbaijani refugees from Armenia and IDPs from the Azerbaijani community of Nagorno-Karabakh and surrounding areas. Their number was estimated to be more than 33,000 in 2011.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: In addition to Persian and Turkic-speaking Muslims, the city had a numerically, economically and culturally significant Christian Armenian community. The city's traditional Armenian name is Gandzak (Գանձակ), which derives from "gandz" (գանձ), a loan word from Old Iranian, which means treasure or riches. The founder of the Hethumid dynasty, Oshin of Lampron was an Armenian nakharar and lord of a castle near Ganja who fled to Cilicia in 1075 during the Seljuk invasion of Armenia.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The urban landscape of Ganja is shaped by many communities. Religious diversity has however greatly decreased over the last decades, with the emigration of most Armenians, Slavs, Jews and Germans. The religion with the largest community of followers by far is Islam. The majority of the Muslims are Shia Muslims, and the Republic of Azerbaijan has the second-highest Shia population percentage in the world after Iran. The city's notable mosques include Shah Abbas Mosque, Goy Imam Mosque, Shahsevenler Mosque, Qirikhli Mosque and Qazakhlar Mosque.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: There are some other faiths practiced among the different ethnic groups within the country. The other faith worshipping places include Alexander Nevsky Church, German Lutheran Church, Saint John Church and Saint Sarkis Church. Before the Kirovabad pogrom in 1988 a significant community of Armenian Christians existed.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: According to the State Statistics Committee, as of 2018, the population of city recorded 332,600 persons, which increased by 31,900 persons (about 10.6 percent) from 300,700 persons in 2000. 162,300 of total population are men, 170,300 are women. More than 26 percent of the population (about 86,500 persons) consists of young people and teenagers aged 14–29.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The economy of Ganja is partially agricultural, partially tourist based, with some industries in operation. Ore minerals extracted from nearby mines supply Ganja's metallurgical industries, which produces copper and alumina. There are porcelain, silk and footwear industries. Other industries process food, grapes and cotton from the surrounding farmlands.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The city has one of the largest textile conglomerates in Azerbaijan and is famous for a fabric named "Ganja silk", which received the highest marks in the markets of neighboring countries and the Middle East.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: People are mainly employed in manufacturing, education, transportation, service sectors and catering. Det.Al-Aluminium is the largest employer operating in Ganja, followed by Ganja Auto Plant and Ganja Winery Plant 2.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Traditional shops, modern shops and malls create a mixture of shopping opportunities in Ganja. Javad Khan Street is the traditional shopping street that is located in the old town. Constructed between 2014 and 2017, Ganja Mall is considered the city's largest mall. Other shopping centers include Khamsa Park, Taghiyev Mall and Aura Park.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja is one of the famous tourist destinations in Azerbaijan with its historic buildings such as Nizami Mausoleum, Ancient gates, Juma Mosque, Imamzadeh, Tomb of Javad Khan, Chokak Hamam, Shah Abbas Caravanserai and Ugurlu Bay Caravanserai.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Other tourist and entertainment spots include Javad khan street, Triumphal Arch near Heydar Aliyev Center, the Bottle House, Flag square, Hajikend resort zone. Goygol National Park with the sceneries of lake Goygol, lake Maralgol, Mount Kapaz and Mount Murov are located near Ganja.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: In 2016, Ganja was selected as the European Youth Capital by the final decision of international jury at the General Assembly of the European Youth Forum. Ganja became the first city to win the title of European Youth Capital among the former Commonwealth Independent States (CIS) and non-EU cities. It was an event with a budget of 5.7 million euros, projected to boost tourism by about one-fifth.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja State History-Ethnography Museum is the oldest museum in the city, with over 30,000 artifacts. The city is also home to Nizami Ganjavi Museum, which was built in 2014. The museum contains a research section, a library, a conference room, and corners for guests and tourists' relaxation.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Other museums include Heydar Aliyev Museum, House Museum of Mir Jalal Pashayev, Memorial House-Museum of Nizami Ganjavi, Memorial-House Museum of İsrafil Mammadov, Ganja branch of Museum of Miniature Books, "Ganja Castle Gates – Archaeology and Ethnography Museum" monument complex, Cultural Center named after Mahsati Ganjavi, Museum of Modern Art and Museum of Mirza Shafi Vazeh.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja State Art Gallery was established in April 1984 according to the decision of Council of Ministers of Azerbaijan SSR. The Gallery is headed by the carpet-artist Faig Osmanov.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja is primarily known for its Azerbaijani and Islamic architecture, but its buildings reflect the various peoples and empires that have previously ruled the city. During the Ganja Khanate period, the Khans proceeded to make an indelible impression on the skyline of Ganja, building towering mosques and houses from red bricks.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Among the oldest surviving examples of Islamic architecture in Ganja are the Nizami Mausoleum and Shah Abbas Caravanserai, which assisted the Shahs during their siege of the city. The area around and inside the mosques, contains many fine examples of traditional architecture like Chokak Bath.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The Ganja State Philharmonic was established in August 1990 according to the decision of the Ministry of Culture of the Azerbaijan SSR. On 21 January 2012, president Ilham Aliyev laid the foundation of the Ganja State Philharmonic. The facility includes a 1,200 concert hall, an open-air cinema theatre, a drawing gallery, an urban center and an observation tower. The new building of the Philharmonic Hall was put into use in 2017. The Goygol State Song and Dance Ensemble, the Orchestra of Folk Instruments and the Ganja State Chamber Orchestra operate under the Ganja State Philharmonic.Two regional channels, Kapaz TV and Alternativ TV, are headquartered in Ganja. Two newspapers are published in Ganja ("Gəncənin səsi" and "Novosti Qyandji").


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The building of the Ganja State Drama Theater was built by the German entrepreneur Christofor Forer in the 1880s. Ganja Drama Theater was established in 1921 in Baku as "Tənqid-təbliğ" (literally means "Criticism-propaganda"). In 1935 the theater moved to Ganja with its staff and continues its activity here under different names until 1990. The theater has been called the Ganja State Drama Theater since 1990.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja State Puppet Theater was established according to Decree No. 299 of the Council of Ministers of the Azerbaijan SSR in September 1986. Before receiving "state theater" status in 1986, it was functioning as public theater. Ganja Puppet Theater operates in the building of Lutheran church constructed in 1885 by German settlers.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja has many well-maintained parks and gardens, with the Khan's garden being one of the most scenic parks, and one of the city's most known landmarks. It features interesting landscaping, and consists of a wide variety of trees and plants in an open concept.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Other prominent parks and gardens include Heydar Aliyev Park Complex, "Ganja 2016 European Youth Capital Park", "Ganja river" park-boulevard complex, Istiglal Avenue, Fikrat Amirov Park, Fuzuli Park, and Narimanov Park. Heydar Aliyev Park Complex includes an Amphitheater considered for organizing large outdoor events for up to 5000 people.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The city has one professional football team, Kapaz, currently competing in the second-flight of Azerbaijani football, the Azerbaijan First Division. The club has three Azerbaijani league and four cup titles.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: There are Olympic Sports Complex with 2 buildings (put into operation in 2002 and 2006 respectively), Ganja City Stadium with a capacity of 27000 put into use in 1964 and other sporting facilities in Ganja.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: İn September 2017 "Ganja Marathon 2017" was organized involving 11,000 people from different regions of Azerbaijan, as well as foreigners under the slogan "Be with us in the Marathon". The race started from Triumphal Arch and finished at the Heydar Aliyev Park Complex covering a distance of 17 kilometers.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja has a large urban transport system, mostly managed by the Ministry of Transportation. In 2013, Ministry of Transportation stated that the city, along with Nakhchivan and Sumqayit will have a new subway line within the framework of the 20-year subway program. The city had a trolleybus system, functioning from 1955 to 2004.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja International Airport is the only airport in the city. The airport is connected by bus to the city center. There are domestic flights to Baku and international service to Russia and Turkey.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja sits on one of the Azerbaijani primary rail lines running east–west connecting the capital, Baku, with the rest of the country. The Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway runs along the line through the city. The railway provides both human transportation and transport of goods and commodities such as oil and gravel.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja's Central Railway Station is the terminus for national and international rail links to the city. The Baku–Tbilisi–Kars railway, which directly connects Turkey, Georgia and Azerbaijan, began to be constructed in 2007 and completed in 2017. The completed branch connects Ganja with Tbilisi in Georgia, and from there trains continue to Akhalkalaki, and Kars in Turkey.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The first seminary in Azerbaijan aimed at professional training of school teachers was opened in Ganja in 1914 which was united with Girls Seminary in 1927 and renamed as Ganja Pedagogical Technical School ().


