title: SummerSlam (2005)

text: The following night on "Raw", Eric Bischoff made a You're Fired match between John Cena and Chris Jericho for the WWE Championship. Although Bischoff interfered, Cena won the match, and Jericho was fired. Immediately after the match, Kurt Angle attacked Cena and was revealed to be Bischoff's new hand-picked representative to win the title from Cena. Angle and Cena feuded until the start of 2006, with Angle unable to win the title, and Bischoff being fired.


title: SummerSlam (2005)

text: The feud between Batista and John "Bradshaw" Layfield (JBL) ended when Batista defeated JBL in a Texas Bullrope match on the September 9 episode of "SmackDown!". Batista then began a storyline with Eddie Guerrero when Guerrero was given a title match at No Mercy, and the two became friends. This storyline ended prematurely due to Guerrero's unexpected death on November 13.


title: SummerSlam (2005)

text: The feud between Matt Hardy and Edge continued with a Street Fight on the August 29 episode of "Raw" (which ended in a no contest) and a Steel Cage match at Unforgiven (which Hardy won), and it ended with Hardy losing a Loser Leaves Raw Ladder match on the October 3 episode of "Raw". The feud between The Undertaker and Randy Orton continued with a Handicap Casket match at No Mercy, where The Undertaker lost to Randy and "Cowboy" Bob Orton. After the match, Randy and Bob poured gasoline on the casket and set it ablaze. The Undertaker had vanished from the casket, and their feud briefly went on hiatus until Survivor Series. Shawn Michaels started a feud with Chris Masters when Masters interrupted Michaels, wanting to take the spotlight. The feud between Chris Benoit and Orlando Jordan continued with Jordan losing in rematches, lasting less than a minute each.


title: SummerSlam (2005)

text: In mid-2006, WWE launched a third brand dubbed ECW, which featured wrestlers from the former Extreme Championship Wrestling promotion, as well as newer talent. Additionally, the ECW World Heavyweight Championship was reactivated to be the brand's top championship, and third concurrently active world title in WWE.


title: John Buchan

text: John Buchan, 1st Baron Tweedsmuir (; 26 August 1875 – 11 February 1940) was a Scottish novelist, historian, and Unionist politician who served as Governor General of Canada, the 15th since Canadian Confederation.


title: John Buchan

text: After a brief legal career, Buchan simultaneously began his writing career and his political and diplomatic careers, serving as a private secretary to the administrator of various colonies in southern Africa. He eventually wrote propaganda for the British war effort during the First World War. He was elected Member of Parliament for the Combined Scottish Universities in 1927, but he spent most of his time on his writing career, notably writing "The Thirty-Nine Steps" and other adventure fiction.


title: John Buchan

text: In 1935, King George V, on the advice of Prime Minister R. B. Bennett, appointed Buchan to replace the Earl of Bessborough as Governor General of Canada, for which purpose Buchan was raised to the peerage. He occupied the post until his death in 1940. Buchan was enthusiastic about literacy and the development of Canadian culture, and he received a state funeral in Canada before his ashes were returned to the United Kingdom.


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan was born at today's 18–20 York Place, a double villa now named after him, in Perth, Scotland. He was the first child of John Buchan – a Free Church of Scotland minister – and Helen Jane Buchan. He was brought up in Kirkcaldy, Fife, and spent many summer holidays with his maternal grandparents in Broughton in the Scottish Borders. There he developed a love for walking and for the local scenery and wildlife, both of which are often featured in his novels. The protagonist in several of his books is Sir Edward Leithen, whose name is borrowed from the Leithen Water, a tributary of the River Tweed.


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan attended Hutchesons' Boys' Grammar School in Glasgow, and was awarded a scholarship to the University of Glasgow at age 17, where he studied classics as a student of James Caddell and wrote poetry, and became a published author. He moved on to study "Literae Humaniores" ("the Classics") at Brasenose College, Oxford, with a junior William Hulme scholarship in 1895, where his friends included Hilaire Belloc, Raymond Asquith, and Aubrey Herbert. Buchan won the Stanhope essay prize in 1897 and the Newdigate Prize for poetry the following year; he also was elected as the president of the Oxford Union and had six of his works published.


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan had his first portrait painted in 1900 by a young Sholto Johnstone Douglas at around the time of his graduation from Oxford.


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan entered into a career in diplomacy and government after graduating from Oxford, becoming in 1901 the private secretary to Alfred Milner, who was then the High Commissioner for Southern Africa, Governor of Cape Colony, and colonial administrator of Transvaal and the Orange River Colony, putting Buchan in what came to be known as Milner's Kindergarten. He also gained an acquaintance with a country that would feature prominently in his writing, which he resumed upon his return to London, at the same time entering into a partnership in the Thomas Nelson & Son publishing company and becoming editor of "The Spectator".


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan also read for and was called to the bar in the same year, though he did not practise as a lawyer, and on 15 July 1907 married Susan Charlotte Grosvenor—daughter of Norman Grosvenor and a cousin of the Duke of Westminster. Together, Buchan and his wife had four children, Alice, John, William, and Alastair, two of whom would spend most of their lives in Canada.


title: John Buchan

text: In 1910, Buchan wrote "Prester John", the first of his adventure novels, set in South Africa, and the following year he suffered from duodenal ulcers, a condition that later afflicted one of his fictional characters. At the same time, Buchan ventured into the political arena, and was adopted as Unionist candidate in March 1911 for the Borders seat of Peebles and Selkirk; he supported free trade, women's suffrage, national insurance, and curtailing the powers of the House of Lords, while opposing the welfare reforms of the Liberal Party, and what he considered the class hatred fostered by Liberal politicians such as David Lloyd George.


title: John Buchan

text: With the outbreak of the First World War, Buchan went to write for the British War Propaganda Bureau and worked as a correspondent in France for "The Times". He continued to write fiction, and in 1915 published his most famous work, "The Thirty-Nine Steps", a spy-thriller set just prior to the First World War. The novel featured Buchan's oft-used hero, Richard Hannay, whose character was based on Edmund Ironside, a friend of Buchan from his days in South Africa. A sequel, "Greenmantle", came the following year. In June 1916 Buchan was sent out to the Western Front to be attached to the British Army's General Headquarters Intelligence Section, to assist with drafting official communiques for the press. On arrival he received a field-commission as a second lieutenant in the Intelligence Corps.


title: John Buchan

text: Recognised for his abilities, Buchan was appointed as the Director of Information in 1917, under Lord Beaverbrook—which Buchan said was "the toughest job I ever took on"—and also assisted Charles Masterman in publishing a monthly magazine detailing the history of the war, the first edition appearing in February 1915 (and later published in 24 volumes as "Nelson's History of the War"). It was difficult for him, given his close connections to many of Britain's military leaders, to be critical of the British Army's conduct during the conflict. At Beaverbrook's request, Buchan met with journalist and neo-Jacobite Herbert Vivian and admitted to Vivian that he was a Jacobite sympathiser.


title: John Buchan

text: Following the close of the war, Buchan turned his attention to writing on historical subjects, along with his usual thrillers and novels. By the mid-1920s, he was living in Elsfield, Oxfordshire, and had become president of the Scottish Historical Society and a trustee of the National Library of Scotland, and he also maintained ties with various universities. Robert Graves, who lived in nearby Islip, mentioned his being recommended by Buchan for a lecturing position at the newly founded Cairo University. In a 1927 by-election, Buchan was elected as the Unionist Party Member of Parliament for the Combined Scottish Universities. Politically, he was of the Unionist-Nationalist tradition, believing in Scotland's promotion as a nation within the British Empire." The effects of the Great Depression in Scotland, and the subsequent high emigration from that country, also led him to reflect in the same speech: "We do not want to be like the Greeks, powerful and prosperous wherever we settle, but with a dead Greece behind us". He found himself profoundly affected by John Morley's "Life of Gladstone", which Buchan read in the early months of the Second World War. He believed that Gladstone had taught people to combat materialism, complacency, and authoritarianism; Buchan later wrote to Herbert Fisher, Stair Gillon, and Gilbert Murray that he was "becoming a Gladstonian Liberal."


title: John Buchan

text: After the United Free Church of Scotland joined in 1929 with the Church of Scotland, Buchan remained an active elder of St Columba's Church in London, as well as of the Oxford Presbyterian church (now St Columba's United Reformed Church, Oxford). In 1933 and 1934, Buchan was further appointed as the King George V's Lord High Commissioner to the General Assembly of the Church of Scotland. Beginning in 1930, Buchan aligned himself with Zionism and the related Palestine All Party Parliamentary Group. (Despite this, Buchan was later described by Anthony Storr as being "overtly antisemitic", though he has been defended by others such as Roger Kimball, who stated that Buchan's anti-semitism was merely representative of society at that time and that Buchan denounced Hitler's anti-semitic policies in 1934.) In recognition of his contributions to literature and education, on 1 January 1932, Buchan was granted the personal gift of the sovereign of induction into the Order of the Companions of Honour.


title: John Buchan

text: In 1935, Buchan's literary work was adapted for the cinema with the release of Alfred Hitchcock's "The 39 Steps", starring Robert Donat as Richard Hannay, although Buchan's story was much altered. This came in the same year that Buchan was honoured with appointment to the Order of St Michael and St George on 23 May, as well as being elevated to the peerage, when he was ennobled by King George V as Baron Tweedsmuir, of Elsfield in the County of Oxford on 1 June. This had been done in preparation for Buchan's appointment as Canada's governor general; when consulted by Canadian prime minister R. B. Bennett about the appointment, the Leader of His Majesty's Loyal Opposition, William Lyon Mackenzie King, recommended that the King allow Buchan to serve as viceroy as a commoner, but George V insisted that he be represented by a peer.


