title: François Cevert

text: Cevert was extensively profiled and interviewed in the Formula One documentary, "The Quick and the Dead".


title: Escapement

text: An escapement is a mechanical linkage in mechanical watches and clocks that gives impulses to the timekeeping element and periodically releases the gear train to move forward, advancing the clock's hands. The impulse action transfers energy to the clock's timekeeping element (usually a pendulum or balance wheel) to replace the energy lost to friction during its cycle and keep the timekeeper oscillating. The escapement is driven by force from a coiled spring or a suspended weight, transmitted through the timepiece's gear train. Each swing of the pendulum or balance wheel releases a tooth of the escapement's "escape wheel", allowing the clock's gear train to advance or "escape" by a fixed amount. This regular periodic advancement moves the clock's hands forward at a steady rate. At the same time, the tooth gives the timekeeping element a push, before another tooth catches on the escapement's pallet, returning the escapement to its "locked" state. The sudden stopping of the escapement's tooth is what generates the characteristic "ticking" sound heard in operating mechanical clocks and watches.


title: Escapement

text: The first mechanical escapement, the verge escapement, was invented in medieval Europe during the 13th century, and was the crucial innovation which led to the development of the mechanical clock. The design of the escapement has a large effect on a timepiece's accuracy, and improvements in escapement design drove improvements in time measurement during the era of mechanical timekeeping from the 13th through the 19th century.


title: Escapement

text: Escapements are also used in other mechanisms besides timepieces. Manual typewriters used escapements to step the carriage as each letter (or space) was typed. Historically, a liquid-driven escapement was used for a washstand design in ancient Greece and the Hellenistic world, particularly Ptolemaic Egypt, while liquid-driven escapements were applied to clockworks beginning in Tang dynasty China and culminating during the Song dynasty.


title: Escapement

text: The importance of the escapement in the history of technology is that it was the key invention that made the all-mechanical clock possible. The invention of the first all-mechanical escapement, the verge escapement, in 13th-century Europe initiated a change in timekeeping methods from continuous processes, such as the flow of water in water clocks, to repetitive oscillatory processes, such as the swing of pendulums, which could yield more accuracy. Oscillating timekeepers are used in every modern clock.


title: Escapement

text: The earliest liquid-driven escapement was described by the Greek engineer Philo of Byzantium (3rd century BC) in his technical treatise "Pneumatics" (chapter 31) as part of a washstand. A counterweighted spoon, supplied by a water tank, tips over in a basin when full, releasing a spherical piece of pumice in the process. Once the spoon has emptied, it is pulled up again by the counterweight, closing the door on the pumice by the tightening string. Remarkably, Philo's comment that "its construction is similar to that of clocks" indicates that such escapement mechanisms were already integrated in ancient water clocks.


title: Escapement

text: In China, the Tang dynasty Buddhist monk Yi Xing along with government official Liang Lingzan made the escapement in 723 (or 725) to the workings of a water-powered armillary sphere and clock drive, which was the world's first clockwork escapement. Song dynasty (960–1279) horologists Zhang Sixun (fl. late 10th century) and Su Song (1020–1101) duly applied escapement devices for their astronomical clock towers, before the technology stagnated and retrogressed. According to historian Derek J. de Solla Price, the Chinese escapement spread west and was the source for Western escapement technology. According to Ahmad Y. Hassan, a mercury escapement in a Spanish work for Alfonso X in 1277 can be traced back to earlier Arabic sources. Knowledge of these mercury escapements may have spread through Europe with translations of Arabic and Spanish texts.


title: Escapement

text: However, none of these were true mechanical escapements, since they still depended on the flow of liquid through an orifice to measure time. For example, in Su Song's clock, water flowed into a container on a pivot. The escapement's role was to tip the container over each time it filled up, thus advancing the clock's wheels each time an equal quantity of water was measured out. The time between releases depended on the rate of flow, as do all liquid clocks. The rate of flow of a liquid through an orifice varies with temperature and viscosity changes, and decreases with pressure as the level of liquid in the source container drops. The development of mechanical clocks depended on the invention of an escapement which would allow a clock's movement to be controlled by an oscillating weight.


title: Escapement

text: The first mechanical escapement, the verge escapement, was used in a bell ringing apparatus called an "alarum" for several centuries before it was adapted to clocks. In 14th-century Europe it appeared as the timekeeper in the first mechanical clocks, which were large tower clocks (although some sources claim that French architect Villard de Honnecourt invented the first escapement around 1237 due to a drawing in his notebooks of a rope linkage to turn a statue of an angel to follow the sun, the consensus is that this was not an escapement.) Its origin and first use is unknown because it is difficult to distinguish which of these early tower clocks were mechanical, and which were water clocks. However, indirect evidence, such as a sudden increase in cost and construction of clocks, points to the late 13th century as the most likely date for the development of the modern clock escapement. Astronomer Robertus Anglicus wrote in 1271 that clockmakers were trying to invent an escapement, but hadn't been successful yet. On the other hand, most sources agree that mechanical escapement clocks existed by 1300.


title: Escapement

text: Actually, the earliest description of an escapement, in Richard of Wallingford's 1327 manuscript "Tractatus Horologii Astronomici" on the clock he built at the Abbey of St. Albans, was not a verge, but a variation called a "strob" escapement. It consisted of a pair of escape wheels on the same axle, with alternating radial teeth. The verge rod was suspended between them, with a short crosspiece that rotated first in one direction and then the other as the staggered teeth pushed past. Although no other example is known, it is possible that this was the first clock escapement design.


title: Escapement

text: However, the verge was the standard escapement used in every other early clock and watch, and remained the only escapement for 400 years. Its friction and recoil limited its performance, but the accuracy of these verge and foliot clocks was more limited by their early foliot type balance wheels, which because they lacked a balance spring had no natural "beat", so there was not much incentive to improve the escapement.


title: Escapement

text: The great leap in accuracy resulting from the invention of the pendulum and balance spring around 1657, which made the timekeeping elements in both watches and clocks harmonic oscillators, focused attention on the errors of the escapement, and more accurate escapements soon superseded the verge. The next two centuries, the "golden age" of mechanical horology, saw the invention of perhaps 300 escapement designs, although only about 10 stood the test of time and were widely used in clocks and watches. These are described individually below.


title: Escapement

text: The invention of the crystal oscillator and the quartz clock in the 1920s, which became the most accurate clock by the 1930s, shifted technological research in timekeeping to electronic methods, and escapement design ceased to play a role in advancing timekeeping precision.


title: Escapement

text: The reliability of an escapement depends on the quality of workmanship and the level of maintenance given. A poorly constructed or poorly maintained escapement will cause problems. The escapement must accurately convert the oscillations of the pendulum or balance wheel into rotation of the clock or watch gear train, and it must deliver enough energy to the pendulum or balance wheel to maintain its oscillation.