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: Ganja is home to four major institutes for post-secondary education. Ganja State University was founded as Ganja Teachers Institute after Hasan bey Zardabi in 1939. In 2000, the President of Azerbaijan renamed the institute to Ganja State University. The university includes 8 faculty departments and 10 offices. The city also includes Azerbaijan State Agricultural University, Azerbaijan Technological University and a local branch of the Azerbaijan Teachers' Institute.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: There are also schools offering secondary specialized education like Ganja Music College, Ganja Medicine College, Ganja State Regional Collage (established by combining Ganja Humanitarian Collage and Ganja Technical College in 2010).


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: There are a total of 7 schools offering vocational education in Ganja, being located as 3 vocational lyceums and a vocational school in Kapaz raion, a vocational lyceum and 2 vocational schools in Nizami raion.


title: Ganja, Azerbaijan

text: The city's notable residents include: poet Nizami Ganjavi, scientist Firuddin Babayev, Olympic champion Toghrul Asgarov, ruler of Ganja Khanate Javad Khan, poets Mirza Shafi Vazeh, Mahsati Ganjavi, Nigar Rafibeyli, writer Ibn Khosrov al-Ustad, composer Fikrat Amirov, historian Farid Alakbarli, major political figure Nasib Yusifbeyli, deputy speaker of Azerbaijan Democratic Republic, Hasan bey Aghayev, geologist Mirali Qashqai, prime minister of Azerbaijan Artur Rasizade, chess player Faiq Hasanov and footballer Mahmud Qurbanov. There were also several notable Armenian residents of Ganja, including Mkhitar Gosh, Kirakos Gandzaketsi, Vardan Areveltsi, Grigor Paron-Ter, Karo Halabyan, Askanaz Mravyan and Albert Azaryan.


title: Matt Salinger

text: Matthew Douglas Salinger (; born February 13, 1960) is an American actor. He is known for his appearances in the films "Revenge of the Nerds" and "Captain America".


title: Matt Salinger

text: Salinger was born February 13, 1960, in Windsor, Vermont, the son of author J. D. Salinger and psychologist Alison Claire Douglas. Salinger's maternal grandfather was British art critic Robert Langton Douglas. He has a sister, Margaret Salinger. His father was of paternal Lithuanian-Jewish descent.


title: Matt Salinger

text: Salinger graduated from Phillips Academy Andover and attended Princeton University before graduating from Columbia University with a degree in art history and drama.


title: Matt Salinger

text: Salinger made his film debut in 1984's "Revenge of the Nerds". He played Captain America in the 1990 film "Captain America".


title: Matt Salinger

text: Salinger subsequently appeared in films including "What Dreams May Come" and episodes of "" and "24".


title: Matt Salinger

text: Salinger has produced several independent films, including "Let the Devil Wear Black" and "Mojave Moon".


title: Matt Salinger

text: Salinger made his Broadway debut in 1985, in Bill C. Davis' short-lived "Dancing in the End Zone," performing at the Ritz Theater alongside veteran actresses Pat Carroll and Dorothy Lyman. In 2000, he produced the off-Broadway play "The Syringa Tree", which won a Drama Desk Award, the Drama League Award, the Outer Critic's Circle Award, and the Village Voice Obie Award for Best Play of the Year in 2001.


title: Matt Salinger

text: J. D. Salinger continued to write throughout his life, although he did not publish any works after 1965. His widow, Colleen O'Neill, and Matt Salinger prepared this work for publication after his death, announcing in 2019 that "all of what he wrote will at some point be shared", but that it was a big job and not yet ready.


title: Matt Salinger

text: Salinger married jewelry designer Betsy Jane Becker in 1985. They live in Fairfield County, Connecticut, and have sons Gannon and Avery.


title: Matt Salinger

text: In contrast to his sister, Margaret, who wrote a 1999 memoir about her childhood titled "Dream Catcher", Salinger is a devoted protector of his father's privacy. A few weeks after Margaret's book was published, Salinger wrote a letter to "The New York Observer," disparaging his sister's "gothic tales of our supposed childhood."


title: Ron Cook

text: Ronald G. Cook (born 1948) is an English actor. He has been active in film, television and theatre since the 1970s.


title: Ron Cook

text: Cook was born in 1948 in South Shields, County Durham, England, the son of a school cook and a car worker. When he was six his family moved to Coventry; he went to Wyken Croft Junior School and then Caludon Castle School and is a graduate of Rose Bruford College.


title: Ron Cook

text: On stage, he appeared in the original 1988 production of Timberlake Wertenbaker's play "Our Country's Good". He was nominated for a Laurence Olivier Award in the category of Best Supporting Actor in 2000 for his role in "Juno and the Paycock" at the Donmar Warehouse. He also appeared in a new play by Conor McPherson, "The Seafarer", at the Royal National Theatre. In 2008–2009, he took part in the Donmar's West End season at Wyndham's Theatre, playing Sir Toby Belch in "Twelfth Night" and Polonius in "Hamlet". In 2011, he played The Fool in "King Lear" starring Derek Jacobi at the Donmar and on an 8-week tour. In 2013, Cook played the part of Pistol in Michael Grandage's "Henry V" (with Jude Law in the title role). From November 2015 to February 2016 he played Max in "The Homecoming" at Trafalgar Studios and later appeared at the Donmar Warehouse as Teddy in Brian Friel's "Faith Healer" to great critical acclaim from June to August 2016. From November 2016 to January 2017, Cook appeared in Lucy Kirkwood's new play "The Children" at The Royal Court Theatre with Francesca Annis and Deborah Findlay. In July 2017, he appeared as Dr Walker at The Old Vic in "Girl from the North Country" written and directed by Conor McPherson and based on the music and lyrics of Bob Dylan.


title: Ron Cook

text: He has performed in a large number of television productions, including guest roles in episodes of series such as "The Black Adder" where he played "Sean the Irish bastard" (1983) and "Bergerac" (1988), "Sharpe" (1994) and "Doctor Who", "The Idiot's Lantern" (2006). He has also had major roles in more highbrow one-off productions and serials, including several instalments of the BBC's "The Complete Dramatic Works of William Shakespeare" (1982–83), notably as Richard, Duke of Gloucester, later Richard III of England in Jane Howell's repertory treatment of the Henry VI plays and Richard III. He appeared as one of the unnamed "mysterious men" haunting the imagination of Michael Gambon's hospitalised writer in Dennis Potter's acclaimed 1986 serial "The Singing Detective", Jack Rosenthal British television play "Day To Remember" and has featured in several costume dramas, including Stephen Poliakoff's "The Lost Prince" (2002, as David Lloyd George), an adaptation of "The Hound of the Baskervilles" (2002, as Barrymore), a TV adaptation of "The Other Boleyn Girl", (2003 as Thomas Cromwell), Anthony Trollope's adaptation "He Knew He Was Right" (2004, as Bozzel), and Russell T. Davies's "Casanova" (2005, as the prisoner in the cell next to Casanova's). In 2003, he played the part of Doughty, Admiral Pellew's and later Hornblower's steward in the "Hornblower" episode, "Duty". In 2006, Cook appeared as Kenneth Williams' agent Peter Eade in the BBC biopic "", also in 2006 he played the role of Mr Magpie in the Doctor Who episode "The Idiot's Lantern".


