title: The Goodies

text: Brooke-Taylor, Garden and Oddie were cast members of the 1960s BBC radio comedy show "I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again", which also featured John Cleese, David Hatch and Jo Kendall, and lasted until 1973. "I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again" resulted from the 1963 Cambridge University Footlights Club revue "A Clump of Plinths". After having its title changed to "Cambridge Circus", the revue went on to play in the West End in London, England, followed by a tour of New Zealand, then on Broadway in New York City (including an appearance on the "Ed Sullivan Show").


title: The Goodies

text: They also took part in various TV shows with other people, including Brooke-Taylor in "At Last the 1948 Show" (with Cleese, Chapman and Marty Feldman). Brooke-Taylor also took part in "Marty" (with Marty Feldman, John Junkin and Roland MacLeod). In 1968 Brooke-Taylor appeared with Cleese, Michael Palin and Graham Chapman in "How to Irritate People". Garden and Oddie took part in "Twice a Fortnight" (with Michael Palin, Terry Jones and Jonathan Lynn), before Brooke-Taylor, Garden, and Oddie worked on the late-1960s TV show "Broaden Your Mind" (of which only about ten minutes survives).


title: The Goodies

text: The original BBC television series ran from November 1970 to February 1980 on BBC 2, with 67 half-hour episodes and two forty-five-minute Christmas specials. The series was created by Tim Brooke-Taylor, Graeme Garden and Bill Oddie, and originally co-written by all three, with Oddie providing the music for the show. Later episodes were co-written by Garden and Oddie.


title: The Goodies

text: It was one of the first shows in the UK to use chroma key and one of the first to use stop-motion techniques in a live action format. Other effects include hand editing for repeated movement, mainly used to make animals "talk" or "sing", and play speed effects as used in the episode "Kitten Kong". In the series, the threesome travelled on, and frequently fell off, a three-seater bicycle known to them as a 'trandem'.


title: The Goodies

text: In September 1978, the trio appeared in character in an episode of the BBC1 television game show "Star Turn Challenge", presented by Bernard Cribbins, in which teams of celebrities competed in acting games. Their opponents were three members of the cast of "The Liver Birds", Nerys Hughes, Elizabeth Estensen and Michael Angelis. They also presented the Christmas 1976 edition of "Disney Time" from the toy department of Selfridges store in London, broadcast on BBC1 on Boxing Day at 5.50 pm.


title: The Goodies

text: The Goodies never had a formal contract with the BBC, and when the BBC Light Entertainment budget for 1980 was exhausted by the production of "The Hitchhiker's Guide to the Galaxy" TV series, the Goodies signed a contract with London Weekend Television (LWT) for ITV. However, after one half-hour Christmas special ("Snow White 2") in 1981, and a six-part series in early 1982, the series was cancelled. In later interviews the cast suggest the reasons were mainly economic, and that a typical Goodies sketch was more expensive than it appeared.


title: The Goodies

text: "The Goodies" won the Silver Rose at the Festival Rose d'Or, held in Montreux, Switzerland, in 1972 for a special episode, based on the "original" 1971 Goodies' "Kitten Kong" episode, titled "Kitten Kong: Montreux '72 Edition". In the first episode of the next series, "The New Office", Tim Brooke-Taylor can be seen painting the trophy gold.


title: The Goodies

text: "The Goodies" was nominated for a BAFTA for Best Light Entertainment Programme in 1972, losing to "The Benny Hill Show".


title: The Goodies

text: "The Goodies" was nominated for a BAFTA for Best Light Entertainment Programme in 1976, losing to "The Two Ronnies".


title: The Goodies

text: Unlike many long-running BBC comedy series, "The Goodies" has not enjoyed extensive repeats on terrestrial television in the UK. In 1986, BBC2 broadcast the episode "Kitten Kong" during a week of programmes screened under the banner "TV-50", when the BBC celebrated 50 years of broadcasting. In the late 1980s the pan-European satellite-channel Super Channel broadcast a couple of episodes, and the short-lived Comedy Channel broadcast some of the later "Goodies" episodes in the early 1990s. Later UK Gold screened many of the earlier episodes, often with commercial timing cuts. The same episodes subsequently aired on UK Arena, also cut. When UK Arena became UK Drama, later UKTV Drama, "The Goodies" was dropped along with its other comedy and documentary shows.


title: The Goodies

text: The cast finally took matters into their own hands and arranged with Network Video for the release of a digitally-remastered 'best of' selection entitled "The Goodies ... At Last" on VHS and Region 0 DVD in April 2003. A second volume, "The Goodies ... At Last a Second Helping" was released on Region 2 in February 2005. Series 9 (including the Xmas special) was released on Region 2 as "The Goodies – The Complete LWT Series" on 26 March 2007 and a fourth volume "The Goodies ... At Last Back for More, Again" was released on region 2 in 2010 as well as a DVD box set containing all four volumes to celebrate 40 years of "The Goodies".


title: The Goodies

text: In 2004, an episode of the BBC documentary series "Comedy Connections" was devoted to the Goodies. During Christmas that year, Channel 5 repeated the classic 1973 episode "The Goodies and the Beanstalk". Christmas 2005 saw a 90-minute "Goodies" special, a documentary about the series, "Return of the Goodies", broadcast on BBC Two.


title: The Goodies

text: Early in 2006, a single episode ("Winter Olympics") was broadcast on BBC Two. In February 2007, the 1982 LWT series was repeated on pay-TV channel Paramount 2.


title: The Goodies

text: In December 2010, BBC Two showed selected late-night repeats of the BBC series, which ran nightly from 23 to 30 December. This apparent gesture followed years of campaigning by The Goodies that the shows had not been repeated like other BBC shows such as "Dad's Army", "Only Fools and Horses" and "Some Mothers Do 'Ave 'Em". The episodes shown were: "Bunfight at the O.K. Tea Rooms" / "Earthanasia" / "The Goodies and the Beanstalk" / "Kitten Kong" / "Lighthouse Keeping Loonies" / "Saturday Night Grease" / "The Baddies" (a.k.a. "Double Trouble") and "The Stone Age", although "Scoutrageous", "Kung Fu Kapers" and "Scotland" (a.k.a. "Loch Ness Monster") were originally billed as episodes 1, 2 and 7 of the repeat run. The episodes garnered good ratings given their time slot, and the first six episodes were taken from the BBC's own master tapes, rather than the digital remasters, the rights to which are currently owned by Network Video. "The Baddies" and "The Stone Age" have never been digitally remastered.


title: The Goodies

text: On Sunday 8 June 2014, during a 1970s weekend, BBC Two repeated the Montreux '72 Edition of "Kitten Kong" once again; however, this has been the only episode to be repeated twice, and no full series have been repeated since.


title: The Goodies

text: In September 2018, Network released a box set titled "The Goodies: The Complete BBC Collection". This set contains every single episode from 1970-1980 (excepting the lost, original version of "Kitten Kong") and, as a bonus feature, a one-hour edit of the show "An Audience with the Goodies", hosted by Stewart Lee and filmed live at Leicester Square in June 2018.


title: The Goodies

text: In late September 2022 the TV channel 'That's TV' (numbered 183 on SKY TV listings and 65 on Freeview) started showing the BBC episodes, one episode every day, starting with series one episode one on 26th September at 21.40. Series 2 started airing at 21.45 on October 5th. Series 3 started airing at 21:40 on October 11th. Series 4 started airing at 21:30 on October 17th. Series 5 started airing at 21:30 on October 24th. Series 6 started airing at 21:30 on November 6th. Some episodes are being aired in poor quality and/or black & White as the tapes were sadly wiped for reuse by the BBC in the 1970s. Although there is a message before each episode stating; 'This programme reflects the standards, language and attitudes of its time. Some viewers may find this content offensive', it seems that not all episodes are being aired - noticeably the 'Kitten Kong', 'Special Tax Edition' & 'The Goodies Rule – O.K.?' specials, but also series 2 episodes 'Pollution', 'The Lost Tribe', 'Come Dancing', 'Gender Education, 'Charity Bounce' & 'The Baddies', series 3 episode 'Superstar', series 4 episodes 'The Goodies and the Beanstalk' & 'The Race', series 5 episodes 'Scatty Safari' & 'South Africa' were not aired, with no notice or reason given.


title: The Goodies

text: In Australia, the series has had continued popularity. It was especially popular when it was repeated through the 1970s and 1980s by the ABC. As the show was typically broadcast in the 25-minute 6:00 pm children's timeslot, portions often had to be cut. The 1981-82 LWT series was played once on the Seven Network in the early 1980s. The ABC screened the BBC episodes again in the early 1990s, but skipped several stories due to either inappropriate material for a children's timeslot, or a lack of colour prints at the time. The BBC episodes were then heavily edited to allow time for commercials when repeated on Network Ten in the 1990s, before moving to the pay television channel UK.TV during the late 1990s and early 2000s, where they were screened in full. ABC2 ran re-runs of the series, beginning in 2010.


title: The Goodies

text: Three of the Goodies DVDs are available in Australia under different titles to the UK releases: "The Goodies: 8 Delicious Episodes", "The Goodies: A Tasty Second Helping" and "The Goodies: The Final Episodes", respectively. The Goodies' DVDs are also available in a boxed set with a commemorative booklet ("The Goodies: The Tasty Box"). This collection contains the same 16 episodes as the original two DVD releases but with additional material such as commentaries on several episodes and the original scripts of some episodes in PDF format. Picture quality has been greatly improved using digital restoration techniques and the episode "Come Dancing", which was originally thought to only have survived as a black-and-white film recording, is presented in colour from a 625-line low-band broadcast standard PAL VT recording, made for training purposes, which has had the low-level colour boosted. (The original Australian DVD release, "The Goodies – A Tasty Second Helping" (2 disc set), and "The Goodies – A Second Helping: 4 tasty serves" (1 Disc), featured the b/w telerecording of this episode.)


title: The Goodies

text: In Canada, the series was shown in on the CBC national broadcast network during the late 1970s and early 1980s, in the traditional "after school" time slot, later a Friday night 10 pm slot, and occasionally in a midnight slot. Several episodes were also shown on the CTV Television Network. In the mid-1970s it was shown on TVOntario on Saturday evenings, repeated on Thursday evenings, until it was replaced by "Doctor Who" in 1976.