title: Escapement

text: In many escapements, the unlocking of the escapement involves sliding motion; for example, in the animation shown above, the pallets of the anchor slide against the escapement wheel teeth as the pendulum swings. The pallets are often made of very hard materials such as polished stone (for example, artificial ruby), but even so they normally require lubrication. Since lubricating oil degrades over time due to evaporation, dust, oxidation, etc., periodic re-lubrication is needed. If this is not done, the timepiece may work unreliably or stop altogether, and the escapement components may be subjected to rapid wear. The increased reliability of modern watches is due primarily to the higher-quality oils used for lubrication. Lubricant lifetimes can be greater than five years in a high-quality watch.


title: Escapement

text: Some escapements avoid sliding friction; examples include the grasshopper escapement of John Harrison in the 18th century, This may avoid the need for lubrication in the escapement (though it does not obviate the requirement for lubrication of other parts of the gear train).


title: Escapement

text: The accuracy of a mechanical clock is dependent on the accuracy of the timing device. If this is a pendulum, then the period of swing of the pendulum determines the accuracy. If the pendulum rod is made of metal it will expand and contract with heat, lengthening or shortening the pendulum; this changes the time taken for a swing. Special alloys are used in expensive pendulum-based clocks to minimize this distortion. The degrees of arc which a pendulum may swing varies; highly accurate pendulum-based clocks have very small arcs in order to minimize the circular error.


title: Escapement

text: Pendulum-based clocks can achieve outstanding accuracy. Even into the 20th century, pendulum-based clocks were reference time pieces in laboratories.


title: Escapement

text: Escapements play a big part in accuracy as well. The precise point in the pendulum's travel at which impulse is supplied will affect how closely to time the pendulum will swing. Ideally, the impulse should be evenly distributed on either side of the lowest point of the pendulum's swing. This is called "being in beat." This is because pushing a pendulum when it's moving towards mid-swing makes it gain, whereas pushing it while it's moving away from mid-swing makes it lose. If the impulse is evenly distributed then it gives energy to the pendulum without changing the time of its swing.


title: Escapement

text: The pendulum's period depends slightly on the size of the swing. If the amplitude changes from 4° to 3°, the period of the pendulum will decrease by about 0.013 percent, which translates into a gain of about 12 seconds per day. This is caused by the restoring force on the pendulum being circular not linear; thus, the period of the pendulum is only approximately linear in the regime of the small angle approximation. To be time independent, the path must be cycloidal. To minimize the effect with amplitude, pendulum swings are kept as small as possible.


title: Escapement

text: It is important to note that as a rule, whatever the method of impulse the action of the escapement should have the smallest effect on the oscillator which can be achieved, whether a pendulum or the balance in a watch. This effect, which all escapements have to a larger or smaller degree is known as the "escapement error".


title: Escapement

text: Any escapement with sliding friction will need lubrication, but as this deteriorates the friction will increase, and, perhaps, insufficient power will be transferred to the timing device. If the timing device is a pendulum, the increased frictional forces will decrease the Q factor, increasing the resonance band, and decreasing its precision. For spring driven clocks, the impulse force applied by the spring changes as the spring is unwound, following Hooke's law. For gravity driven clocks, the impulse force also increases as the driving weight falls and more chain suspends the weight from the gear train; in practice, however, this effect is only seen in large public clocks, and it can be avoided by a closed-loop chain.


title: Escapement

text: Watches and smaller clocks do not use pendulums as the timing device. Instead, they use a balance spring: a fine spring connected to a metal balance wheel that oscillates (rotates back and forth). Most modern mechanical watches have a working frequency of 3–4 Hz, or 6–8 beats per second (21,600–28,800 beats per hour; bph). Faster or slower speeds are used in some watches (33,600bph, or 19,800bph). The working frequency depends on the balance spring's stiffness (spring constant); to keep time, the stiffness should not vary with temperature. Consequently, balance springs use sophisticated alloys; in this area, watchmaking is still advancing. As with the pendulum, the escapement must provide a small kick each cycle to keep the balance wheel oscillating. Also, the same lubrication problem occurs over time; the watch will lose accuracy (typically it will speed up) when the escapement lubrication starts failing.


title: Escapement

text: Pocket watches were the predecessor of modern wristwatches. Pocket watches, being in the pocket, were usually in a vertical orientation. Gravity causes some loss of accuracy as it magnifies over time any lack of symmetry in the weight of the balance. The "tourbillon" was invented to minimize this: the balance and spring is put in a cage which rotates (typically but not necessarily, once a minute), smoothing gravitational distortions. This very clever and sophisticated clock-work is a prized complication in wristwatches, even though the natural movement of the wearer tends to smooth gravitational influences anyway.


title: Escapement

text: The most accurate commercially produced mechanical clock was the electromechanical Shortt-Synchronome free pendulum clock invented by W. H. Shortt in 1921, which had an uncertainty of about 1 second per year. The most accurate mechanical clock to date is probably the electromechanical Littlemore Clock, built by noted archaeologist E. T. Hall in the 1990s. In Hall's paper, he reports an uncertainty of 3 parts in 10 measured over 100 days (an uncertainty of about 0.02 seconds over that period). Both of these clocks are electromechanical clocks: they use a pendulum as the timekeeping element, but electrical power rather than a mechanical gear train to supply energy to the pendulum.


title: Escapement

text: Since 1658 when the introduction of the pendulum and balance spring made accurate timepieces possible, it has been estimated that more than three hundred different mechanical escapements have been devised, but only about 10 have seen widespread use. These are described below. In the 20th century, electric timekeeping methods replaced mechanical clocks and watches, so escapement design became a little-known curiosity.


title: Escapement

text: The earliest mechanical escapement from about 1275) was the verge escapement, also known as the crown-wheel escapement. It was used in the first mechanical clocks and was originally controlled by a foliot, a horizontal bar with weights at either end. The escapement consists of an escape wheel shaped somewhat like a crown, with pointed teeth sticking axially out of the side, oriented horizontally. In front of the crown wheel is a vertical shaft, attached to the foliot at the top, and which carries two metal plates (pallets) sticking out like flags from a flag pole, oriented about ninety degrees apart, so only one engages the crown wheel teeth at a time. As the wheel turns, one tooth pushes against the upper pallet, rotating the shaft and the attached foliot. As the tooth pushes past the upper pallet, the lower pallet swings into the path of the teeth on the other side of the wheel. A tooth catches on the lower pallet, rotating the shaft back the other way, and the cycle repeats. A disadvantage of the escapement was that each time a tooth lands on a pallet, the momentum of the foliot pushes the crown wheel backwards a short distance before the force of the wheel reverses the motion. This is called ""recoil"" and was a source of wear and inaccuracy.


