title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: In November 1936, Roosevelt won a sweeping re-election victory. In the months following, he proposed to reorganize the federal judiciary by adding a new justice each time a justice reached age 70 and failed to retire. The legislation was unveiled on February 5, 1937, and was the subject of Roosevelt's ninth fireside chat on March 9, 1937. He asked, "Can it be said that full justice is achieved when a court is forced by the sheer necessity of its business to decline, without even an explanation, to hear 87% of the cases presented by private litigants?" Publicly denying the president's statement, Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes reported, "There is no congestion of cases on our calendar. When we rose March 15 we had heard arguments in cases in which cert has been granted only four weeks before. This gratifying situation has obtained for several years". Three weeks after the radio address, the Supreme Court published an opinion upholding a Washington state minimum wage law in "West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish". The 5–4 ruling was the result of the apparently sudden jurisprudential shift by Associate Justice Owen Roberts, who joined with the wing of the bench supportive to the New Deal legislation. Since Roberts had previously ruled against most New Deal legislation, his support here was seen as a result of the political pressure the president was exerting on the court. Some interpreted Roberts' reversal as an effort to maintain the Court's judicial independence by alleviating the political pressure to create a court more friendly to the New Deal. This reversal came to be known as "the switch in time that saved nine"; however, recent legal-historical scholarship has called that narrative into question as Roberts' decision and vote in the "Parrish" case predated both the public announcement and introduction of the 1937 bill.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Roosevelt's legislative initiative ultimately failed. Henry F. Ashurst, the Democratic chair of the Senate Judiciary Committee, held up the bill by delaying hearings in the committee, saying, "No haste, no hurry, no waste, no worry—that is the motto of this committee." As a result of his delaying efforts, the bill was held in committee for 165 days, and opponents of the bill credited Ashurst as instrumental in its defeat. The bill was further undermined by the untimely death of its chief advocate in the U.S. Senate, Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson. Other reasons for its failure included members of Roosevelt's own Democratic Party believing the bill to be unconstitutional, with the Judiciary Committee ultimately releasing a scathing report calling it "a needless, futile and utterly dangerous abandonment of constitutional principle ... without precedent or justification". Contemporary observers broadly viewed Roosevelt's initiative as political maneuvering. Its failure exposed the limits of Roosevelt's abilities to push forward legislation through direct public appeal. Public perception of his efforts here was in stark contrast to the reception of his legislative efforts during his first term. Roosevelt ultimately prevailed in establishing a majority on the court friendly to his New Deal legislation, though some scholars view Roosevelt's victory as pyrrhic.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Following the Wall Street Crash of 1929 and the onset of the Great Depression, Franklin Roosevelt won the 1932 presidential election on a promise to give America a "New Deal" to promote national economic recovery. The 1932 election also saw a new Democratic majority sweep into both houses of Congress, giving Roosevelt legislative support for his reform platform. Both Roosevelt and the 73rd Congress called for greater governmental involvement in the economy as a way to end the depression. During the president's first term, a series of successful challenges to various New Deal programs were launched in federal courts. It soon became clear that the overall constitutionality of much of the New Deal legislation, especially that which extended the power of the federal government, would be decided by the Supreme Court.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: A minor aspect of Roosevelt's New Deal agenda may have itself directly precipitated the showdown between the Roosevelt administration and the Supreme Court. Shortly after Roosevelt's inauguration, Congress passed the Economy Act, a provision of which cut many government salaries, including the pensions of retired Supreme Court justices. Associate Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., who had retired in 1932, saw his pension halved from $20,000 to $10,000 per year. The cut to their pensions appears to have dissuaded at least two older Justices, Willis Van Devanter and George Sutherland, from retirement. Both would later find many aspects of the New Deal unconstitutional.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: The flurry of new laws in the wake of Roosevelt's first hundred days swamped the Justice Department with more responsibilities than it could manage. Many Justice Department lawyers were ideologically opposed to the New Deal and failed to influence either the drafting or review of much of the White House's New Deal legislation. The ensuing struggle over ideological identity increased the ineffectiveness of the Justice Department. As Interior Secretary Harold Ickes complained, Attorney General Homer Cummings had "simply loaded it [the Justice Department] with political appointees" at a time when it would be responsible for litigating the flood of cases arising from New Deal legal challenges.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Compounding matters, Roosevelt's congenial Solicitor General, James Crawford Biggs (a patronage appointment chosen by Cummings), proved to be an ineffective advocate for the legislative initiatives of the New Deal. While Biggs resigned in early 1935, his successor Stanley Forman Reed proved to be little better.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: This disarray at the Justice Department meant that the government's lawyers often failed to foster viable test cases and arguments for their defense, subsequently handicapping them before the courts. As Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes would later note, it was because much of the New Deal legislation was so poorly drafted and defended that the court did not uphold it.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Popular understanding of the Hughes Court, which has some scholarly support, has typically cast it as divided between a conservative and liberal faction, with two critical swing votes. The conservative Justices Pierce Butler, James Clark McReynolds, George Sutherland and Willis Van Devanter were known as "The Four Horsemen". Opposed to them were the liberal Justices Louis Brandeis, Benjamin Cardozo and Harlan Fiske Stone, dubbed "The Three Musketeers". Chief Justice Charles Evans Hughes and Justice Owen Roberts were regarded as the swing votes on the court. Some recent scholarship has eschewed these labels since they suggest more legislative, as opposed to judicial, differences. While it is true that many rulings of the 1930s Supreme Court were deeply divided, with four justices on each side and Justice Roberts as the typical swing vote, the ideological divide this represented was linked to a larger debate in U.S. jurisprudence regarding the role of the judiciary, the meaning of the Constitution, and the respective rights and prerogatives of the different branches of government in shaping the judicial outlook of the Court. At the same time, however, the perception of a conservative/liberal divide does reflect the ideological leanings of the justices themselves. As William Leuchtenburg has observed:


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Whatever the political differences among the justices, the clash over the constitutionality of the New Deal initiatives was tied to clearly divergent legal philosophies which were gradually coming into competition with each other: legal formalism and legal realism. During the period c. 1900 – c. 1920, the formalist and realist camps clashed over the nature and legitimacy of judicial authority in common law, given the lack of a central, governing authority in those legal fields other than the precedent established by case law—i.e. the aggregate of earlier judicial decisions.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: This debate spilled over into the realm of constitutional law. Realist legal scholars and judges argued that the constitution should be interpreted flexibly and judges should not use the Constitution to impede legislative experimentation. One of the most famous proponents of this concept, known as the Living Constitution, was U.S. Supreme Court justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., who said in "Missouri v. Holland" the "case before us must be considered in the light of our whole experience and not merely in that of what was said a hundred years ago". The conflict between formalists and realists implicated a changing but still-persistent view of constitutional jurisprudence which viewed the U.S. Constitution as a static, universal, and general document not designed to change over time. Under this judicial philosophy, case resolution required a simple restatement of the applicable principles which were then extended to a case's facts in order to resolve the controversy. This earlier judicial attitude came into direct conflict with the legislative reach of much of Roosevelt's New Deal legislation. Examples of these judicial principles include:


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: At the same time, developing modernist ideas regarding politics and the role of government placed the role of the judiciary into flux. The courts were generally moving away from what has been called "guardian review" — in which judges defended the line between appropriate legislative advances and majoritarian encroachments into the private sphere of life—toward a position of "bifurcated review". This approach favored sorting laws into categories that demanded deference towards other branches of government in the economic sphere, but aggressively heightened judicial scrutiny with respect to fundamental civil and political liberties. The slow transformation away from the "guardian review" role of the judiciary brought about the ideological—and, to a degree, generational—rift in the 1930s judiciary. With the Judiciary Bill, Roosevelt sought to accelerate this judicial evolution by diminishing the dominance of an older generation of judges who remained attached to an earlier mode of American jurisprudence.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Roosevelt was wary of the Supreme Court early in his first term, and his administration was slow to bring constitutional challenges of New Deal legislation before the court. However, early wins for New Deal supporters came in "Home Building & Loan Association v. Blaisdell" and "Nebbia v. New York" at the start of 1934. At issue in each case were state laws relating to economic regulation. "Blaisdell" concerned the temporary suspension of creditor's remedies by Minnesota in order to combat mortgage foreclosures, finding that temporal relief did not, in fact, impair the obligation of a contract. "Nebbia" held that New York could implement price controls on milk, in accordance with the state's police power. While not tests of New Deal legislation themselves, the cases gave cause for relief of administration concerns about Associate Justice Owen Roberts, who voted with the majority in both cases. Roberts's opinion for the court in "Nebbia" was also encouraging for the administration:


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: "Nebbia" also holds a particular significance: it was the one case in which the Court abandoned its jurisprudential distinction between the "public" and "private" spheres of economic activity, an essential distinction in the court's analysis of state police power. The effect of this decision radiated outward, affecting other doctrinal methods of analysis in wage regulation, labor, and the power of the U.S. Congress to regulate commerce.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Just three weeks after its defeat in the railroad pension case, the Roosevelt administration suffered its most severe setback, on May 27, 1935: "Black Monday". Chief Justice Hughes arranged for the decisions announced from the bench that day to be read in order of increasing importance. The Supreme Court ruled unanimously against Roosevelt in three cases: "Humphrey's Executor v. United States", "Louisville Joint Stock Land Bank v. Radford", and "Schechter Poultry Corp. v. United States".


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: With several cases laying forth the criteria necessary to respect the due process and property rights of individuals, and statements of what constituted an appropriate delegation of legislative powers to the President, Congress quickly revised the Agricultural Adjustment Act (AAA). However, New Deal supporters still wondered how the AAA would fare against Chief Justice Hughes's restrictive view of the Commerce Clause from the "Schechter" decision.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: An April 1933 letter to the president offered the idea of packing the Court: "If the Supreme Court's membership could be increased to twelve, without too much trouble, perhaps the Constitution would be found to be quite elastic." The next month, soon-to-be Republican National Chairman Henry P. Fletcher expressed his concern: "[A]n administration as fully in control as this one can pack it [the Supreme Court] as easily as an English government can pack the House of Lords."