title: Ron Cook

text: In 2003, he was honoured to be asked to portray his lifelong hero, Victorian engineer Isambard Kingdom Brunel in the BBC's "Seven Wonders of the Industrial World". In 2008, he played Mr Chivery in the TV serial "Little Dorrit", based on the novel by Charles Dickens. He has also appeared in the children's TV series "Summerhill", as an inspector. He played the role of an orthodox Jewish rabbi (Noach Marowski) in a 2008 edition of "Silent Witness". He played the role of Hermann van Daan in the 2009 BBC drama, "The Diary of Anne Frank", as well as the part of David Cockram in the ITV drama "Whatever It Takes", aired in the same year. In late 2012 Cook played the role of Peter in the ITV series "Mrs Biggs", a retired train driver, Ronnie Biggs befriends, employed by the gang to drive the hijacked train away during the Great Train Robbery. Cook played the company accountant, Mr Arthur Crabb, in the ITV series "Mr Selfridge" (2013 to 2016). In 2018 he portrayed a police chief in the BBC drama "The City And The City". In 2019 he played television producer Bill Calder in "Death in Paradise" S8:E3, and later portrayed Borch Three Jackdaws in Netflix's "The Witcher". In 2020 he played Stan Sturgess in the three-part fact-based BBC drama "The Salisbury Poisonings," which portrays the 2018 Novichok poisoning crisis in Salisbury, England. Cook played the father of Dawn Sturgess who was the only fatality in the crisis. In 2022, Cook played the role of the ‘Wise Owl’ and its voice actor Wilf in the show “Inside No.9” in the episode “Wise Owl”.


title: Ron Cook

text: He has played Napoleon Bonaparte twice, in his 1994 guest appearance in "Sharpe" and again in the 2000 feature film "Quills". Other film roles have included parts in "The Cook, the Thief, His Wife & Her Lover" (1989, as Mews), "Secrets & Lies" (1996), "The Odyssey" (1997, as Eurybates), "Topsy-Turvy" (1999, as Richard D'Oyly Carte), "Chocolat" (2000), "Charlotte Gray" (2001), "24 Hour Party People" (2002, as Derek Ryder), "Thunderbirds" (2004, as Parker), "102 Dalmatians", "Hot Fuzz" (2007, as George Merchant) and "The King's Man" (2021, as Archduke Franz Ferdinand). Cook also appeared in "Feeling Good", a short film written by Dexter Fletcher and directed by Dalia Ibelhauptaite.


title: Ron Cook

text: Cook has also acted in radio drama. In 2007 he played the part of confidence trickster Captain Wragge in a BBC Radio 4 adaption of the Wilkie Collins novel "No Name". In July 2007, he played the part of Kris Kelvin, the protagonist psychologist on the BBC Radio 4 adaptation of "Solaris", Stanislaw Lem's novel. In December 2014, he played Jacob Marley in Neil Brand's BBC Radio 4 adaptation of "A Christmas Carol".


title: Tony Hart

text: Norman Antony Hart (15 October 1925 – 18 January 2009), known professionally as Tony Hart, was an English artist best known for his work in educating children in art through his role as a children's television presenter.


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart initially worked as an officer in a Gurkha regiment until the start of Indian independence. After this he became involved in children's television from the 1950s, working on the BBC's "Blue Peter" for a few years before fronting a series of children's art programmes, including "Vision On", "Take Hart" and "Hartbeat".


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart's contributions to children's television include the design of the ship logo used by "Blue Peter" and the show's badges, and the animated character of Morph, who appeared beside him on his programmes following his introduction in the 1970s.


title: Tony Hart

text: Tony Hart was born in Hastings Road, Maidstone in Kent. He was interested in drawing from an early age. He attended All Saints, Margaret Street Resident Choir School and then Clayesmore School in Iwerne Minster, Dorset, where art was his best subject.


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart left school in 1943 and wanted to join the Royal Air Force, but as he would have been unable to fly owing to slightly deficient eyesight, he followed in his father’s footsteps and joined the British Indian Army instead where he gained an officers' commission in the 1st Gurkha Rifles. However, when he was told that lower-ranked British officers would be replaced by Indian officers following Indian independence, he decided to return to civilian life. The outbreak of the Korean War (25 June 1950) saw him being re-commissioned in the Territorial Army, attached to the Royal Artillery, from 23 November 1948 to 1 July 1950.


title: Tony Hart

text: After being demobilised, Hart decided to become a professional artist and studied at Maidstone College of Art, which later became Kent Institute of Art & Design (and is now the Maidstone campus of the University for the Creative Arts). He graduated in 1950 and, after working as a display artist in a London store, became a freelance artist.


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart's break into broadcast television came in 1952, after his brother persuaded him to attend a party where he met a BBC children's television producer. After an interview in which Hart drew a fish on a napkin while the producer was looking for paper, Hart became resident artist on the "Saturday Special" programme. Subsequent television shows included "Playbox" (1954–59), "Tich and Quackers" (1963-), "Vision On" (1964–76), "Take Hart" (1977–83), "Hartbeat" (1984–93), "Artbox Bunch" (1995–96) and "Smart Hart" (1999–2000). From the 1970s, he often appeared alongside the animated Plasticine stop-motion character Morph, created by Peter Lord of Aardman Animations.


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart was a regular face on the BBC children's programme "Blue Peter" in the 1950s and presented a number of programmes in 1959. Richard Marson's book "Blue Peter: Inside the Archives" lists Hart as a presenter in November 1959 but he is not officially listed as a host. As well as demonstrating small-scale projects (the type that viewers might be able to do) Hart also created large-scale artworks on the television studio floor, and even used beaches and other open spaces as 'canvases'.


title: Tony Hart

text: A regular feature of Hart's programmes was The Gallery, which displayed artworks (paintings, drawings and collages) sent in by young viewers. One of the pieces of easy-listening vibraphone music accompanying this feature—"Left Bank Two", composed by Wayne Hill and performed by The Noveltones—has passed into British TV theme lore. This was first introduced in the show "Vision On".


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart also created the original design for the "Blue Peter" badge, also used as the programme's logo. He originally asked for his fee to be paid as a royalty of 1d (one pre-decimalisation penny) for each badge made, but was offered a flat fee of £100 (equivalent to around £3,061.58 at January 2020 rates). The badges are famous throughout the United Kingdom and have been coveted by successive generations of "Blue Peter" viewers. The ink and watercolour galleon, believed to be the inspiration for the Blue Peter logo and badge, was originally drawn by Hart for "Hooray for Humpty-Dumpty" on "Saturday Special", in 1952.


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart received two BAFTA awards. His first, for Best Children's Educational Programme, came in 1984 for "Take Hart", and he was given a Lifetime Achievement Award in 1998. He retired from regular TV work in 2001.