title: Escapement

text: The verge was the only escapement used in clocks and watches for 350 years. In spring-driven clocks and watches, it required a fusee to even out the force of the mainspring. It was used in the first pendulum clocks for about 50 years after the pendulum clock was invented in 1656. In a pendulum clock, the crown wheel and staff were oriented so they were horizontal, and the pendulum was hung from the staff. However, the verge is the most inaccurate of the common escapements, and after the pendulum was introduced in the 1650s the verge began to be replaced by other escapements, being abandoned only by the late 1800s. By this time, the fashion for thin watches had required that the escape wheel be made very small, amplifying the effects of wear, and when a watch of this period is wound up today, it will often be found to run very fast, gaining many hours per day.


title: Escapement

text: Jost Bürgi invented the cross-beat escapement in 1584, a variation of the verge escapement which had two foliots which rotated in opposite directions. According to contemporary accounts, his clocks achieved remarkable accuracy of within a minute per day, two orders of magnitude better than other clocks of the time. However, this improvement was probably not due to the escapement itself, but rather to better workmanship and his invention of the remontoire, a device which isolated the escapement from changes in drive force. Without a balance spring, the crossbeat would have been no more isochronous than the verge.


title: Escapement

text: Galileo's escapement is a design for a clock escapement, invented around 1637 by Italian scientist Galileo Galilei (1564 - 1642). It was the earliest design of a pendulum clock. Since he was by then blind, Galileo described the device to his son, who drew a sketch of it. The son began construction of a prototype, but both he and Galileo died before it was completed.


title: Escapement

text: Invented around 1657 by Robert Hooke, the anchor (see animation to the right) quickly superseded the verge to become the standard escapement used in pendulum clocks through the 19th century. Its advantage was that it reduced the wide pendulum swing angles of the verge to 3–6°, making the pendulum nearly isochronous, and allowing the use of longer, slower-moving pendulums, which used less energy. The anchor is responsible for the long narrow shape of most pendulum clocks, and for the development of the grandfather clock, the first anchor clock to be sold commercially, which was invented around 1680 by William Clement, who disputed credit for the escapement with Hooke. The escapement increased the accuracy of pendulum clocks to such a degree that the minute hand was added to the clock face in the late 1600s (before this, clocks had only an hour hand).


title: Escapement

text: The anchor consists of an escape wheel with pointed, backward slanted teeth, and an "anchor"-shaped piece pivoted above it which rocks from side to side, linked to the pendulum. The anchor has slanted pallets on the arms which alternately catch on the teeth of the escape wheel, receiving impulses. Mechanically its operation has similarities to the verge escapement, and it has two of the verge's disadvantages: (1) The pendulum is constantly being pushed by an escape wheel tooth throughout its cycle, and is never allowed to swing freely, which disturbs its isochronism, and (2) it is a "recoil" escapement; the anchor pushes the escape wheel backward during part of its cycle. This causes backlash, increased wear in the clock's gears, and inaccuracy. These problems were eliminated in the deadbeat escapement, which slowly replaced the anchor in precision clocks.


title: Escapement

text: The Graham or deadbeat escapement was an improvement of the anchor escapement first made by Thomas Tompion to a design by Richard Towneley in 1675 although it is often credited to Tompion's successor George Graham who popularized it in 1715. In the anchor escapement the swing of the pendulum pushes the escape wheel backward during part of its cycle. This 'recoil' disturbs the motion of the pendulum, causing inaccuracy, and reverses the direction of the gear train, causing backlash and introducing high loads into the system, leading to friction and wear. The main advantage of the deadbeat is that it eliminated recoil.


title: Escapement

text: In the deadbeat, the pallets have a second curved "locking" face on them, concentric about the pivot on which the anchor turns. During the extremities of the pendulum's swing, the escape wheel tooth rests against this locking face, providing no impulse to the pendulum, which prevents recoil. Near the bottom of the pendulum's swing the tooth slides off the locking face onto the angled "impulse" face, giving the pendulum a push, before the pallet releases the tooth. The deadbeat was first used in precision regulator clocks, but due to greater accuracy superseded the anchor in the 19th century. It is used in almost all modern pendulum clocks except for tower clocks which often use gravity escapements.


title: Escapement

text: Invented around 1741 by Louis Amant, this version of a deadbeat escapement can be made quite rugged. Instead of using teeth, the escape wheel has round pins that are stopped and released by a scissors-like anchor. This escapement, which is also called Amant escapement or (in Germany) Mannhardt escapement, is used quite often in tower clocks.


title: Escapement

text: The detent or chronometer escapement is considered the most accurate of the balance wheel escapements, and was used in marine chronometers, although some precision watches during the 18th and 19th century also used it. The early form was invented by Pierre Le Roy in 1748, who created a pivoted detent type of escapement, though this was theoretically deficient. The first effective design of detent escapement was invented by John Arnold around 1775, but with the detent pivoted. This escapement was modified by Thomas Earnshaw in 1780 and patented by Wright (for whom he worked) in 1783; however, as depicted in the patent it was unworkable. Arnold also designed a spring detent escapement but, with improved design, Earnshaw's version eventually prevailed as the basic idea underwent several minor modifications during the last decade of the 18th century. The final form appeared around 1800, and this design was used until mechanical chronometers became obsolete in the 1970s.


title: Escapement

text: The detent is a detached escapement; it allows the balance wheel to swing undisturbed during most of its cycle, except the brief impulse period, which is only given once per cycle (every other swing). Because the driving escape wheel tooth moves almost parallel to the pallet, the escapement has little friction and does not need oiling. For these reasons among others, the detent was considered the most accurate escapement for balance wheel timepieces. John Arnold was the first to use the detent escapement with an overcoil balance spring (patented 1782), and with this improvement his watches were the first really accurate pocket timekeepers, keeping time to within 1 or 2 seconds per day. These were produced from 1783 onwards.


title: Escapement

text: However, the escapement had disadvantages which limited its use in watches: it was fragile and required skilled maintenance; it was not self-starting, so if the watch was jarred in use so the balance wheel stopped, it would not start up again; and it was harder to manufacture in volume. Therefore, the self-starting lever escapement became dominant in watches.


title: Escapement

text: The horizontal or cylinder escapement, invented by Thomas Tompion in 1695 and perfected by George Graham in 1726, was one of the escapements which replaced the verge escapement in pocketwatches after 1700. A major attraction was that it was much thinner than the verge, allowing watches to be made fashionably slim. Clockmakers found it suffered from excessive wear, so it was not much used during the 18th century, except in a few high-end watches with the cylinders made from ruby. The French solved this problem by making the cylinder and escape wheel of hardened steel, and the escapement was used in large numbers in inexpensive French and Swiss pocketwatches and small clocks from the mid-19th to the 20th century.