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: As early as the autumn 1933, Roosevelt had begun anticipation of reforming a federal judiciary composed of a stark majority of Republican appointees at all levels. Roosevelt tasked Attorney General Homer Cummings with a year-long "legislative project of great importance". Justice Department lawyers then commenced research on the "secret project", with Cummings devoting what time he could. The focus of the research was directed at restricting or removing the Supreme Court's power of judicial review. However, an autumn 1935 Gallup Poll had returned a majority disapproval of attempts to limit the Supreme Court's power to declare acts unconstitutional. For the time being, Roosevelt stepped back to watch and wait.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Other alternatives were also sought: Roosevelt inquired about the rate at which the Supreme Court denied "certiorari", hoping to attack the Court for the small number of cases it heard annually. He also asked about the case of "Ex parte McCardle", which limited the appellate jurisdiction of the Supreme Court, wondering if Congress could strip the Court's power to adjudicate constitutional questions. The span of possible options even included constitutional amendments; however, Roosevelt soured to this idea, citing the requirement of three-fourths of state legislatures needed to ratify, and that an opposition wealthy enough could too easily defeat an amendment. Further, Roosevelt deemed the amendment process in itself too slow when time was a scarce commodity.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Attorney General Cummings received novel advice from Princeton University professor Edward S. Corwin in a letter of December 16, 1936. Corwin had relayed an idea from Harvard University professor Arthur N. Holcombe, suggesting that Cummings tie the size of the Supreme Court's bench to the age of the justices since the popular view of the Court was critical of their age. However, another related idea fortuitously presented itself to Cummings as he and his assistant Carl McFarland were finishing their collaborative history of the Justice Department, "Federal justice: chapters in the history of justice and the Federal executive". An opinion written by Associate Justice McReynolds—one of Cumming's predecessors as Attorney General, under Woodrow Wilson—had made a proposal in 1914 which was highly relevant to Roosevelt's current Supreme Court troubles:


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: The content of McReynolds's proposal and the bill later submitted by Roosevelt were so similar to each other that it is thought the most probable source of the idea. Roosevelt and Cummings also relished the opportunity to hoist McReynolds by his own petard. McReynolds, having been born in 1862, had been in his early fifties when he wrote his 1914 proposal, but was well over seventy when Roosevelt's plan was set forth.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: The latter provisions were the result of lobbying by the energetic and reformist judge William Denman of the Ninth Circuit Court who believed the lower courts were in a state of disarray and that unnecessary delays were affecting the appropriate administration of justice. Roosevelt and Cummings authored accompanying messages to send to Congress along with the proposed legislation, hoping to couch the debate in terms of the need for judicial efficiency and relieving the backlogged workload of elderly judges.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: The choice of date on which to launch the plan was largely determined by other events taking place. Roosevelt wanted to present the legislation before the Supreme Court began hearing oral arguments on the Wagner Act cases, scheduled to begin on February 8, 1937; however, Roosevelt also did not want to present the legislation before the annual White House dinner for the Supreme Court, scheduled for February 2. With a Senate recess between February 3–5, and the weekend falling on February 6–7, Roosevelt had to settle for February 5. Other pragmatic concerns also intervened. The administration wanted to introduce the bill early enough in the Congressional session to make sure it passed before the summer recess, and, if successful, to leave time for nominations to any newly created bench seats.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: After the proposed legislation was announced, public reaction was split. Since the Supreme Court was generally conflated with the U.S. Constitution itself, the proposal to change the Court brushed up against this wider public reverence. Roosevelt's personal involvement in selling the plan managed to mitigate this hostility. In a Democratic Victory Dinner speech on March 4, Roosevelt called for party loyalists to support his plan.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Roosevelt followed this up with his ninth Fireside chat on March 9, in which he made his case directly to the public. In his address, Roosevelt decried the Supreme Court's majority for "reading into the Constitution words and implications which are not there, and which were never intended to be there". He also argued directly that the Bill was needed to overcome the Supreme Court's opposition to the New Deal, stating that the nation had reached a point where it "must take action to save the Constitution from the Court, and the Court from itself".


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Through these interventions, Roosevelt managed briefly to earn favorable press for his proposal. In general, however, the overall tenor of reaction in the press was negative. A series of Gallup Polls conducted between February and May 1937 showed that the public opposed the proposed bill by a fluctuating majority. By late March it had become clear that the President's personal abilities to sell his plan were limited:


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Concerted letter-writing campaigns to Congress against the bill were launched with opinion tallying against the bill nine-to-one. Bar associations nationwide followed suit as well lining up in opposition to the bill. Roosevelt's own Vice President John Nance Garner expressed disapproval of the bill holding his nose and giving thumbs down from the rear of the Senate chamber. The editorialist William Allen White characterized Roosevelt's actions in a column on February 6 as an "elaborate stage play to flatter the people by a simulation of frankness while denying Americans their democratic rights and discussions by suave avoidance—these are not the traits of a democratic leader".


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Reaction against the bill also spawned the National Committee to Uphold Constitutional Government, which was launched in February 1937 by three leading opponents of the New Deal. Frank E. Gannett, a newspaper magnate, provided both money and publicity. Two other founders, Amos Pinchot, a prominent lawyer from New York, and Edward Rumely, a political activist, had both been Roosevelt supporters who had soured on the President's agenda. Rumely directed an effective and intensive mailing campaign to drum up public opposition to the measure. Among the original members of the Committee were James Truslow Adams, Charles Coburn, John Haynes Holmes, Dorothy Thompson, Samuel S. McClure, Mary Dimmick Harrison, and Frank A. Vanderlip. The Committee's membership reflected the bipartisan opposition to the bill, especially among better educated and wealthier constituencies. As Gannett explained, "we were careful not to include anyone who had been prominent in party politics, particularly in the Republican camp. We preferred to have the Committee made up of liberals and Democrats, so that we would not be charged with having partisan motives."


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: The Committee made a determined stand against the Judiciary bill. It distributed more than 15 million letters condemning the plan. They targeted specific constituencies: farm organization, editors of agricultural publications, and individual farmers. They also distributed material to 161,000 lawyers, 121,000 doctors, 68,000 business leaders, and 137,000 clergymen. Pamphleteering, press releases and trenchantly worded radio editorials condemning the bill also formed part of the onslaught in the public arena.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Traditionally, legislation proposed by the administration first goes before the House of Representatives. However, Roosevelt failed to consult Congressional leaders before announcing the bill, which stopped cold any chance of passing the bill in the House. House Judiciary Committee chairman Hatton W. Sumners believed the bill to be unconstitutional and refused to endorse it, actively chopping it up within his committee in order to block the legislation's chief effect of Supreme Court expansion. Finding such stiff opposition within the House, the administration arranged for the bill to be taken up in the Senate.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Congressional Republicans deftly decided to remain silent on the matter, denying congressional Democrats the opportunity to use them as a unifying force. Republicans then watched from the sidelines as the Democratic party split itself in the ensuing Senate fight.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: The administration began making its case for the bill before the Senate Judiciary Committee on March 10, 1937. Attorney General Cummings' testimony was grounded on four basic complaints:


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Administration advisor Robert H. Jackson testified next, attacking the Supreme Court's alleged misuse of judicial review and the ideological perspective of the majority. Further administration witnesses were grilled by the committee, so much so that after two weeks less than half the administration's witnesses had been called. Exasperated by the stall tactics they were meeting on the committee, administration officials decided to call no further witnesses; it later proved to be a tactical blunder, allowing the opposition to indefinitely drag-on the committee hearings. Further setbacks for the administration occurred in the failure of farm and labor interests to align with the administration.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: However, once the bill's opposition had gained the floor, it pressed its upper hand, continuing hearings as long as public sentiment against the bill remained in doubt. Of note for the opposition was the testimony of Harvard University law professor Erwin Griswold. Specifically attacked by Griswold's testimony was the claim made by the administration that Roosevelt's court expansion plan had precedent in U.S. history and law. While it was true the size of the Supreme Court had been expanded since the founding in 1789, it had never been done for reasons similar to Roosevelt's. The following table lists all the expansions of the court:


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Another event damaging to the administration's case was a letter authored by Chief Justice Hughes to Senator Burton Wheeler, which directly contradicted Roosevelt's claim of an overworked Supreme Court turning down over 85 percent of "certiorari" petitions in an attempt to keep up with their docket. The truth of the matter, according to Hughes, was that rejections typically resulted from the defective nature of the petition, not from the court's docket load.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: On March 29, 1937, the court handed down three decisions upholding New Deal legislation, two of them unanimous: "West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish", "Wright v. Vinton Branch", and "Virginia Railway v. Federation". The "Wright" case upheld a new Frazier-Lemke Act which had been redrafted to meet the Court's objections in the "Radford" case; similarly, "Virginia Railway" case upheld labor regulations for the railroad industry, and is particularly notable for its foreshadowing of how the Wagner Act cases would be decided as the National Labor Relations Board was modeled on the Railway Labor Act contested in the case.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: May 18, 1937 witnessed two setbacks for the administration. First, Associate Justice Willis Van Devanter—encouraged by the restoration of full-salary pensions under the March 1, 1937 Supreme Court Retirement Act (Public Law 75-10; Chapter 21 of the general statutes enacted in the 1st Session of the 75th Congress)—announced his intent to retire on June 2, 1937, the end of the term.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: This undercut one of Roosevelt's chief complaints against the court—he had not been given an opportunity in the entirety of his first term to make a nomination to the high court. It also presented Roosevelt with a personal dilemma: he had already long ago promised the first court vacancy to Senate Majority Leader Joseph T. Robinson. As Roosevelt had based his attack of the court upon the ages of the justices, appointing the 65-year-old Robinson would belie Roosevelt's stated goal of infusing the court with younger blood. Further, Roosevelt worried about whether Robinson could be trusted on the high bench; while Robinson was considered to be Roosevelt's New Deal "marshal" and was regarded as a progressive of the stripe of Woodrow Wilson, he was a conservative on some issues. However, Robinson's death six weeks later eradicated this problem. Finally, Van Devanter's retirement alleviated pressure to reconstitute a more politically friendly court.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: The second setback occurred in the Senate Judiciary Committee action that day on Roosevelt's court reform bill. First, an attempt at a compromise amendment which would have allowed the creation of only two additional seats was defeated 10–8. Next, a motion to report the bill favorably to the floor of the Senate also failed 10–8. Then, a motion to report the bill "without recommendation" failed by the same margin, 10–8. Finally, a vote was taken to report the bill adversely, which passed 10–8.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: On June 14, the committee issued a scathing report that called FDR's plan "a needless, futile and utterly dangerous abandonment of constitutional principle ... without precedent or justification".