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart met his wife, Jean Skingle, while working in television; they married in 1953. They were married for fifty years until she died in 2003. They had a daughter, Carolyn, and two grandchildren.


title: Tony Hart

text: On 28 December 2006, it was announced during the reunion programme "It Started with Swap Shop" that Hart was in poor health, though this was not elaborated upon until an interview with "The Times" published on 30 September 2008, revealing that two strokes had robbed him of the use of his hands and left him unable to draw. He described this as "the greatest cross I have to bear". Hart died peacefully on 18 January 2009 at the age of 83.


title: Tony Hart

text: Hart's funeral took place in the village of Shamley Green, where he had lived for more than forty years and he was buried in the churchyard of Christ Church.


title: Tony Hart

text: On 1 March 2009 a flash mob, organised through Facebook, paid tribute to Hart with around two hundred Morph figures displayed outside the Tate Modern art gallery. Hart's daughter, Carolyn Ross, attended and judged the "Best Morph in Show".


title: Tony Hart

text: A memorial plaque is displayed in Hart's birthplace, the town of Maidstone, where he studied art at the town's art college. The plaque was unveiled by his daughter in May 2009 at the Hazlitt Arts Centre.


title: Tony Hart

text: In September 2010 "Tony Hart: A Portrait of My Dad", an affectionate biography of Hart by his daughter Carolyn, was published by John Blake Publishing.


title: Tony Hart

text: In February 2015 a wave of tributes (followed by corrections) appeared on social media sites over a period of two days, when an individual mistakenly read a 2009 report of Hart's death and, missing the dateline, published it as news on Facebook, from which it was later transferred to Twitter. Many social media posters hyperlinked to an article in "The Guardian". The newspaper published a graph of the number of readers referred to its article for the period. Aardman Animations used its Twitter account, in the name of Morph, to point to a tribute to Hart (a portrait of him being hung on a wall) that was included in the last episode of its forthcoming new set of episodes for the "Morph" television series.


title: Tony Hart

text: In August 2021, a mural at Maidstone bus station was created, featuring Tony Hart and his sidekick Morph.


title: Tony Hart

text: In January 2021, 12 years after his death, it was announced that Hart's drawings of a galleon for the 1952 "Humpty Dumpty" story, that paved the way for the famous "Blue Peter" logo, together with copies of original 1950s designs for the emblem were to be auctioned. Consigned from the collection of Hart's close friend and agent Roc Renals (1922-2014), the sale was expected to raise close to £20,000. The 65-lot auction took place on 29 January.


title: Fijian language

text: Fijian ("") is an Austronesian language of the Malayo-Polynesian family spoken by some 350,000–450,000 ethnic Fijians as a native language. The 2013 Constitution established Fijian as an official language of Fiji, along with English and Fiji Hindi and there is discussion about establishing it as the "national language". Fijian is a VOS language.


title: Fijian language

text: A pidginized form is used by many Indo-Fijians and Chinese on the islands, while Pidgin Hindustani is used by many rural ethnic Fijians and Chinese in areas dominated by Indo-Fijians.


title: Fijian language

text: The consonant written has been described as a prenasalized trill or trilled affricate . However, it is only rarely pronounced with a trilled release; the primary feature distinguishing it from is that it is postalveolar, , rather than dental/alveolar.


title: Fijian language

text: The sounds and occur only in loanwords from other languages. The sounds and only occur for speakers from certain regions of the country.


title: Fijian language

text: Note the difference in place of articulation between the voiced-voiceless fricative pairs: bilabial vs. labiodental , and dental vs. alveolar .


title: Fijian language

text: Word stress is based on moras: a short vowel is one mora, diphthongs and long vowels are two morae. Primary stress is on the penultimate mora of the phonological word. That is, if the last syllable of a word is short, then the penultimate syllable will be stressed, while if the last syllable contains either a long vowel or a diphthong, then it receives primary stress. Stress is not lexical and can shift when suffixes are attached to the root.


title: Fijian language

text: In the 1980s, scholars compiling a dictionary added several more consonants and a few consonant clusters to the alphabet. These newcomers were necessary to handle words entering Standard Fijian from not only English, but from other Fijian languages or dialects as well. These are the most important additions: z (nj), as in ziza 'ginger' and h (h), as in haya 'hire'.


title: Fijian language

text: Note that for phonological reasons ti and di are pronounced , rather than , (cf. Japanese chi kana, or in standard Brazilian Portuguese). Hence, the Fijian name for Fiji, Viti, from an allophonic pronunciation of as .


title: Fijian language

text: In addition, the digraph dr stands for retroflex , or a prenasalized trill in careful pronunciation, or more commonly for some people and in some dialects.


title: Fijian language

text: The vowel letters a e i o u have roughly their IPA values, . The vowel length contrast is not usually indicated in writing, except in dictionaries and textbooks for learners of the language, where it is indicated by a macron over the vowel in question; Dixon, in the work cited below, doubles all long vowels in his spelling system. Diphthongs are "ai au ei eu oi ou" and "iu," pronounced .


title: Fijian language

text: In order to negate a phrase or clause in Fijian, certain verbs are used to create this distinction. These verbs of negation are known as semi-auxiliary verbs. Semi-auxiliary verbs fulfil the functions of main verbs (in terms of syntactic form and pattern) and have a NP or complement clause as their subject (complements clauses within negation are introduced by relators "ni" (which refers to an event, which is generally a non-specific unit) or "me" (which refers is translated as "should", referring to the event within the complement clause should occur)). Within a complement clause, the semi-auxiliary verb qualifies the predicate.


title: Fijian language

text: One semi-auxiliary verb used to express negation in Fijian is "sega." This semi-auxiliary can be translated as either “there are no-” or “it is not the case that”, depending on the subject it relates to. In terms of numerical expression, "sega" is also used to express the quantity "none". This negator can be used in almost all situations, with the exception of the imperative or in a "me" (classifier) clauses. When "sega" takes a NP as its subject, the meaning “there are no-” is assumed:


title: Fijian language

text: Predicate clauses can also be negated in Fijian with the semi-auxiliary verb "sega". This can only be completed when the predicate is placed into a complement clause. The subject of "sega" must also be "ni", which introduces the complement clause. It is then translated as “it is not the case that (predicate clause)”. An example of this construction is shown here:


title: Fijian language

text: Hence, the only way a verb (which is generally the head of a predicate phrase) can be negated in Fijian is when it forms part of the ["e sega ni" VERB] construction. However, in Fijian the head of a predicate phrase may belong to almost any word class. If another word (e.g. a noun) is used, the structure of negation alters. This distinction can be shown through diverse examples of the negating NPs in Fijian. The below examples show the difference between a noun as the head of a NP and a noun as the head of a predicate in a complement clause, within negation:


title: Fijian language

text: Additionally, "sega" can also work with relator "se" which introduces interrogative clauses. This combination creates a form translatable as "or not":


title: Fijian language

text: Another common negator is "‘ua~waa’ua", which is translatable as “don’t, not”. Differently to "sega," this semi-auxiliary verb is used for imperatives and in "me" clauses. Therefore, these semi-auxiliaries are fixed, and cannot be used interchangeably. "‘Ua" and "waa’ua" semantically have the same meaning, however "waa’ua" may be regarded as having a higher intensity or stronger sense; in most instances either semi-auxiliary verb can be used. "‘Ua~waa’ua" can take a NP as its subject, but most commonly takes the "ni" complement as a subject, which is demonstrated below:


title: Fijian language

text: It is important to note that in the case of pronouns, they can only be negated when they form part of the NP, when acting as the predicate head. Therefore, pronouns cannot be the NP subject of semi-auxiliary verbs "sega" or "‘ua~waa’ua" in the way that general nouns can


title: Fijian language

text: "Sega" and "‘ua~waa’ua" can be combined with other auxiliary verbs to produce diverse constructions. Both "sega" and "‘ua~waa’ua" can connect with semi-auxiliary "rawa" ("can") to negate the concept of possibility which is attached to the verb 'can' (resulting in constructions such as "can't" and "shouldn't").