title: Escapement

text: Rather than pallets, the escapement uses a cutaway cylinder on the balance wheel shaft, which the escape teeth enter one by one. Each wedge-shaped tooth impulses the balance wheel by pressure on the cylinder edge as it enters, is held inside the cylinder as it turns, and impulses the wheel again as it leaves out the other side. The wheel usually had 15 teeth, and impulsed the balance over an angle of 20° to 40° in each direction. It is a frictional rest escapement, with the teeth in contact with the cylinder over the whole balance wheel cycle, and so was not as accurate as "detached" escapements like the lever, and the high friction forces caused excessive wear and necessitated more frequent cleaning.


title: Escapement

text: The duplex watch escapement was invented by Robert Hooke around 1700, improved by Jean Baptiste Dutertre and Pierre Le Roy, and put in final form by Thomas Tyrer, who patented it in 1782.


title: Escapement

text: The early forms had two escape wheels. The duplex escapement was difficult to make but achieved much higher accuracy than the cylinder escapement, and could equal that of the (early) lever escapement and when carefully made was almost as good as a detent escapement.


title: Escapement

text: In the duplex, as in the chronometer escapement to which it has similarities, the balance wheel only receives an impulse during one of the two swings in its cycle.


title: Escapement

text: The escape wheel has two sets of teeth (hence the name 'duplex'); long locking teeth project from the side of the wheel, and short impulse teeth stick up axially from the top. The cycle starts with a locking tooth resting against the ruby disk. As the balance wheel swings counterclockwise through its center position, the notch in the ruby disk releases the tooth. As the escape wheel turns, the pallet is in just the right position to receive a push from an impulse tooth. Then the next locking tooth drops onto the ruby roller and stays there while the balance wheel completes its cycle and swings back clockwise (CW), and the process repeats. During the CW swing, the impulse tooth falls momentarily into the ruby roller notch again, but isn't released.


title: Escapement

text: The duplex is technically a "frictional rest" escapement; the tooth resting against the roller adds some friction to the balance wheel during its swing but this is very minimal. As in the chronometer, there is little sliding friction during impulse since pallet and impulse tooth are moving almost parallel, so little lubrication is needed.


title: Escapement

text: However, it lost favor to the lever; its tight tolerances and sensitivity to shock made duplex watches unsuitable for active people. Like the chronometer, it is not self-starting and is vulnerable to "setting;" if a sudden jar stops the balance during its CW swing, it can't get started again.


title: Escapement

text: The lever escapement, invented by Thomas Mudge in 1750, has been used in the vast majority of watches since the 19th century. Its advantages are (1) it is a "detached" escapement; unlike the cylinder or duplex escapements the balance wheel is only in contact with the lever during the short impulse period when it swings through its centre position and swings freely the rest of its cycle, increasing accuracy, and (2) it is a self-starting escapement, so if the watch is shaken so that the balance wheel stops, it will automatically start again. The original form was the rack lever escapement, in which the lever and the balance wheel were always in contact via a gear rack on the lever. Later, it was realized that all the teeth from the gears could be removed except one, and this created the detached lever escapement. British watchmakers used the English detached lever, in which the lever was at right angles to the balance wheel. Later Swiss and American manufacturers used the inline lever, in which the lever is inline between the balance wheel and the escape wheel; this is the form used in modern watches. In 1867, Georges Frederic Roskopf invented an inexpensive, less accurate form called the Roskopf or pin-pallet escapement, which was used in cheap "dollar watches" in the early 20th century and is still used in cheap alarm clocks and kitchen timers.


title: Escapement

text: A rare but interesting mechanical escapement is John Harrison's grasshopper escapement invented in 1722. In this escapement, the pendulum is driven by two hinged arms (pallets). As the pendulum swings, the end of one arm catches on the escape wheel and drives it slightly backwards; this releases the other arm which moves out of the way to allow the escape wheel to pass. When the pendulum swings back again, the other arm catches the wheel, pushes it back and releases the first arm and so on. The grasshopper escapement has been used in very few clocks since Harrison's time. Grasshopper escapements made by Harrison in the 18th century are still operating. Most escapements wear far more quickly, and waste far more energy. However, like other early escapements the grasshopper impulses the pendulum throughout its cycle; it is never allowed to swing freely, causing error due to variations in drive force, and 19th-century clockmakers found it uncompetitive with more detached escapements like the deadbeat. Nevertheless, with enough care in construction it is capable of accuracy. A modern experimental grasshopper clock, the Burgess Clock B, had a measured error of only of a second during 100 running days. After two years of operation, it had an error of only ±0.5 sec, after barometric correction.


title: Escapement

text: A gravity escapement uses a small weight or a weak spring to give an impulse directly to the pendulum. The earliest form consisted of two arms which were pivoted very close to the suspension spring of the pendulum with one arm on each side of the pendulum. Each arm carried a small dead beat pallet with an angled plane leading to it. When the pendulum lifted one arm far enough its pallet would release the escape wheel. Almost immediately another tooth on the escape wheel would start to slide up the angle face on the other arm thereby lifting the arm. It would reach the pallet and stop. The other arm meanwhile was still in contact with pendulum and coming down again to a point lower than it had started from. This lowering of the arm provides the impulse to the pendulum. The design was developed steadily from the middle of the 18th century to the middle of the 19th century. It eventually became the escapement of choice for turret clocks, because their wheel trains are subjected to large variations in drive force caused by the large exterior hands, with their varying wind, snow, and ice loads. Since in a gravity escapement the drive force from the wheel train does not itself impel the pendulum but merely resets the weights that provide the impulse, the escapement is not affected by variations in drive force.


title: Escapement

text: The 'Double Three-legged Gravity Escapement' shown here is a form of escapement first devised by a barrister named Bloxam and later improved by Lord Grimthorpe. It is the standard for all accurate 'Tower' clocks.


title: Escapement

text: In the animation shown here the two "gravity arms" are coloured blue and red. The two three-legged escape wheels are also coloured blue and red. They work in two parallel planes so that the blue wheel only impacts the locking block on the blue arm and the red wheel only impacts the red arm. In a real escapement these impacts give rise to loud audible "ticks" and these are indicated by the appearance of a * beside the locking blocks. The three black lifting pins are key to the operation of the escapement. They cause the weighted gravity arms to be raised by an amount indicated by the pair of parallel lines on each side of the escapement. This gain in potential energy is the energy given to the pendulum on each cycle. For the Trinity College Cambridge Clock a mass of around 50 grams is lifted through 3 mm each 1.5 seconds - which works out to 1 mW of power. The driving power from the falling weight is about 12 mW, so there is a substantial excess of power used to drive the escapement. Much of this energy is dissipated in the acceleration and deceleration of the frictional "fly" attached to the escape wheels.