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Public support for the plan was never very strong and dissipated quickly in the aftermath of these developments.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Entrusted with ensuring the bill's passage, Robinson began his attempt to get the votes necessary to pass the bill. In the meantime, he worked to finish another compromise which would abate Democratic opposition to the bill. Ultimately devised was the Hatch-Logan amendment, which resembled Roosevelt's plan, but with changes in some details: the age limit for appointing a new coadjutor was increased to 75, and appointments of such a nature were limited to one per calendar year.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: The Senate opened debate on the substitute proposal on July 2. Robinson led the charge, holding the floor for two days. Procedural measures were used to limit debate and prevent any potential filibuster. By July 12, Robinson had begun to show signs of strain, leaving the Senate chamber complaining of chest pains.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: On July 14, 1937 a housemaid found Joseph Robinson dead of a heart attack in his apartment, the "Congressional Record" at his side. With Robinson gone so too were all hopes of the bill's passage. Roosevelt further alienated his party's Senators when he decided not to attend Robinson's funeral in Little Rock, Arkansas.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: On returning to Washington, D.C., Vice President John Nance Garner informed Roosevelt, "You are beat. You haven't got the votes." On July 22, the Senate voted 70–20 to send the judicial-reform measure back to committee, where the controversial language was stripped by explicit instruction from the Senate floor.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: By July 29, 1937, the Senate Judiciary Committee—at the behest of new Senate Majority Leader Alben Barkley—had produced a revised Judicial Procedures Reform Act. This new legislation met with the previous bill's goal of revising the lower courts, but without providing for new federal judges or justices.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: Congress passed the revised legislation, and Roosevelt signed it into law, on August 26. This new law required that:


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: A political fight which began as a conflict between the President and the Supreme Court turned into a battle between Roosevelt and the recalcitrant members of his own party in the Congress. The political consequences were wide-reaching, extending beyond the narrow question of judicial reform to implicate the political future of the New Deal itself. Not only was bipartisan support for Roosevelt's agenda largely dissipated by the struggle, the overall loss of political capital in the arena of public opinion was also significant. The Democratic Party lost a net of eight seats in the U.S. Senate and a net 81 seats in the U.S. House in the subsequent 1938 midterm elections.


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: As Michael Parrish writes, "the protracted legislative battle over the Court-packing bill blunted the momentum for additional reforms, divided the New Deal coalition, squandered the political advantage Roosevelt had gained in the 1936 elections, and gave fresh ammunition to those who accused him of dictatorship, tyranny, and fascism. When the dust settled, FDR had suffered a humiliating political defeat at the hands of Chief Justice Hughes and the administration's Congressional opponents."


title: Judicial Procedures Reform Bill of 1937

text: With the retirement of Justice Willis Van Devanter in 1937, the Court's composition began to move in support of Roosevelt's legislative agenda. By the end of 1941, following the deaths of Justices Benjamin Cardozo (1938) and Pierce Butler (1939), and the retirements of George Sutherland (1938), Louis Brandeis (1939), James Clark McReynolds (1941), and Charles Evans Hughes (1941), only two Justices (former Associate Justice, by then promoted to Chief Justice, Harlan Fiske Stone, and Associate Justice Owen Roberts) remained from the Court Roosevelt inherited in 1933.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The ilium () (plural ilia) is the uppermost and largest part of the hip bone, and appears in most vertebrates including mammals and birds, but not bony fish. All reptiles have an ilium except snakes, although some snake species have a tiny bone which is considered to be an ilium.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The ilium of the human is divisible into two parts, the body and the wing; the separation is indicated on the top surface by a curved line, the arcuate line, and on the external surface by the margin of the acetabulum.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The ilium consists of the body and wing. Together with the ischium and pubis, to which the ilium is connected, these form the pelvic bone, with only a faint line indicating the place of union.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The body () forms less than two-fifths of the acetabulum; and also forms part of the acetabular fossa. The internal surface of the body is part of the wall of the lesser pelvis and gives origin to some fibers of the obturator internus.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The wing () is the large expanded portion which bounds the greater pelvis laterally. It has an external and an internal surface, a crest, and two borders—an anterior and a posterior.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: In humans, biiliac width is an anatomical term referring to the widest measure of the pelvis between the outer edges of the upper iliac bones.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: Biiliac width has the following common synonyms: pelvic bone width, biiliac breadth, intercristal breadth/width, bi-iliac breadth/width and biiliocristal breadth/width.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: It is best measured by anthropometric calipers (an anthropometer designed for such measurement is called a pelvimeter). Attempting to measure biiliac width with a tape measure along a curved surface is inaccurate.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The biiliac width measure is helpful in obstetrics because a pelvis that is significantly too small or too large can have complications. For example, a large baby or a small pelvis often lead to death unless a caesarean section is performed.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The clade Dinosauria is divided into the Saurischia and Ornithischia based on hip structure, including importantly that of the ilium. In both saurischians and ornithischians, the ilium extends laterally to both sides from the axis of the body. The other two hip bones, the ischium and the pubis, extend ventrally down from the ilium towards the belly of the animal. The acetabulum, which can be thought of as a "hip-socket", is an opening on each side of the pelvic girdle formed where the ischium, ilium, and pubis all meet, and into which the head of the femur inserts. The orientation and position of the acetabulum is one of the main morphological traits that caused dinosaurs to walk in an upright posture with their legs directly underneath their bodies. The brevis fossa is a deep groove in the underside of the postacetabular process, the rear part of the ilium. The brevis shelf is the bony ridge at the inner side of the "fossa", the bone wall forming the internal face of the rear part of the ilium, which functions as an attachment area for a tail muscle, the "musculus caudofemoralis brevis". Often, close to the hip-socket the lower edge of the outer face of the postacetabular process is positioned higher than the edge of the brevis shelf, exposing the latter in side view.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The 'English' name "ilium" as bone of the "pelvis" can be traced back to the writings of anatomists Andreas Vesalius, who coined the expression "os ilium". In this expression "ilium" can be considered as the genitive plural of the nominative singular of the noun "ile". Ile in classical Latin can refer to the "flank of the body", or to the "groin", or the "part of the abdomen from the lowest ribs to the pubes". Ile is usually encountered as plural ("ilia") in classical Latin. The "os ilium" can literally be translated as "bone" (Latin: "os" ) "of the flanks".


title: Ilium (bone)

text: More than a millennium earlier the "ossa ilium" were described by the Greek physician Galen, and referred to as, with a quite similar expression, τά πλατέα λαγόνων ὀστᾶ, "the flat bones of the flanks", with λαγών for "flank". In anatomic Latin, the expression "os lagonicum" can also be found, based on Ancient Greek λαγών. In modern Greek the nominalized adjective λαγόνιο is used to refer to the "os ilium".


title: Ilium (bone)

text: In Latin and Greek it is not uncommon to nominalize adjectives, e.g. "stimulantia" from "remedia stimulantia" or ὁ ἐγκέφαλος from ὁ ἐγκέφαλος μυελός. The name "ilium" as used in English can not be considered as nominalized adjective derived from the full Latin expression "os ilium", as "ilium" in this expression is a genitive plural of a noun and not a nominative singular of an adjective. The form "ilium" in English is however thought to be derived from the Latin word "ilium", an orthographic variant in Latin of "ile", "flank" or "groin". Whereas the expression of Andreas Vesalius "os ilium" appropriately expresses "bone of the flanks", the sole term "ilium" as used in English, lacks this precision and has to be literally translated as "groin" or "flank".


title: Ilium (bone)

text: There exists however in classical Latin an adjective "ilius/ilia/ilium". This adjective however means not "with respect to the flanks", but "Trojan". "Troy" is referred to in classical Latin as "Ilium", "Ilion" or "Ilios" and in ancient Greek as Ἴλιον or Ἴλιος.


title: Ilium (bone)

text: The first editions of the official Latin nomenclature, "Nomina Anatomica" of the first 80 years (first in 1895) used the Vesalian expression "os ilium". In the subsequent editions from 1983 and 1989 the expression "os ilium" was altered to "os ilii". This latter expression supposes a genitive singular of the alternate noun "ilium" instead of a genitive plural of the noun "ile". Quite inconsistently, in the 1983 edition of the "Nomina Anatomica" the genitive plural of "ile" (instead of "ilium") is still being used in such expressions as "vena circumflexa ilium superficialis". In the current 1998 edition of the "Nomina Anatomica", rebaptized as "Terminologia Anatomica", the expression "os ilium" is reintroduced and "os ilii" deleted.