title: Fijian language

text: Two main modifiers, "soti" ('a lot') and "sara" ('very; (go) right on, immediately’) play key roles in negation in Fijian, and work in conjunction with semi-auxiliary verbs". Soti" is added after negators "sega" and "‘ua~waa’ua", and functions as an intensity marker. The construction "sega soti" is translatable as ‘not a lot of, not very’. The "sega soti" construction requires an adjective (or an adverb which results from an adjective), and must take "ni" (complement clause) as its subject in order to function. "Soti" can be found in position immediately after "sega", but may also be found after the "ni" relator without changing the meaning of the phrase. The primary construction is shown below:


title: Fijian language

text: Similarly, to "soti", the modifier "sara" (‘very; (go) right on, immediately’) can also be used in conjunction with "sega" and "ua~waa’ua". This combination is used to stress the negative sense and aspect of a phrase:


title: Fijian language

text: The pronominal system of Fijian is remarkably rich. Like many other languages, it recognises three persons; first person (speaker),


title: Fijian language

text: second person (addressee), and third person (all other). There is no distinction between human, non-human, animate, or inanimate.


title: Fijian language

text: Four numbers are represented; singular, dual, paucal, and plural—'paucal' refers to more than two people who have some relationship, as a family or work group; if none, 'plural' is used. Like many other Oceanic languages, Fijian pronouns are marked for number and clusivity.


title: Fijian language

text: Each pronoun can have five forms, but some person-number combinations may have the same form for more than one function, as can be seen in the table above.


title: Fijian language

text: Cardinal – used when a pronoun occurs as the head of a NP. A cardinal pronoun is usually preceded by the proper article "o", except when preceded by a preposition:


title: Fijian language

text: Subject – the first constituent of a predicate, acts as person marking. Examples can be seen in examples (1) and (2) above: "era" and "au", and (3) below: "o"


title: Fijian language

text: The major clausal structure in Fijian minimally includes a predicate, which usually has a verb at its head. The initial element in the predicate is the subject form pronoun:


title: Fijian language

text: This 'subject marker + verb' predicate construction is obligatory, every other constituent is optional. The subject may be expanded upon by an NP following the predicate:


title: Fijian language

text: Fijian is a verb–object–subject language, and the subject pronoun may be translated as its equivalent in English, the subject NP of a clause in Fijian follows the verb and the object if it is included.


title: Fijian language

text: The social use of pronouns is largely driven by respect and hierarchy. Each of the non-singular second person pronouns can be used for a singular addressee. For example, if one's actual or potential in-laws are addressed, the 2DU pronoun should be used. Similarly, when a brother or sister of the opposite sex is addressed, the 2PA pronoun should be used, and it can also be used for same-sex siblings when the speaker wishes to show respect. The 2PL pronoun can be used to show respect to elders, particularly the village chief.


title: Fijian language

text: Possession is a grammatical term for a special relationship between two entities: a "possessor" and a "possessed". The relationship may be one of legal ownership, but in Fijian, like many other Austronesian languages, it is often much broader, encompassing kin relations, body parts, parts of an inanimate whole and personal qualities and concepts such as control, association and belonging.


title: Fijian language

text: Fijian has a complex system of possessive constructions, depending on the nature of the possessor and of the possessed. Choosing the appropriate structure depends on knowing whether the possessor is a personal or place name, a pronoun, or a common noun (with human or non-human, animate or inanimate reference), and also on whether the possessed is a free or bound noun.


title: Fijian language

text: Only an animate noun may be a possessor in the true possessive constructions shown below, with possession marked on the possessed NP in a number of ways. For personal and place name possessors, the possessive construction may be made by affixing the possessive suffix "–i" to the possessed noun, bound or free. If the possessor is a pronoun, the possessed noun must be marked by one of the pronominal markers which specify person, number and inclusivity/exclusivity (see table). If the possessor is inanimate, the possessive particle "ni" is usually placed between the possessed NP and the possessor NP. The particle "ni" then indicates association, rather than formal possession, but the construction is still regarded as a possessive construction.


title: Fijian language

text: Free nouns can stand alone and need no affix; most nouns in Fijian fall into this class. Bound nouns require a suffix to complete them and are written ending in a hyphen to indicate this requirement. "Tama-" (father) and "tina-" (mother) are examples of bound nouns. The classes of free and bound nouns roughly correspond with the concept, common in Austronesian languages, of alienable and inalienable possession, respectively. Alienable possession denotes a relationship in which the thing possessed is not culturally considered an inherent part of the possessor, and inalienable possession indicates a relationship in which the possessed is regarded as an intrinsic part of the possessor.


title: Fijian language

text: Body parts and kin relations are typical examples of inalienable possession. Inanimate objects are typical examples of alienable possession.


title: Fijian language

text: The alienable nature of free nouns is further marked by prefixes, known as classifiers, indicating certain other characteristics. Some common examples are "me-" when the possessed noun is something drinkable, "ke-" (or "‘e") when the noun is something edible and "we-" when the referent of the possessed noun is personal property.


title: Fijian language

text: The word order of a possessive construction for all except inanimate possessors is possessed NP-classifier(CLF) + possessive marker (POSS) + possessor NP.


title: Fijian language

text: Note that there is some degree of flexibility in the use of possessive constructions as described in this table.


title: Fijian language

text: In May and June 2005, a number of prominent Fiji Islanders called for the status of Fijian to be upgraded. It was not an official language before the adoption of the 1997 Constitution, which made it co-official with English and Fiji Hindi. It is still not a compulsory subject in schools, but Education Minister, Ro Teimumu Kepa, has endorsed calls for that to change, as has Great Council of Chiefs Chairman Ratu Ovini Bokini. Similar calls came from Misiwini Qereqeretabua, the Director of the Institute of Fijian Language and Culture, and from Apolonia Tamata, a linguistics lecturer at Suva's University of the South Pacific, both of whom said that recognition of the Fijian language is essential to the nation's basic identity and as a unifying factor in Fiji's multicultural society.


title: Fijian language

text: The Fiji Labour Party leader Mahendra Chaudhry also endorsed the call for Fijian to be made a national language and a compulsory school subject if the same status was given to Fiji Hindi, a position that was echoed by Krishna Vilas of the National Reconciliation Committee.


title: Rat torture

text: Rat torture is the use of rats to torture a victim by encouraging them to attack and eat the victim alive.


title: Rat torture

text: The "Rats Dungeon", or "Dungeon of the Rats", was a feature of the Tower of London alleged by Roman Catholic writers from the Elizabethan era. "A cell below high-water mark and totally dark" would draw in rats from the River Thames as the tide flowed in. Prisoners would have their "alarm excited", and in some instances have "flesh ... torn from the arms and legs".


title: Rat torture

text: During the Dutch Revolt, Diederik Sonoy, an ally of William the Silent, is documented to have used a method where a pottery bowl filled with rats was placed open side down on the naked body of a prisoner. When hot charcoal was piled on the bowl, the rats would "gnaw into the very bowels of the victim" in an attempt to escape the heat.


title: Rat torture

text: Rat torture appears in the famous case study of a patient of Sigmund Freud. The Rat Man obsessed that his father and lady friend would be subjected to this torture.


title: Rat torture

text: Rat torture was used by several South American military dictatorships: in Brazil during the military dictatorship of 1964–1985, in Uruguay during the civic-military dictatorship of 1973–1985, in Chile during the dictatorship of Augusto Pinochet (1973–1990), and in Argentina during the period of the National Reorganization Process (1976–1983). The report of CONADEP in Argentina detailed the use of a torture method known as "the recto-scope" (reserved primarily for Jewish prisoners) which consisted of inserting living rats into a victim's rectum or vagina through a tube. Amnesty International documented the case of a woman tortured by the Chilean CNI (National Information Center, successor to the DINA) in 1981, who described being kept in a room full of live rats during interrogation.