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan's name had been earlier put forward by Mackenzie King to George V as a candidate for the governor generalcy: Buchan and his wife had been guests of Mackenzie King's at his estate, Kingsmere, in 1924 and Mackenzie King, who at that time was prime minister, was impressed with Buchan, stating, "I know no man I would rather have as a friend, a beautiful, noble soul, kindly & generous in thought & word & act, informed as few men in this world have ever been, modest, humble, true, man after God's own heart." One evening in the following year, the Prime Minister mentioned to Governor General the Lord Byng of Vimy that Buchan would be a suitable successor to Byng, with which the Governor General agreed, the two being friends. Word of this reached the British Cabinet, and Buchan was approached, but he was reluctant to take the posting; Byng had been writing to Buchan about the constitutional dispute that took place in June 1926 and spoke disparagingly of Mackenzie King.


title: John Buchan

text: On 27 March 1935, Sir George Halsey Perley announced in the Canadian Parliament (in place of the ailing Bennett, who had recommended Buchan for the governor generalship) that the King "has been graciously pleased to approve the appointment of Mr. John Buchan" as the viceregal representative. The King approved the appointment, made by commission under the royal sign-manual and signet. Buchan then departed for Canada and was sworn in as the country's governor general in a ceremony on 2 November 1935 in the "salon rouge" of the parliament buildings of Quebec.


title: John Buchan

text: By the time Buchan arrived in Canada, William Lyon Mackenzie King had been sworn in as Prime Minister after the Liberal Party won the federal election held the previous month. Buchan was the first viceroy of Canada appointed since the enactment of the Statute of Westminster on 11 December 1931, and was thus the first to have been decided on solely by the monarch of Canada in his Canadian council.


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan brought to the post a longstanding knowledge of Canada. He had written many appreciative words about the country as a journalist on "The Spectator" and had followed the actions of the Canadian forces in the First World War when writing his "Nelson History of the War", helped by talks with Julian Byng, before first visiting Canada in 1924. His knowledge and interest in increasing public awareness and accessibility to Canada's past resulted in Buchan being made the Champlain Society's second honorary president between 1938 and 1939. Buchan continued writing during his time as governor general, but he also took his position as viceroy seriously, and from the outset made it his goal to travel the length and breadth of Canada, including to the Arctic regions, to promote Canadian unity. He said of his job: "a Governor General is in a unique position for it is his duty to know the whole of Canada and all the various types of her people."


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan also encouraged a distinct Canadian identity and national unity, despite the ongoing Great Depression and the difficulty it caused for the population. Not all Canadians shared Buchan's views; he aroused the ire of imperialists when he said in Montreal in 1937: "a Canadian's first loyalty is not to the British Commonwealth of Nations, but to Canada and Canada's King," a statement that the "Montreal Gazette" dubbed as "disloyal." Buchan maintained and recited his idea that ethnic groups "should retain their individuality and each make its contribution to the national character" and "the strongest nations are those that are made up of different racial elements."


title: John Buchan

text: George V died in late January 1936, and his eldest son, the popular Prince Edward, succeeded to the throne as Edward VIII. Rideau Hall—the royal and viceroyal residence in Ottawa—was decked in black crepe and all formal entertaining was cancelled during the official period of mourning. As the year unfolded, it became evident that the new king planned to marry American divorcée Wallis Simpson, which caused much discontent throughout the Dominions. Buchan conveyed to Buckingham Palace and British Prime Minister Stanley Baldwin Canadians' deep affection for the King, but also the outrage to Canadian religious feelings, both Catholic and Protestant, that would occur if Edward married Simpson. By 11 December, King Edward had abdicated in favour of his younger brother, Prince Albert, Duke of York, who was thereafter known as George VI. In order for the line of succession for Canada to remain parallel to those of the other Dominions, Buchan, as Governor-in-Council, gave the government's consent to the British legislation formalising the abdication, and ratified this with finality when he granted Royal Assent to the Canadian Succession to the Throne Act in 1937. Upon receiving news from Mackenzie King of Edward's decision to abdicate, Tweedsmuir commented that, in his year in Canada as governor general, he had represented three kings.


title: John Buchan

text: In May and June 1939, King George VI and Queen Elizabeth toured Canada from coast to coast and paid a state visit to the United States. Buchan had conceived the royal tour before the coronation in 1937; according to the official event historian, Gustave Lanctot, the idea "probably grew out of the knowledge that at his coming Coronation, George VI was to assume the additional title of King of Canada," and Buchan desired to demonstrate vividly Canada's status as an independent kingdom by allowing Canadians to see "their King performing royal functions, supported by his Canadian ministers." Buchan put great effort into securing a positive response to the invitation from the King in May 1937; after more than a year without a reply, in June 1938 Buchan headed to the United Kingdom for a personal holiday, but also to procure a decision on the possible royal tour. From his home near Oxford, Buchan wrote to Mackenzie King: "The important question for me is, of course, the King's visit to Canada." After a period of convalescence at Ruthin Castle, Buchan sailed back to Canada in October with a secured commitment that the royal couple would tour the country. Though he had been a significant contributor to the organisation of the trip, Buchan retired to Rideau Hall for the duration of the royal tour; he expressed the view that while the King of Canada was present, "I cease to exist as Viceroy, and retain only a shadowy legal existence as Governor-General in Council." In Canada itself, the royal couple took part in public events such as the opening of the Lions Gate Bridge in May 1939. The King appointed Tweedsmuir a Knight Grand Cross of the Royal Victorian Order while on the royal train, between Truro and Bedford, Nova Scotia.


title: John Buchan

text: Another factor behind the tour was public relations: the presence of the royal couple in Canada and the United States was calculated to shore up sympathy for Britain in anticipation of hostilities with Nazi Germany. Buchan's experiences during the First World War made him averse to conflict, and he tried to help prevent another war in coordination with Mackenzie King and U.S. President Franklin D. Roosevelt. Still, Buchan authorised Canada's declaration of war against Germany in September, shortly after the British declaration of war and with the consent of King George, and thereafter issued orders of deployment for Canadian soldiers, sailors, and airmen as the titular commander-in-chief of the Canadian armed forces.


title: John Buchan

text: On 6 February 1940, he slipped and struck his head on the edge of a bath, suffering a severe head injury after suffering a stroke at Rideau Hall. Two surgeries by Doctor Wilder Penfield of the Montreal Neurological Institute were insufficient to save him, and his death on 11 February drew a radio eulogy by Mackenzie King: "In the passing of His Excellency, the people of Canada have lost one of the greatest and most revered of their Governors General, and a friend who, from the day of his arrival in this country, dedicated his life to their service." The Governor General had formed a strong bond with his prime minister, even if it may have been built more on political admiration than friendship: Mackenzie King appreciated Buchan's "sterling rectitude and disinterested purpose."


title: John Buchan

text: After lying in state in the Senate chamber on Parliament Hill, Buchan was given a state funeral at St Andrew's Presbyterian Church in Ottawa. His ashes were returned to the UK aboard the cruiser HMS "Orion" for final burial at Elsfield, the village where he lived in Oxfordshire.


title: John Buchan

text: In his last years, Buchan wrote his autobiography "Memory Hold-the-Door", as well as works on the history of Canada. He and Lady Tweedsmuir established the first proper library at Rideau Hall, and he founded the Governor General's Literary Awards, which remain Canada's premier award for literature. His grandchildren James and Perdita Buchan also became writers.


title: John Buchan

text: Buchan's 100 works include nearly 30 novels, seven collections of short stories, and biographies of Sir Walter Scott, Caesar Augustus, and Oliver Cromwell. He was awarded the 1928 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for his biography of the Marquess of Montrose, but the most famous of his books were the spy thrillers, and it is for these that he is now best remembered. The "last Buchan" (as Graham Greene entitled his appreciative review) was the 1941 novel "Sick Heart River" (American title: "Mountain Meadow"), in which a dying protagonist confronts the questions of the meaning of life in the Canadian wilderness.


title: John Buchan

text: Tweedsmuir Provincial Park in British Columbia is now divided into Tweedsmuir South Provincial Park and Tweedsmuir North Provincial Park and Protected Area. It was created in 1938 to commemorate Buchan's 1937 visit to the Rainbow Range and other nearby areas by horseback and floatplane. He wrote in the foreword to a booklet published to commemorate his visit: "I have now travelled over most of Canada and have seen many wonderful things, but I have seen nothing more beautiful and more wonderful than the great park which British Columbia has done me the honour to call by my name".


title: John Buchan

text: His granddaughter Ursula wrote a biography of him, "Beyond the Thirty-Nine Steps: A Life of John Buchan" (2019).


title: John Buchan

text: In the 21st century, his writing has come under scrutiny for its attitudes towards race. For instance, Roger Kimball states: "One cannot read far into the commentary on Buchan, ... before encountering some stiff criticism of some of his attitudes and language. The criticism resolves into three main charges: Buchan was a colonialist, ... Buchan was a racist ... Buchan was an anti-Semite:..." while an article in the "Herald" on Buchan's poem 'The Semitic Spirit speaks' concludes that it "is poisoned by prejudice".


title: Punji stick

text: The punji stick or punji stake is a type of booby trapped stake. It is a simple spike, made out of wood or bamboo, which is sharpened, heated, and usually set in a hole. Punji sticks are usually deployed in substantial numbers. The "Oxford English Dictionary" (third edition, 2007) lists less frequent, earlier spellings for "punji stake (or stick)": panja, panjee, panjie, panji, and punge.


title: Punji stick

text: Punji sticks would be placed in areas likely to be passed through by enemy troops. The presence of punji sticks may be camouflaged by natural undergrowth, crops, grass, brush or similar materials. They were often incorporated into various types of traps; for example, a camouflaged pit into which a soldier might fall (it would then be a trou de loup).