title: Escapement

text: The great clock at Westminster that rings London's Big Ben uses a double three-legged gravity escapement.


title: Escapement

text: Invented around 1974 and patented 1980 by British watchmaker George Daniels, the coaxial escapement is one of the few new watch escapements adopted commercially in modern times.


title: Escapement

text: It could be regarded as having its distant origins in the escapement invented by Robert Robin, C.1792, which gives a single impulse in one direction; with the locking achieved by passive lever pallets, the design of the coaxial escapement is more akin to that of another Robin variant, the Fasoldt escapement, which was invented and patented by the American Charles Fasoldt in 1859.


title: Escapement

text: The latter escapement has a lever with unequal drops; this engages with two escape wheels of differing diameters. The smaller impulse wheel acts on the single pallet at the end of the lever, whilst the pointed lever pallets lock on the larger wheel.


title: Escapement

text: The balance engages with and is impelled by the lever through a roller pin and lever fork. The lever 'anchor' pallet locks the larger wheel and, on this being unlocked, a pallet on the end of the lever is given an impulse by the smaller wheel through the lever fork. The return stroke is 'dead', with the 'anchor' pallets serving only to lock and unlock, impulse being given in one direction through the single lever pallet.


title: Escapement

text: The Daniels escapement, however, achieves a double impulse with passive lever pallets serving only to lock and unlock the larger wheel. On one side, impulse is given by means of the smaller wheel acting on the lever pallet through the roller and impulse pin. On the return, the lever again unlocks the larger wheel, which gives an impulse directly onto an impulse roller on the balance staff.


title: Escapement

text: The main advantage is that this enables both impulses to occur on or around the centre line, with disengaging friction in both directions.


title: Escapement

text: This mode of impulse is in theory superior to the lever escapement, which has engaging friction on the entry pallet. For long this was recognized as a disturbing influence on the isochronism of the balance.


title: Escapement

text: Purchasers no longer buy mechanical watches primarily for their accuracy, so manufacturers had little interest in investing in the tooling required, although finally Omega adopted it in 1990.


title: Escapement

text: Since accuracy far greater than any mechanical watch is achievable with low cost quartz watches, improved escapement designs are no longer motivated by practical timekeeping needs but as novelties in the high-end watch market. In an effort to attract publicity, in recent decades some high-end mechanical watch makers have introduced new escapements. None of these have been adopted by any watchmakers beyond their original creator.


title: Escapement

text: Based on patents initially submitted by Rolex on behalf of inventor Nicolas Déhon, the constant escapement was developed by Girard-Perregaux as working prototypes in 2008 (Nicolas Déhon was then head of Girard-Perregaux R&D department) and in watches by 2013.


title: Escapement

text: The key component of this escapement is a silicon buckled-blade which stores elastic energy. This blade is flexed to a point close to its unstable state, and is released with a snap each swing of the balance wheel to give the wheel an impulse, after which it is cocked again by the wheeltrain. The advantage claimed is that since the blade imparts the same amount of energy to the wheel each release, the balance wheel is isolated from variations in impulse force due to the wheeltrain and mainspring which cause inaccuracies in conventional escapements.


title: Escapement

text: Parmigiani Fleurier with its Genequand escapement and Ulysse Nardin with its Ulysse Anchor escapement have taken advantage of the properties of silicon flat springs. The independent watchmaker, De Bethune, has developed a concept where a magnet makes a resonator vibrate at high frequency, replacing the traditional balance spring.


title: Escapement

text: In the late 19th century, electromechanical escapements were developed for pendulum clocks. In these, a switch or phototube energised an electromagnet for a brief section of the pendulum's swing. On some clocks the pulse of electricity that drove the pendulum also drove a plunger to move the gear train.


title: Escapement

text: In 1843, Matthäus Hipp first mentioned a purely mechanical clock being driven by a switch called "echappement à palette". A varied version of that escapement has been used from the 1860s inside electrically driven pendulum clocks, the so-called "hipp-toggle". Since the 1870s, in an improved version the pendulum drove a ratchet wheel via a pawl on the pendulum rod, and the ratchet wheel drove the rest of the clock train to indicate the time. The pendulum was not impelled on every swing or even at a set interval of time. It was only impelled when its arc of swing had decayed below a certain level. As well as the counting pawl, the pendulum carried a small vane, known as a Hipp's toggle, pivoted at the top, which was completely free to swing. It was placed so that it dragged across a triangular polished block with a vee-groove in the top of it. When the arc of swing of the pendulum was large enough, the vane crossed the groove and swung free on the other side. If the arc was too small the vane never left the far side of the groove, and when the pendulum swung back it pushed the block strongly downwards. The block carried a contact which completed the circuit to the electromagnet which impelled the pendulum. The pendulum was only impelled as required.


title: Escapement

text: This type of clock was widely used as a master clock in large buildings to control numerous slave clocks. Most telephone exchanges used such a clock to control timed events such as were needed to control the setup and charging of telephone calls by issuing pulses of varying durations such as every second, six seconds and so on.


title: Escapement

text: Designed in 1895 by Frank Hope-Jones, the Synchronome switch and gravity escapement were the basis for the majority of their clocks in the 20th century. And also the basis of the slave pendulum in the Short-Synchronome free pendulum clock. A gathering arm attached to the pendulum moves a 15-tooth count wheel in one position, with a pawl preventing movement in the reverse direction. The wheel has a vane attached which, once per 30-second turn, releases the gravity arm. When the gravity arm falls it pushes against a pallet attached directly to the pendulum, giving it a push. Once the arm has fallen, it makes an electrical contact that energises an electromagnet to reset the gravity arm and acts as the half-minute impulse for the slave clocks.


title: Escapement

text: In the 20th century the English horologist William Hamilton Shortt invented a free pendulum clock, patented in September 1921 and manufactured by the Synchronome Company, with an accuracy of one hundredth of a second a day. In this system the timekeeping "master" pendulum, whose rod is made from a special steel alloy with 36% nickel called Invar whose length changes very little with temperature, swings as free of external influence as possible sealed in a vacuum chamber and does no work. It is in mechanical contact with its escapement for only a fraction of a second every 30 seconds. A secondary "slave" pendulum turns a ratchet, which triggers an electromagnet slightly less than every thirty seconds. This electromagnet releases a gravity lever onto the escapement above the master pendulum. A fraction of a second later (but exactly every 30 seconds), the motion of the master pendulum releases the gravity lever to fall farther. In the process, the gravity lever gives a tiny impulse to the master pendulum, which keeps that pendulum swinging. The gravity lever falls onto a pair of contacts, completing a circuit that does several things:


title: Escapement

text: Since it is the slave pendulum that releases the gravity lever, this synchronization is vital to the functioning of the clock. The synchronizing mechanism used a small spring attached to the shaft of the slave pendulum and an electromagnetic armature that would catch the spring if the slave pendulum was running slightly late, thus shortening the period of the slave pendulum for one swing. The slave pendulum was adjusted to run slightly slow, such that on approximately every other synchronization pulse the spring would be caught by the armature.