title: Rat torture

text: On October 16, 2010 in Lakewood, New Jersey, David Wax was alleged to have threatened kidnap victim Yisrael Bryskman with rat torture unless he agreed to give his wife a "get" (Jewish divorce document). He was sentenced to seven years imprisonment for assisting in a kidnapping.


title: Rat torture

text: Rats are featured in the Edgar Allan Poe story "The Pit and the Pendulum". The narrator lies on the rack, and can only watch as a scythe swings back and forth, approaching closer each time, as rats swarm over his body. The narrator later manages to make the rats eat through the straps.


title: Rat torture

text: An account similar to the Sonoy torture appears in the 1899 Octave Mirbeau novel "The Torture Garden", and psychologist Leonard Shengold has identified this as the possible source of the story that the Rat Man told Freud. Part of the book, an imaginary dialog between a torturer and a beautiful woman who is sexually excited by the accounts, is set in China.


title: Rat torture

text: The threat of rat torture occurs in "Nineteen Eighty-Four". The central character, Winston Smith, is arrested by the Ministry of Love, and undergoes a process of mental reprogramming. The ministry imprisons him in Room 101 to finalize the reprogramming. Here Winston must face his greatest fear: rats. A cage filled with hungry rats is placed over his head, their only source of food or escape being by eating their way through Winston's face. At this point Winston breaks and begs that the method actually be used on his lover Julia, a sign that he has finally been broken.


title: Rat torture

text: In Bret Easton Ellis's novel "American Psycho", Patrick Bateman inserts a starving rat into a kidnapped woman's vagina through a pipe.


title: Rat torture

text: In the 2003 film "2 Fast 2 Furious", sequel to "The Fast and The Furious", the main antagonist Carter Verone (Cole Hauser) uses rat torture to force a detective to allow his men to conduct their criminal enterprises unimpeded. He places a rat on to the detectives stomach and encapsulates it inside a metal bucket. He then begins to heat the bucket using a blow torch in order to cause the rat stress, prompting it to try to escape. The rat, with no alternative, begins to scratch the detective's stomach as it tries to burrow in order to escape the increasing heat inside the bucket. Once the detective agrees to Verone's demands, the bucket is removed, revealing an array of deep, bloody scratch marks.


title: Rat torture

text: Season 2 of the HBO dark fantasy series "Game of Thrones" from 2012 also uses rat torture by the Tickler on prisoners of Gregor Clegane in Harrenhal.


title: Rat torture

text: In the film "The Batman", the Riddler livestreams himself killing crooked Commissioner Pete Savage by strapping a device to Savage's head that forced rats from a maze to burrow their way into his face.


title: Rocky Lockridge

text: Rick "Rocky" Lockridge (January 10, 1959 – February 7, 2019) was an American professional boxer. He is perhaps best known for having handed Roger Mayweather his first defeat—a first-round knockout in just 98 seconds—earning him the WBA and lineal super featherweight titles. He later won the IBF super featherweight title. He is also known from his 2010 appearance on the A&E television series "Intervention".


title: Rocky Lockridge

text: Rocky Lockridge was born on January 10, 1959 in Tacoma, Washington. After relocating to Paterson, New Jersey at 19 years old in 1978, he made his debut fight in the professional ring on August 9, defeating Tony Reed by TKO. On September 18, 1979, he defeated Gerald Hayes via unanimous decision to win the New Jersey State Featherweight Championship, and on February 19, 1980, he won by TKO against Fel Clemente to win the USA Featherweight Champion title.


title: Rocky Lockridge

text: On October 4, 1980, he fought for the WBA World Featherweight title against Eusebio Pedroza, losing by a majority decision; this defeat was Lockridge's first in the professional ring. On April 6, 1981, he retained the New Jersey featherweight title by defeating Ernesto Gonzalez by unanimous decision. On August 22, 1981, in a fight for the US featherweight title, he was knocked out by Juan Laporte. On April 24, 1983, he met Pedroza again in the fight for the WBA featherweight title, losing by unanimous decision.


title: Rocky Lockridge

text: On February 26, 1984, he knocked out the undefeated Roger Mayweather in round one and won the WBA junior-lightweight world championship. After defeating Mayweather, Lockridge and his wife Carolyn moved to Mount Laurel, New Jersey, where they gave birth to twin sons Ricky and Lamar on August 23, 1984. Lockridge made two successful title defenses: on June 12, 1984, he won by TKO in round eleven against Tae Jin Moon, and on January 27, 1985, he won by TKO in round six against Kamel Bou-Ali, a future WBO world junior-lightweight champion himself. However, on May 15 of the same year, he lost the title by majority decision to Wilfredo Gómez.


title: Rocky Lockridge

text: On August 3, 1986, he lost by majority decision in the fight for the WBC world junior-lightweight title to the undefeated Julio César Chávez. On August 9, 1987, Lockridge defeated Barry Michael after Michael refused to continue the fight after the 8th round and won the IBF world junior-lightweight championship. On October 25, 1987, he defeated Johnny de la Rosa and defended the title, and on April 2, 1988, by unanimous decision, he defeated Harold Knight and again defended his title. On July 23, 1988, he lost by unanimous decision to Tony Lopez and lost his title to the Mexican-American. On March 5, 1989, a rematch took place between Lopez and Lockridge, which ended in the same way as the first fight. After the second defeat to Lopez, Lockridge retired following a victory against Mike Zena in 1989.


title: Rocky Lockridge

text: Lockridge returned with his family to Tacoma in 1991 – 18 months following his retirement from boxing – and he and Carolyn separated shortly thereafter due to financial stress and Rocky's drug addiction. 30 months after his original retirement, Lockridge attempted a comeback under new management in Washington, but both his fights in this period ended in losses. In 1993, Lockridge moved to Camden, New Jersey alone, and he began working as a cleaner and painter for a drum and barrel company in January 1994. Shortly after, he was arrested for burglary and sentenced to five years probation. Three years later, he was arrested on a similar charge and served 27 months in prison before being released in July 1999. Lockridge spent the following years in homelessness, living on a monthly $140 and food stamps provided by the government, as well as pocket change from panhandling. He suffered a stroke in 2006, requiring him to use a cane.


title: Rocky Lockridge

text: Lockridge was eventually brought by his family onto the A&E television series "Intervention" in 2010. A scene from the episode, in which an emotional Lockridge loudly wails, became an internet meme titled "best cry ever". Following this appearance, Lockridge spent 90 days in a facility, and had remained sober since. Lockridge died on February 7, 2019 at the age of 60, after being placed on home hospice care following multiple strokes. He was removed from life support about one week prior to his death. In the weeks preceding his death, he was hooked to a feeding tube due to an inability to swallow, and suffered from aspiration pneumonia. His caretaker had set up a GoFundMe to help cover his medical expenses.


title: Paraiyar

text: Paraiyar, or Parayar or Maraiyar (formerly anglicised as Pariah and Paree), is a caste group found in the Indian states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala, and Sri Lanka.


title: Paraiyar

text: Robert Caldwell, a nineteenth-century missionary and grammarian who worked in South India, was in agreement with some Indian writers of the same period who considered the name to derive from the Tamil word "parai" ("drum"). According to this hypothesis, the Paraiyars were originally a community of drummers who performed at auspicious events like weddings and funerals. M. Srinivasa Aiyangar, writing a little later, found this etymology unsatisfactory, arguing that beating of drums could not have been an occupation of so many people. Some other writers, such as Gustav Solomon Oppert, have derived the name from the Tamil word "poraian", the name of a regional subdivision mentioned by ancient Tamil grammarians, or the Sanskrit "pahariya", meaning "hill man".