title: Punji stick

text: Sometimes a pit would be dug with punji sticks in the sides pointing "downward" at an angle. A soldier stepping into the pit would find it impossible to remove their leg without doing severe damage, and injuries might be incurred by the simple act of falling forward while one's leg is in a narrow, vertical, stake-lined pit. Such pits would require time and care to dig the soldier's leg out, immobilizing the unit longer than if the foot were simply pierced, in which case the victim could be evacuated by stretcher or firefighter's carry if necessary.


title: Punji stick

text: Other additional measures include coating the sticks in poison from plants, animal venom, or even human feces, causing infection or poisoning in the victim after being pierced by the sticks, even if the injury itself was not life-threatening.


title: Punji stick

text: Punji sticks were sometimes deployed in the preparation of an ambush. Soldiers lying in wait for the enemy to pass would deploy punji sticks in the areas where the surprised enemy might be expected to take cover, resulting in soldiers diving for cover potentially impaling themselves.


title: Punji stick

text: The point of penetration was usually in the foot or lower leg area. Punji sticks were not necessarily meant to kill the person who stepped on them; rather, they were sometimes designed specifically to only wound the enemy and slow or halt their unit while the victim was evacuated to a medical facility.


title: Punji stick

text: In the Vietnam War, this method was used to force the wounded soldier to be transported by helicopter to a medical hospital for treatment.


title: Punji stick

text: The term first appeared in the English language in the 1870s, after the British Indian Army encountered the sticks in their border conflicts against the Kachins of north east Burma (and it is from the Tibeto-Burman language that this word probably originated).


title: Minute Maid

text: Minute Maid is a product line of beverages, usually associated with lemonade or orange juice, but which now extends to soft drinks of different kinds, including Hi-C. Minute Maid is sold under the Cappy brand in Central Europe and under the brand "Моя Семья" (Moya sem'ya, "My Family") in Russia and the Commonwealth of Independent States.


title: Minute Maid

text: Minute Maid was the first company to market frozen orange juice concentrate, allowing it to be distributed throughout the United States and served year-round. The Minute Maid Company is owned by The Coca-Cola Company, the world's largest marketer of fruit juices and drinks. The firm opened its headquarters in Sugar Land Town Square in Sugar Land, Texas, United States, on February 16, 2009; previously it was headquartered in the 2000 St. James Place building in Houston.


title: Minute Maid

text: The company was originally incorporated in 1945 as Florida Foods, Inc, then later became Vacuum Foods Corporation. It employs over 1,900 people and has over $2 billion in sales (1997 est.).


title: Minute Maid

text: In 1945, the National Research Corporation (NRC) of Boston, Massachusetts, developed a method of dehydrating medical products for use in the U.S. war effort. The US Army wanted to extend this process to nutritious food, so NRC created a new subsidiary, the Florida Foods Corporation. Led by John M. Fox, Florida Foods Corporation won a government contract worth $750,000 for 500,000 lb (227,000 kg) of powdered orange juice for the war. The war ended and the contract was canceled before the factory could be built, but with investment, the company moved forward with a product.


title: Minute Maid

text: Rather than selling powder to the public market, the company decided to create frozen orange juice concentrate, using a process that eliminated 80 percent of the water in orange juice. A Boston marketing firm H. A. Loudon Advertising came up with the name Minute Maid, implying the juice was quick and easy to prepare.


title: Minute Maid

text: The first shipment took place in April 1946. The same month, the company was renamed Vacuum Foods Corporation. With limited funds for advertising, Fox himself went door to door giving free samples, until demand skyrocketed. In October 1948, TIME magazine announced that entertainer Bing Crosby was to employ a 5-day a week radio show to promote Minute Maid. The magazine article gave further details: "Minute Maid (retail price: 29¢ a pint and a half) got into the field first in 1945, at a new $2,300,000 plant in Plymouth, Fla. With little cash to advertise, it lost $450,262 the first two years. Last year it finally turned the corner. Says Vacuum’s President John M. Fox: “Why, this orange juice thing is the wonder of the grocery world. Ask anybody.” Anybody in the frozen food industry agreed—and Birds Eye, Snow Crop and others began to put out their own concentrate. Nevertheless, Vacuum’s sales increased so much that President Fox announced last week that the net profit for its last fiscal year was $179,865. Demand is so great, said Fox, that Vacuum has had to allocate shipments and is thinking of setting up a California plant. The shortage temporarily takes some of the bloom off the Crosby deal. But Vacuum hopes to step up output enough to fill the new orders Crosby will bring in. And in the scramble for the new market, Vacuum figures that Crosby is just the Pied Piper needed to lure customers away from the old brand names."The Crosby radio show ran until October 1950 and the ability to purchase fresh-tasting orange juice at any time of year, far from where oranges are grown, proved popular, and led to the company's national success.


title: Minute Maid

text: In October 1949, the company adopted the name Minute Maid Corp. In late 1954, Minute Maid purchased rival Snow Crop.


title: Minute Maid

text: In 1967, Minute Maid relocated to Houston, Texas, and joined with Duncan Foods to form the Coca-Cola Foods division.


title: Minute Maid

text: In 1970, the company was involved in a scandal in the United States about bad housing, often referred to as "slave quarters", and working conditions of Minute Maid farm laborers in Florida. The United Farm Workers stepped in to support the workers. NBC reported on the issue in a 1970 documentary called "Chet Huntley's Migrant: An NBC White Paper". In response to the bad press and a boycott in Florida, the company established a program that improved the workers' situation.


title: Minute Maid

text: In 1973, the company released its first ready-to-drink, chilled orange juice product in the United States, entering an "orange juice war" with Tropicana.


title: Minute Maid

text: The Coca-Cola Company sold its Minute Maid orange groves in Florida in 1997. The United Farm Workers again took the side of the orange growers during this time.


title: Minute Maid

text: In 2001, the Minute Maid division of Coca-Cola launched the Simply Orange brand, which "uses a computer-modeled blending of citrus sources with the intent for the consumer to enjoy a uniform taste year-round".


title: Minute Maid

text: In 2002, Minute Maid bought the naming rights to re-brand the Houston Astros ballpark from Enron Field to Minute Maid Park.


title: Minute Maid

text: Minute Maid entered the Pakistani market in 2008. Here they have used the same advertising concept as they have used in India i.e. "where is the pulp?".


title: Minute Maid

text: Minute Maid is marketed under the brand "Моя семья" (eng. "My family"). Also Minute Maid Pulpy Orange is selling under the brand "Добрый" (eng. "Kind")


title: Minute Maid

text: John M Fox, president of the company announced on October 20, 1957, that Minute Maid Headquarters would be moved to a new building located on the corner of US 441 and Hwy Route 50 in Orlando, Florida.


title: Minute Maid

text: Minute Maid has its headquarters in an office building in the Sugar Land Town Square development in First Colony, Sugar Land, Texas.


title: Minute Maid

text: In 1985, The Coca-Cola Company purchased the 2000 St. James Place in Houston from Bechtel Corporation for Minute Maid. Minute Maid moved into the new office building the following year.


title: Minute Maid

text: In 2007, Coca-Cola retained New York-based Corporate Realty Consultants and Boyd Commercial LLC of Houston to sell 2000 St. James Place. The company negotiated with Planned Community Developers to lease an office building in Sugar Land Town Square. Then, in January 2008, Minute Maid announced plans to move its headquarters to Sugar Land. The headquarters building is located at Sugar Land's town center and opened on February 16, 2009. The city of Sugar Land gave the company a $2.4 million tax incentive to move its headquarters there.


title: Minute Maid

text: On March 6, 2021, amid the COVID-19 pandemic, Coca-Cola announced it was closing Minute Maid's office in Sugar Land and would join the operations with the company's base in Atlanta, Georgia.


title: Camille Guaty

text: Camille Guaty (born June 28, 1976) is an American film and television actress. She is known for several roles: as Daisy in "Gotta Kick It Up!" (2002), for playing Maricruz Delgado, Sucre's girlfriend, in "Prison Break" (2005–2007), and as Walter O'Brien's sister, Megan, a recurring role on the CBS series "Scorpion" (2014–2015).


title: Camille Guaty

text: Guaty was born in Sunnyvale, California of Cuban and Puerto Rican descent. Her mother's side of the family is originally from the Canary Islands.


title: Camille Guaty

text: She attended a summer program at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art in London and studied at Boston University. She has lived in California, New Jersey and New York City.


title: Camille Guaty

text: Camille auditioned for "Popstars", a reality TV show that aired on the WB Network in 2000. She made it to the L.A. Workshop that included only the best 26 contestants. In the end, Camille was one of ten semi-finalists and eventually the last contestant "not" to win a spot as part of the winning girl group Eden's Crush.


title: Camille Guaty

text: In 2002, Guaty was the lead in the movie "Gotta Kick It Up!", a Disney Channel Original movie. She was the leading role in the short-lived TV series "The Help" with Mindy Cohn, Megan Fox, and Antonio Sabato Jr.


title: Camille Guaty

text: In 2004, Guaty was the leading lady, Maggie Moreno, in the movie "30 Days Until I'm Famous". She also starred in "Crossing Jordan" as Det. Luisa Santana in the episodes "Blue Moon" and "Family Affair".


title: Camille Guaty

text: In 2005, Guaty had a recurring role Maricruz Delgado, the girlfriend of Fernando Sucre, in "Prison Break". She starred as Franny Rios in ABC's "The Nine", and played the role of Alex in "The Brothers Garcia".


title: Camille Guaty

text: Guaty was cast as recurring character Piper Nielsen, a new Montecito concierge, in 2007 on NBC's "Las Vegas". Guaty has also appeared in "Cupid" and "Ghosts of Girlfriends Past". She appeared in a 2011 episode of "The Chicago Code" as Elena, as the fiancée of the main character, Jarek Wysocki. She had a recurring role in the TV show "Scorpion" as Megan O'Brien, the older sister of main character Walter O'Brien.