title: Escapement

text: This form of clock became a standard for use in observatories (roughly 100 such clocks were manufactured), and was the first clock capable of detecting small variations in the speed of Earth's rotation.


title: North Dakota State University

text: North Dakota State University (NDSU, formally North Dakota State University of Agriculture and Applied Sciences) is a public land-grant research university in Fargo, North Dakota. It was founded as North Dakota Agricultural College in 1890 as the state's land-grant university. As of 2021, NDSU offers 94 undergraduate majors, 146 undergraduate degree programs, 5 undergraduate certificate programs, 84 undergraduate minors, 87 master's degree programs, 51 doctoral degree programs of study, and 210 graduate certificate programs.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU is part of the North Dakota University System. The university also operates North Dakota's agricultural research extension centers distributed across the state on 18,488 acres (75 km). In 2015, NDSU's economic impact on the state and region was estimated to be $1.3 billion a year according to the NDUS Systemwide Economic Study by the School of Economics at North Dakota State University. In 2016, it was also the fifth-largest employer in the state of North Dakota.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The bill founding North Dakota Agricultural College (NDAC) was signed on March 8, 1890, one year after North Dakota became a state and seven years after initial plans to start an agricultural college in the northern portion of the Dakota Territory. NDAC was established as North Dakota's land-grant institution.


title: North Dakota State University

text: On October 15, 1890, Horace E. Stockbridge became the first NDAC president and the Board of Trustees was formed. Classes were initially held in six classrooms rented from Fargo College. A provisional course was held on January 6, 1891, and the first regular class of students was admitted on September 8, 1891. College Hall (Old Main), completed in 1892, was the first building and consisted of offices, classrooms, and a library.


title: North Dakota State University

text: In 1908, the school's alma mater "The Yellow and The Green" was written and a year later the school's official colors, Yellow and Green, were selected. In 2015 a change was made where only the first verse of the alma mater is recognized by the university.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDAC continued to grow and was renamed North Dakota State University on November 8, 1960, after a statewide referendum. The name change was to reflect the increasing field of study breadth of the institution.


title: North Dakota State University

text: A area including 12 historic buildings was listed on the National Register of Historic Places as North Dakota State University District in 1986.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU surpassed 10,000 students in the fall of 2000 for the first time, and by Fall Semester of 2009, NDSU increased enrollment by another 10% to 14,189 students. Enrollment in 2018 stood at 13,650.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Research, athletic programs, and campus facilities benefited from increases in student enrollment. Between 2000 and 2007, NDSU added a number of undergraduate programs and 31 graduate programs. Several buildings have been built or expanded and remodeled over the past seven years, including the Wallman Wellness Center, Memorial Union, and the College of Business.


title: North Dakota State University

text: North Dakota State University is primarily located in Fargo, North Dakota. NDSU consists of several campuses including: the main campus, NDSU Downtown, and several agricultural research extension centers.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The main campus sits on of land and consists of over 100 major buildings. The appearance of the main campus is maintained by the university's extensive agricultural programs. The main campus boundaries are 19th Avenue N. to the north, University Drive to the east, 18th St. N. to the west, and 12th Avenue N. to the south.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Located in the historic Minard–South Engineering quad is the Babbling Brook. The Babbling Brook is a large water feature that offers students a serene location to relax and study. Enhancing the area are trickling waterfalls, various fish and flowers, an amphitheater seating area, and "buffalo-rubbed" rocks. This area offers a space for outdoor class sessions and small performances.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Over the years, NDSU's main campus has been aesthetically enhanced with many monuments including: the Bjornson Memorial Obelisk, Theatre Passion: Mask Sculpture, We Will Never Forget Memorial, and Noble's Golden Marguerite, among many others.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The southern area of the campus consists of many of NDSU's historic buildings, including Old Main, Minard Hall, Ceres Hall, Putnam Hall, South Engineering, and Morrill Hall. There is also a statue of a bison, the school's mascot, which is a very popular place for photographs.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The central area consists of the Engineering Complex, Shepperd Arena, and many academic buildings, and the Quentin Burdick Building (QBB formerly IACC) which is a technology powerhouse for the entire state. The QBB contains several hundred computers and computer servers for many of the universities in the North Dakota University System as well as many other technologies and communication devices.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The NDSU Memorial Union is also situated within the central campus and serves student social needs, as well as several large rooms available for presentations and functions.


title: North Dakota State University

text: In the fall of 2014, NDSU began construction on the Science, Technology, Engineering, and Mathematics (STEM) building. Since then the building has been completed and renamed to A. Glenn Hill Center.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Just north of the central area of campus is a large section that consists of many academic buildings, residence halls, and dining centers. This part is easily recognizable as four residential high-rises tower above the landscape. They are surrounded by grassy quads, as well as sand-volleyball and basketball courts. Between the four identical high-rises a dining center serves their 1,000+ residents. Tunnels connect to the towers to ease travel in bad weather. A large new upper-class student residence, known as the Living Learning Center (East and West), is to the west of the high-rises. To the east, another dining center serves other nearby residence halls and their 1,000+ residents.


title: North Dakota State University

text: This area of campus is home to the NDSU Wallman Wellness Center, which currently houses the Wellness Center department, Student Health Service and Disability Services. The Wellness Center, which was first completed in 2001, expanded in 2007 and added an aquatic addition in 2016.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Further north is an area of campus that consists of many athletic facilities including the Bentson Bunker Fieldhouse, Bison Sports Arena, Fargodome, Newman Outdoor Field, Ellig Sports Complex, McCormick Wrestling Complex, Dacotah Field, Schlanser Track, and others.