title: The Goodies

text: In Germany in 1972, German TV screened the 13-part variety show "Engelbert and the Young Generation", a co-production between the BBC and German station ZDF in which The Goodies appeared in short 3-to-4-minute film sequences. The first six of these sequences were culled from the first and second series of "The Goodies": "Pets" (from "Kitten Kong"), "Pop Festival" (from "The Music Lovers"), "Keep Fit" (from "Commonwealth Games"), "Post Office" (from "Radio Goodies"), "Sleepwalking" (from "Snooze") and "Factory Farm" (from "Fresh Farm Foods"); and there were seven new film sequences, "Good Deed Day", "The Gym", "The Country Code", "Street Entertainers", "Plum Pudding", "Bodyguards" and "Pan's Grannies" – these also featured intro sequences with host Engelbert Humperdinck visiting the Goodies at their office. The shows were dubbed into German and because the Goodies part of the shows was more visual than dialogue-based, it translated very well.


title: The Goodies

text: Five of these new films were also cut together, with a new story involving The Goodies filling out their "Tax Evasion" form, as a special 25-minute "Goodies" compilation episode, "A Collection of Goodies", first broadcast on BBC1 at 8.15 pm on 24 September 1972, and produced by Jim Franklin. "The Country Code" and "Bodyguards" were not used.


title: The Goodies

text: In New Zealand, the series was originally shown in full by the NZBC (later TV One) during the 1970s and 1980s. Since then, it has been re-run on SKY Network Television's Comedy Central.


title: The Goodies

text: In Spain, a couple of episodes of "The Goodies" were shown as part of a season of television-award-winning programmes (the Goodies were Montreux Festival winners) on TVE 2 entitled "Festival TV" in 1981.


title: The Goodies

text: In the US, the series was shown widely in syndication during the late 1970s and early 1980s, but has been little seen since. It was shown also on PBS stations, sometimes in tandem with "Monty Python's Flying Circus".


title: The Goodies

text: "All Things Bright and Beautiful" was released as a single credited to The Goodies in 1973, although it had been recorded in 1966 when they were part of "I'm Sorry, I'll Read That Again".


title: The Goodies

text: The first true Goodies album, "The Goodies Sing Songs From The Goodies", was released in 1973 and reissued as "The World of the Goodies" in 1974. "The Goodies Theme" was released as a single in 1973.


title: The Goodies

text: They had a string of successful chart singles penned by Bill Oddie. In 1974–75, they chalked up five hit singles in twelve months: "The Inbetweenies", "Black Pudding Bertha", "Nappy Love" and "The Funky Gibbon" (all performed during the episode "The Goodies – Almost Live"), and "Make a Daft Noise for Christmas".


title: The Goodies

text: "The Funky Gibbon" was their biggest hit, reached number 4 in the UK Singles Chart. The Goodies made an appearance on "Top of the Pops" with the song. They also performed it during the Amnesty International show "A Poke in the Eye (with a Sharp Stick)". "The Funky Gibbon" became a favourite in the United States on Dr. Demento's radio shows and reached number 79 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 in 1975.


title: The Goodies

text: "The New Goodies LP", which featured most of the hit singles, reached number 25 on the UK Albums Chart in 1975.


title: The Goodies

text: Three variations of the Goodies Theme were used on the opening titles for the 1970–1982 television series. Apart from the original Goodies Theme, used from 1970–1972 and released as a single, two other variations surfaced, one, with a contemporary feel from 1973–1974, sung by Bill and then the third and final theme for the rest of the series from 1975 onwards, again sung by Bill. This variation lasted for the rest of the TV series and also surfaced on later Goodies LPs and, eventually, singles.


title: The Goodies

text: Tim Brooke-Taylor was a writer/performer on the television comedy series "At Last the 1948 Show" (which also included John Cleese, Graham Chapman and Marty Feldman in the cast), in which Eric Idle and Bill Oddie guest-starred in some of the episodes. The famous "Four Yorkshiremen" sketch was co-written by the four writers/performers of the series – Tim Brooke-Taylor, John Cleese, Graham Chapman and Marty Feldman.


title: The Goodies

text: Tim Brooke-Taylor was a cast member of the television comedy series "Marty" with Marty Feldman and John Junkin – a compilation of the two series of "Marty" has been released on a DVD with the title of "It's Marty".


title: The Goodies

text: Along with John Junkin and Barry Cryer, Brooke-Taylor was a regular cast member of the long-running Radio 2 comedy sketch show "Hello, Cheeky!", which ran from 1973 to 1979. The series also transferred to Yorkshire Television for two series in 1975 and 1976.


title: The Goodies

text: Tim Brooke-Taylor also appeared on BBC's hospital comedy "TLC", as well as the sitcoms "You Must Be The Husband" (with Diane Keen and Sheila Steafel), and "Me and My Girl" (with Richard O'Sullivan and Joan Sanderson). He also played in a televised pro-celebrity golf match opposite Bruce Forsyth.


title: The Goodies

text: Graeme Garden and Bill Oddie were writers/performers on the television comedy series "Twice a Fortnight" (which also included Terry Jones, Michael Palin and Jonathan Lynn in the cast).


title: The Goodies

text: Tim Brooke-Taylor and Graeme Garden were writers/performers on the television comedy series "Broaden Your Mind", with Bill Oddie joining them for the second series.


title: The Goodies

text: The three writers and performers also collaborated on the 1983 animated children's programme "Bananaman", where they played various voice roles.


title: The Goodies

text: Bill Oddie has occasionally appeared on the BBC Radio 4 panel game "I'm Sorry I Haven't a Clue", on which Garden and Brooke-Taylor are regular panellists.


title: The Goodies

text: Graeme Garden and Bill Oddie worked on the television comedy "Doctor in the House": they co-wrote most of the first series and all of the second. Garden also appeared as a television interviewer in the series, in the episode titled "On the Box".


title: The Goodies

text: Between 1981 and 1983 Garden and Oddie wrote, but did not perform in, a science fiction sitcom called "Astronauts" for Central and ITV. The show was set in a British space station in the near future.


title: The Goodies

text: Garden was a regular team captain on the political satire game show "If I Ruled the World". Brooke-Taylor appeared as a guest in one episode, and during the game "I Couldn't Disagree More" he proposed that it was high time "The Goodies" episodes were repeated. Garden was obliged by the rules of the game to refute this statement, and replied "I couldn't disagree more...it was time to repeat them ten, fifteen years ago." This was followed by uproarious applause from the studio audience.


title: The Goodies

text: In 2004, Garden and Brooke-Taylor were co-presenters of Channel 4's daytime game show "Beat the Nation", in which they indulged in usual game show "banter", but took the quiz itself seriously. Oddie hosts a very successful series of nature programmes for the BBC.


title: The Goodies

text: The trio reunited in Australia for "The Goodies (Still A) Live on Stage" as part of Sydney's Big Laugh Comedy Festival in March 2005. The show toured the country, visiting Melbourne, Brisbane and Canberra and selling out most of the 13 performances.


title: The Goodies

text: On 30 December, BBC2 broadcast a feature-length special, featuring some new material by Brooke-Taylor, Garden and Oddie, linking clips from the original television series and interview footage.


title: The Goodies

text: Tim Brooke-Taylor and Graeme Garden took their Goodies Live show to the 2006 Edinburgh Fringe festival. The show was similar to the second leg of the Goodies Australian tour, with Bill Oddie participating via video (due to his many filming commitments). The show was also performed at the Paramount Comedy Festival in Brighton in October 2006.


title: The Goodies

text: Tim Brooke-Taylor and Graeme Garden appeared at Sydney's Riverside Theatre (Parramatta) on 15 October 2009 and the World's Funniest Island comedy festival on Cockatoo Island, Sydney Harbour on 17–18 October 2009. The show was hosted by Andrew Hansen of Australian comedy team The Chaser.


title: The Goodies

text: On the 4th November 2010, The Goodies were once again reunited when the BBC1 show, entitled "The One Show", brought them back.


title: The Goodies

text: Bill Oddie toured Australia to present a series of one-man shows, "An Oldie but a Goodie", during June 2013. The tour took in Brisbane, Sydney, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth. A video with the three Goodies was shown during the shows.


title: The Goodies

text: On 19 June 2013, Oddie made personal appearances on both "The Project" and the "Adam Hills Tonight" television shows in conjunction with the tour.


title: The Goodies

text: The final time that The Goodies collaborated on a commercially available project was a single, hour-long audiobook created for Audible UK, entitled "The Big Ben Theory". Scripted by Gareth Gwynn and John-Luke Roberts, along with Graeme Garden and Bill Oddie, and recorded in front of a highly appreciative live audience, the cast comprised Tim, Bill (an indisposed Graeme was replaced at the last minute by the project's originator and producer, Barnaby Eaton-Jones), Joanna Lumley, Philip Pope, Jon Culshaw and Kate Harbour, with direction from Dirk Maggs. Graeme Garden's own description reads ‘As Parliament falls apart and sinister dictators threaten the world, Tim, Graeme and Bill must save the day. They defeated Kitten Kong! They stuffed the Funky Gibbon! They invented Ecky Thump! Can they save Parliament as well? 52% say yes. 48% say no. But you just can't rely on statistics, can you?!’ The audiobook, released by Audible on 9 October 2019, was intended to be the pilot for a forthcoming series of new episodes to be written and recorded in 2020; however, the project ended with Tim Brooke-Taylor’s death from complications from COVID-19 on April 12 that year in Cookham, Berkshire, aged 79.


title: The Goodies

text: In January 2022 it was announced that a series of novellas based on the planned Audible episodes was set to be published by Chinbeard Books, commencing with "Avengers Dissemble", adapted by producer and writer Barnaby Eaton Jones, with a foreword by Joanna Lumley, and based on material co-devised with the Goodies. The first book is dedicated to Tim Brooke-Taylor, 2 years since his death from COVID-19 complications and published with the backing of Tim's family and the 2 remaining Goodies: Graeme Garden and Bill Oddie, with a percentage of the royalties going to the charity Tim was President of for over 25 years – Thames Valley Adventure Playground.


title: The Goodies

text: "The Mighty Boosh" was started when Julian Barratt asked Noel Fielding if he wanted to make a modern-day Goodies.


title: The Goodies

text: The official Goodies fan club's (Goodies Rule-OK!) newsletter is called the "Clarion & Globe". It was named after the newspaper in The Goodies' episode "Fleet Street Goodies" (a.k.a. "Cunning Stunts").