title: Camille Guaty

text: Guaty is married to British songwriter Sy Rhys Kaye. In August 2019, Guaty announced her pregnancy with the couple's first child with the help of an egg donor. Their son was born in October 2019.


title: Interoception

text: Interoception is contemporarily defined as the collection of senses perceiving the internal state of the body. This can be both conscious and unconscious. It encompasses the brain's process of integrating signals relayed from the body into specific subregions—like the brainstem, thalamus, insula, somatosensory, and anterior cingulate cortex—allowing for a nuanced representation of the physiological state of the body. This is important for maintaining homeostatic conditions in the body and, potentially, facilitating self-awareness.


title: Interoception

text: Interoceptive signals are projected to the brain via a diversity of neural pathways, in particular from the lamina I of the spinal cord along the spinothalamic pathway and through the projections of the solitary nucleus, that allow for the sensory processing and prediction of internal bodily states. Misrepresentations of internal states, or a disconnect between the body's signals and the brain's interpretation and prediction of those signals, have been suggested to underlie conditions such as anxiety, depression, panic disorder, anorexia nervosa, bulimia nervosa, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD), attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), alexithymia, somatic symptom disorder, and illness anxiety disorder.


title: Interoception

text: The contemporary definition of interoception is not synonymous with the term "visceroception". Visceroception refers to the perception of bodily signals arising specifically from the viscera: the heart, lungs, stomach, and bladder, along with other internal organs in the trunk of the body. This does not include organs like the brain and skin. Interoception encompasses visceral signaling, but more broadly relates to all physiological tissues that relay a signal to the central nervous system about the current state of the body. Interoceptive signals are transmitted to the brain via multiple pathways including the lamina I spinothalamic pathway, the classical viscerosensory pathway, the vagus nerve and glossopharyngeal nerve, chemosensory pathways in the blood, and somatosensory pathways from the skin.


title: Interoception

text: Interoceptive signals arise from many different physiological systems of the body. The most commonly studied system is cardiovascular interoception which is typically measured by directing attention towards the sensation of the heartbeat during various tasks. Other physiological systems integral to interoceptive processing include the respiratory system, gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems, nociceptive system, thermoregulatory system, endocrine and immune systems. Soft cutaneous touch is another sensory signal often included within the interoceptive processing system.


title: Interoception

text: The concept of interoception was introduced in 1906 by the Nobel Laureate Sir Charles S. Sherrington. He did not use the noun "interoception", but did describe as "interoceptive" those receptors that are within the viscera—what are today called "visceroceptive"—and thus excluded all other receptors and information from the body, which he grouped as either "exteroceptive" or "proprioceptive". In Sherrington's model, exteroceptive receptors were those that received information from outward stimuli, like light, touch, sound, and odor. He classified temperature and nociception as exteroceptive sensations as well, though these are now regarded as having interoceptive qualities. He further divided the internal milieu of the body by its somatic and autonomic functions. And proprioceptors were those found in skeletal tissue that control voluntary movement. For him, interoceptors (a term which has lost prevalence in modern literature) were thus confined to visceral involuntary smooth muscle (e.g. surrounding blood vessels).


title: Interoception

text: Further work on interoceptive processing after Sherrington was delayed for many years owing to the influential claim by John Newport Langley that the autonomic nervous system used only efferent (brain-to-body) signaling to implement its functions.


title: Interoception

text: By the 1950s and 1960s, many investigations of interoceptive processing had been conducted, and once it had become apparent that interoceptive receptors are present in many tissues of the body other researchers began to investigate afferent body-to-brain signals, mainly by conducting animal experiments to see if interoceptive conditioning was possible. Using principles of Pavlovian conditioning, different physiological systems in dogs were perturbed to elicit a conditioned response to food. For example, in one experiment, dogs' pelvises were distended using infusions of solution when food was presented to them. After rounds of pairing the two, salivation occurred without presenting food once the pelvis was distended. Interoceptive conditioning studies like this illustrated that interoceptive sensations may be important for learned behavior and emotion.


title: Interoception

text: The increased interest in interoception during the late 1950s and the 1960s (as evidenced by the number of papers published) has been referred to as the "biofeedback blip". This was a phase during which many researchers examined humans' ability to gain control over autonomic functions as a method of treatment for various conditions.


title: Interoception

text: Interoception did not gain widespread popularity within the scientific community until the mid- to late-twentieth century. During that period, some researchers chose to use the terms "visceroceptor" and "interoceptor" interchangeably, in line with Sherrington's usage, others combined proprioceptive and visceroceptive information into one category—interoception—based on physiological data about the lack of differences in nerve impulses, and still others proposed that interoception includes more than just endogenous (internal) stimuli. Exactly which sensory signals could or should be classified as interoceptive remains the subject of ongoing debate.


title: Interoception

text: During the 1980s, psychophysiologists began to extensively examine cardiovascular interoception, introducing several different experimental tasks for studying the perception of the heartbeat: heartbeat counting, heartbeat tapping, and heartbeat detection. Psychiatrists also began to look at the effects of pharmacological stimulation on the symptoms of panic disorder. All of this further increased researchers' interest in interoception, including the development of theoretical models of the integration of interoceptive information within the body over time.


title: Interoception

text: The twenty-first century has seen a tremendous increase in publications on the topic of interoception, and to a recognition of its multifaceted nature . This has led to the emergence of different ideas about interoception. One contemporary definition widens the concept to encompass "the skin and all that is underneath the skin" and the perception and function of bodily activity to more fully understand psychosomatic processes. In a similar vein, neuroanatomists hoping to find the anatomical basis of interoceptive functioning have stated the existence of a homeostatic pathway from the body to the brain that represents "the physiological status of all tissues in the body," and that this mapping onto the brain provides an individual with subjective feeling states that are critical for human emotion and self-awareness.


title: Interoception

text: For example, interoception is the fundament of the modern view on allostasis and allostatic load. The regulatory model of allostasis claims that the brain's primary role as an organ is the predictive regulation of internal sensations. Predictive regulation is the brain's ability to anticipate needs and prepare to fulfill them before they arise. In this model, the brain is responsible for efficient regulation of its internal milieu.


title: Interoception

text: Interoception is sometimes generally referred to as "the perception of internal body states" although there are many interoceptive processes that are not consciously perceived. Importantly, interoception is made possible through a process of "integrating the information coming from inside the body into the central nervous system". This definition deviates from Sherrington's original proposition, but exemplifies the dynamic and widening breadth of interoception as a concept in modern literature.


title: Interoception

text: Although interoception as a term has more recently gained increased popularity, different aspects of it have been studied since the 1950s. These include the features of attention, detection, magnitude, discrimination, accuracy, sensibility, and self-reporting. Despite not using the word "interoception" specifically, many publications in the physiology and medical fields have focused on understanding interoceptive information processing in different organ systems. Attention describes the ability to observe sensations within the body, it can be directed voluntarily in a "top down" manner or it can be attracted involuntarily in a "bottom up" manner. Detection reflects the presence or absence of a conscious report of interoceptive stimuli, like a heartbeat or growling stomach. Magnitude is the intensity of the stimulus, or how strongly the stimuli is felt. Discrimination describes the ability to localize interoceptive stimuli in the body to specific organs and differentiate them from other bodily stimuli that also occur, like distinguishing between a heart which is beating hard from an upset stomach. Accuracy (or sensitivity) refers to how precisely and correctly an individual can monitor specific interoceptive processes. Self-reporting is itself multifaceted. It describes the ability to reflect on interoceptive experiences occurring over different periods of time, make judgments about them, and describe them. Brain-body interactions can also be studied using neuroimaging techniques to map functional interactions between brain and peripheral signals. Although all of these components of interoception have been studied since the mid-twentieth century, they have not been brought together under the umbrella term "interoception" until more recently. The term "interoceptive awareness" is also frequently used to encompass any (or all) of the different interoception features that are accessible to conscious self-report. This multifaceted approach offers a unified way of looking at interoceptive functioning and its different features, it clarifies the definition of interoception itself, and it informs structured ways of assessing interoceptive experiences in an individual.


title: Interoception

text: Cardiac interoception has been widely studied as a method of evaluating interoceptive sensation. This is done using different tasks including heartbeat counting, heartbeat tapping, heartbeat detection and heartbeat attention tasks. Heartbeat counting tasks ask participants to count the number of felt heartbeats during short time periods. Their reported count is then compared with the actual count obtained with an electrocardiogram. This measures the participant's attention to his or her own heartbeat, the accuracy with which that is perceived, and the ability of the participant to report that measurement; however, results can be influenced by the participant's preexisting knowledge of his or her heart rate and an insensitivity to heart rate change. Heartbeat detection tasks work by providing a participant with a musical tone which is played simultaneously or non-simultaneously with one's heartbeat, asking the participant to report whether it is simultaneous or not with the tones. Heartbeat detection is commonly used because of its ability discern an individual's performance above chance levels, so-called "good detectors". However, such detection rates among participants for this task are usually only 35%. It also measures the participant's attention, detection, discrimination, accuracy and self-report of the interoceptive process. Heartbeat attention tasks are the most minimalistic, and involve simply the top-down direction of attention towards an interoceptive sensation such as the heartbeat, breath, or stomach. Most perceptions of heartbeat sensations usually occur during a time of homeostatic perturbation, such as when the state of the body changes from external or internal influences such as physical exertion or elevated arousal states (e.g., riding a roller coaster, watching a scary movie, public speaking anxiety, or having a panic attack). For this reason, cardiac interoception is also sometimes studied by inducing perturbations of bodily state. This can be done pharmacologically using adrenaline-like drugs, such as isoproterenol, which mimic activation of the sympathetic nervous system, resulting in increased heart rate and respiration rate, similar to the "fight-or-flight" response. This approach provides a physiological basis for understanding psychiatric and neurological disorders that are characterized by heightened sympathetic nervous system activity.