title: North Dakota State University

text: A $31.6 million renovation of Bison Sports Arena (commonly referred to as the BSA) has been completed. Upon completion, the Sanford Health Athletic Complex now includes the Scheels Center basketball arena; a basketball training facility; a performance training center; a Hall of Fame display, and a Bison team store. Construction for the Shelly Ellig Indoor Track and Field Facility started in October 2011.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU juadded a new aquatics center inside the Wellness Center. It opened in the fall of 2016, and has many advantages. Including a wet classroom, a lap pool, a relaxing pool, workout classes, and much more.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The Research and Technology Park is a site of innovation and technology, residing to the west of the north area of campus, and consists of entities that research and develop nano technologies, RFID, polymers and coatings, high performance computing, and others.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The Technology Incubator opened in March 2007. The facility is located in the NDSU Research and Technology Park, five minutes from the international airport and major interstate highways. The Technology Incubator was developed to assist startup entities and to complement the Research and Technology Park.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The Research and Technology Park also houses the Fargo branch of the North Dakota State College of Science (NDSCS-Fargo), which opened in 1997.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU owns several buildings in downtown Fargo, N.D. Approximately 4,000 students, faculty, and staff use these NDSU Downtown facilities each year.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The project started in 2004 with the purchase and renovation of the former Northern School Supply building, located at NP Avenue and 8th Street North in the city's downtown. The structure, now known as Renaissance Hall, houses NDSU's visual arts department, architecture department and the office of Tri-College University, a partnership between NDSU, Concordia College and Minnesota State University Moorhead. The building's features include studios, classrooms, a wood shop, computer laboratories, gallery and an outdoor sculpture area.


title: North Dakota State University

text: In 2006, the NDSU Development Foundation purchased the Pioneer Mutual Life Insurance Building and Lincoln Mutual Life & Casualty Insurance Building along 2nd Avenue North between 8th and 10th Streets, also in downtown Fargo. The refurbished Pioneer building is now Richard H. Barry Hall, named after a former Fargo businessman. Barry Hall is home to the NDSU College of Business and Department of Agribusiness and Applied Economics. According to the college, the downtown location and addition of the North Dakota Trade Office have increased interaction with local businesses and allowed the college to expand its offerings, such as a Certificate in Entrepreneurship in partnership with the University of North Dakota, and add three new centers: The Center for Professional Selling and Sales Technology, Fraud Education and Research Institute and the Center for Leadership Practice. Barry Hall has 12 conference rooms, a two-story atrium, 14 classrooms, a 250-seat auditorium and a six-story faculty office town.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The Lincoln Mutual Life and Casualty building is now Klai Hall, named for NDSU alumnus and university supporter John Klai. The building houses the landscape architecture program and features studios, classrooms, a model shop, computer lab, laser cutter facilities and a library.


title: North Dakota State University

text: For travel between NDSU Downtown and the main campus, MATBUS operates various circulator routes that all NDSU students can ride for free using their student ID.


title: North Dakota State University

text: North Dakota State University has many research extension centers across the state that encompass over 18,488 acres (75 km) in total. Major NDSU research extension centers are located near Carrington, Casselton, Dickinson, Fargo, Hettinger, Langdon, Minot, Streeter, and Williston.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU offers a major known as University Studies that allows a student to study in nearly any area that interests them. To enhance learning among its students, NDSU offers online classes, online academic portals, or technology enhanced classrooms.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU uses a semester system – Fall and Spring with two summer sessions. The majority of students are full-time with 55% male and 45% female.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Forbes.com lists Fargo, ND as No. 5 in an article called "Top College Towns for Jobs." The article suggests that research universities are conducive to great environments for business, providing an educated labor force and centers of innovation stemming from university research.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Total collections at the NDSU libraries include holdings of approximately 1 million physical items in addition to access to extensive electronic resources. The NDSU library was remodeled and updated during the school year of 2015 and 2016.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU is a major component of the Red River Valley Research Corridor. According to the NSF Higher Education and Research Development (HERD) survey, NDSU ranks in the top 100 research universities for agricultural sciences and social sciences. According to the National Science Foundation, NDSU is the largest research institution in the state of North Dakota. NDSU's annual research expenditures exceed $150 million. Major fields of research at NDSU include nanotechnology, genomics, agriculture, chemistry, and polymers and coatings. NDSU also has a 55-acre (223,000 m) Research and Technology Park located on the north side of the main campus.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The Carnegie Commission on Higher Education has classified NDSU in the "Research University/High Research Activity" category.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU's sports teams are known as the North Dakota State Bison, or simply The Bison (pronounced "biZon"). They are also known as "The Thundering Herd." NDSU's athletic symbol is a caricature of the American Bison.


title: North Dakota State University

text: North Dakota State's intercollegiate sports teams participate in NCAA Division I in all sports (Division I Championship Subdivision in football). NDSU was a charter member of the Division II North Central Conference (NCC), and made the move to Division I sports in the fall of 2004. NDSU spent the next two years as an independent in Division I in all sports other than football, in which it was a member of the Great West Football Conference. The school was accepted into the Summit League on August 31, 2006, and began play in that conference on July 1, 2007. The football team left the Great West Football Conference and joined the Missouri Valley Football Conference on March 7, 2007. They became a full member of the conference during the 2008 season. NDSU joined the Big 12 Conference in wrestling in 2015.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The Bison football team was the winningest program in NCAA Football history with thirty-three conference championships and eight national championships (1965, 1968, 1969, 1983, 1985, 1986, 1988, 1990) before moving to Division I Championship Subdivision in 2004. In January 2012, NDSU defeated Sam Houston State in the FCS National Championship game becoming the 2011 season National Champions. NDSU football is a major event in the city of Fargo and the region, averaging over 18,000 fans per home game. The Bison play their home games at the Fargodome (cap. 19,287). In January 2013, NDSU football won the NCAA Division I championship title for a second year in a row, defeating Sam Houston again. They also defeated Kansas State and hosted ESPN College Gameday. In January 2014, NDSU defeated Towson to win its 3rd consecutive national championship in FCS football. It is only the 2nd team in NCAA history to achieve this feat. NDSU also defeated FBS Iowa State for their 6th consecutive win over an FBS opponent and hosted ESPN College Gameday for the 2nd straight season. January 2015, for the 2014 season, NDSU defeated Illinois State to win its 4th consecutive national championship in FCS football.


title: North Dakota State University

text: In the 2015 season, NDSU defeated Jacksonville State for a record 5th consecutive NCAA Division I FCS national championship. No football team in the modern history of the NCAA has accomplished this feat. In the 2016 season, NDSU was defeated by James Madison, 27–17, who eventually went on to win the championship. This ended the Bison's reign of 5 consecutive championships. The following season the Bison went on to win the FCS National Championship again for the sixth time in seven years, by beating James Madison, 17–13. In 2018, the Bison completed an undefeated season going 15–0 and defeating the Eastern Washington Eagles, 38–24, and winning their 7th FCS championship in 8 years. After defeating James Madison in 2019 for a third straight title, the Bison lost in the 2020-21 FCS quarterfinals in the COVID-impacted spring season to eventual champion Sam Houston State before reclaiming the title in 2021 with a decisive 38-10 victory over Montana State. North Dakota State University has the most NCAA FCS football championships, as of 2021.