title: Grishneshwar Temple

text: Grishneshwar Jyotirlinga Temple, sometimes referred to as the Ghrneshwar or Ghushmeshwar Temple, is one of the shrines dedicated to Lord Shiva that is referenced in the Shiva Purana. The word "Ghrneshwara" means "lord of compassion". The temple is an important pilgrimage site in the Shaiva tradition of Hinduism, which considers it as the


title: Grishneshwar Temple

text: twelfth Jyotirlinga (linga of light). This pilgrimage site is located in Ellora (also called Verul), less than a kilometer from Ellora Caves – a UNESCO World Heritage Site. It is about north-west of the city of Aurangabad, and about east-northeast from Mumbai, Maharashtra, India .


title: Grishneshwar Temple

text: The temple structure was destroyed by the Delhi Sultanate in 13th and 14th-century. The temple went through several rounds of rebuilding followed by re-destruction during the Mughal-Maratha conflict. It was rebuilt in the current form in the 18th century under the sponsorship of queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore, after the fall of the Mughal Empire. It is presently an important and active pilgrimage site of the Hindus and attracts long lines of devotees daily. Anyone can enter the temple premises and its inner chambers, but to enter the sanctum sanctorum core (garbha-gruha) of the temple, the local Hindu tradition demands that men must go bare-chested.


title: Grishneshwar Temple

text: The Grishneswar temple is an illustration of maratha temple architectural style and structure. The temple, built of red rocks, is composed of a five-tier "shikara". The temple was re-constructed by Maloji Bhosale of Verul, (grandfather of Chhatrapati Shivaji Maharaj) in the 16th century and later again by queen Ahilyabai Holkar in the 18th century. She is credited with rebuilding some of major Hindu temples such as the Kashi Vishvanath temple in Varanasi, a Vishnu temple in Gaya, and a much larger Shiva Jyotirlinga temple in Somnath Temple.


title: Grishneshwar Temple

text: This 240 ft x 185 ft temple is the smallest Jyotirlinga temple in India. Halfway up the temple, Dashavataras of Vishnu are carved in red stone. A court hall is built on 24 pillars. On these pillars, there are carvings summarizing various legends and mythologies of Shiva. The Garbhagriha measures 17 ft x 17 ft. The Lingamurty faces eastward. There is a Nandi bull in the court hall. Ghrishneshwar Temple is a revered temple, situated in the state of Maharashtra. The temple houses carvings and sculptures of many Hindu gods and goddesses.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: Petrozavodsk (; Karelian, Vepsian and ) is the capital city of the Republic of Karelia, Russia, which stretches along the western shore of Lake Onega for some . The population of the city was 280,890 as of 2022.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: The name of the city is a combination of words Peter (Peter the Great) and "zavod" (meaning factory).


title: Petrozavodsk

text: It was previously known as "Shuysky Zavod" (1703–1704) and "Petrovskaya Sloboda" (1704–1777), which was the first name of the city related to Peter the Great. It was renamed to Petrozavodsk after Catherine the Great granted the settlement the status of a city.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: An ancient Swedish name was "Onegaborg", known from a map from 1592 of the Flemish cartographer Abraham Ortelius, and hence translated to Finnish as "Äänislinna", a name used during the occupation of Eastern Karelia by Finnish forces during the Continuation War (1941–1944) in the context of World War II.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: Archeological discoveries in the urban area indicate the presence of a settlement as far back as seven thousand years ago, and during the Middle Ages the site of modern city was marked by several lakeside villages. Within the city limits, the district of Solomennoje appears in surviving records dating back to the sixteenth century, and a map produced by the Flemish cartographer Abraham Ortelius at the end of that century places a settlement here called Onegaborg on the site of modern Petrozavodsk.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: On 11 September 1703, Prince Menshikov founded the settlement of Petrovskaya Sloboda ("Petrine Sloboda"). He did so at the behest of Tsar Peter the Great, who needed a new iron foundry to manufacture cannons and anchors for the Baltic Fleet at the time of the Great Northern War (1700–1721). At first the foundry used the name "Shuysky zavod" (literally, "factory at the Shuya River"), but a decade later it became "Petrovsky zavod" ("Petrine factory"), after the name of the reigning monarch. From this form the present name of the city derives.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: By 1717, Petrovskaya Sloboda had grown into the largest settlement in Karelia, with about 3,500 inhabitants, a timber fort, a covered market, and miniature palaces of the Tsar and Menshikov. The town's best-known landmark became the wooden church of Saints Peter and Paul, rebuilt in 1772 and renovated in 1789. The church retained its original iconostasis until this relic of Peter's reign was destroyed by fire on October 30, 1924.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: After Peter's death, Petrovskaya Sloboda became depopulated and the factory declined. It closed down in 1734, although foreign industrialists maintained copper factories in the vicinity.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: The industry revived in 1773 when Catherine the Great established a new iron foundry upstream the Lososinka River. Designed to provide cannons for the ongoing Russo-Turkish Wars, the foundry was named Alexandrovsky, after Alexander Nevsky, who was considered a patron saint of the region. The factory was modernized and expanded under supervision of Charles Gascoigne in 1787–96. Local pundits claim that the first railway in the world (чугунный колесопровод) was inaugurated for industrial uses of the Alexandrovsky foundry in 1788.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: During Catherine's municipal reform of 1777, Petrovskaya Sloboda was incorporated as a town, whereupon its name was changed to Petrozavodsk. A new Neoclassical city center was then built, focused on the newly planned Round Square. In 1784 Petrozavodsk was large enough to supplant Olonets as the administrative center of the region. Although Emperor Paul abolished Olonets Governorate, it was revived as a separate guberniya in 1801, with Petrozavodsk as its administrative center.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: During the Finnish occupation in the World War II (1941–1944), the city was styled as "Äänislinna" (or "Ääneslinna"), rather than the traditional "Petroskoi". This name was a literal translation of "Onegaborg", the name of a settlement marked on a 16th-century map by Abraham Ortelius near the present-day city, "Ääninen" being the Finnish toponym for Lake Onega. On 14 October 1941, occupation authorities opened the first concentration camp. By the liberation of Petrozavodsk there were 11 concentration camps.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: Petrozavodsk is the capital of the republic and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Prionezhsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is incorporated separately as the city of republic significance of Petrozavodsk—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the administrative divisions of the Republic of Karelia. As a municipal division, the city of republic significance of Petrozavodsk is incorporated as Petrozavodsky Urban Okrug.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: Petrozavodsk is distinguished among other towns of North Russia by its Neoclassical architectural heritage, which includes the Round Square (1775, reconstructed in 1789 and 1839) and the Alexander Nevsky Cathedral (consecrated in 1832). Among the town's landmarks are the outdoor statues of Peter I (bronze and granite, Ippolit Monighetti, 1873), Gavrila Derzhavin (a Russian poet who was the governor of Olonets in the 18th century), and Alexander Nevsky (erected outside Alexander Nevsky Cathedral in 2010).


title: Petrozavodsk

text: The city has a fine frontage on the Gulf of Petrozavodsk. The modern embankment, inaugurated in 1994, displays an assortment of Karelian granites and marbles. It is lined with extravagant postmodernist sculptures presented by sister cities of Petrozavodsk from around the world. There is also a birch copse, where the first church of Petrozavodsk was built in 1703.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: Petrozavodsk is home to the Karelia Philharmonic Orchestra (1933), the Karelian Musical Theater (1955, statuary by Sergey Konenkov), National Library of Karelia (1959), Finnish-speaking National Theatre of Karelia (1965), Petrozavodsk State University, a conservatory, a city museum founded in 1871, and a branch of the Russian Academy of Sciences.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: One of the city's central landmarks is Lenin Square, an oval space with a large Soviet-era statue of Lenin in the center. The square is especially notable for English-speaking visitors because it is also called "round square" - an oxymoron in English, but not in Russian ("kruglaya ploshad").


title: Petrozavodsk

text: The village of Shoksha near Petrozavodsk contains a quarry of red and pink quartzite which was used in construction of Saint Isaac's Cathedral and Lenin Mausoleum, among many other notable structures. There are also other quarries in the region excavating road aggregates (Goloday Gora – gabbro-diabase) near Derevyanka.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: The suburb of Martsialnye Vody is the oldest spa in Russia, founded by Peter the Great in 1714 and visited by the Tsar on four occasions. Its name means "The Waters of Mars" in Russian. Although Peter's palace at Martsialnye Vody has not survived, there is a museum devoted to the spa's history.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: From Petrozavodsk Harbor, a hydrofoil service of "KareliaFlot" company carries people to the island of Kizhi, a World Heritage Site with an outdoor museum of ancient wooden architecture.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: The city is served by the Petrozavodsk Airport, and a train station on the Kirov Railway with train connections to the main population centers of Russia.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: Under the Köppen climate classification, Petrozavodsk experiences a climate on the boundary between a subarctic ("Dfc") and humid continental ("Dfb"), though unlike other localities in Russia on its latitude, temperatures are relatively mild and there is no permafrost. This is due to the moderating influence of the Baltic Sea and the many nearby lakes. Winters, though long and cold, are mild for the high latitude, while summers are short and warm. The lake influence is stronger in summer, where Petrozavodsk has quite low diurnal temperature variation with mild nights for its latitude. Precipitation averages annually.


title: Petrozavodsk

text: In American television series The Sopranos, Tony Soprano's mistress, Irina Peltsin, is from Petrozavodsk.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: LBJ is a 2016 American political drama film about the beginning of the administration of U.S. President Lyndon B. Johnson following the assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy. It was directed by Rob Reiner and written by Joey Hartstone, whose script was on the 2014 Black List. The film stars Woody Harrelson as the titular President, along with Richard Jenkins, Bill Pullman, Kim Allen, Michael Stahl-David, Jennifer Jason Leigh, Jeffrey Donovan, Doug McKeon, C. Thomas Howell, and Michael Mosley.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: Principal photography took place in New Orleans, Baton Rouge, Dallas, and Washington D.C. from September to December 2015. The film premiered at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2016. It was theatrically released by Electric Entertainment and Vertical Entertainment on November 3, 2017. The film received mixed reviews from critics, who called it "surface skimming" and criticized Harrelson's makeup, with some comparing the film negatively to the 2016 HBO film about Johnson, "All the Way".