title: Interoception

text: Respiratory perception can differ from other interoceptive physiological symptoms because of an individual's ability to exert voluntary control over the system with controlled breathing or breathing exercises. This system is often measured using restrictive breathing loads and/or inhalation, which are designed to mimic labored breathing sensations. Dyspnea, or difficulty breathing, is a commonly felt sensation associated with panic attacks; however, due to the voluntary control of breathing, this domain of interoception usually requires implementation of much more elaborate experimental controls to quantify in comparison to cardiac interoception.


title: Interoception

text: Common interoceptive sensations related to the gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems are hunger and fullness. These are homeostatic signals that tell an individual when to eat and when to stop eating. The dorsal mid-insula appears to be integral in taste processing during gastrointestinal interoceptive attention tasks. Rectal and bladder distensions are used as a method to perturb the homeostatic environment of the gastrointestinal and genitourinary systems, using placement of balloon catheters which can be inflated to achieve different stimulus intensities. Associative fear learning paradigms have been used to study how innocuous signals might lead to abnormal states of gastrointestinal hypersensitivity and anxiety. Biofeedback therapy has been used for individuals with impaired gastrointestinal interoception, showing positive outcomes for some patients.


title: Interoception

text: Nociception refers to the receiving and processing of pain inducing stimuli by the central nervous system. Functional brain imaging studies during painful stimulation of the skin with heated probes, during mechanical compression, and electric shock have suggested that the insular cortex is prominently activated during pain processing. Thus while pain was once thought of as an exteroceptive sensation, based on functional imaging and anatomical evidence it is now understood that it has an interoceptive component.


title: Interoception

text: Temperature and pain are thought to be represented as "feelings" of coolness and warmness and pleasantness or unpleasantness in the brain. These sensory and affective characteristics of thermoregulation may motivate certain behavioral responses depending on the state of the body (for example, moving away from a source of heat to a cooler space). Such perturbations in the internal homeostatic environment of an organism are thought to be key aspects of a motivational process giving rise to emotional states, and have been proposed to be represented principally by the insular cortex as feelings. These feelings then influence drives when the anterior cingulate cortex is activated.


title: Interoception

text: The endocrine and immune systems are necessary body systems that aid in allostasis and homeostatic control. Imbalances in these systems, along with other genetic and social factors, may be linked to interoceptive dysregulation in depression. These increased allostatic changes may cause a hyperawareness of interoceptive signaling and a hypo-awareness of exteroceptive signaling in depression patients.


title: Interoception

text: Affective touch refers to the stimulation of slow, unmyelinated C tactile afferents. This is accompanied by a sense of pleasantness, and has been likened to other interoceptive modalities like thermoregulation and nociception because of the similarities in anatomical function. Soft touch activates the insula rather than the somatosensory cortex, indicating that it has an affective importance absent in Aβ fibers. Since soft touch utilizes a separate pathway, it may have a social relevancy, allowing the body to separate the "noise" of outward stimuli from stimuli that evokes an affective feeling.


title: Interoception

text: Multiple neural pathways relay information integral to interoceptive processing from the body to the brain. these include the lamina I spinothalamic pathway, the visceroceptive pathway, and the somatosensory pathway.


title: Interoception

text: The lamina I spinothalamic pathway is commonly known for carrying information to the brain about temperature and pain, but it has been suggested to more broadly relay all information about the homeostatic condition of the body.


title: Interoception

text: The somatosensory pathway relays information about proprioception and discriminative touch to the brain through different receptors in the skin.


title: Interoception

text: The thalamus receives signals from sympathetic and parasympathetic afferents during interoceptive processing. The ventromedial posterior nucleus (VMpo) is a subregion of the thalamus which receives sympathetic information from lamina I spinothalamic neurons. The human VMpo is much larger than that of primates and sub-primates and is important for processing of nociceptive, thermoregulatory, and visceral sensations. The ventromedial basal nucleus (VMb) receives parasympathetic information from visceral and gustatory systems.


title: Interoception

text: The insula is critically involved in the processing, integration, and cortical representation of visceral and interoceptive information. Lamina I spinothalamic and vagal afferents project via the brainstem and thalamus to the posterior and mid dorsal insula respectively. From there, information travels to the posterior and mid-insula, which combines visceral and somatosensory information. The insula is also activated during a variety of exteroceptive and affective tasks. The insula is considered to be a "hub" region because it has an extremely high number of connections with other brain areas, suggesting it may be important for an integration of lower-level physiological information and salience.


title: Interoception

text: The anterior insular cortex (AIC) is involved in the representation of "cognitive feelings" which arise from the moment-to-moment integration of homeostatic information from the body. These feelings engender self-awareness by creating a sentient being (someone able to feel and perceive) aware of bodily and cognitive processing. Essentially all subjective bodily feelings are associated with activation in the anterior insula: interoceptive feelings come to awareness in the anterior insula. PET studies of cool feelings revealed that activiation that correlated with the subjective ratings of cool temperatures on the hand appeared first in the mid-insula, and then it was strongest in the right anterior insula and orbitofrontal cortex. Feelings from the body of heat pain or C-tactile affective touch also produce activation in the posterior, mid-, and anterior insula, and the strongest activation associated with these subjective feelings is in the anterior insula. One study of heat pain explicitly showed that activation in the dorsal posterior insula correlated with objective painful heat intensity, whereas activation in the right anterior insula correlated with subjective pain intensity ratings. Similarly, subjective ratings of flavors and tastes correlates strongly with activation in the left anterior insula. The available evidence supports the interpretation that feelings from the body is engendered in the anterior insula.


title: Interoception

text: The insula contains three major subregions defined by the presence or absence of a granule cell layer: granular, dysgranular (slightly granulated) agranular. Each of these portions of the insular cortex are important for different levels of functional connectivity. Information from the thalamus is projected to all three regions. Those with increased granulation are considered to be capable of receiving sensory input.


title: Interoception

text: The anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) plays a significant role in motivation and the creation of emotion. An emotion can be seen as comprising both a feeling and a motivation based on that feeling. According to one view, the "feeling" is represented in the insula, while the "motivation" is represented in the ACC. Many interoceptive tasks activate the insula and ACC together, specifically tasks that elicit strong aversive feeling states like pain.


title: Interoception

text: The sensory motor cortex provides an alternative pathway for sensing interoceptive stimuli. Although not following the conventional pathway for interoceptive awareness, skin afferents which project to the primary and secondary somatosensory cortices provide the brain with information regarding bodily information. This area of the brain is commonly engaged by gastrointestinal distension and nociceptive stimulation, but it likely plays a role in representing other interoceptive sensations as well. In one study, a patient with bilateral insula and ACC damage was given isoproterenol as a method of exciting the cardiovascular system. Despite damage to putative interoceptive areas of the brain, the patient was able to perceive his heartbeat with similar accuracy compared to healthy individuals; however, once lidocaine was applied to the patient's chest over the region of maximum cardiac sensation and the test was run again, the patient did not sense any change in heartbeat whatsoever. This suggested that somatosensory information from afferents innervating the skin outside of the heart may provide information to the brain about the heart's pounding through the somatosensory cortex.


title: Interoception

text: The relationship between interoception and emotional experience is an intimate one. In the late 19th century, Charles Darwin noted and discussed the involvement of sensations from the viscera by describing similarities between humans and animals reactions to fear in his book, "The Expression of Emotions in Man and Animals". Later, William James and Carl Lange developed the James-Lange theory of emotion, which states that bodily sensations provide the critical basis for emotional experience. The somatic marker hypothesis, proposed by Antonio Damasio, expands upon the James-Lange theory and posits that decisions and the ensuing behaviors are optimally guided by physiological patterns of interoceptive and emotional information. Ensuing models focusing on the neurobiology of feelings states emphasized that the brain's mapping of different physiological body states are the critical ingredients for emotional experience and consciousness. In another model, Bud Craig argues that the intertwining of interoceptive and homeostatic processes is responsible for initiating and maintaining motivational states and engendering human self-awareness.


title: Interoception

text: Disturbances of interoception occur prominently and frequently in psychiatric disorders. These symptom fluctuations are often observed during the most severe expression of dysfunction, and they figure prominently in diagnostic classification of several psychiatric disorders. A few typical examples are reviewed next.


title: Interoception

text: Palpitations and dyspnea are hallmarks of panic attacks. Studies have shown that panic disorder patients report a heightened experience of interoceptive sensations, but these studies have failed to clarify whether this is simply due to their systematic bias toward describing such feelings. However, other studies have shown that panic disorder patients feel heartbeat sensations more intensely when the state of the body is perturbed by pharmacological agents, suggesting they exhibit heightened sensitivity to experiencing interoceptive sensations.


title: Interoception

text: Patients with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) frequently report being bothered by interoceptive feelings of muscle tension, headaches, fatigue, gastrointestinal complaints, and pain.


title: Interoception

text: Functional neuroimaging studies have shown that posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD) patients exhibit a decreased activation in the right anterior insula, a region of the brain that is largely responsible for identifying the mismatch between cognitive and interoceptive states. Further, because PTSD patients have shown decreased activation within many nodes of the lamina I homeostatic pathway—a pathway through which the thalamus sends interoceptive information to the anterior insula and anterior cingulate—it has been suggested that PTSD patients experience reduced interoceptive awareness. Approaches such as somatic experiencing use an interoceptive approach to treat PTSD.


title: Interoception

text: The broad consensus of studies investigating the link between interoceptive awareness and anxiety disorders is that people with anxiety disorders experience heightened awareness of and accuracy in identifying interoceptive processes. Functional imaging studies provide evidence that people with anxiety disorders experience heightened interoceptive accuracy, suggested by hyperactivation in the anterior cingulate cortex—a region of the brain associated with interoception—in several different kinds of anxiety disorders. The insula has been suggested to be abnormal in a large scale study across anxiety disorders in general. Other studies have found that interoceptive accuracy is increased in these patients, as evidenced by their superior ability in heartbeat detection tasks in comparison to healthy controls.