title: Paraiyar

text: More recently, George L. Hart's textual analysis of the Sangam literature ( 300 BCE – 300 CE) has led him to favour Caldwell's earlier hypothesis. The literature has references to the Tamil caste system and refers to a number of "low-born" groups variously called "Pulaiyar" and "Kinaiyar". Hart believes that one of the drums called "kiṇai" in the literature later came to be called "paṟai" and the people that played the drum were "paraiyar" (plural of "paraiyan").


title: Paraiyar

text: "Paraiyar" as a word referring to an occupational group first appears in the second century CE writings of Mangudi Kilar. The Purananuru mentions the Tudiyar, the Panar, the Paraiyar and the Kadambar as one of the four tribes of the Tamil world which should be respected.


title: Paraiyar

text: Hart says that the "pulaiyar" performed a ritual function by composing and singing songs in the king's favour and beating drums, as well as travelling around villages to announce royal decrees. They were divided into subgroups based on the instruments they played and one of these groups the Kinaiyan "was probably the same as the modern Paraiyan". He says that these people were believed to be associated with magical power and kept at a distance, made to live in separate hamlets outside villages. However, their magical power was believed to sustain the king, who had the ability to transform it into auspicious power. Moffatt is less sure of this, saying that we do not know whether the distancing was a consequence of the belief in their magical powers or in Hinduism's ritual pollution as we know of it nowadays.


title: Paraiyar

text: Burton Stein describes an essentially continuous process of expansion of the nuclear areas of the caste society into forest and upland areas of tribal and warrior people, and their integration into the caste society at the lowest levels. Many of the forest groups were incorporated as Paraiyar either by association with the "parai" drum or by integration into the low-status labouring groups who were generically called Paraiyar. Thus, it is thought that Paraiyar came to have many subcastes. According to 1961 Madras Census Report, castes that are categorised under Paraiyar include Koliyar, Panchamar, Thoti, Vettiyan, Vetti, Vellam, Vel, Natuvile, Pani, Pambaikaran, Ammaparaiyan, Urumikaran, Morasu, Tangalam, Samban, Paryan, Nesavukaraparayan, Thotiparayan, Kongaparayan, Mannaparayan, and Semban.


title: Paraiyar

text: During the Bhakti movement ( 7th–9th centuries CE), the saints – Shaivite Nayanars and the Vaishnavite Alvars – contained one saint each from the untouchable communities. The Nayanar saint Nandanar was born, according to "Periya Puranam", in a "threshold of the huts covered with strips of leather", with mango trees from whose branches were hung drums. "In this abode of the people of the lowest caste ("kadainar"), there arose a man with a feeling of true devotion to the feet of Siva." Nandanar was described as a temple servant and leather worker, who supplied straps for drums and gut-string for stringed instruments used in the Chidambaram temple, but he was himself not allowed to enter the temple. The Paraiyar regard Nandanar as one of their own caste. Paraiyars wear the sacred thread under rituals such as marriage and funeral.


title: Paraiyar

text: Scholars such as Burchett and Moffatt state that the Bhakti devotationalism did not undermine Brahmin ritual dominance. Instead, it might have strengthened it by warding off challenges from Jainism and Buddhism.


title: Paraiyar

text: By the early 19th century, the Paraiyars had a degraded status in the Tamil society. Francis Buchanan's report on socio-economic condition of South Indians described them ("Pariar") as inferior caste slaves, who cultivated the lands held by Brahmins. This report largely shaped the perceptions of the British officials about contemporary society. They regarded Pariyars as an outcaste, untouchable community. In the second half of the 19th century, there were frequent descriptions of the Paraiyars in official documents and reformist tracts as being "disinherited sons of the earth". The first reference to the idea may be that written by Francis Whyte Ellis in 1818, where he writes that the Paraiyars "affect to consider themselves as the real proprietors of the soil". In 1894, William Goudie, a Weslyan missionary, said that the Paraiyars were self-evidently the "disinherited children of the soil". English officials such as Ellis believed that the Paraiyars were serfs toiling under a system of bonded labour that resembled the European villeinage. However, scholars such as Burton Stein argue that the agricultural bondage in Tamil society was different from the contemporary British ideas of slavery.


title: Paraiyar

text: Historians such as David Washbrook have argued that the socio-economic status of the Paraiyars rose greatly in the 18th century during the Company rule in India; Washbrook calls it the "Golden Age of the Pariah". Raj Sekhar Basu disagrees with this narrative, although he agrees that there were "certain important economic developments".


title: Paraiyar

text: The Church Mission Society converted many Paraiyars to Christianity by the early 19th century. During the British Raj, the missionary schools and colleges admitted Paraiyar students amid opposition from the upper-caste students. In 1893, the colonial government sanctioned an additional stipend for the Paraiyar students. The colonial officials, scholars, and missionaries attempted to rewrite the history of the Paraiyars, characterising them as a community that enjoyed a high status in the past. Edgar Thurston (1855–1935), for example, claimed that their status was nearly equal to that of the Brahmins in the past. H. A. Stuart, in his Census Report of 1891, claimed that Valluvars were a priestly class among the Paraiyars, and served as priests during Pallava reign. Robert Caldwell, J. H. A. Tremenheere and Edward Jewitt Robinson claimed that the ancient poet-philosopher Thiruvalluvar was a Paraiyar.


title: Paraiyar

text: Iyothee Thass, a Siddha doctor by occupation, belonged to a Paraiyar elite. In 1892, he demanded access for Paraiyars to Hindu temples, but faced resistance from Brahmins and Vellalars. This experience led him to believe that it was impossible to emancipate the community within the Hindu fold. In 1893, he also rejected Christianity and Islam as the alternatives to Hinduism, because caste differences had persisted among Indian Christians, while the backwardness of contemporary local Muslims made Islam unappealing.


title: Paraiyar

text: Thass subsequently attempted a Buddhist reconstruction of the Tamil religious history. He argued that the Paraiyars were originally followers of Buddhism and constituted the original population of India. According to him, the Brahmanical invaders from Persia defeated them and destroyed Buddhism in southern India; as a result, the Paraiyars lost their culture, religion, wealth and status in the society and become destitute. In 1898, Thass and many of his followers converted to Buddhism and founded the Sakya Buddha Society ("cākkaiya putta caṅkam") with the influential mediation of Henry Steel Olcott of the Theosophical Society. Olcott subsequently and greatly supported the Tamil Paraiyar Buddhists.


title: Paraiyar

text: Jean-Antoine Dubois, a French missionary who worked in India between 1792 and 1823 and had a Brahmin-centric outlook, recorded the community's name as "Pariah". He described them as people who lived outside the system of morals prescribed by Hinduism, accepted that outcaste position and were characterised by "drunkenness, shamelessness, brutality, truthlessness, uncleanliness, disgusting food practices, and an absolute lack of personal honour". Moffat says this led to "pariah" entering the English language as "a synonym for the socially ostracised and the morally depraved".


title: Paraiyar

text: Iyothee Thass felt that "Paraiyar" was a slur, and campaigned against its usage. During the 1881 census of India, he requested the government to record the community members under the name "Aboriginal Tamils". He later suggested "Dravidian" as an alternative term, and formed the Dhraavidar Mahajana Sabhai (Dravidian Mahajana Assembly) in 1891. Another Paraiyar leader, Rettamalai Srinivasan, however, advocated using the term "Paraiyar" with pride. In 1892, he formed the Parayar Mahajana Sabha (Paraiyar Mahajana Assembly), and also started a news publication titled "Paraiyan".