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: The story begins as Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson and his wife, Lady Bird Johnson, greet President John F. Kennedy and First Lady Jackie Kennedy on November 22, 1963, in Dallas, Texas. While Kennedy is warmly greeted by the crowd, a clearly-disgruntled Johnson is virtually ignored.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: Four years earlier, Johnson was the Senate Majority Leader, bullying senators into supporting legislation. During one such meeting, Johnson asks fellow Texas Senator Ralph Yarborough why he has not endorsed him for the Democratic presidential nomination in the 1960 election, although he has yet to announce. Yarborough instead plans to support Kennedy, who has been running a public campaign on television and through a series of popular primaries. At the Johnson Ranch in Texas, Robert F. Kennedy asks Johnson directly whether he plans to seek the presidency, and Johnson assures him that he doesn't. Sometime later, "Johnson for President" signs start to appear even though he continues to deny publicly that he plans to run, while Kennedy continues to amass support in the primaries. Johnson's advisors suggest he announce publicly to take some of the publicity away from Kennedy, but he instead plans to make his case at the convention. Privately, Johnson admits that he is also afraid that he can't compete with Kennedy, whose good looks and instant charm have made him loved by the public; a love Johnson himself is scared to find out they would not feel for him. At the convention, as he is whipping votes, Johnson is confronted on his broken promise by Bobby Kennedy, who gets his revenge by correctly analyzing that the tide has turned in their favour. Kennedy wins the nomination on the first ballot.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: However, without consulting his brother or advisors like Kenneth O'Donnell, Kennedy asks Johnson to be his running mate. In private, Kennedy says that he can remove Johnson from Congress and make him work for him rather than against him. Johnson himself hopes to turn the vice presidency into a more powerful position. Kennedy and Johnson successfully defeat Richard Nixon and Henry Lodge Jr. in the 1960 election by one of the narrowest margins in history. In his early days as vice president, Johnson tries to increase his power by requesting that all government agencies "cooperate fully with the vice president in the carrying out of these assignments". The president's advisors, contemptuous of Johnson and lined up behind Bobby Kennedy (now the administration's Attorney General), try to block his influence, but Kennedy himself is wary not to antagonize his vice president, appointing O'Donnell to liaise with him on all issues. He appoints him to run his new Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, a part of his program to address civil rights legislation. The first meeting of the commission goes badly as the Cabinet secretaries meant to compose it send aides instead. Aware of his precarious situation, Johnson tells his advisors he will push for compromise on civil rights, knowing that the Southern Democrats, led by his friend and mentor Senator Richard Russell, will oppose any move made by the Kennedys. Although Johnson claims a small victory when he convinces Russell to support equal opportunities in employment in exchange for a manufacturing deal in his native Georgia, neither faction can see eye-to-eye as Russell refuses to consider any other compromises on civil rights, and Kennedy backs Bobby's suggestion that they should go "through him" instead. Following this decision, Johnson is further sidelined and his lack of influence is shown when he attempts to convince Kennedy to appoint his friend Sarah T. Hughes as a federal judge, a recommendation they barely acknowledge. He eventually deduces that Bobby is trying to make him powerless and irrelevant so that he will not be able to contest Bobby's own ambitions to run for the White House in 1968.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: Back in Dallas, Johnson hears a shot as they are driven through the streets in their motorcade. The Secret Service get him to safety in a nearby hospital where they tell him that Kennedy has been shot. Kennedy is soon declared dead and Johnson is thrust into the presidency. Although the Secret Service wishes to return Johnson to the White House immediately, he refuses to leave Dallas without Jackie Kennedy, who refuses to leave her husband. To enquire about the legalities of succession, Johnson calls Bobby Kennedy who reluctantly tells him that he can take the oath of office whenever he wants. Against Bobby's wish, Johnson takes the oath aboard Air Force One, with Jackie at his side and Sarah Hughes, the very judge he had once tried to recommend, swearing him in as president. As he returns to Washington, everyone around him reacts uncertainly, unsure what kind of a president he aims to be. His ascension however delights Russell and his southern Democratic block due to his own southern roots and their belief that he will end the push for civil rights legislation. Johnson asks Kennedy's former advisors to remain, while also giving them the choice to leave if they don't feel like serving him. Debate ensues between them as they are unsure whether they should remain with Johnson, or throw their support behind Bobby as Kennedy's heir. Johnson admits his own doubts to his wife, and that he would have rather lost the presidency on his own merits rather than inherit it in such circumstances.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: Johnson eventually decides that the best way to heal the nation and to ensure his presidency works is to present himself firmly not just as Kennedy's successor but also as his heir. Although aware that Russell will block his efforts, he rejects his previous strategy of compromise and, when asked whether he supports civil rights himself, he recounts a story about how challenging it was for his cook to cross the south from his home in Washington to his ranch as an African American woman. Johnson asks Kennedy speechwriter Ted Sorensen to write a speech he intends to deliver to a joint session of Congress, while he begins whipping votes for the civil rights bill. The speech was meant to serve as a eulogy for Kennedy and an inaugural address for Johnson himself. Eventually, LBJ delivers his 'Let Us Continue' speech to Congress, to rousing applause from both chambers, a visibly-emotional Senator Yarborough, a displeased but respectful Russell, and a very reluctant Bobby Kennedy, who must surrender the mantle of his brother's legacy to his rival.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: A closing text recounts that on July 2, 1964 Johnson signed into law the Civil Rights Act of 1964, fulfilling Kennedy's dream. On November 3 of the same year, he defeated Senator Barry Goldwater in the presidential election, winning 44 states and taking 61.1% of the popular vote, the largest margin of victory since 1820. Over his next term, Johnson pushed through the Great Society legislation, such as the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and establishing programs such as Medicare, Medicaid, and Head Start. However, his escalation of the Vietnam War lead to rising American deaths and intensifying anti-war protests, causing his popularity to plummet by 1968, and causing challenges from within his own party, including from Bobby Kennedy. On March 31, 1968, Johnson declares that he will not seek another presidential term, becoming to date the last sitting president to forgo re-election.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: The script for "LBJ", a political-historical drama written by Joey Hartstone, was one of the winners of the 2014 Black List of unproduced screenplays. On June 16, 2015, Woody Harrelson signed on to play the lead role of 36th President Lyndon B. Johnson, while Rob Reiner signed to direct the film. The film was produced by Acacia Entertainment, Savvy Media Holdings, Castle Rock Entertainment, and Star Thrower Entertainment, and financed by Acacia and Savvy Media. Producers on the film are Matthew George, Reiner, Liz Glotzer, Tim White and Trevor White.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: Principal photography on the film began in New Orleans on September 21, 2015. It was also shot in Baton Rouge, Dallas, and Washington, D.C. Principal photography wrapped in December 2015.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Toronto International Film Festival on September 9, 2016. Shortly after, Electric Entertainment and Vertical Entertainment acquired distribution rights to the film. It was theatrically released on November 3, 2017.


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: On review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of 57%, based on 83 reviews, with an average rating of 5.7/10. The site's critical consensus reads, ""LBJ" loses sight of its complicated subject, ignoring the more intriguing aspects of his personality and career in favor of a frustratingly ordinary biopic treatment." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score 54 out of 100, based 19 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews".


title: LBJ (2016 film)

text: David Ehrlich of IndieWire gave the film a C, and said "Harrelson, who has a gift for squeezing charm out of even his most monstrous characters, leans hard into the contradictory notion that Johnson is a power-hungry humanist. The result is a performance that is both wildly ridiculous and appreciably grounded ... Harrelson’s turn seizes on his unique charisma in order to disentangle LBJ from the policies that have defined his legacy."