title: The Goodies

text: During the 1970s, "Cor!!" comic, released by Fleetway publications, had a "Goodies" comics strip. When the comic later merged with "Buster", the "Goodies" did not move across, although the TV show was still running.


title: The Goodies

text: Australian rock band Spiderbait released a 1993 album and EP which contained a rocked-up fast cover version of the Goodies song "Run".


title: The Goodies

text: Australian theatre company Shaolin Punk produced a short play titled "A Record or an OBE", written by Melbourne comedian and actor Ben McKenzie, and featuring Tim and Graeme as characters. Set in 1975, the two remaining Goodies struggle to carry on after Bill leaves the group to pursue a music career. The play premiered in the 2007 Melbourne Fringe Festival, where it was highly commended in the Comedy category. Later seasons were also performed for the Adelaide Fringe and Melbourne International Comedy Festival in 2008.


title: The Goodies

text: U.S. rock band The White Stripes named their 6th album "Icky Thump" in reference to The Goodies sketch "The Battle of Ecky Thump". The name was changed from "Ecky Thump" to "Icky Thump" to make the title more palatable to an American teenage audience.


title: The Goodies

text: All three Goodies were awarded OBEs. Bill Oddie received his OBE in 2003 for wildlife conservation, while Tim Brooke-Taylor and Graeme Garden received their OBEs in 2011 for services to light entertainment. The show often mocked OBEs: in particular, a running joke was that Tim desperately wanted to receive one.


title: The Goodies

text: All three Goodies have been regular attendees at Slapstick Festival in Bristol, and in 2011 they were awarded the Aardman Slapstick Visual Comedy Legend Award at the festival for the significant contributions to the field of visual comedy they have made during their careers.


title: The Goodies

text: On 24 March 1975, Alex Mitchell, a 50-year-old bricklayer from King's Lynn, literally died laughing while watching an episode of "The Goodies". According to his wife, who was a witness, Mitchell was unable to stop laughing whilst watching a sketch in the episode "Kung Fu Kapers" in which Tim Brooke-Taylor, dressed as a kilted Scotsman, used a set of bagpipes to defend himself from a black pudding-wielding Bill Oddie (master of the ancient Lancastrian martial art "Ecky-Thump") in a demonstration of the Scottish martial art of "Hoots-Toot-ochaye". After twenty-five minutes of continuous laughter Mitchell finally slumped on the settee and died from heart failure. His widow later sent the Goodies a letter thanking them for making Mitchell's final moments so pleasant. In 2012, Mitchell's granddaughter was diagnosed with Long QT Syndrome after suffering cardiac arrest. Because this condition is genetic, it is believed that Mitchell's heart failure was triggered by an undiagnosed case of LQTS.


title: The Goodies

text: On 1 November 1977, Seema Bakewell, a 32-year-old housewife from Leicester, went into labour whilst laughing at a sketch in the "Goodies" episode "Alternative Roots". She refused to leave home for the hospital until the episode had finished. Thirty years later, she visited the 2007 UK reunion tour with "her baby, Ayesha, and the baby's husband" and recounted the story to Graeme Garden.


title: Defensive tackle

text: A defensive tackle (DT) is a position in American football that will typically line up on the line of scrimmage, opposite one of the offensive guards, however he may also line up opposite one of the tackles. Defensive tackles are typically the largest and strongest of the defensive players. Depending on a team's individual defensive scheme, a defensive tackle may be called upon to fill several different roles. These roles may include merely holding the point of attack by refusing to be moved, or penetrating a certain gap between offensive linemen to break up a play in the opponent's backfield. If a defensive tackle reads a pass play, his primary responsibility is to pursue the quarterback, or simply knock the pass down at the line if it is within arm's reach. Other responsibilities of the defensive tackle may be to pursue the screen pass or drop into coverage in a zone blitz scheme. In a traditional 4–3 defense, there is no nose tackle. Instead there is a left and right defensive tackle. Some teams, especially in the National Football League (NFL), have a nose tackle in this scheme, but most of them do not.


title: Defensive tackle

text: Nose tackle (also nose guard or middle guard) is a defensive alignment position for a defensive lineman. In the 3–4 defensive scheme the sole defensive tackle is referred to as the nose tackle. The nose tackle aligns across the line of scrimmage from the offense's center before the play begins in the "0-technique" position. In this position, frequently taking on the center and at least one if not both of the guards, the nose tackle is considered to be the most physically demanding position in gridiron football. In five-linemen situations, such as a goal-line formation, the nose guard is the innermost lineman, flanked on either side by a defensive tackle or defensive end. According to Pat Kirwan, a traditional 3–4 defense demands "a massive man who can clog up the middle," while a 4–3 defense is looking for "a nose tackle who relies on quickness to penetrate and move along the front."


title: Defensive tackle

text: Typical 3–4 nose tackles are "big wide bodies who can hold the point of attack and force double teams by the guard and center." They are usually the heaviest players on the roster, with weights ranging from . Also, height is critical, as they are supposed to get "under" the offensive line, which means ideal 3–4 nose tackles are no taller than . Recent examples of such nose tackles include Gilbert Brown, Casey Hampton, Jamal Williams, Vince Wilfork, and Damon Harrison. Rather uncommon are taller nose tackles, such as Bobby Brown III who is and Ted Washington, Ma'ake Kemoeatu, who are tall and each have won Super Bowl rings.


title: Defensive tackle

text: In some 4–3 defenses, the nose tackle is one of two defensive tackles. Some teams, especially in the NFL, have a nose tackle in the 4–3 defense, which lines up against the opposing center and very likely the weak-side or pulling guard. In a 4–3 defense, nose tackles are rather quick and supposed to "shoot the 'A gap' and beat the center and very likely the weak-side or pulling guard into the backfield." Height is not as important, and their weight is closer to .


title: Defensive tackle

text: The terms "nose guard" or "middle guard" were more commonly used with the five-man defensive line of the older 5–2 defense. Effective against most plays of the day, but with a weakness to the inside short pass, the 5–2 was phased out of the pro game in the late 1950s. In the 4–3 defense, the upright middle linebacker replaced the middle guard. The nose guard is also used in a 50 read defense. In this defense there is a nose guard, two defensive tackles, and two outside linebackers who can play on the line of scrimmage or off the line of scrimmage in a two-point stance. The nose guard lines up head up on the center about six to eighteen inches off the ball. In a reading 50 defense, the nose guard's key is to read the offensive center to the ball. In run away, the nose guard's job is to shed the blocker and pursue down the line of scrimmage, taking an angle of pursuit. The primary responsibility of the nose tackle in this scheme is to absorb multiple blockers so that other players in the defensive front can attack ball carriers and rush the quarterback.


title: Defensive tackle

text: A 3-technique tackle (also 3-tech) or undertackle is often featured in a formation with four defensive linemen (such as the traditional 4–3 or the 4–2–5 Nickel defense), but can sometimes fill in as the nose tackle in a 3–4 defense. Compared to the 0 or 1-tech who is more prototypical of the nose tackle, the 3-tech is often a smaller, more agile defensive lineman (but still larger than the defensive ends) who specializes in penetrating through the line with his quickness as his bigger counterpart occupies blockers, aiming to sack the quarterback or tackle the rusher (often the running back) for a loss of yards. The 3-tech often lines up against the "weak side" of the offensive line, and therefore faces fewer double-teams as a result. Notable examples of prototypical 3-tech tackles in the NFL include Geno Atkins, Sharrif Floyd, Tyrone Crawford, Kyle Williams, Ndamukong Suh, Aaron Donald, and Ed Oliver. Donald and Oliver, in particular, have pushed the limits on how small the 3-tech can be, both weighing just 285 lbs. Their smaller statures have drawn criticism, but Donald and Oliver often make up for this using their athleticism. Donald has made eight Pro Bowls and was thrice named the AP Defensive Player of the Year.


title: Robie House

text: The Frederick C. Robie House is a U.S. National Historic Landmark now on the campus of the University of Chicago in the South Side neighborhood of Hyde Park in Chicago, Illinois. Built between 1909 and 1910, the building was designed as a single family home by architect Frank Lloyd Wright. It is considered perhaps the finest example of Prairie School, the first architectural style considered uniquely American.


title: Robie House

text: Robie House was designated a National Historic Landmark on November 27, 1963, and was on the first National Register of Historic Places list of October 15, 1966. The house and a selection of seven other properties by Wright were inscribed on the World Heritage List under the title "The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright" in July 2019.


title: Robie House

text: Wright designed the Robie House in his studio in Oak Park, Illinois between 1908 and 1909. The design precedent for the Robie House was the Ferdinand F. Tomek House in Riverside, Illinois, designed by Wright in 1907–08. At the time that he commissioned Wright to design his home, Robie was only 28 years old and the assistant manager of the Excelsior Supply Company, a company on the South Side of Chicago owned and managed by his father. Although later drawings of the Robie House show a date of 1906, Wright could not have started the design for the building earlier than the spring of 1908 because Robie had actually purchased the property only in May of that year. He and his wife, Lora Hieronymus Robie, a 1900 graduate of the University of Chicago, had selected the property at 5757 South Woodlawn Avenue in order to remain close to the campus and the social life of the university. The property was a typical urban lot in Hyde Park, measuring by .


title: Robie House

text: The contractor for the project, H.B. Barnard Co. of Chicago, began construction on April 15, 1909. Wright did not supervise the construction of the house except in the earliest stages. He closed his Oak Park studio in the fall of 1909 and left for Europe to undertake the work which led to the publication of the Wasmuth Portfolio. He turned over his existing commissions to Hermann von Holst, who retained Marion Mahony, a draughtswoman in Wright's office, and George Mann Niedecken, an interior designer from Milwaukee, Wisconsin who had worked with Wright on the Susan Lawrence Dana House in Springfield, Illinois, the Avery Coonley House in Riverside, Illinois, and the Meyer May House in Grand Rapids, Michigan, to continue their work on the project. Niedecken's influence can be seen in the design of some of the furnishings for the house as well as the carpets in the entrance hall, the living room, and the dining room.


title: Robie House

text: The Robie family—Frederick, Laura, and their two children, Frederick Jr. and Lorraine—moved into the home in May 1910, although all of the final details, including rugs and furniture, were not completed until January 1911. The final cost of the home was $58,500--$13,500 for the land, $35,000 for the design and construction of the building, and $10,000 for the furnishings. (Simple inflation adjusted equivalents of $58,500 in 1910 hover around $1.5 million in 2015, although other ways of comparing price and value over time could place that figure as high as $10 million without accounting for any potential premium as a result of the historical fame of the house.) Robie's original budget had been $60,000.