title: Interoception

text: Anorexia nervosa (AN) has been associated with interoceptive disturbances. Patients with AN often develop insensitivity to interoceptive cues of hunger, and yet are highly anxious and report disturbed interoceptive experiences, both inside and out. While AN patients concentrate on distorted perceptions of their body exterior in fear of weight gain, they also report altered physical states "within" their bodies, such as indistinct feelings of fullness, or an inability to distinguish emotional states from bodily sensations in general (called alexithymia).


title: Interoception

text: Studies suggest that patients with and recovered from bulimia nervosa (BN) exhibit abnormal interoceptive sensory processing and reduced interoceptive awareness under resting physiological conditions. Specifically, patients with BN report reduced sensitivity to many other kinds of internal and external sensations, exhibiting increased thresholds to heat pain compared to healthy subjects and an increased gastric capacity. Neuroimaging literature suggests a pattern of abnormal interoceptive processing in patients with BN based on increased activity and volume in the insula and anterior cingulate cortex—regions associated with interoception and taste processing—when looking at food.


title: Interoception

text: Major depressive disorder (MDD) has been theoretically linked to interoceptive dysfunction. Studies have shown that women with MDD are less accurate on heartbeat counting tasks than are men with MDD and that, in general, patients with MDD are less accurate at counting heartbeat than are patients with panic or anxiety disorders. However, patients with MDD do not always exhibit reduced cardiac interoceptive accuracy; depressed patients experiencing high levels of anxiety will actually be more accurate on heartbeat detection tasks than depressed patients with lower levels of anxiety.


title: Interoception

text: Patients with somatic symptom disorders score lower on heartbeat detection tasks than healthy controls, suggesting that interoceptive accuracy is poor in psychosomatic disorders. It has also been found that patients with psychosomatic disorders who are anxious or stressed report physical symptom discomfort at lower heart rates during exercise treadmill tests, implying poorer interoceptive distress tolerance in somatic symptom disorders with comorbid psychiatric conditions.


title: Interoception

text: Results from a study investigating the relationship between obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and internal body signals found that patients with OCD were more accurate on a heartbeat perception task than healthy controls and anxiety patients heightened interoceptive awareness.


title: Interoception

text: Patients with autism spectrum disorder (ASD) may have poorer interoceptive awareness than control subjects. It is hypothesized that this decrease in interoceptive accuracy is due to alexithymia, which is often associated with ASD. However, it has also been found that children with ASD actually show greater interoceptive sensitivity than [control subjects] when measured over a long period of time. Further investigation into the relationship between interoception and ASD is needed in order to fully understand the interoceptive aspect of the disorder.


title: Interoception

text: The EPIC model proposes a method of understanding the brain's response to stimuli contrary to the classic "stimulus-response" model. The classical view of information processing is that when a peripheral stimulus provided information to the central nervous system, it was processed in the brain, and a response was elicited. The EPIC model deviates from this and proposes that the brain is involved in a process of active inference, that is, assiduously making predictions about situations based on previous experiences. These predictions, when coupled with incoming sensory signals, allow the brain to compute a prediction error. Interoceptive prediction errors signal the occurrence of discrepancies within the body, which the brain attempts to minimize. This can be done by modifying the predictions through brain-related pathways, altering the body position/location in order to better align incoming sensory signals with the prediction, or altering the brain's method of receiving incoming stimuli. Interoceptive prediction error signals are a key component of many theories of interoceptive dysfunction in physical and mental health.


title: Interoception

text: As attention on interoception increases among the scientific community, new research methods and treatment tactics are beginning to emerge. Because there currently is not a clear consensus as to what exactly interoception is, or the best ways in which to measure it, most research and questionnaires on the subject only measure individual facets of interoception. The convergence and interrelatedness of the questionnaire items between the constructs has been found to be low.


title: Interoception

text: Ongoing research in interoception has shown the importance of perturbing interoceptive systems. This allows researchers the ability to document the effects of non-baseline states, which occur during times of panic or anxiety. It also provides the participant the ability to gauge the intensity of sensations within the body. This can be done through pharmacological interventions, balloon distensions, or respiratory breathing loads depending on the interoceptive system of interest.


title: Interoception

text: Another research method used to study interoception is specialized flotation environments. Floating removes external stimuli so that individuals can more easily focus on the interoceptive sensations within their bodies. One idea with floating is that over many float sessions, patients with different kinds of disorders may learn to become more attuned or tolerant of their interoceptive sensations not only in the float tank but also in their everyday lives.


title: Interoception

text: Whole body hyperthermia may provide a new treatment technique for major depressive disorder. It is thought that reducing one of the bodily symptoms of depression, which is increased inflammation, using whole body hyperthermia will also reduce depressive feelings represented in the brain. In theory, these techniques will help patients better attune themselves to their interoceptive sensations, allowing them a better understanding of what occurs in their bodies.


title: Interoception

text: Acupuncture is an alternative treatment type for many people with anxiety and depression. Typically, it is self-prescribed by patients; however, results are inconclusive on its ability to manage symptoms of depression. Recently, Massage therapy has been shown to have the ability to reduce symptoms of generalized anxiety disorder.


title: Interoception

text: Meditation and mindfulness have been looked into as possible techniques to enhance interoceptive awareness based on their tendency to redirect focus within oneself. Studies show that meditation and mindfulness practices promote attention to interoceptive sensations. In reality, with all the benefits of mindfulness, many may be ascribed to an increase in interoception. However, interoceptive awareness and accuracy in specific domains such as breath or body monitoring, may be more independent from a broad improvement in interoceptive accuracy. Meditation and mindfulness practices have been shown to modify the insula, which is considered central to our interoceptive abilities. Attention is also being given to the subtle body and its function as a CNS map in traditional Tibetan and Indian medicine.