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Ryan Curran Arcidiacono ( ; born March 26, 1994) is an Italian-American professional basketball player for the New York Knicks of the National Basketball Association (NBA). Nicknamed "The Arch of Dimes", he has represented Italy in international competition. He attended Neshaminy High School, where he averaged 20.4 points and 5.6 rebounds per game as a junior to lead Neshaminy to the PIAA playoffs. As a freshman at Villanova, he was named to the Big East Conference All-Rookie Team. Arcidiacono, as a junior, was co-winner of the conference's Player of the Year award. As part of Villanova's 2016 national championship team, Arcidiacono was awarded the Most Outstanding Player award and assisted on the game-winning basket to Kris Jenkins as time expired in the championship game.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Arcidiacono was born on March 26, 1994, in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania. He has three older siblings, Sabrina, Nicole, Michael; and younger twin siblings, Christopher and Courtney. His parents, Joe and Patti Arcidiacono, met at Villanova University, where Joe was an offensive lineman on the football team.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: His father installed a 6-foot plastic hoop in the family living room. Young Arcidiacono would often practice shooting jump shots and hitting layups on the small hoop before progressing to an actual basketball court. At one AAU game, Arcidiacono scored 50 points. At another, he hit eight three-pointers in a row. When he was in 7th grade at a basketball camp, Villanova coach Jay Wright said he would one day play for the Wildcats. Growing up, his favorite athletes were the 76ers' Allen Iverson and the Eagles' Brian Dawkins. In eighth grade, Arcidiacono trained with former Penn State player Ben Luber.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Arcidiacono attended Neshaminy High School, where he was coached by Jerry Devine. Arcidiacono led the team to a PIAA Class AAAA tournament as a sophomore. In a playoff game against Bartram High School, he tallied a triple-double of 26 points, 10 rebounds, and 10 assists. He averaged 18 points per game and was named to the Class AAAA second team. At the end of his sophomore season, Arcidiacono travelled with his AAU team, the PA Playaz, to North Carolina for the Bob Gibbons Tournament of Champions. In the first game of the tournament, he crashed into the floor face-first, an injury that required eight stitches. Despite the advice of doctors, he decided to play in the following game, and responded with 35 points. He continued to score at the same pace for the remainder of the tournament, and major college programs took notice. Arcidiacono received recruiting offers from Syracuse, Florida, Texas, and Villanova, among others. In October 2010, after attending Villanova's Hoops Mania event, he committed to play for the Villanova Wildcats.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: As a junior, Arcidiacono guided Neshaminy to a 22–7 record while averaging 20.4 points, 5.6 rebounds, 5.0 assists, and 2.2 steals. He surpassed the 1,000 point mark in a game against Pennsbury, scoring 29 points in an 83–52 win.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: The Neshaminy Redskins reached the state quarterfinals in 2011 before losing to Penn Wood. At the conclusion of his junior season, he was named the "Bucks County Courier Times" player of the year. The "Philadelphia Inquirer" selected him to the first-team all-Southeastern Pennsylvania.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: He began to feel pain in his lower back shortly after the end of his junior season. In May 2011, while attending a basketball camp at the Deron Williams Academy in Chicago, Arcidiacono complained of poor mobility and soreness. He was diagnosed with a herniated disk in his back, forcing him to miss his senior season. Arcidiacono had surgery to repair the disk on December 21, and he could not leave his house for two weeks thereafter. Arcidiacono finished his career at Neshaminy High School as the program's all-time leading scorer. He tallied 1,498 points, 449 rebounds, 378 assists, 178 steals, and 160 three-pointers. Despite missing the season, ESPNU ranked him among the top 50 seniors in the country.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Arcidiacono began his freshman season not fully recovered from his back injury. He made his college debut scoring 11 points against the University of the District of Columbia. In the following game against Marshall, Arcidiacono became the first Wildcat freshman to score 25 points since Scottie Reynolds.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Arcidiacono garnered his first Big East rookie of the week honors on November 18, after an 18-point six-assist performance in an overtime win against Purdue. He was again named Big East rookie of the week on December 31 after a 17-point performance against NJIT. He had a career-high 32 points on January 2, 2013, to propel Villanova to a 98–86 overtime victory over St. John's. This performance earned Arcidiacono Big East rookie of the week honors for the week of January 6. In the January 26 contest against third-ranked Syracuse, Arcidiacono made a 3-pointer with 2.2 seconds remaining in regulation to tie the game at 61. The Wildcats ended up defeating Syracuse in overtime 75–71. Arcidiacono earned his fourth rookie of the week honors in the last week of the regular season.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Led by Arcidiacono, Villanova enjoyed a 20–14 season and reached the NCAA tournament where they were seeded ninth and matched up with eight seed North Carolina in the first round. Arcidiacono had 10 points, but his Wildcats lost to the Tar Heels 78–71. He posted averages of 11.9 points, 3.5 assists and 2.1 rebounds per game. Arcidiacono started all 34 games and played an average of 34.0 minutes per game, which led the team. He was named Philadelphia Big 5 rookie of the year and was selected to the Big East All-Rookie team.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Going into his sophomore campaign, Arcidiacono focused on improving his footwork and shooting mechanics. Arcidiacono hit a 3-pointer with 10.1 seconds left in a November 29 matchup against Kansas despite not making a shot until that point. The Wildcats held on to upset the second-ranked Jayhawks 63–59. Arcidiacono had his first double-double with 20 points and 11 assists in a 94–85 overtime win over Marquette on January 25, 2014. He recorded a season-high 21 points in the February 18 game against Providence. With 3.1 seconds left in double overtime, Arcidiacono completed a three-point play to help the Wildcats to an 82–79 victory.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: He was an honorable mention all-Big East selection at the conclusion of the regular season. He joined teammate Darrun Hilliard on the All-Big 5 Second Team. He posted averages of 9.9 points, 3.5 assists and 2.4 rebounds per contest. Arcidiacono started 33 games and played an average of 31.1 minutes per game, leading the team.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Arcidiacono was selected to the preseason second team All-Big East. In its preseason top 100 college basketball player rankings, ESPN ranked Arcidiacono #84. Arcidiacono was named to the 36-man Bob Cousy Award preseason watch list. On November 14, Arcidiacono scored 16 points in his season debut, a 77–66 victory over Lehigh. He had 10 points in an 80–54 victory over Seton Hall on February 17, 2015, and received a hit on the nose from the forearm of Seton Hall guard Sterling Gibbs, who was suspended and subsequently apologized. On March 3, Arcidiacono scored 23 points, including the go-ahead 3-pointer, in a 76–72 win over Creighton. In the semifinals of the Big East tournament, Villanova defeated Providence 63–61 after Arcidiacono hit a pair of free throws with 3.1 seconds remaining.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: After overcoming a nagging right wrist injury in December, Arcidiacono averaged 12.9 points and 3.6 assists and made 45.5 percent of his attempts from the floor and 44.4 percent from the three-point arc in Big East conference play. He shared Big East Player of the Year honors with Providence guard Kris Dunn, feeling "kind of shocked" about the selection. Arcidiacono was a 2014–15 Men's All-District II Team selection by the U.S. Basketball Writers Association. He was named to the Second Team All-District V by the National Association of Basketball Coaches. He was named to the All-Big 5 First Team.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: Going into his senior year at Villanova, Arcidiacono was named to the Preseason First Team All-Big East. He was listed on the Oscar Robertson Award preseason watchlist as well as the Naismith College Player of the Year watchlist. In his season debut, a 91–54 win over Fairleigh Dickinson on November 13, Arcidiacono had 12 points. On December 31, in a 95–64 victory over sixth-ranked Xavier, he connected on seven 3-pointers and scored 27 points.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: He was named one of the ten finalists for the Senior CLASS Award. At the conclusion of the regular season, Arcidiacono was selected to the Second Team All-Big East. Arcidiacono helped lead Villanova to the 2016 NCAA Division I men's basketball championship, where he had the game-winning assist to Kris Jenkins in the title game against North Carolina, and was named Most Outstanding Player for his performance. Arcidiacono averaged 12.5 points and 4.2 rebounds per game as a senior, shooting 39.4 percent from three-point range.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: After going undrafted in the 2016 NBA draft, Arcidiacono joined the San Antonio Spurs for the 2016 NBA Summer League. On July 14, 2016, he signed with the Spurs, but was waived on October 22 after appearing in three preseason games. Seven days later, he was acquired by the Austin Spurs of the NBA Development League as an affiliate of San Antonio.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: For the 2017–18 season, Arcidiacono originally signed with the Italian team Juvecaserta Basket. However, on July 14, 2017, it was announced that Juvecaserta would not be accepted in Serie A, as it was rejected by Com.Tec. (Commission of control on the companies' financial statements). As a result, he voided the contract with the Italian company.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: On July 25, 2017, Arcidiacono signed a two-way contract with the Chicago Bulls, the team he played with the 2017 NBA Summer League in Las Vegas As a result, he would split time between Chicago and their G League affiliate, the Windy City Bulls throughout the season, with Arcidiacono spending most of his time out in the Windy City. He also became the first player in franchise history to sign a two-way deal. After playing sparingly with Chicago, Arcidiacono averaged 13.8 points, 5 rebounds and 8.6 assists per game with Windy City. He posted 7.2 points, 4.2 rebounds and four assists per game in the 2018 NBA Summer League with Chicago.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: On July 31, 2018, Arcidiacono signed a standard contract with the Bulls. On October 18, he recorded eight points, four rebounds and a career-high eight assists in the season-opener against the Philadelphia 76ers. With three starters injured early in the season, he started to see an increase in playing time. On November 26, 2018, Arcidiacono scored a career-high 22 points with four rebounds, two assists and two steals in a 107–108 loss to the San Antonio Spurs.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: On September 28, 2021, Arcidiacono signed with the Boston Celtics. However, he was waived on October 16. On October 23, he signed with the Maine Celtics as an affiliate player. On January 6, 2022, Arcidiacono signed a 10-day contract with the New York Knicks. On January 13, without appearing in a game, Arcidiacono was waived by the Knicks. On January 19, Arcidiacono signed a standard 10-day contract with the team, but didn't play a game for them again. On January 31, 2022, Arcidiacono was reacquired by the Maine Celtics.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: In June 2012, Arcidiacono was called up to the United States national under-18 team. In June 2013, he was called up as one of the candidates to join the 2013 FIBA Under-19 World Championship.


title: Ryan Arcidiacono

text: In May 2015, he was selected to play for the Italian "experimental" national team in international friendly tournaments. However, he was unable to represent Italy in official competition, as his claim to Italian citizenship by "Jus sanguinis" was denied on the grounds that one of his ancestors had previously renounced it.


title: Caulk

text: Caulk or, less frequently, caulking is a material used to seal joints or seams against leakage in various structures and piping.


title: Caulk

text: The oldest form of caulk consisted of fibrous materials driven into the wedge-shaped seams between boards on wooden boats or ships. Cast iron sewerage pipe were formerly caulked in a similar way. Riveted seams in ships and boilers were formerly sealed by hammering the metal.


title: Caulk

text: Modern caulking compounds are flexible sealing compounds used to close up gaps in buildings and other structures against water, air, dust, insects, or as a component in firestopping. In the tunnelling industry, caulking is the sealing of joints in segmental precast concrete tunnels, commonly by using concrete.


title: Caulk

text: Traditional caulking (also spelled calking) on wooden vessels uses fibers of cotton and oakum (hemp) soaked in pine tar. These fibers are driven into the wedge-shaped seam between planks, with a caulking mallet and a broad chisel-like tool called a caulking iron. The caulking is then covered over with a putty, in the case of hull seams, or else in deck seams with melted pine pitch, in a process referred to as paying, or "calefaction". Those who carried out this work were known as caulkers. In the Hebrew Bible, the prophet Ezekiel refers to the caulking of ships as a specialist skill.


title: Caulk

text: In riveted steel or iron ship construction, caulking was a process of rendering seams watertight by driving a thick, blunt chisel-like tool into the plating adjacent to the seam. This had the effect of displacing the metal into a close fit with the adjoining piece.