title: Robie House

text: Robie's tenure in his home was short lived, however. As a result of financial problems incurred by the death of his father in July 1908, who was plagued by gambling debts that Robie unknowingly inherited (allegedly totaling roughly $1 million, or the equivalent of $27 million today), and the deterioration of his marriage, Robie was forced to sell the house after living in it for only fourteen months. David Lee Taylor, president of Taylor-Critchfield Company, an advertising agency, bought the house and all of its Wright-designed contents in December 1911. Taylor died less than a year later, and his widow, Ellen Taylor, sold the house and most of its contents to Marshall D. Wilber, treasurer of the Wilber Mercantile Agency, in November 1912. The Wilbers were the last family to live in Robie House, living there for fourteen years.


title: Robie House

text: In June 1926, the Wilbers sold the house and its contents to the Chicago Theological Seminary, who used the house as a dormitory and dining hall although it was primarily interested in the site for purposes of future expansion. Consequently, Robie House suffered major interior damage, including the destruction of nearly all the characteristic gold wall sconces. Furthermore, at the time, a janitor discovered Wright's handcrafted rocking chair discarded in a trash heap and saved it. Years later, the janitor contacted the University of Chicago when the museum opened up and regifted the chair to Robie House, where it is currently on display in one of the bedrooms. In 1941, a graduate student at the Illinois Institute of Technology accidentally discovered that the Seminary was moving ahead with a plan to demolish the Robie House and informed his instructors, including Ludwig Mies van der Rohe. The threat of demolition aroused a storm of protest. Although the Seminary's plans were subsequently postponed, the crisis was averted more by the onset of World War II than by acquiescence of the property's owner.


title: Robie House

text: The most serious threat to the Robie House arose 16 years later. On March 1, 1957, the Seminary announced plans to demolish the Robie House on September 15 in order to begin the construction of a dormitory for its students. This time an international outcry arose, and Wright himself, then almost 90 years old, returned to the Robie House on March 18, accompanied by the media, students and neighborhood organizers to protest the intended demolition of the house. Commenting on the threatened demolition, Wright quipped, "It all goes to show the danger of entrusting anything spiritual to the clergy." Two fraternities at the University of Chicago provided the Seminary with a realistic alternative to its plans of demolition. During his very brief tenure as a student at the University of Wisconsin, Wright had been a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity. The University of Chicago's Phi Delt chapter house was located two doors north of the Robie house at 5737 Woodlawn Avenue, and the Seminary was already the owner of the lot between the two properties. The Phi Delts offered to vacate their house, and the Zeta Beta Tau fraternity, located next to the Phi Delt house, offered to vacate their house as well. These offers were a turning point in the effort to save the Robie house since the three properties provided the Seminary with sufficient land for the dormitory they sought to build.


title: Robie House

text: In August 1958, William Zeckendorf, a friend of Wright's and a New York real estate developer then involved in several development projects on Chicago's south side, acquired the Robie House at Wright's urging from the seminary through his development company Webb & Knapp. In February 1963, Zeckendorf donated the building to the University of Chicago. The University used Robie House as the Adlai E. Stevenson Institute of International Affairs, and later the building served as the headquarters for the University's Alumni Association. On September 15, 1971, the Commission on Chicago Landmarks, with the support of Mayor Richard J. Daley, declared the Robie House a Chicago landmark.


title: Robie House

text: In January 1997 the University moved their offices out and turned over tours, operations, fundraising and restoration to the Frank Lloyd Wright Trust on February 1. In 2002, the Frank Lloyd Wright Trust began restoration of the Robie House to its original appearance in 1910, when construction completed and the house best reflected the design intent of the architect and the client. Harboe Architects, a leading firm in historic preservation, conducted an assessment, prepared plans for restoration, and led the interior restoration. The Trust follows guidelines developed by the Secretary of the Interior's Standards for the Treatment of Historic Properties. The restoration was completed in 2019, costing over 11 million dollars. After major structural steel restoration, exterior brick work, and installation of modern mechanical systems, the restoration focused on the interiors elements, such as woodwork, glass, and furniture.


title: Robie House

text: The Robie House is one of the best known examples of Frank Lloyd Wright's Prairie style of architecture. The term was coined by architectural critics and historians (not by Wright) who noticed how the buildings and their various components owed their design influence to the landscape and plant life of the midwest prairie of the United States. Typical of Wright's Prairie houses, he designed not only the house, but all of the interiors, the windows, lighting, rugs, furniture and textiles. As Wright wrote in 1910, "it is quite impossible to consider the building one thing and its furnishings another. ... They are all mere structural details of its character and completeness."


title: Robie House

text: The projecting cantilevered roof eaves, continuous bands of art-glass windows, and the use of Roman brick emphasize the horizontal, which had rich associations for Wright. The horizontal line reminded him of the American prairie and was a line of repose and shelter, appropriate for a house.


title: Robie House

text: The exterior walls are double-wythe construction of a Chicago common brick core with a red-orange iron-spotted Roman brick veneer. To further emphasize the horizontal of the bricks, the horizontal joints were filled with a cream-colored mortar and the small vertical joints were filled with brick-colored mortar. From a distance, this complex and expensive tuckpointing creates an impression of continuous lines of horizontal color and minimizes the appearance of individual bricks.


title: Robie House

text: The design of the art glass windows is an abstract pattern of colored and clear glass using Wright's favorite 30 and 60-degree angles. Wright used similar designs in tapestries inside the house and for gates surrounding the outdoor spaces and enclosing the garage courtyard.


title: Robie House

text: Robie's generous budget allowed Wright to design a house with a largely steel structure, which accounts for the minimal deflection of the eaves.


title: Robie House

text: In plan, the house is designed as two large rectangles that seem to slide by one another. Mr. Wright referred to the rectangle on the southwest portion of the site, which contains the principal living spaces of the house, as "the major vessel." On the first floor are the "billiards" room (west end) and children's playroom (east end). The billiards room provided access to a large walk-in safe and a storage area built underneath the front porch projection at the west end of the site. The billiards and playroom open into a small passage and doors near the center of the building to an enclosed garden on the south side of the building. Another door from the playroom opens into the courtyard on the east end of the site. On the second floor are the entry hall at the top of the central stairway, the living room (west end) and the dining room (east end). Built-in inglenook bench cabinetry originally separated the entry hallway from the living room. The living and dining rooms flow into one another along the south side of the building and open through a series of twelve French doors containing art glass panels to an exterior balcony running the length of the south side of the building that overlooks the enclosed garden. The west end of the living room contains a "prow" with art glass windows and two art glass doors that open onto the west porch beneath the cantilevered roof. Wright intended that the users of the building move freely from the interior space to the exterior space.


title: Robie House

text: The rectangle on the northeast portion of the site, called "the minor vessel," contains the more functional and service-related rooms of the house. On the first floor is the main door and entrance hall (west end) from which a stairway leads to the second floor living and dining rooms. A half bath is located on the north side of the entrance hall. Further east are a coat closet and back stairway, the boiler room, laundry room, and coal storage room, followed by a small workshop, half bath, and a three-car garage. The westernmost bay of the garage originally contained a mechanic's pit, and the easternmost bay contained equipment to wash and clean automobiles. On the second floor of the minor vessel is a guest bedroom above the entrance hall and an adjoining full bath. East of the back stairway are the kitchen and butler's pantry, and the servants' sitting room. Two bedrooms and a full bathroom above the garage complete the quarters for the live-in servants.


title: Robie House

text: The third floor overlaps the major and minor vessels in the center of the building. Wright referred to the third floor as the "belvedere," the "place in command of beautiful views." The south side of the third floor contains the master bedroom, dressing area, a full bathroom, and, through a small closet and an art glass door, a balcony facing south and west. Two additional bedrooms and a full bathroom are located on the north side of this floor. All of the windows on this level contain art glass panels. Dresser drawers are built into the walls of the bedrooms underneath the windows, and project into the eave spaces.


title: Robie House

text: The chimney mass containing four fireplaces—one in the billiards room, playroom, living room and master bedroom—and the main stairway from the entrance hall to the second floor living and dining rooms rise through the center of the house, from which the rest of the building radiates. The chimney mass is constructed of the same brick and limestone as the exterior.


title: Robie House

text: The front door and main entrance is partially hidden on the northwest side of the building beneath an overhanging balcony in order to create a sense of privacy and protection for the family. The entrance hall itself is low-ceilinged and dark, but the stairs to the second floor create a sense of anticipation as the visitor moves upward. Once upstairs, the light filled living and dining rooms create a sharp contrast to the dark entrance hall making the living and dining rooms seem even more special. These two rooms are separated by the central chimney mass, but the spaces are connected along their south sides, and the chimney mass has an opening above the fireplace through which the rooms are visually connected. These features unite the two spaces, creating an openness of plan which, for Wright, was a metaphor for the openness of American political and social life.


title: Robie House

text: As with all Prairie houses, Wright designed the light fixtures for the Robie House. Throughout the house, wall sconces can be found in the shape of a hemispherical shade suspended beneath a square bronze fixture. On the second floor living and dining rooms, spherical globes within wooden squares are integrated into the ceiling trim, further tying the two spaces together visually. Soffit lighting running the length of the north and south sides of the living and dining rooms, as well as soffit lighting in the prows of the living and dining rooms, are covered with Wright-designed wooden grilles, backed with translucent colored glass diffusers. Because these lights are all independently operable, different effects can be created within these spaces. Finally, a Wright-designed table lamp with an art glass shade stood on a Wright-designed library table in the living room.


title: Robie House

text: The steel beams in the ceilings and floors carry most of the building's weight to piers at the east and west ends. As a result, the exterior walls have little structural function, and thus are filled with doors and windows containing 174 art glass panels in 29 different designs. Instead of stylized forms from Nature, a favorite Wright motif, geometric forms predominate. The combination of so much glass and lack of internal structural columns resulted in an airy space that appeared larger than it is, accenting the open plan Wright favored.