title: Paraiyar

text: Thass continued his campaign against the term, and petitioned the government to discontinue its usage, demanding punishment for those who used the term. He incorrectly claimed that the term "Paraiyar" was not found in any ancient records (it has been, in fact, found in the 10th-century Chola stone inscriptions from Kolar district). Thass subsequently advocated the term "Adi Dravida" ("Original Dravidians") to describe the community. In 1892, he used the term "Adidravida Jana Sabhai" to describe an organisation, which was probably Srinivasan's Parayar Mahajana Sabha. In 1895, he established the People's Assembly of Urdravidians (Adidravida Jana Sabha), which probably split off from Srinivasan's organisation. According to Michael Bergunder, Thass was thus the first person to introduce the concept of "Adi Dravida" into political discussion.


title: Paraiyar

text: Another Paraiyar leader, M. C. Rajah — a Madras councillor — made successful efforts for adoption of the term "Adi-Dravidar" in the government records. In 1914, the Madras Legislative Council passed a resolution that officially censured the usage of the term "Paraiyar" to refer to a specific community, and recommended "Adi Dravidar" as an alternative. In the 1920s and 1930s, Periyar E. V. Ramasamy ensured the wider dissemination of the term "Adi Dravida".


title: Paraiyar

text: Paraiyars belong to the "Valangai" ("Right-hand caste faction"). Some of them assume the title "Valangamattan" ("people of the right-hand division"). The "Valangai" comprised castes with an agricultural basis while the "Idangai" consisted of castes involved in manufacturing. "Valangai" were better organised politically.


title: Paraiyar

text: , the Paraiyar were a listed as a Scheduled Caste in Tamil Nadu under India's system of affirmative action.


title: Sediment

text: Sediment is a naturally occurring material that is broken down by processes of weathering and erosion, and is subsequently transported by the action of wind, water, or ice or by the force of gravity acting on the particles. For example, sand and silt can be carried in suspension in river water and on reaching the sea bed deposited by sedimentation; if buried, they may eventually become sandstone and siltstone (sedimentary rocks) through lithification.


title: Sediment

text: Sediments are most often transported by water (fluvial processes), but also wind (aeolian processes) and glaciers. Beach sands and river channel deposits are examples of fluvial transport and deposition, though sediment also often settles out of slow-moving or standing water in lakes and oceans. Desert sand dunes and loess are examples of aeolian transport and deposition. Glacial moraine deposits and till are ice-transported sediments.


title: Sediment

text: Sediment size is measured on a log base 2 scale, called the "Phi" scale, which classifies particles by size from "colloid" to "boulder".


title: Sediment

text: The shape of particles can be defined in terms of three parameters. The "form" is the overall shape of the particle, with common descriptions being spherical, platy, or rodlike. The "roundness" is a measure of how sharp grain corners are. This varies from well-rounded grains with smooth corners and edges to poorly rounded grains with sharp corners and edges. Finally, "surface texture" describes small-scale features such as scratches, pits, or ridges on the surface of the grain.


title: Sediment

text: Form (also called "sphericity") is determined by measuring the size of the particle on its major axes. William C. Krumbein proposed formulas for converting these numbers to a single measure of form, such as


title: Sediment

text: where formula_2, formula_3, and formula_4 are the long, intermediate, and short axis lengths of the particle. The form formula_5 varies from 1 for a perfectly spherical particle to very small values for a platelike or rodlike particle.


title: Sediment

text: Roundness describes how sharp the edges and corners of particle are. Complex mathematical formulas have been devised for its precise measurement, but these are difficult to apply, and most geologists estimate roundness from comparison charts. Common descriptive terms range from very angular to angular to subangular to subrounded to rounded to very rounded, with increasing degree of roundness.


title: Sediment

text: Surface texture describes the small-scale features of a grain, such as pits, fractures, ridges, and scratches. These are most commonly evaluated on quartz grains, because these retain their surface markings for long periods of time. Surface texture varies from polished to frosted, and can reveal the history of transport of the grain; for example, frosted grains are particularly characteristic of aeolian sediments, transported by wind. Evaluation of these features often requires the use of a scanning electron microscope.


title: Sediment

text: This leads to an ambiguity in which clay can be used as both a size-range and a composition (see clay minerals).


title: Sediment

text: Sediment is transported based on the strength of the flow that carries it and its own size, volume, density, and shape. Stronger flows will increase the lift and drag on the particle, causing it to rise, while larger or denser particles will be more likely to fall through the flow.


title: Sediment

text: Rivers and streams carry sediment in their flows. This sediment can be in a variety of locations within the flow, depending on the balance between the upwards velocity on the particle (drag and lift forces), and the settling velocity of the particle. These relationships are shown in the following table for the Rouse number, which is a ratio of sediment settling velocity (fall velocity) to upwards velocity.


title: Sediment

text: If the upwards velocity is approximately equal to the settling velocity, sediment will be transported downstream entirely as suspended load. If the upwards velocity is much less than the settling velocity, but still high enough for the sediment to move (see Initiation of motion), it will move along the bed as bed load by rolling, sliding, and saltating (jumping up into the flow, being transported a short distance then settling again). If the upwards velocity is higher than the settling velocity, the sediment will be transported high in the flow as wash load.


title: Sediment

text: As there are generally a range of different particle sizes in the flow, it is common for material of different sizes to move through all areas of the flow for given stream conditions.


title: Sediment

text: Sediment motion can create self-organized structures such as ripples, dunes, or antidunes on the river or stream bed. These bedforms are often preserved in sedimentary rocks and can be used to estimate the direction and magnitude of the flow that deposited the sediment.


title: Sediment

text: Overland flow can erode soil particles and transport them downslope. The erosion associated with overland flow may occur through different methods depending on meteorological and flow conditions.


title: Sediment

text: Wind results in the transportation of fine sediment and the formation of sand dune fields and soils from airborne dust.


title: Sediment

text: The overall balance between sediment in transport and sediment being deposited on the bed is given by the Exner equation. This expression states that the rate of increase in bed elevation due to deposition is proportional to the amount of sediment that falls out of the flow. This equation is important in that changes in the power of the flow change the ability of the flow to carry sediment, and this is reflected in the patterns of erosion and deposition observed throughout a stream. This can be localized, and simply due to small obstacles; examples are scour holes behind boulders, where flow accelerates, and deposition on the inside of meander bends. Erosion and deposition can also be regional; erosion can occur due to dam removal and base level fall. Deposition can occur due to dam emplacement that causes the river to pool and deposit its entire load, or due to base level rise.


title: Sediment

text: Seas, oceans, and lakes accumulate sediment over time. The sediment can consist of "terrigenous" material, which originates on land, but may be deposited in either terrestrial, marine, or lacustrine (lake) environments, or of sediments (often biological) originating in the body of water. Terrigenous material is often supplied by nearby rivers and streams or reworked marine sediment (e.g. sand). In the mid-ocean, the exoskeletons of dead organisms are primarily responsible for sediment accumulation.


title: Sediment

text: Deposited sediments are the source of sedimentary rocks, which can contain fossils of the inhabitants of the body of water that were, upon death, covered by accumulating sediment. Lake bed sediments that have not solidified into rock can be used to determine past climatic conditions.


title: Sediment

text: One other depositional environment which is a mixture of fluvial and marine is the turbidite system, which is a major source of sediment to the deep sedimentary and abyssal basins as well as the deep oceanic trenches.


title: Sediment

text: Any depression in a marine environment where sediments accumulate over time is known as a sediment trap.