title: Interoception

text: Although a universal definition of interoception has not been reached, research on interoception and psychiatric disorders has shown a link between interoceptive processing and mental disorders. It has been proposed that exposure therapy, a commonly employed treatment for anxiety disorders, may provide a basis for a model of interoceptive exposure therapy that could be incorporated into treatment plans of different psychiatric disorders. One proposal states that multiple interoceptive challenges assessing different physiological systems could provide diagnosticians with the ability to create an "interoceptive profile" for a specific individual, creating a patient-specific treatment plan.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: As of the 2011 census, Christianity was the largest religion in Scotland with the 53.8% of the Scottish population identifying as Christian when asked: "What religion, religious denomination or body do you belong to?", an 11.3% decline from 65.1% in 2001. The Church of Scotland, a Presbyterian denomination often known as The Kirk, is recognised in law as the national church of Scotland. It is not an established church and is independent of state control. However, it is the largest religious grouping in Scotland, with 32.4% of the population according to the 2011 census. The other major Christian church is the Catholic Church, the form of Christianity in Scotland prior to the Reformation, which accounts for 15.9% of the population and is especially important in West Central Scotland and parts of the Highlands. Scotland's third largest church is the Scottish Episcopal Church. There are also multiple smaller Presbyterian churches, all of which either broke away from the Church of Scotland or themselves separated from churches which previously did so. According to the 2019 Scottish Household survey, since 2009, there has been an increase in the proportion of adults reporting not belonging to a religion to 56%. The trend of declining religious belief coincided with a sharp decrease since 2009 in the proportion of people who report that they belong to the Church of Scotland, from 34% to 20% of adults. Furthermore 13% (slightly down from 15% in 2009) reported belonging to the Catholic Church.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Other religions have established a presence in Scotland, mainly through immigration and higher birth rates among ethnic minorities. Those with the most adherents in the 2011 census are Islam (1.4%), Hinduism (0.3%), Buddhism (0.2%) and Sikhism (0.2%). Minority faiths include Modern Paganism and the Baháʼí Faith. There are also various organisations which actively promote humanism and secularism, included within the 36.7% who indicated no religion in the 2011 census.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: In 2017, the Scottish Social Attitudes Survey, conducted by ScotCen Social Research found that 58% of Scots identified themselves as non-religious, compared to 40% in 1999. Since 2016, secular humanists have conducted more weddings in Scotland each year than either the Catholic Church, Church of Scotland, or any other religion.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Adherence to religion in Scotland has been declining over the past decade, and this trend continued into 2019; over half of adults (56%) reported that they didn't belong to any religion. The proportion reporting that they didn't belong to any religion a decade previously in 2009 was just 40%.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Christianity was probably introduced to what is now southern Scotland during the Roman occupation of Britain. It was mainly spread by missionaries from Ireland from the 5th century and is associated with St Ninian, St Kentigern, and St Columba. The Christianity that developed in Ireland and Scotland differed from that led by Rome, particularly over the method of calculating Easter and the form of tonsure, until the Celtic church accepted Roman practices in the mid-7th century. Christianity in Scotland was strongly influenced by monasticism, with abbots being more significant than bishops. In the Norman period, there were a series of reforms resulting in a clearer parochial structure based around local churches; and large numbers of new monastic foundations, which followed continental forms of reformed monasticism, began to predominate. The Scottish church also established its independence from England, developing a clear diocesan structure and becoming a "special daughter of the see of Rome" but continued to lack Scottish leadership in the form of archbishops. In the late Middle Ages the Crown was able to gain greater influence over senior appointments, and two archbishoprics had been established by the end of the 15th century. There was a decline in traditional monastic life but the mendicant orders of friars grew, particularly in the expanding burghs. New saints and cults of devotion also proliferated. Despite problems over the number and quality of clergy after the Black Death in the 14th century, and evidence of heresy in the 15th century, the Church in Scotland remained stable.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: During the 16th century, Scotland underwent a Protestant Reformation that created a predominantly Calvinist national kirk, which was strongly Presbyterian in outlook. A confession of faith, rejecting papal jurisdiction and the mass, was adopted by Parliament in 1560. The kirk found it difficult to penetrate the Highlands and Islands, but began a gradual process of conversion and consolidation that, compared with reformations elsewhere, was conducted with relatively little persecution. James VI of Scotland favoured doctrinal Calvinism but supported the bishops. Charles I of England brought in reforms seen by some as a return to papal practice. The result was the Bishop's Wars in 1639–40, ending in virtual independence for Scotland and the establishment of a fully Presbyterian system by the dominant Covenanters. After the Restoration of the Monarchy in 1660, Scotland regained its kirk, but also the bishops. Particularly in the south-west many of the people began to attend illegal field conventicles. Suppression of these assemblies in the 1680s was known as "the Killing Time". After the "Glorious Revolution" in 1688, Presbyterianism was restored.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: The Church of Scotland had been created in the Reformation. Then the late 18th century saw the beginnings of its fragmentation around issues of government and patronage, but also reflecting a wider division between the Evangelicals and the Moderate Party. In 1733 the First Secession led to the creation of a series of secessionist churches, and the second in 1761 to the foundation of the independent Relief Church. These churches gained strength in the Evangelical Revival of the later 18th century. Penetration of the Highlands and Islands remained limited. The efforts of the Kirk were supplemented by missionaries of the SSPCK, the Society in Scotland for Propagating Christian Knowledge. Episcopalianism retained supporters, but declined because of its associations with Jacobitism. Beginning in 1834 the "Ten Years' Conflict" ended in a schism from the church, led by Dr Thomas Chalmers, known as the Great Disruption of 1843. Roughly a third of the clergy, mainly from the North and Highlands, formed the separate Free Church of Scotland. The evangelical Free Churches grew rapidly in the Highlands and Islands. In the late 19th century, major debates, between fundamentalist Calvinists and theological liberals, resulted in a further split in the Free Church as the rigid Calvinists broke away to form the Free Presbyterian Church in 1893.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: From this point there were moves towards reunion, and most of the Free Church rejoined the Church of Scotland in 1929. The schisms left small denominations including the Free Presbyterians and a remnant that had not merged in 1900 as the Free Church. Catholic Emancipation in 1829 and the influx of large numbers of Irish immigrants led to an expansion of Catholicism, with the restoration of the Church hierarchy in 1878. Episcopalianism also revived in the 19th century; the Episcopal Church in Scotland was organised as an autonomous body in communion with the Church of England in 1804. Other denominations included Baptists, Congregationalists, and Methodists. In the twentieth century, existing Christian denominations were joined by the Brethren and Pentecostal churches. Although some denominations thrived, after World War II there was a steady overall decline in church attendance and resulting church closures in most denominations.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: The British Parliament passed the Church of Scotland Act 1921, recognising the full independence of the church in matters spiritual, and as a result of this and passage of the Church of Scotland (Property and Endowments) Act, 1925, which settled the issue of patronage in the church, the Church of Scotland was able to unite with the United Free Church of Scotland in 1929. The United Free Church of Scotland was itself the product of the union of the former United Presbyterian Church of Scotland and the majority of the Free Church of Scotland in 1900. The 1921 Act recognised the kirk as the national church and the monarch became an ordinary member of the Church of Scotland, represented at the General Assembly by their Lord High Commissioner.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: In the second half of the 20th century and afterwards the Church was particularly affected by the general decline in church attendance. Between 1966 and 2006 numbers of communicants in the Church of Scotland dropped from over 1,230,000 to 504,000. Formal membership reduced from 446,000 in 2010 to 398,389 or 7.5% of the total population by yearend 2013. dropping to 325,695 by yearend 2018 representing about 6% of the Scottish population. Dropping further to 297,345 or 5 % of the total population in 2020.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: In 2016, the actual weekly attendance at a Kirk service was reckoned to be 136,910. In the twenty-first century the Church faced financial issues, with a £5.7 million deficit in 2010. In response the church adopted a "prune to grow" policy, cutting 100 posts and introducing job-shares and unpaid ordained staff. In the 2011 national census, 32% of Scots identified their religion as "Church of Scotland". In 2019, according to the Scottish Household Survey, 20% of Scots self-reported themselves as adherents.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: After the reunification of the Church of Scotland and the United Free Church, some independent Scottish Presbyterian denominations still remained. These included the Free Church of Scotland (formed of those congregations which refused to unite with the United Presbyterian Church in 1900), the United Free Church of Scotland (formed of congregations which refused to unite with the Church of Scotland in 1929), the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland (which broke from the Free Church of Scotland in 1893), the Associated Presbyterian Churches (which emerged as a result of a split in the Free Presbyterian Church of Scotland in the 1980s), and the Free Church of Scotland (Continuing) (which emerged from a split in the Free Church of Scotland in 2000). In recent years, four congregations of the International Presbyterian Church have also arisen in Scotland, all founded as a result of evangelicals leaving the Church of Scotland over recent issues.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: At the 2011 census, 3,553 people responded as Other Christian – Presbyterian (i.e. not Church of Scotland), 1,197 as Other Christian – Free Presbyterian, 313 as Other Christian – Evangelical Presbyterian Church, and as few as 12 people as Other Christian – Scottish Presbyterianism. Those identifying with a particular Presbyterian denomination other than the Church of Scotland were:


title: Religion in Scotland

text: The second largest Presbyterian denomination in Scotland is the Free Church of Scotland with 10,896 people identifying as being of that church at the 2011 census. According to the Free Church, its average weekly attendance at a worship service is around 13,000. According to the 2016 Church Census, Free Church attendance was around 10,000 per week and amounted to 7% of all Presbyterian church attendance in Scotland. As of 2016 there were 102 Free Church congregations, organised into six presbyteries. A significant proportion of Free Church activity is to be found in the Highlands and Islands.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: The Scottish Episcopal Church is the member church of the Anglican Communion in Scotland. It is made up of seven dioceses, each with its own bishop. It dates from the Glorious Revolution in 1689 when the national church was defined as presbyterian instead of episcopal in government. The bishops and those that followed them became the Scottish Episcopal Church.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Scotland's third largest church, the Scottish Episcopal Church has 303 local congregations. In terms of official membership, Episcopalians nowadays constitute well under 1 per cent of the population of Scotland, making them considerably smaller than the Church of Scotland that represents 6% of the Scottish population. The all-age membership of the church in 2018 was 28,647, of whom 19,983 were communicant members. Weekly attendance was 12,430. One year earlier, in 2017, church membership had been 30,909, of whom 22,073 were communicant members. For 2013, the Scottish Episcopal Church reported its numbers as 34,119 members (all ages).


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Other Protestant denominations which entered Scotland, usually from England, before the 20th century included the Quakers, Baptists, Methodists and Brethren. By 1907 the Open Brethren had 196 meetings and by 1960 it was 350, with perhaps 25,000 people. The smaller Exclusive Brethren had perhaps another 3,000. Both were geographically and socially diverse, but particularly recruited in fishing communities in the Islands and East. In the 2011 census 5,583 identified themselves as Brethren, 10,979 as Methodist, 1,339 as Quaker, 26,224 as Baptist, and 13,229 as Evangelical.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Pentecostal churches were present from 1908 and by the 1920s there were three streams: Elim, Assemblies of God and the Apostolic Church. A Holiness movement, inspired by Methodism, emerged in 1909 and by 1915 was part of the American Church of the Nazarene. The 2011 census lists 12,357 Pentecostals and 785 Church of the Nazarene.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: During much of the 20th century and beyond, significant numbers of Catholics emigrated to Scotland from Italy, Lithuania, and Poland. However, the church has been affected by the general decline in churchgoing. Between 1994 and 2002 Roman Catholic attendance in Scotland declined 19%, to just over 200,000. By 2008, the Bishops' Conference of Scotland estimated that 184,283 attended mass regularly in that year: 3.6% of Scotland's population. According to the 2011 census, Catholics comprise 15.9% of the overall population. In 2011, Catholics outnumbered adherents of the Church of Scotland in just four of the council areas, including North Lanarkshire, Inverclyde, West Dunbartonshire, and the most populous council, Glasgow City.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: In early 2013, Cardinal O'Brien resigned as Archbishop of St Andrews and Edinburgh after allegations of sexual misconduct against him. Subsequently, there were several other cases of alleged sexual misconduct involving other priests. O'Brien was replaced as Archbishop of St Andrews and Edinburgh by Leo Cushley.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: The various branches of Orthodox Christianity (including Russian, Greek, and Coptic) had around 8,900 respondents at the 2011 census.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Non-Trinitarian denominations such as the Jehovah's Witnesses with 8,543 respondents in the 2011 census and The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints with 4,651 are also present in Scotland. However, the LDS Church claims a much higher number of followers with their own 2009 numbers listing 26,536 followers (in 27 wards and 14 branches).