title: Robie House

text: Wright also designed the furniture, carpets, and textiles for most Prairie houses. However, Wright-designed furniture in the Robie House was only constructed for the entrance hall, the living and dining rooms, guest bedroom, and one bed for the third-floor bedrooms. Some of these pieces are attributed to Wright's interior design collaborator George Mann Niedecken. Robie's financial situation following his father's death may be the explanation for why the entire house was not furnished with furniture of Wright's designs. Most of the original furniture is currently in the collection of the Smart Museum of Art at the University of Chicago, although only the dining room table and chairs are on more or less permanent display. One of the most striking pieces of the furniture designed by Wright for the Robie House is a sofa with extended armrests, echoing the cantilevers of the exterior roof of the building, which effectively create side tables on each side of the sofa. The Wright-designed sofa has been on loan since 1982 from the Smart Museum to the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York and is on display as part of the furnishings in the reconstructed living room of the Francis W. Little House (1915) located in the museum. Miniature cantilevers can also be found in the shelves of the built-in dining room buffet and a food preparation island in the kitchen.


title: Robie House

text: The Robie House was one of the last houses Wright designed in his Oak Park, Illinois home and studio and also one of the last of his Prairie School houses. According to the Historical American Buildings Survey, the city of Chicago's Commission on Chicago Architectural Landmarks stated: "The bold interplay of horizontal planes about the chimney mass, and the structurally expressive piers and windows, established a new form of domestic design." Because the house's components are so well designed and coordinated, it is considered to be a quintessential example of Wright's Prairie School architecture and the "measuring stick" against which all other Prairie School buildings are compared.


title: Robie House

text: The house and the Robie name were immortalized in Ernst Wasmuth's famous 1910 publication "Ausgefuhrte Bauten und Entwurfe von Frank Lloyd Wright" ("Completed Buildings and Projects of Frank Lloyd Wright", a.k.a. "The Wasmuth Portfolio"). This publication featured most of Wright's designs, including those unbuilt, during his Oak Park years and brought them to the attention of students of the Bauhaus school in Germany and the De Stijl school in the Netherlands. Ludwig Mies van der Rohe among other great 20th Century architects, claimed Wright was a major influence on their careers. Mies van der Rohe later visited the Robie House and Wright's home (Taliesin) in Spring Green, WI.


title: Robie House

text: The architectural significance of the Robie House was probably best stated in a 1957 article in "House and Home" magazine:


title: Robie House

text: During the decades of eclecticism's triumph there were also many innovators—less heralded than the fashionable practitioners, but exerting more lasting influence. Of these innovators, none could rival Frank Lloyd Wright. By any standard his Robie house was the House of the 1900s—indeed the House of the Century.


title: Robie House

text: Above all else, the Robie House is a magnificent work of art. But, in addition, the house introduced so many concepts in planning and construction that its full influence cannot be measured accurately for many years to come. Without this house, much of modern architecture as we know it today, might not exist.


title: Robie House

text: In 1956, "The Archectural Record" selected the Robie House as "one of the seven most notable residences ever built in America."


title: Robie House

text: In 1991, the American Institute of Architects named Robie House among the Top All-Time Work of American Architects.


title: Robie House

text: In 2008, the U.S. National Park Service submitted the Robie house, along with nine other Frank Lloyd Wright properties, to a tentative list for World Heritage Status. The 10 sites have been submitted as one entire site. More recently, in July 2012, the Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar announced that he would formally nominate the Robie House and ten other Wright designed buildings as U.S. nominations for World Heritage status. The final decision on inclusion on the list will be made by the World Heritage Committee, composed of representatives from 21 nations and advised by the International Council on Monuments and Sites. After revised proposals, the properties were inscribed on the World Heritage List under the title "The 20th-Century Architecture of Frank Lloyd Wright" in July 2019.


title: Robie House

text: In 2011, Lego released a 2276-piece model set of the Robie House under its Lego Architecture line of products (set number 21010). It was the third Wright building to be featured in the series.


title: Robie House

text: Robie House is the subject of a 2013 PBS documentary and companion book, "10 Buildings that Changed America."


title: Robie House

text: In celebration of the 2018 Illinois Bicentennial, the Robie House was selected as one of the Illinois 200 Great Places by the American Institute of Architects Illinois component (AIA Illinois).


title: Robie House

text: At the time Robie House was commissioned in 1908, the lots surrounding the house's site were mostly vacant except for the lots immediately to the north on Woodlawn Avenue, which were filled with large homes. To the east of the site and across a municipal service alley, a French Provincial style house for Nobel prize winning physicist Albert A. Michelson was built around 1923. The lots to the south were vacant and afforded uninterrupted views to the Midway Plaisance parkland, one of the sites of the World's Columbian Exposition. To the west, a full block of vacant land separated the site from the growing University of Chicago campus, but by 1930 Rockefeller Chapel (1928), the Chicago Theological Seminary (1928), and the Oriental Institute (1930) buildings had been constructed.


title: Robie House

text: Directly south across 58th Street from Robie House is the Charles M. Harper Center of the University of Chicago Booth School of Business. Designed by the Uruguayan-born architect Rafael Viñoly and completed in 2004, the building both respects the scale of the Robie House and contains elements that echo Wright's contributions to the vocabulary of modern architecture.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: Fifty Shades Freed is the third and final installment of the erotic romance "Fifty Shades Trilogy" by British author E. L. James. After accepting entrepreneur CEO Christian Grey's proposal in "Fifty Shades Darker", Anastasia Steele must adjust not only to married life but to her new husband's wealthy lifestyle and controlling nature. The paperback edition was first published in April 2012.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: Anastasia 'Ana' Steele and Christian Grey return to Seattle after a long honeymoon. Christian is upset to find that Ana has kept her maiden name at work. After some resistance, Ana relents and changes her name at work to Grey after realizing how important it is to Christian. As a belated wedding gift, Christian gives Seattle Independent Publishing to Ana, and plans to rename it Grey Publishing.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: While Christian is on a business trip in New York, Anastasia goes out for a drink with longtime friend Kate Kavanagh, doing so against Christian's wishes. Returning home, she finds that her former boss, Jack Hyde, who was fired for attempting to sexually assault her, has been apprehended by the security staff. Duct tape is found in his pocket and in his van there are tranquilizers and a ransom note—all indications that he had intended to kidnap her. Jack is arrested. Angry with Ana for defying him, Christian cuts short his New York business trip and returns to Seattle. Furious that Ana reneged on her promise to have Kate over rather than go out, an upset Christian sulks while Ana sleeps. Eventually, the two argue and Ana berates him for being overly controlling and possessive. She demands more freedom and access to her friends. Christian finally relents after realizing how much Ana's friends mean to her and that Ana did the right thing by staying with Kate rather than at home. Soon after, Christian surprises her with a trip to Aspen, with Kate, Elliot, Mia, and Kate's brother, Ethan. While there, Elliot proposes to Kate, and she accepts.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: Ana's step-father, Ray, is in a medically-induced coma after a car accident. When he awakens a few days later, Ana and Christian arrange to move him to Seattle to recover. It is also Ana's birthday weekend, and Christian surprises her with all her family and friends at a dinner. He gives her a charm bracelet with the charms representing all their "firsts" including an ice cream cone to represent their "vanilla" relationship. Christian also gives her an Audi R8. Soon after, Ana learns that she is pregnant. Christian angrily accuses her of getting pregnant on purpose and leaves. He returns early the next morning drunk, claiming Ana will choose the baby - whom he believes to be a boy - over him. Ana says it could be a girl, though Christian refuses to accept that due to his sexist and chauvinistic nature. Ana becomes furious when she discovers a text message on Christian's phone from his ex-lover Elena Lincoln, the woman who seduced him when he was fifteen and introduced him to the BDSM lifestyle. The message indicates they met for a drink.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: The next two mornings, Anastasia and Christian barely speak to each other: Christian is angry over the unplanned pregnancy; Anastasia is upset about his late-night encounter with Elena, though Christian insists their relationship is long-since over. When Christian is away on a business for a few days, Ana receives a call from Jack Hyde. He has kidnapped Mia Grey and demands $5 million in two hours. He warns Ana not to tell anyone or he will kill Mia.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: Anastasia feigns illness and returns home to escape her bodyguard, Sawyer. She takes a gun and goes to the bank. While collecting the money, the suspicious bank manager calls Christian, who believes Ana is leaving him. To protect Mia's life, Ana lies to Christian, saying she is leaving him to raise the baby alone. Hyde instructs Ana to leave her phone but she tricks him by taking the bank manager's phone instead and dropping it in the trash. She leaves via the back entrance to a waiting car, shocked that Hyde's accomplice is Elizabeth Morgan, her co-worker. When handing over the money, Hyde tries to kill Ana out of vengeance for losing his job, causing Elizabeth to feel guilty for being involved. Angered by his behavior and his hurting Ana, Elizabeth argues with Hyde. On the ground and bruised, Ana shoots Hyde in the leg. As Ana starts to black out she hears Christian calling her name.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: Ana wakes three days later in the hospital with Christian at her side. Though he is angry at Ana's recklessness and still anxious about fatherhood, he realizes how important their baby is to her, and they reconcile. Ana returns home the next day. Christian learns from his private investigator, Welch, that he and Hyde had the same foster family. He tells Ana about how he met and was seduced by Elena. By introducing him to the world of BDSM, Elena helped Christian learn to take control of his life. If she had not intervened, he would still be plagued with horrible memories of his mother and would never have been able to control his life. Ana feels guilty for her behavior when he explains how he ended up seeing Elena. He had been looking for his psychiatrist, Dr. Flynn, because he needed help and when he could not contact Flynn, Christian wound up at Elena's salon to talk to someone about his problems. Elena happened to be at the salon while she was closing. She knew Christian and Ana had had a fight about the pregnancy. Elena took him to her favorite bar for a drink and to help him relax. Although she made a pass at him, Elena realized that Christian loved Ana and finally agreed to leave on good terms. He reassures her that she did the right thing to call him out for his behavior because Dr. Flynn had been right that he still has a lot of growing up to do.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: The next day, a furious Christian discovers from Welsh that Elena's ex-husband, Eric Lincoln, had bailed Jack from jail out of spite for her affair with Christian. Christian tells Ana that after learning about the affair, Eric severely beat Elena and divorced her. Despite Christian's urging, Elena refused to press charges against Eric out of guilt for the affair. Christian retaliated by buying out Eric Lincoln's logging company to sell it off. It is also learned Elizabeth confessed to police that she was blackmailed by Hyde to be his accomplice. (However, her ultimate fate remains a mystery.)