title: Caulk

text: Caulking of iron and steel, of the same type described above for ship's hulls, was also used by boilermakers in the era of riveted boilers to make the joints watertight and steamtight.


title: Caulk

text: For bulk use, caulk is generally distributed in disposable cartridges, which are rigid cylindrical cardboard or plastic tubes with an applicator tip at one end, and a movable plunger at the far end. These are used in caulking guns, which typically have a trigger connected to a rod which pushes the plunger, and has a ratchet to prevent backlash. The push rod may also be actuated by a motor or by compressed air. Similar mechanisms are used for grease guns.


title: Caulk

text: Backer rod, also called backer material or back-up rod, is a flexible foam product used behind caulking to increase elasticity, reduce consumption, force the caulking into contact with the sides of the joint creating a better bond, determine the thickness of the caulking, and define the cross-section hour-glass shape of the caulk. The backer rod also acts as a bond breaker to keep the caulking from sticking to the bottom of the opening—called a three-sided bond—with the caulk only adhering to the sides of the opening in an hour-glass shape it can flex more easily and is less likely to tear. Backer rods can also be used to reduce consumption of the caulking by filling part of the joints.


title: Caulk

text: Closed-cell foam does not absorb water and is impermeable. Closed-cell rods are less compressible and should not be compressed more than 25%. Closed-cell rod will also lose firmness and out-gas if damaged during installation or overcompressed or at sharp bends. The gasses cannot pass through this backer rod and can deform, weaken, and even cause holes (leaks) in the sealant as it escapes.


title: Caulk

text: Out-gassing is the reason that open-cell backer rod was developed. Open-cell foam is porous so it will let gasses through which could otherwise cause blistering of the sealant. Additionally, open-cell backer rod allows air to get to the back side of the sealant which accelerates curing when used with air-cured sealants such as silicone. Open-cell rod is more compressible than closed-cell foam and should be compressed 25% to 75%.


title: Caulk

text: According to the Consumer Federation of America, sealing unwanted leaks around homes is an excellent way to cut home energy costs and decrease the household carbon footprint.


title: Caulk

text: Also, sealing cracks and crevices around homes lessens the strain on home appliances and can save time, money and hassle by preventing major repairs. Additionally, increasing the lifetime of homes and appliances also puts less waste and pollution into landfills.


title: Caulk

text: Silicone caulk is a mold- and mildew-resistant sealant. It has high flexibility and less likely to crack, peel, and distort on buildings with movement.


title: Caulk

text: The most common type of caulk is acrylic latex, for general-purpose use. Not only is acrylic latex inexpensive, but it is also the easiest type to apply smoothly and later paint if needed.


title: Dam failure

text: A dam failure or dam burst is a catastrophic type of structural failure characterized by the sudden, rapid, and uncontrolled release of impounded water or the likelihood of such an uncontrolled release. Between the years 2000 and 2009 more than 200 notable dam failures happened worldwide.


title: Dam failure

text: A dam is a barrier across flowing water that obstructs, that directs or slows down the flow, often creating a reservoir, lake or impoundments. Most dams have a section called a "spillway or weir" over or through which water flows, either intermittently or continuously, and some have hydroelectric power generation systems installed.


title: Dam failure

text: Dams are considered "installations containing dangerous forces" under International humanitarian law due to the massive impact of a possible destruction on the civilian population and the environment. Dam failures are comparatively rare, but can cause immense damage and loss of life when they occur. In 1975 the failure of the Banqiao Reservoir Dam and other dams in Henan Province, China caused more casualties than any other dam failure in history. The disaster killed an estimated 171,000 people and 11 million people lost their homes.


title: Dam failure

text: A notable case of deliberate dam breaching was the British Royal Air Force Dambusters raid on Germany in World War II (codenamed ""Operation Chastise""), in which six German dams were selected to be breached in order to impact German infrastructure and manufacturing and power capabilities deriving from the Ruhr and Eder rivers. This raid later became the basis for several films.


title: Dam failure

text: Attacks on dams were restricted in Article 56 of the 1977 Protocol I amendment to the Geneva Conventions. Dams may not be lawfully attacked "if such attack may cause the release of dangerous forces from the works or installations and consequent severe losses among the civilian population", unless "it is used for other than its normal function and in regular, significant and direct support of military operations and if such attack is the only feasible way to terminate such support". Similar provisions apply to other sources of "dangerous forces", such as nuclear power plants.


title: Dam failure

text: Other cases include the Chinese bombing of multiple dams during Typhoon Nina (1975) in an attempt to drain them before their reservoirs overflowed. The typhoon produced what is now considered a 1-in-2000 years flood, which few if any of these dams were designed to survive.


title: Gucci Mane discography

text: American rapper Gucci Mane has released fourteen studio albums, two collaborative albums, six compilation albums, one soundtrack, seven extended plays (EPs), 74 mixtapes and 100 singles (including 52 as a featured artist) and 10 promotional singles.


title: Gucci Mane discography

text: His first four albums were released by Big Cat Records, under the aegis of Tommy Boy Records, while his subsequent major projects were released by Atlantic Records.


title: Donatism

text: Donatism was a Christian sect leading to a schism in the Church, in the region of the Church of Carthage, from the fourth to the sixth centuries. Donatists argued that Christian clergy must be faultless for their ministry to be effective and their prayers and sacraments to be valid. Donatism had its roots in the long-established Christian community of the Roman province Africa Proconsularis (present-day Tunisia, the northeast of Algeria, and the western coast of Libya), in the persecutions of Christians under Diocletian. Named after the Berber Christian bishop Donatus Magnus, Donatism flourished during the fourth and fifth centuries.


title: Donatism

text: The Roman governor of North Africa, lenient to the large Christian minority under his rule throughout the Diocletianic Persecutions, was satisfied when Christians handed over their scriptures as a token repudiation of faith. When the persecution ended, Christians who did so were called "traditores"—"those who handed (the holy things) over"—by their critics (who were mainly from the poorer classes).


title: Donatism

text: Like third-century Novatianism, the Donatists were rigorists; the church must be a church of "saints" (not "sinners"), and sacraments administered by "traditores" were invalid. In 311 Caecilian (a new bishop of Carthage) was consecrated by Felix of Aptungi, an alleged "traditor". His opponents consecrated Majorinus, a short-lived rival who was succeeded by Donatus.


title: Donatism

text: Two years later, a commission appointed by Pope Miltiades condemned the Donatists. They persisted, seeing themselves as the true Church with valid sacraments. Because of their association with the Circumcellions, the Donatists were repressed by Roman authorities. Although they had local support, their opponents were supported by Rome and by the rest of the Catholic Church. The Donatists were still a force during the lifetime of Augustine of Hippo, and disappeared only after the seventh- and eighth-century Muslim conquest.


title: Donatism

text: The Donatists refused to accept the sacraments and spiritual authority of priests and bishops who were "traditores" during the persecution. The "traditores" had returned to positions of authority under Constantine I; according to the Donatists, sacraments administered by the "traditores" were invalid.


title: Donatism

text: Whether the sacrament of Penance could reconcile a "traditor" to full communion was questioned, and the church's position was that the sacrament could. The church still imposed years- (sometimes decades-) long public penance for serious sins. A penitent would first beg for the prayers of those entering a church from outside its doors. They would next be permitted to kneel inside the church during the Liturgy. After being allowed to stand with the congregation, the penitent would finally be allowed to receive the Eucharist again. According to Donatists, apostasy would permanently disqualify a man from church leadership.


title: Donatism

text: The validity of sacraments administered by priests and bishops who had been "traditores" was denied by the Donatists. According to Augustine, a sacrament was from God and "ex opere operato" (Latin for "from the work carried out”). A priest or bishop in a state of mortal sin could continue to administer valid sacraments.


title: Donatism

text: The Donatists believed that a repentant apostate priest could no longer consecrate the Eucharist. Some towns had both Donatist and Orthodox congregations.


title: Donatism

text: The sect developed and grew in North Africa, with unrest and threatened riots in Carthage connected to the bishop controversy. Constantine, hoping to defuse the unrest, gave money to the non-Donatist bishop Caecilian as payment for churches damaged or confiscated during the persecution. Nothing was given to the Donatists; Constantine was apparently not fully aware of the seriousness of the dispute, which his gift exacerbated. The Donatists appealed to Rome for equal treatment; Constantine tasked Miltiades with resolving the issue, which led to the 313 commission. The Donatists refused to abide by the decision of the Roman council, demanding that a local council adjudicate the dispute and appealing directly to Constantine. In a surviving letter, a frustrated Constantine called for what became the first Council of Arles in 314. The council ruled against the Donatists, who again appealed to Constantine. The emperor ordered all parties to Rome for a hearing, ruled in favor of Caecilian and warned against unrest. A delegation from Rome traveled to Carthage in a vain attempt to seek compromise. The Donatists fomented protests and street violence, refusing to compromise in favor of the Catholic bishop.


title: Donatism

text: After the Constantinian shift, when other Christians accepted the emperor's decision, the Donatists continued to demonize him. After several attempts at reconciliation, in 317 Constantine issued an edict threatening death to anyone who disturbed the imperial peace; another edict followed, calling for the confiscation of all Donatist church property. Donatus refused to surrender his buildings in Carthage, and the local Roman governor sent troops to deal with him and his followers. Although the historical record is unclear, some Donatists were apparently killed and their clergy exiled.


title: Donatism

text: Outside Carthage, Donatist churches and clergy were undisturbed. Constantine's efforts to unite the church and the Donatists failed, and by 321 he asked the bishops to show moderation and patience to the sect in an open letter. During the brief reign of Julian, the Donatists were revitalized and, due to imperial protection, occupied churches and carried out atrocities. Laws against the Donatists were decreed by Valentinian I after the defeat of the Donatist usurper Firmus in North Africa.