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Islam is the second most followed religion after Christianity in Scotland. The first Muslim student in Scotland was Wazir Beg from Bombay (now Mumbai). He is recorded as being a medical student who studied at the University of Edinburgh between 1858 and 1859. The production of goods and Glasgow's busy port meant that many lascars were employed there. Dundee was at the peak of importing jute; hence, sailors from Bengal were a feature at the port. The 1903 records from the Glasgow Sailors' Home show that nearly a third (5,500) of all boarders were Muslim lascars. Most immigration of Muslims to Scotland is relatively recent. The bulk of Muslims in Scotland come from families who immigrated during the late 20th century, with small numbers of converts. In Scotland Muslims represent 1.4 per cent of the population (76,737). Two important mosques in Scotland are Glasgow Central Mosque and Edinburgh Central Mosque, which took more than six years to complete at a cost of £3.5m and can accommodate over one thousand worshippers in its main hall.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Towards the end of the nineteenth century there was an influx of Jews, most from eastern Europe, escaping poverty and persecution. Many were skilled in the tailoring, furniture, and fur trades and congregated in the working class districts of Lowland urban centres, like the Gorbals in Glasgow. The largest community in Glasgow had perhaps reached 5,000 by the end of the century. A synagogue was built at Garnethill in 1879. Over 8,000 Jews were resident in Scotland in 1903. Refugees from Nazism and the Second World War further augmented the Scottish Jewish community, which has been estimated to have reached 80,000 in the middle of the century.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: According to the 2001 census, approximately 6,400 Jews lived in Scotland, however by the 2011 census this had fallen to 5,887. Scotland's Jewish population continues to be predominantly urban, with 80 per cent resident in the areas surrounding Glasgow, primarily East Renfrewshire, that area in particular containing 41% of Scotland's Jewish population, despite only containing 1.7% of the overall population. As with Christianity, the practising Jewish population continues to fall, as many younger Jews either become secular or intermarry with other faiths. Scottish Jews have also emigrated in large numbers to the US, England, and the Commonwealth for economic reasons, as with other Scots.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: The formally organised Jewish communities in Scotland now include Glasgow Jewish Representative Council, Edinburgh Hebrew congregation and Sukkat Shalom Liberal Community, Aberdeen Synagogue and Jewish Community Centre, and Tayside and Fife Jewish Community. These are all represented by the Scottish Council of Jewish Communities, alongside groups like the Jewish Network of Argyll and the Highlands, Jewish students studying in Scottish universities and colleges, and Jewish people of Israeli origin living in Scotland.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Maharajah Duleep Singh moved to Scotland in 1854, taking up residence at the Grandtully estate in Perthshire. According to the Scottish Sikh Association, the first Sikhs settled in Glasgow in the early 1920s with the first Gurdwara established on South Portland Street. However, the bulk of Sikhs in Scotland come from families who immigrated during the late 20th century.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: According to the 2011 census, Hinduism represents 0.31% of the population of Scotland. The bulk of Scottish Hindus settled there in the second half of the 20th century. At the 2001 Census, 5,600 people identified as Hindu, which equated to 0.1% of the Scottish population. Most Scottish Hindus are of Indian origin, or at least from neighbouring countries such as Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Nepal, and Bangladesh. Many of these came after Idi Amin's expulsion from Uganda in the 1970s, and some also came from South Africa. There are also a few of Indonesian and Afghan origin. In 2006 a temple opened in the West End of Glasgow. However, it was severely damaged by a fire in May 2010. The ISKCON aka "Hare Krishna" also operates out of Lesmahagow in South Lanarkshire. There are also temples in Edinburgh and Dundee with plans announced in 2008 for a temple in Aberdeen.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Modern Pagan religions such as Wicca, Neo-druidism, and Celtic Reconstructionist Paganism have their origins in academic interest and romantic revivalism, which emerged in new religious movements in the twentieth century. Gerald Gardner, a retired British civil servant, founded modern Wicca. He cultivated his Scottish connections and initiated his first Scottish followers in the 1950s. The Findhorn community, founded in 1962 by Peter and Eileen Caddy, became a centre of a variety of new age beliefs that mixed beliefs including occultism, animism, and eastern religious beliefs. The ancient architectural landscape of pre-Christian Britain, such as stone circles and dolmens, gives pagan beliefs an attraction, identity, and nationalist legitimacy. The rise of pan-Celticism may also have increased the attractiveness of Celtic neopaganism. In the 2011 census 5,282 identified as Pagan or a related belief. The Scottish Pagan Federation has represented Modern Pagans in Scotland since 2006.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Scotland's Baháʼí history began around 1905 when European visitors, Scots among them, met `Abdu'l-Bahá, then head of the religion, in Ottoman Palestine. One of the first and most prominent Scots who became a Baháʼí was John Esslemont (1874–1925). Starting in the 1940s a process of promulgating the religion called pioneering by Baháʼís began for the purpose of teaching the religion. This led to new converts and establishment of local Spiritual Assemblies, and eventually a Baháʼí Council for all Scotland was elected under the National Assembly of the Baháʼís of the United Kingdom. According to the 2011 Census in Scotland, 459 people living there declared themselves to be Bahá'ís, compared to a 2004 figure of approximately 5,000 Baháʼís in the United Kingdom.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Sectarianism became a serious problem in the twentieth century. In the interwar period religious and ethnic tensions between Protestants and Catholics were exacerbated by economic depression. Tensions were heightened by the leaders of the Church of Scotland who orchestrated a racist campaign against the Catholic Irish in Scotland. Key figures leading the campaign were George Malcolm Thomson and Andrew Dewar Gibb. This focused on the threat to the "Scottish race" based on spurious statistics that continued to have influence despite being discredited by official figures in the early 1930s. This created a climate of intolerance that led to calls for jobs to be preserved for Protestants. After the Second World War the Church became increasingly liberal in attitude and moved away from hostile attitudes. Sectarian attitudes continued to manifest themselves in football rivalries between predominantly Protestant and Catholic teams. This was most marked in Glasgow with the traditionally Roman Catholic team, Celtic, and the traditionally Protestant team, Rangers. Celtic employed Protestant players and managers, but Rangers have had a tradition of not recruiting Catholics. This is not a hard and fast rule, however, as evidenced by Rangers signing of the Catholic player Mo Johnston (born 1963) in 1989 and in 1999 their first Catholic captain, Lorenzo Amoruso.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: From the 1980s the UK government passed several acts that had a provision concerning sectarian violence. These included the Public Order Act 1986, which introduced offences relating to the incitement of racial hatred, and the Crime and Disorder Act 1998, which introduced offences of pursuing a racially aggravated course of conduct that amounts to harassment of a person. The 1998 Act also required courts to take into account where offences are racially motivated, when determining sentence. In the twenty-first century the Scottish Parliament legislated against sectarianism. This included provision for religiously aggravated offences in the Criminal Justice (Scotland) Act 2003. The Criminal Justice and Licensing (Scotland) Act 2010 strengthened statutory aggravations for racial and religiously motivated crimes. The Offensive Behaviour at Football and Threatening Communications (Scotland) Act 2012 criminalised behaviour which is threatening, hateful, or otherwise offensive at a regulated football match including offensive singing or chanting. It also criminalised the communication of threats of serious violence and threats intended to incite religious hatred.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Relations between Scotland's churches steadily improved during the second half of the twentieth century and there were several initiatives for co-operation, recognition, and union. The Scottish Council of Churches was formed as an ecumenical body in 1924. The foundation of the ecumenical Iona Community in 1938, on the island of Iona off the coast of Scotland, led to a highly influential form of music, which was used across Britain and the US. Leading musical figure John Bell (born 1949) adapted folk tunes or created tunes in a folk style to fit lyrics that often emerged from the spiritual experience of the community. Proposals in 1957 for union with the Church of England were rejected over the issue of bishops and were severely attacked in the Scottish press. The Scottish Episcopal church opened the communion table up to all baptised and communicant members of all the trinitarian churches and church canons were altered to allow the interchangeability of ministers within specific local ecumenical partnerships.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: The Dunblane consultations, informal meetings at the ecumenical Scottish Church House in Dunblane in 1961–69, attempted to produce modern hymns that retained theological integrity. They resulted in the British "Hymn Explosion" of the 1960s, which produced multiple collections of new hymns. In 1990, the Scottish Churches' Council was dissolved and replaced by Action of Churches Together in Scotland (ACTS), which attempted to bring churches together to set up ecumenical teams in the areas of prisons, hospitals, higher education, and social ministries and inner city projects. At the end of the twentieth century the Scottish Churches Initiative for Union (SCIFU), between the Episcopal Church, the Church of Scotland, the Methodist Church, and the United Reformed Church, put forward an initiative whereby there would have been mutual recognition of all ordinations and that subsequent ordinations would have satisfied episcopal requirements, but this was rejected by the General Assembly in 2003.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Church attendance in all denominations declined after the First World War. By the 1920s roughly half the population had a relationship with one of the Christian denominations. This level was maintained until the 1940s when it dipped to 40% during the Second World War, but it increased in the 1950s as a result of revivalist preaching campaigns, particularly the 1955 tour by Billy Graham, and returned to almost pre-war levels. However, from that point there was a steady decline and by the 1980s it was just over 30%. The decline most affected urban areas and was most noticeable among the traditional skilled working classes and educated working classes, although participation stayed higher in the Catholic Church than the Protestant denominations.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: In the 2011 census roughly 54% of the population identified with a form of Christianity and 36.7% stated they had no religion, while 5.5 per cent did not state a religion. In 2001, 27.5% had stated that they had no religion (compared with 15.5% in the UK overall). A study carried out on behalf of the British Humanist Association at the same time as the 2011 census suggested that those not identifying with a denomination, or who see themselves as non-religious, may have been much higher at between 42 and 56 per cent, depending on the form of the question asked.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: In 2016 the Scottish Social Attitudes Survey found that 52% of people said they are not religious. The decline was most rapid in the Church of Scotland, from 35% in 1999 to 20%, while the Roman Catholic (15%) and other Christian (11%) affiliations remained steady, In 2017, the Humanist Society Scotland commissioned a survey of Scottish residents 16 years and older, asking the question "Are you religious?" Of the 1,016 respondents, 72.4% responded no, 23.6% said yes, and 4% did not answer.


title: Religion in Scotland

text: Church attendance has also declined, with two-thirds of people living in Scotland saying they "never or practically never" attend services, compared with 49% when the survey began. Since 2016, humanists in Scotland have conducted more marriages each year than the Church of Scotland (or any other religious denomination).


title: Orcas Island

text: Orcas Island () is the largest of the San Juan Islands of the Pacific Northwest, which are in the northwestern corner of San Juan County, Washington.