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: Seven months later Ana and Christian have a son named Theodore Raymond Grey, nicknamed Teddy. Two years later Ana is six months pregnant with their second child, a daughter whom they decide to name Phoebe Grey.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: Elliot and Kate have married and have a two-month-old daughter named Ava. At the end, after having BDSM sex, Ana and Christian are getting ready to celebrate Teddy's second birthday with their family and friends.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: "Fifty Shades Freed" entered "The New York Times" Best Seller list at number three. In the UK the novel sold over two million copies.


title: Fifty Shades Freed

text: Sam Taylor-Johnson, the director of the film adaptation of the first installment of the book series, "Fifty Shades of Grey", confirmed on 6 February 2015 that both "Fifty Shades Freed" and the second book in the trilogy, "Fifty Shades Darker", would also be adapted for film. In November 2015, Universal Studios announced that both films would be shot back-to-back with principal photography scheduled to commence in early 2016. The film was scheduled to be released on 9 February 2018.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The Pax Mongolica (Latin for "Mongol Peace"), less often known as Pax Tatarica ("Tatar Peace"), is a historiographical term modelled after the original phrase "Pax Romana" which describes the stabilizing effects of the conquests of the Mongol Empire on the social, cultural and economic life of the inhabitants of the vast Eurasian territory that the Mongols conquered in the 13th and 14th centuries. The term is used to describe the eased communication and commerce the unified administration helped to create and the period of relative peace that followed the Mongols' vast conquests.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The conquests of Genghis Khan (r. 1206–1227) and his successors, spanning from Southeast Asia to Eastern Europe, effectively connected the Eastern world with the Western world. The Silk Road, connecting trade centres across Asia and Europe, came under the sole rule of the Mongol Empire. It was commonly said that "a maiden bearing a nugget of gold on her head could wander safely throughout the realm". Despite the political fragmentation of the Mongol Empire into four khanates (Yuan dynasty, Golden Horde, Chagatai Khanate and Ilkhanate), nearly a century of conquest and civil war was followed by relative stability in the early 14th century. The end of the "Pax Mongolica" was marked by the disintegration of the khanates and the outbreak of the Black Death in Asia which spread along trade routes to much of the world in the mid-14th century.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: During this time, Mongol elements including the ʼPhags-pa script made numerous appearances in western art (see Mongol elements in Western medieval art).


title: Pax Mongolica

text: "Pax Mongolica" followed the wake of conquests by the Mongol Empire beginning with Genghis Khan in the early 13th century. In the process of conquering the various tribes in the region, Genghis Khan revolutionised the way Mongolian tribal society was structured. After each new victory, more and more people were incorporated under Genghis Khan's rule, thus diversifying the societal balance of the tribe. In 1203, Genghis Khan, in an effort to strengthen his army, ordered a reform that reorganised his army's structure while breaking down the traditional clan- and kindred-based divisions that had previously fragmented the society and military. He arranged his army into "arbans" (inter-ethnic groups of ten), and the members of an "arban" were commanded to be loyal to one another regardless of ethnic origin. Ten "arbans" made a "zuun", or a company; ten "zuuns" made a "myangan", or a battalion; and ten "myangans" formed a "tumen", or an army of 10,000. This decimal system organisation of Genghis Khan's strong military would prove very effective in conquering, by persuasion or force, the many tribes of the central Asian steppe, but it would also strengthen Mongol society as a whole. By 1206 Genghis Khan's military expansion had unified the tribes of Mongolia, and in the same year he was elected and acclaimed as the leader of Mongolia.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The new Mongol empire quickly moved to annex more territory. The first Mongol conquests were campaigns against the Western Xia. In 1209 the Mongols conquered the Western Xia. Between 1213 and 1214 the Mongols conquered the Jin Empire, and by 1214 the Mongols had captured most of the land north of the Yellow River. In 1221 Mongol generals Jebe and Subodei began their expedition around the Caspian Sea and into Kievan Rus'; Genghis Khan defeated Turkic Jalal ad-Din Mingburnu at the Battle of Indus; the Khwarezmian Empire were defeated that same year. In 1235 the Mongols successfully invaded Korea. Two years later in 1237 Batu Khan and Subodei began their conquest of Rus'; they invaded Poland and Hungary in 1241. In 1252 the Mongols began their invasion of Song China; they would seize the capital of Hangzhou in 1276. In 1258 Hulagu Khan captured Baghdad.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Each new victory gave the Mongols the chance to incorporate new people, especially foreign engineers and labourers, into their society. Each new conquest also acquired new trade routes and the opportunity to control taxation and tribute. Thus, through territorial expansion, the Mongol Nation not only became an empire, but also became more technologically and economically advanced.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: At its height, the Mongolian empire stretched from Busan in the east to Budapest in the west, from Lithuania in the north to Vietnam in the south. This meant that an extremely large part of the continent was united under one political authority. As a result, the trade routes used by merchants became safe for travel, resulting in an overall growth and expansion of trade from China in the east to Britain in the west. Thus, the "Pax Mongolica" greatly influenced many civilizations in Eurasia during the 13th and 14th centuries.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Under the Mongols new technologies and commodities were exchanged across the Old World, particularly Eurasia. Thomas T. Allsen noted many personnel exchanges occurred during the Mongol period. There were many significant developments in economy (especially trade and public finance), military, medicine, agriculture, cuisine, astronomy, printing, geography, and historiography, which were not limited to Eurasia but also included North Africa.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Before the Mongols' rise, the Old World system consisted of isolated imperial systems. The new Mongol empire amalgamated the once isolated civilizations into a new continental system, and re-established the Silk Road as a dominant method of transportation. The unification of Eurasia under the Mongols greatly diminished the number of competing tribute gatherers throughout the trade network and assured greater safety and security in travel. During the "Pax Mongolica", European merchants like Marco Polo made their way from Europe to China on the well-maintained and well travelled roads that linked Anatolia to China.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: On the Silk Road caravans with Chinese silk; pepper, ginger, cinnamon, and nutmeg came to the West from the Spice Islands via the transcontinental trade routes. Eastern diets were introduced to Europeans as well. Indian muslins, cottons, pearls, and precious stones were sold in Europe, as well as weapons, carpets, and leather goods from Iran. Gunpowder was also introduced to Europe from China. In the opposite direction, Europeans sent silver, fine cloth, horses, linen, and other goods to the near and far East. Increasing trade and commerce meant that the respective nations and societies increased their exposure to new goods and markets, thus increasing the GDP of each nation or society that was involved in the trade system. Μany of the cities participating in the 13th century world trade system grew rapidly in size.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Along with land trade routes, a Maritime Silk Road contributed to the flow of goods and establishment of a "Pax Mongolica". This Maritime Silk Road started with short coastal routes in Southern China. As technology and navigation progressed these routes developed into a high-seas route into the Indian Ocean. Eventually these routes further developed encompassing the Arabian Sea, Persian Gulf, Red Sea, and the sea off East Africa.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Along with tangible goods, people, techniques, information, and ideas moved lucidly across the Eurasian landmass for the first time. For example, John of Montecorvino, archbishop of Beijing founded Roman Catholic missions in India and China and also translated the New Testament into the Mongolian language. Long-distance trade brought new methods of doing business from the far East to Europe; bills of exchange, deposit banking, and insurance were introduced to Europe during the "Pax Mongolica". Bills of exchange made it significantly easier to travel long distances because a traveller would not be burdened by the weight of metal coins.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Islamic methods of mathematics, astronomy, and science made their way to Africa, East Asia and Europe during the "Pax Mongolica". Methods of paper-making and printing made their way from China to Europe. Rudimentary banking systems were established, and money changing and credit extension were common, resulting in large amounts of merchant wealth.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Mongolia's central geographical position on the Asian continent was an important reason why it was able to play such a large role in the trade system. The Mongol army was easily able to assert strong rule throughout most of the empire. The military ensured that supply lines and trade routes flowed smoothly; permanent garrisons were established along trade routes to protect the travelers on these routes. Complex local systems of taxation and extortion that were prevalent before Mongol rule were abolished to ensure the smooth flow of merchants and trade through the empire. A system of weights-and-measures was also standardised. To make the voyage on the trade routes less harrowing, the Mongols went as far as to plant trees along the roads to shade the merchants and travelers in the summer months; stone pillars were used to mark the roads where trees could not grow.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The Mongols sought alliances with other nations and societies to ensure the flow of trade through the empire. The Mongol army was also used to reshape and streamline the flow of trade through the continent by destroying cities on the less-important or more inaccessible routes. The Mongol military was mostly made up of cavalrymen. This allowed the military to move swiftly and easily over large distances.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The Mongols developed the concepts of liability in relation to investments and loans in Mongol–ortoq partnerships, promoting trade and investment to facilitate the commercial integration of the Mongol Empire. In Mongol times, the contractual features of a Mongol-"ortoq" partnership closely resembled that of qirad and commenda arrangements, however, Mongol investors used metal coins, paper money, gold and silver ingots and tradable goods for partnership investments and primarily financed money-lending and trade activities. Moreover, Mongol elites formed trade partnerships with merchants from Central and Western Asia and Europe, including Chinese and Marco Polo’s family.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The code of Mongol law, known as the "Yassa" ("Great Law"), decreed strict rules and punishments in many areas of the Mongolian Empire's society, especially those areas concerning trade and commerce. The "Yassa" helped suppress the traditional causes of tribal feuding and war, thus helping to ensure a peaceful trading and traveling environment. Theft and animal rustling were outlawed, and the Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan even established a massive lost-and-found system. Harsh penalties including a retribution of nine times the original value of stolen goods helped deter theft on Mongol roads. The "Yassa" also decreed complete religious freedom, ensuring that Buddhists, Muslims, Christians, etc., were all allowed to travel freely throughout the empire; religious leaders were also exempted from taxation, as were doctors, lawyers, undertakers, teachers, and scholars. The "Yassa" did allow for flexibility and it usually adapted, absorbed, or built upon legal systems in remote parts of the empire, thus maintaining a level of openness to various societies and ensuring peace and stability.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: In order to ensure Mongol law was enforced, a hierarchy of legal administration was developed. This was headed by the Secretarial Council "chug-shu-sheng" (Zhongshu Sheng 中书省) of the central government which oversaw 10 provincial governments known as "hsing-sheng" (xingsheng 行省). The Xingsheng was further split into smaller districts which handled legal cases. A police commissioner known as "hsien wei" (xianwei 县委) was entrusted with law enforcement and had the authority to arrest suspects. This method of federalising the empire made it easier and more efficient for laws to be administered throughout the continent.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The Mongols established the Yam (, "Örtöö", "checkpoint"), the first system of communication that connected the Far East and the West. Relay stations were set up every 25–30 miles or an average day's journey on horse. These stations were introduced by Ögedei Khan in 1234 and supplied fresh horses and fodder. His brothers Chagatai Khan and Tolui and his nephew Batu Khan further extended this network.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The Mongol army administered the Yam. The Yam stretched across Mongol territory from Eastern Europe to the Pacific Ocean. The routes were well organised, funded, maintained, and administrated by the Mongols. This highly sophisticated system of communication and travel made it relatively easy to send important messages and travel long distances in relatively short amounts of time. As a result of the relatively lucid communication and ease of movement, the Mongols were able to govern their vast empire effectively, thereby ensuring political and economic stability.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The decline of "Pax Mongolica" was a result of a number of factors: incompetent and rivaling leaders, corruption, revolts, decadence, factional struggles, assassinations, external attacks, and disease. The decline of the "Pax Mongolica" resulted in a decline of eased trade between East and West.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The Mongol Empire, near the time of its decline, consisted of many different territories. Each territory was defined as a "khanate". Due to the isolation of the Mongolian world, many rulers in the 14th century started to focus on their own khanates.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Religious intolerance was one particular factor in the decline of the "Pax Mongolica". In Rus', the Mongols (known as the Golden Horde), gradually lost power and territory due to intolerance specifically geared towards different religions. The Rus' Mongols converted to Islam and joined the Egyptian Mamluks for political reasons. At one point in the war, the Golden Horde even fought the Persian Mongols. The eastern part of the Golden Horde, White Horde, had friendly relations with the Ilkhanate and the Great Khan. The decentralisation occurred because communication was so difficult due to the collapsing trade system and the rivalry between Mongol princes. Eventually, the Persian Mongol leader Ghazan converted to Islam in 1295. This contributed to the growing power of Nawruz; a Muslim Oirat general.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: In China, descendants of Kublai Khan claimed the Mongols weakened their power by becoming "too Chinese". This led to Yuan emperors separating themselves from their subjects in order to stress their Mongol identity and to reject their Chinese culture. Kublai Khan once promoted Chinese culture and the importance of its practice but under the Yuan emperors this was prohibited. As the Chinese culture was changing, intolerance became more common. Some Chinese thought that the Mongols were planning to kill Chinese children and perform sexual rituals on them. As a result many Chinese became xenophobic towards the Mongols. This xenophobia led Chinese rulers to expel the Mongols from China and form the Ming dynasty.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: The segregation and fragmentation of the respective khanates in the Mongol Empire were not the only factors in contributing to the decline of the "Pax Mongolica". The outbreak of bubonic plague, or Black Death, also played a devastating role in the decline of the "Pax Mongolica". Because the Mongol Empire bridged once isolated regions, it made it easy for the Black Death to spread rapidly. Historian William H. McNeill has noted that the plague was transferred from ground rodents living in southern Chinese and Burmese Himalayan foothills to Mongol soldiers when they invaded the area in 1252. In 1331 the plague was noted in China, and from East Asia it was carried west along the trade routes by merchants and Mongol soldiers who were able to so freely and quickly travel across the continent during the "Pax Mongolica". Plague-infected fleas hitched rides in the manes of horses, on the hair of camels, or on black rats that nestled in cargoes or in saddlebags. The Black Death is estimated to have killed one-third of China's population and 25-50% of Europe's population.