title: Donatism

text: Augustine of Hippo campaigned against Donatism as bishop; through his efforts, orthodoxy gained the upper hand. According to Augustine and the church, the validity of sacraments was a property of the priesthood independent of individual character. Influenced by the Old Testament, he believed in discipline as a means of education.


title: Donatism

text: In his letter to Vincentius, Augustine used the New Testament Parable of the Great Banquet to justify using force against the Donatists: "You are of opinion that no one should be compelled to follow righteousness; and yet you read that the householder said to his servants, 'Whomsoever ye shall find, compel them to come in.


title: Donatism

text: Marcellinus of Carthage, Emperor Honorius's secretary of state, condemned with decree the Donatists as heretical and demanded that they surrender their churches in 409. This was made possible by a "collatio" in which St. Augustine legally proved that Constantine had chosen the church over the Donatists as the imperial church. The Donatists were persecuted by the Roman authorities to such a degree that Augustine protested their treatment.


title: Donatism

text: The Council of Trent (1545-1563) taught that in the divine sacrifice of the Holy Mass "is contained and immolated, in an unbloody manner, the same Christ that offered Himself in a bloody manner upon the altar of the Cross. Hence, it is the same victim, the same sacrificing-priest who offers Himself now through the ministry of priests and who once offers Himself upon the Cross". The worth of the sacrifice does not depend by the celebrating priest (or bishop), but on the "worth of the victim and on the dignity of the "chief priest"- no other than Jesus Christ Himself".


title: Donatism

text: The effects of Augustine's theological success and the emperor's legal action were somewhat reversed when the Vandals conquered North Africa. Donatism may have also gradually declined because Donatists and orthodox Catholics were equally marginalised by the Arian Vandals, but it survived the Vandal occupation and Justinian I's Byzantine reconquest. Although it is unknown how long Donatism persisted, some Christian historians believe that the schism and its ensuing unrest in the Christian community facilitated the seventh-century Muslim conquest of the region.


title: Donatism

text: In Mauretania and Numidia, the splinter groups were so numerous that the Donatists could not name them all.


title: Donatism

text: For several centuries during the High Middle Ages and the Reformation, accusations of Donatism were leveled against church-reform movements which criticized clerical immorality on theological grounds. The early reformers John Wycliffe and Jan Hus were accused of Donatism by their theological opponents. Wycliffe taught that the moral corruption of priests invalidated their offices and sacraments, a belief characterizing Donatism. Hus similarly argued that a prelate's moral character determined his ecclesiastical authority, a position his contemporaries compared to Donatism and condemned as heresy at the Council of Constance.


title: Donatism

text: During the Reformation, Catholic Counter-Reformers such as Johann Eck accused the magisterial Reformers of Donatism (although the latter had partially distanced themselves from Wycliffe's theology to avoid such a charge). Magisterial Reformers like Ulrich Zwingli labeled radical Reformers, such as the Anabaptists, as Donatists; Catholics were portrayed in Reformation rhetoric as Pelagian, another early Christian heresy. In Eastern Orthodoxy, the Bezpopovtsy (priestless) strain of Old Believers believed that because the Russian bishops acquiesced to Patriarch Nikon's reforms they (and the other patriarchs) forfeited any claim to apostolic succession.


title: Donatism

text: Accusations of Donatism remain common in contemporary intra-Christian polemics. Conservative Lutherans are sometimes called Donatists by their liberal brethren, referring to their doctrine of church fellowship and their position that churches which deny that Jesus’ body and blood are eaten during the Eucharist do not celebrate a valid Lord's Supper.


title: Gregory D. Gadson

text: Gregory Dimitri Gadson (born February 19, 1966) is an American actor, motivational speaker, retired colonel in the United States Army and former commander of the U.S. Army Fort Belvoir garrison. He is also a bilateral above-the-knee amputee. He served in the U.S. Army for more than 20 years as a field artillery officer and served on active duty for Operations Desert Shield and Desert Storm, Operation Joint Forge, Operation Enduring Freedom, and Operation Iraqi Freedom.


title: Gregory D. Gadson

text: Gadson attended the United States Military Academy at West Point, New York, graduating in 1989. He also holds a master's degree in information systems from Webster University and a master's degree in policy management from Georgetown University. He is a graduate of the Command and General Staff College and the Advanced Field Artillery Officers Course and in 2010, he became an Army War College Fellow at the Institute of World Politics in Washington, D.C.


title: Gregory D. Gadson

text: On the night of May 7, 2007, while returning from a memorial service for two soldiers from his brigade, he lost both his legs and severely injured his right arm to a roadside bomb in Baghdad. He became one of the first military personnel to use a next-generation powered prosthetic knee with technology to make it possible for amputees to walk with confidence and with a more natural gait.


title: Gregory D. Gadson

text: He won the prestigious Henry Viscardi Achievement Awards in 2017 given by Viscardi center to honour the extraordinary leaders with disabilities.


title: Gregory D. Gadson

text: Gadson played football at West Point between 1985 and 1988, wearing the No. 98 jersey. In 2007, he was present when the New York Giants beat the Washington Redskins at FedExField at the invitation of West Point classmate Mike Sullivan, who was then on the coaching staff of the New York Giants. This win was the beginning of a 10-game road winning streak and came after Gadson had made an inspirational speech to the team. The streak culminated in the Giants winning Super Bowl XLII. and in recognition for his contribution, Gadson received a specially minted Super Bowl ring. Gadson has since remained with the team as a motivational speaker.


title: Gregory D. Gadson

text: Gadson made his acting debut in "Battleship", a 2012 American science fiction naval war film, as Lieutenant Colonel Mick Canales, playing a war veteran who regains his appetite for the fight when Oahu is threatened by an alien attack. Director Peter Berg, having seen news articles about Gadson, decided to cast him as an army officer trying to recover from the loss of his legs.


title: Gregory D. Gadson

text: Gadson has been an avid photographer for many years. His work has most recently been featured prominently in "Coming Home: Journey, Community, Dialog", a public art project based in New York City that seeks to encourage communication between civilians and those who have served in the US military.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: The ancient Agora of Athens (also called the Classical Agora) is the best-known example of an ancient Greek agora, located to the northwest of the Acropolis and bounded on the south by the hill of the Areopagus and on the west by the hill known as the Agoraios Kolonos, also called Market Hill. The Agora's initial use was for a commercial, assembly, or residential gathering place.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: In the 4th and 5th centuries, there was significant evidence of women being innkeepers and merchants selling their products in the market of the Athenian agora. Some of the products they sold include fruits, clothes, pottery, religious and luxury goods, perfume, incense, purple dye, wreaths, and ribbons.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: The Athenian calendar glistened with religious festivals that were held in the Athenian agora. These festivals were significant for women as they provided a reason for them to leave their homes and socialize with people outside their family. Also, many of these religious festivals were performed by women; these duties included officiating the worship of goddess Athena, the namesake of the city, Athens. Doing these rituals for goddesses was a prerequisite for the daughters of aristocratic families. Women of all ranks and classes could be seen making offerings at the small shrines that dotted the Agora in Athens. Also, women got to set up more substantial memorials to their piety within the agora. Religious festivals were a huge opportunity for the women of Athens to participate in their social culture.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: As of the early 5th century, the Ancient Agora of Athens was known as glorious and richly decorated, set with famous works of art, many of them sculpted from marble. The buildings of the Athenian Agora had marble decoration and housed dedications in the form of marble statues. Finds from the agora excavations identified that generations of marble-workers made the agora of Athens an important center for the production of marble sculptures. Marble-workers made sculptures, marble weights, sundials, furniture parts, an assortment of kitchen utensils. In the excavations of the Athenian agora revealed the remains of many marble-working establishments, and various unfinished statues, reliefs, and utilitarian objects.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: Excavations of the Athenian agora has proved that marble-workers were very active, the earliest workshops being established in the early 5th century. The earliest areas used by marble workers was the residential and industrial district southwest of the agora. Another area where marble-workers set up shop was in the South Square, after the sack of Athens by the Roman general Sulla in 86 BC. As the South Square was in ruins, marble-workers were attracted to the remains of the marble temples. A workshop from the southern corner of the agora was also important, the Library of Pantainos rented out rooms to marble-workers.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: Literacy and evidence from excavations give a sense of statues and famous marble sculptors in the Athenian agora. These famous marble-workers of the Agora include, the 5th-century master Phidias and his associate Alkamenes, and the 4th-century sculptors Praxiteles, Bryaxis, and Euphranor.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: Phidias was the most well known marble-worker to have worked in the agora. He was famous for his gold and ivory cult statue of Zeus at Olympia, and for his three lost sculptures of Athena.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: A well-known associate of Phidias was Alcamenes, whose most important works in the agora were the bronze cult statues of Hephaestus and Athena in the Temple of Hephaestus.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: These famous sculptors are attested in the agora by the discovery of signed pieces of work that could no longer be preserved. A marble statue signed and possibly carved by Bryaxis was found in the agora behind the Royal Stoa.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: The 4th century marble-worker known for his sculptures, made a colossal statue Apollo for the Temple of Apollo Patroos on the west side of the agora.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: The ancient Athenian agora has been excavated by the American School of Classical Studies at Athens (ASCSA) since 1931 under the direction of Thomas Leslie Shear, Sr. His wife Josephine Platner Shear who supervised the digging and led the study and conservation of numismatics from the site, as well as making the discovery of a new 2nd-century C.E. Athenian coin. The excavation was negotiated and directed by the ASCSA's chair of the agora excavation committee, Edward Capps, who the school would honor with a memorial overlooking the project. They continue to the present day, now under the direction of John McK Camp.


title: Ancient Agora of Athens

text: After the initial phase of excavation, in the 1950s the Hellenistic Stoa of Attalos was reconstructed on the east side of the agora, and today it serves as a museum and as storage and office space for the excavation team.