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Demographically weakened, the Mongols were not able to exert their rule over remote domains in their empire, which began to revolt once the plague broke out. These revolts disrupted the production of goods and flow of trade, which ended the "Pax Mongolica".


title: Pax Mongolica

text: Over the next 300 years, China became increasingly isolationist and inward-looking. China prohibited foreigners, foreign trade, and languages other than Chinese. Confucianism and Taoism were reinstated as the national religions, and the Chinese experienced cultural stagnation. During the early years of the Ming dynasty, despite the voyages of Zheng He, trade with the rest of the world overall declined. This is attributed to wars, epidemics and widespread disruptions rather than "symbolic policy change". Economic difficulties also contributed to the decline as an important world trade player. The Black Death quickly spread to the rest of the world trade system, and the long-distance trading that was common and applauded during the "Pax Mongolica" almost entirely stopped.


title: Feature scaling

text: Feature scaling is a method used to normalize the range of independent variables or features of data. In data processing, it is also known as data normalization and is generally performed during the data preprocessing step.


title: Feature scaling

text: Since the range of values of raw data varies widely, in some machine learning algorithms, objective functions will not work properly without normalization. For example, many classifiers calculate the distance between two points by the Euclidean distance. If one of the features has a broad range of values, the distance will be governed by this particular feature. Therefore, the range of all features should be normalized so that each feature contributes approximately proportionately to the final distance.


title: Feature scaling

text: Another reason why feature scaling is applied is that gradient descent converges much faster with feature scaling than without it.


title: Feature scaling

text: It's also important to apply feature scaling if regularization is used as part of the loss function (so that coefficients are penalized appropriately).


title: Feature scaling

text: Also known as min-max scaling or min-max normalization, rescaling is the simplest method and consists in rescaling the range of features to scale the range in [0, 1] or [−1, 1]. Selecting the target range depends on the nature of the data. The general formula for a min-max of [0, 1] is given as:


title: Feature scaling

text: where formula_2 is an original value, formula_3 is the normalized value. For example, suppose that we have the students' weight data, and the students' weights span [160 pounds, 200 pounds]. To rescale this data, we first subtract 160 from each student's weight and divide the result by 40 (the difference between the maximum and minimum weights).


title: Feature scaling

text: where formula_2 is an original value, formula_3 is the normalized value, formula_9 is the mean of that feature vector. There is another form of the means normalization which divides by the standard deviation which is also called standardization.


title: Feature scaling

text: In machine learning, we can handle various types of data, e.g. audio signals and pixel values for image data, and this data can include multiple dimensions. Feature standardization makes the values of each feature in the data have zero-mean (when subtracting the mean in the numerator) and unit-variance. This method is widely used for normalization in many machine learning algorithms (e.g., support vector machines, logistic regression, and artificial neural networks). The general method of calculation is to determine the distribution mean and standard deviation for each feature. Next we subtract the mean from each feature. Then we divide the values (mean is already subtracted) of each feature by its standard deviation.


title: Feature scaling

text: Where formula_2 is the original feature vector, formula_9 is the mean of that feature vector, and formula_13 is its standard deviation.


title: Feature scaling

text: Another option that is widely used in machine-learning is to scale the components of a feature vector such that the complete vector has length one. This usually means dividing each component by the Euclidean length of the vector:


title: Feature scaling

text: In some applications (e.g., histogram features) it can be more practical to use the L norm (i.e., taxicab geometry) of the feature vector. This is especially important if in the following learning steps the scalar metric is used as a distance measure.


title: Feature scaling

text: In stochastic gradient descent, feature scaling can sometimes improve the convergence speed of the algorithm. In support vector machines, it can reduce the time to find support vectors. Note that feature scaling changes the SVM result .


title: Old English grammar

text: The grammar of Old English is quite different from that of Modern English, predominantly by being much more inflected. As an old Germanic language, Old English has a morphological system that is similar to that of the Proto-Germanic reconstruction, retaining many of the inflections thought to have been common in Proto-Indo-European and also including constructions characteristic of the Germanic daughter languages such as the umlaut.


title: Old English grammar

text: Among living languages, Old English morphology most closely resembles that of modern Icelandic, which is among the most conservative of the Germanic languages. To a lesser extent, it resembles modern German.


title: Old English grammar

text: Nouns, pronouns, adjectives and determiners were fully inflected, with four grammatical cases (nominative, accusative, genitive, dative), and a vestigial instrumental, two grammatical numbers (singular and plural) and three grammatical genders (masculine, feminine, and neuter). First- and second-person personal pronouns also had dual forms for referring to groups of two people, in addition to the usual singular and plural forms.


title: Old English grammar

text: The instrumental case was somewhat rare and occurred only in the masculine and neuter singular. It was often replaced by the dative. Adjectives, pronouns and (sometimes) participles agreed with their corresponding nouns in case, number and gender. Finite verbs agreed with their subjects in person and number.


title: Old English grammar

text: Nouns came in numerous declensions (with many parallels in Latin, Ancient Greek and Sanskrit). Verbs came in ten main conjugations (seven "strong" and three "weak"), all with numerous subtypes, as well as a few additional smaller conjugations and a handful of irregular verbs. The main difference from other ancient Indo-European languages, such as Latin, is that verbs could be conjugated in only two tenses (compared to the six "tenses", really tense/aspect combinations, of Latin), and the absence of a synthetic passive voice, which still existed in Gothic.


title: Old English grammar

text: Each noun belongs to one of the three genders, while adjectives and determiners take different forms depending on the gender of the noun they describe. The word for "the" or "that" is "sē" with a masculine noun, "sēo" with a feminine noun, and "þæt" with a neuter noun. Adjectives change endings: for instance, since "hring" ("ring") is masculine and "cuppe" ("cup") is feminine, a golden ring is "gylden hring", while a golden cup is "gyldenu cuppe".


title: Old English grammar

text: In Old English the words for "he" ("hē") and "she" ("hēo") also mean "it." "Hē" refers back to masculine nouns, "hēo" to feminine nouns, reserving the neuter pronoun "hit" for grammatically neuter nouns. That means even inanimate objects are frequently called "he" or "she." See the following sentence, with the masculine noun "snāw":


title: Old English grammar

text: Only a few nouns referring to people have a grammatical gender that does not match their natural gender, as in the neuter word "mæġden" ("girl"). In such cases, adjectives and determiners follow grammatical gender, but pronouns follow natural gender: "Þæt mæġden sēo þǣr stent, canst þū hīe?" ("The girl who [feminine] is standing there, do you know her?").


title: Old English grammar

text: When two nouns have different genders, adjectives and determiners that refer to them together are inflected neuter: "Hlīsa and spēd bēoþ twieċġu" ("Fame [masculine] and success [feminine] are double-edged [neuter plural]").


title: Old English grammar

text: In Old English (and Indo-European languages generally), each noun's gender derives from morphophonology rather than directly from semantics (word-meaning). In other words, it is not the 'thing' itself that determines the gender of its name (noun), but rather the particular speech-sounds (previously) used to denote that thing's kind (gender). In the ancestor of Old English (namely Proto-Indo-European and later Proto-Germanic), certain speech-sounds in a word-ending generally indicated the word's gender (i.e. kind, sort), but once these word-ending sounds had disappeared from speech over generations, a noun's gender was no longer immediately clear.


title: Old English grammar

text: Nevertheless, the gender of Old English nouns can be partly predicted, but the means by which a noun's gender was assigned (due to historical morphophonology) is a different issue from the means by which a noun's gender can be predicted or remembered (due to various techniques). For example, the Old English names of metals are neuter, not "because" they are metals, but because these words historically ended with sounds that can be assigned as neuter. Below are means of predicting/remembering gender.


title: Old English grammar

text: In general, a thing that has biological sex will have that same gender; masculine "fæder" ("father") and feminine "mōdor" ("mother"), masculine "cyning" ("king") and feminine "cwēn" ("queen"), masculine "munuc" ("monk") and feminine "nunne" ("nun") is feminine, etc. The three major exceptions are neuter "wīf" ("woman") and "mæġden" ("girl"), and masculine "wīfmann" ("woman").


title: Old English grammar

text: Animal names that refer only to males are masculine (e.g. "hana" "rooster," "henġest" "stallion," "eofor" "boar," "fearr" "bull," "ramm" "ram," and "bucc" "buck"), and animal names that refer only to females are feminine (e.g. "henn" "hen," "mīere" "mare," "sugu" "sow," "cū" "cow," "eowu" "ewe," and "dā" "doe"). The only exception is "drān" ("drone"), which is feminine even though it refers to male bees.


title: Old English grammar

text: "General" names for animals (of unspecified sex) could be of any gender (though determined by their historical ending): for example, "ūr" ("aurochs") is masculine, "fifalde" ("butterfly") is feminine, and "swīn" ("pig") is neuter.


title: Old English grammar

text: If a noun could refer to both males "and" females, it was usually masculine. Hence "frēond" ("friend") and "fēond" ("enemy") were masculine, along with many other examples such as "lufiend" ("lover"), "bæcere" ("baker"), "hālga" ("saint"), "sċop" ("poet"), "cuma" ("guest"), "mǣġ" ("relative"), "cristen" ("Christian"), "hǣðen" ("pagan"), "āngenġa" ("loner"), "selfǣta" ("cannibal"), "hlēapere" ("dancer"), and "sangere" ("singer"). The main exceptions are the two words for "child," "ċild" and "bearn", which are both neuter.


title: Old English grammar

text: However, it is not as easy to predict the gender of a noun that refers to a thing without biological sex, such as neuter "seax" ("knife"), feminine "gafol" ("fork"), and masculine "cucler" ("spoon").


title: Old English grammar

text: That said, there are still ways to predict the gender even of nouns referring to things without biological sex:


title: Old English grammar

text: Since gender is noun-specific and ultimately a feature of morphophonology rather than semantics (word-meaning), it is needless to say that any "thing" (referent) might be referred to as a different name (noun) of a different gender: a "mountain" could be denoted by the masculine "beorg" or feminine "dūn", a "star" could be denoted by masculine "steorra" or neuter "tungol", a "window" could be denoted by neuter "ēagþȳrel" or feminine "ēagduru", a "tree" could be denoted by neuter "trēo" ("tree") or masculine "bēam", a "shield wall" denoted by masculine "sċieldweall" or feminine "sċieldburg".


title: Old English grammar

text: Old English has two nouns for many types of people: a general term which can refer to both males and females, like Modern English "waiter," and a separate term which refers only to females, like Modern English "waitress." Several different suffixes are used to specify females:


title: Old English grammar

text: Sometimes the female equivalent is a totally separate word, as in "lārēow" ("teacher") ~ "lǣrestre" ("female teacher," as if the general term were "*lǣrere"), "lǣċe" ("doctor") ~ "lācnestre" ("female doctor," as if the general term were "*lācnere"), and "hlāford" ("master," literally "bread guardian") ~ "hlǣfdiġe" ("mistress," literally "bread kneader").


title: Old English grammar

text: As in several other old Germanic languages, Old English declensions include five cases: nominative, accusative, dative, genitive, and instrumental.


title: Old English grammar

text: Not all nouns take the same endings to inflect for number and case. Instead, each noun belongs to one of eight different classes, and each class has a different set of endings (sometimes several, depending on subtype).


title: Old English grammar

text: In Proto-Germanic, one could tell which class a noun was by its ending in the nominative singular. But by the Old English period, most of these endings had disappeared or merged with other endings, so this was no longer possible.


title: Old English grammar

text: A-stem nouns are by far the largest class, totaling 60% of all nouns. Some are masculine, some are neuter. They are called a-stems because in Proto-Germanic times, they ended in "-az" (if masculine) or "-ą" (if neuter). However, in Old English, both these endings have vanished, and masculines only differ from neuters in the nominative/accusative plural.


title: Old English grammar

text: Masculine a-stems are almost all inflected the same, as in "hund" ("dog") below. The neuter a-stems, however, are split in two: some of them end in "-u" in the nominative/accusative plural, while others have no ending there at all. This was caused by a sound change called high vowel apocope, which occurred in the prehistory of Old English. Short "-i" and "-u" disappeared at the ends of words after a heavy syllable—that is, a syllable containing a long vowel or long diphthong or ending in two or more consonants—and after two light syllables. Nouns which kept short -i/-u are called light, while nouns which lost them are called heavy.


title: Old English grammar

text: The a-stems come in three separate declensions: one for masculine nouns, one for "heavy" neuter nouns, and one for "light" neuter nouns. They are exemplified by "hund" ("dog"), "sċip" ("boat"), and "hūs" ("house"):


title: Old English grammar

text: The ō-stems are by far the largest class after a-stems. They include the vast majority of feminine nouns, and zero nouns of any other gender.


title: Old English grammar

text: They are called ō-stems because they ended in "-ō" in Proto-Germanic, but in Old English that ending has changed to "-u" or vanished. In the nominative singular, "light" ō-stems end in "-u" while "heavy" ō-stems have no ending, just like neuter a-stems in the nominative/accusative plural.


title: Old English grammar

text: N-stems can be any gender, though there are only a few neuters: "ēage" ("eye"), "ēare" ("ear"), "wange" ("cheek"), and compounds ending in them, such as "þunwange" ("temple [of the head]"). N-stems are also called "weak nouns," because they are "weakly" inflected; i.e., most of their inflections have the same ending, "-an". All other nouns are called "strong nouns."


title: Old English grammar

text: Masculine and feminine n-stems are inflected the same except in the nominative singular, where masculines end in "-a", feminines in "-e":


title: Old English grammar

text: The few neuter n-stems are declined the same as feminines, except they also have "-e" in the accusative singular:


title: Old English grammar

text: The i-stems are so called because they ended in "-iz" in Proto-Germanic, but in Old English that ending has either become "-e" (in light i-stems) or vanished (in heavy i-stems). These nouns come in every gender, though neuter i-stems are rare.


title: Old English grammar

text: By the earliest Old English prose, this class has already largely merged with other classes: masculine and neuter i-stems have taken on the same declension as a-stems, and feminine i-stems have "almost" the same declension as ō-stems. So, they are really only called i-stems because of their history, not because of how they inflect.


title: Old English grammar

text: Their only distinct inflection survives in the accusative singular of feminine heavy i-stems, which fluctuates between "-e" (the ō-stem ending) and no ending (the inherited ending):


title: Old English grammar

text: The exceptions are a few nouns that only come in the plural, namely "lēode" ("people") and various names of nationalities, such as "Engle" ("the English") and "Dene" ("the Danes"). These nouns kept the nominative/accusative plural "-e" that they inherited through regular sound change.


title: Old English grammar

text: There are few pure u-stem nouns, but some are very common: "duru" ("door"), "medu" ("mead"), "wudu" ("wood"). Most historical u-stems have been transferred over to the a-stems. Some nouns follow the a-stem inflection overall, but have a few leftover u-stem forms in their inflection. These forms may exist alongside regular a-stem forms:


title: Old English grammar

text: Root nouns are a small class of nouns which, in Proto-Germanic, had ended in a consonant without any intervening vowel.


title: Old English grammar

text: These nouns undergo i-umlaut in the dative singular and the nominative/accusative plural. This is the source of nouns in Modern English which form their plural by changing a vowel, as in man ~ men, foot ~ feet, tooth ~ teeth, mouse ~ mice, goose ~ geese, and louse ~ lice. In Old English, there were many more such words, including "bōc" ("book"), "cū" ("cow"), "gāt" ("goat"), "āc" ("oak"), "hnutu" ("nut"), "burg" ("city"), and "sulh" ("plow").


title: Old English grammar

text: All root nouns are either masculine or feminine. Masculine root nouns are all heavy, but among feminines there is a contrast between light nouns and heavy nouns: light nouns end in "-e" where they have umlaut of the root vowel, while heavy nouns have no ending. The typical declension is this:


title: Old English grammar

text: Nd-stems are nouns formed with the suffix "-end", which creates agent nouns from verbs: "āgan" ("to own") → "āgend" ("owner"). All are masculine.


title: Old English grammar

text: Single-syllable nd-stems are only possible when the stem ends in a vowel, which is rare; hence, only three are attested: "frēond" ("friend") ← "frēoġan" ("to love"), "fēond" ("enemy") ← "fēoġan" ("to hate"), and "tēond" ("accuser") ← "tēon" ("to accuse"). They are declined just like masculine root nouns:


title: Old English grammar

text: The multi-syllable nd-stems are declined very differently. Their stem vowel never undergoes i-umlaut, and in fact, they are inflected just like a-stems in the singular. Moreover, their plural forms are truly unique: the genitive plural always ends in "-ra", which is normally used for adjectives, and the nominative/accusative plural varies between no ending, the adjective ending "-e", and the a-stem ending "-as". The adjectival endings are a relic of the nd-stems' origin as present participles.


title: Old English grammar

text: "Brōþor", "mōdor", and "dohtor" are all inflected the same, with i-umlaut in the dative singular. "Sweostor" is inflected the same except without i-umlaut. "Fæder" is indeclinable in the singular like "sweostor", but has taken its nominative/accusative plural from the a-stems. In addition, "brōþor" and "sweostor" often take the prefix "ġe-" in the plural, while the rest never do.


title: Old English grammar

text: Z-stems are the name given to four neuter nouns which inflect like light neuter a-stems, except the plural endings begin with "-r-". These nouns are "ċild" ("child"), "ǣġ" ("egg"), "lamb" ("lamb"), and "ċealf" ("calf").