title: North Dakota State University

text: On September 17, 2016, the Bison upset the No. 13 Iowa Hawkeyes, 23–21. It was the Bison's sixth-straight win against a team in the NCAA Division I Football Bowl Subdivision.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The Bison men's and women's basketball| teams have played since 1970 in a venue that was known before 2016 as the Bison Sports Arena. Following a $41 million renovation that nearly doubled the facility's seating capacity, the venue was renamed the Sanford Health Athletic Complex (commonly known as the SHAC), with the basketball arena called The Scheels Center, beginning with the 2016–2017 season. Both teams play in The Summit League


title: North Dakota State University

text: The women's basketball team won five NCAA National Championships during the 1990s – 1991, 1993 through 1996. In January 2006, the NCAA recognized NDSU's four consecutive Division II Women's Basketball Championships (1993–1996) as one of the "25 Most Defining Moments in NCAA History."


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU's men's basketball team gained national recognition in 2006 with an upset win at #13 ranked Wisconsin, and again in the 2006–07 season with a win at #8 ranked Marquette.


title: North Dakota State University

text: On March 10, 2009, North Dakota State gained an automatic invitation to the NCAA basketball tournament in its first year of eligibility for Division I postseason play, by defeating Oakland 66–64 in the Summit League Tournament Championship game. The #14 seeded Bison lost to #3 Kansas in the 1st Round in a game played in Minneapolis, MN.


title: North Dakota State University

text: In the 2nd Round of the 2014 NCAA basketball tournament, the #12 seeded Bison team defeated #5 Oklahoma 80–75 for the program's first NCAA tournament win in Spokane, WA; then it lost to #4 San Diego State in the 3rd Round.


title: North Dakota State University

text: NDSU also made the 2015 NCAA basketball tournament, with the #15 seeded Bison falling 86–76 to #2 seeded Gonzaga in the Round of 64. (Gonzaga went on to the Elite Eight, before losing to Duke, the eventual Tournament Champion.) The Bison last played in the NCAA Tournament in 2019, winning a First Four game against North Carolina Central by a 78-74 score. This advanced the Bison to the opening round bracket where they took on #1 seed Duke, eventually falling 85-62. The 2020 men's team went 25-8 during the season, won the Summit League tournament title, defeating in-state rival North Dakota in the championship game but were not able to compete in the NCAA Tournament, which was cancelled due to the COVID-19 pandemic.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Formed in 1957, Bison wrestling won Division II team titles in 1988, 1998, 2000, and 2001. The team first became fully eligible for the Division I tournament competition in 2009. In 2015, following the disbanding of the Western Wrestling Conference, the Bison and all other former WWC members joined the Big 12 Conference for wrestling. NDSU wrestlers compete in the Bison Sports Arena but will be moving into the Sanford Health Athletic complex for the 2016 season.


title: North Dakota State University

text: North Dakota State's Bison dance team won a National Championship by taking 1st place at nationals in 2012 and 2013 in pom in Orlando, Florida.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The NDSU Track and Field team has won nine consecutive conference championships in the Summit League.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Amy Olson (née Anderson), a member of the women's golf team, set the NCAA record for most career match victories (20).


title: North Dakota State University

text: Thunder Radio, an NDSU radio station, operates on KNDS-LP 96.3 FM and offers online streaming. The Bison Information Network, founded in 2008, is a student-run TV station. It focuses on student and athletic news, and is broadcast on campus channel 84 and Fargo public-access television cable TV channel 14.


title: North Dakota State University

text: "NDSU magazine" is a magazine for alumni and friends of North Dakota State University. Story ideas and information for NDSU magazine come from a variety of sources. The inaugural issue was October 2000.


title: North Dakota State University

text: "Northern Eclecta" is a literary journal produced by students in NDSU's Literary Publications class. It accepts creative writing, photographs, and artwork from NDSU students and community students in grades 7–12.


title: North Dakota State University

text: The Department of Residence Life operates 13 residence halls. The department also operates 4 apartment complexes on campus. NDSU requires all first year students to live in an on-campus residence hall.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Construction of the Memorial Union was completed in 1953, and the grand opening held during Homecoming weekend of that same year. The Memorial Union initially had a ballroom and dining center. In 2005, the building underwent a $22 million expansion and remodeling. Today, the Memorial Union consists of three floors. The main floor is home to the NDSU Bookstore, a coffee shop, bank, and various offices. A ballroom and several conference rooms comprise much of the second floor, and the basement is home to a dining center, food court, and various recreation facilities including a bowling alley and e-sports gaming lab.


title: North Dakota State University

text: There are three dining centers on campus. Two (the Residence Dining Center and the West Dining Center) are located to the north of campus near the majority of the dormitories, and one situated in the Memorial Union. A number of restaurants are located on campus as well, such as Panda Express and the Bison Beanery.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Greek life has been a part of the NDSU campus since 1904 when the first social fraternity was formed offering membership to men in all fields of study. The first women's social fraternity was formed on campus in 1908.


title: North Dakota State University

text: Fraternities and sororities have built several historically significant "Fraternity Row" homes along University Ave. N, 12th St. N, and 12th Ave. N, in Fargo.


title: North Dakota State University

text: As of 2020, approximately 1,000 members made up about 7% of the campus population. NDSU presently has 14 national fraternities and sororities, 12 of which are open to individuals in any field of study and 2 that restrict membership to students in specific professional disciplines and/or areas of career interest.


title: Allan Heinberg

text: Allan Heinberg (born June 29, 1967) is an American film screenwriter, television writer and producer and comic book writer.


title: Allan Heinberg

text: Heinberg is the screenwriter of the 2017 film "Wonder Woman", directed by Patty Jenkins. His television writing and producing credits include "The Naked Truth", "Party of Five", "Sex and the City", "Gilmore Girls", "The O.C.", "Grey's Anatomy", "Looking", and "Scandal" . Most recently, Heinberg developed, wrote, and ran ABC's "The Catch," starring Mireille Enos and Peter Krause and also developed the 2022 Netflix series on "The Sandman." For Marvel Comics, Heinberg created and wrote "Young Avengers" and its sequel, "Avengers: The Children’s Crusade" with co-creator/artist Jim Cheung. For DC Comics, Heinberg co-wrote "JLA: Crisis of Conscience" with Geoff Johns (art by Chris Batista), and re-launched Wonder Woman with artists Terry and Rachel Dodson.


title: Allan Heinberg

text: Heinberg was born to a Jewish family and is a graduate of Booker T. Washington High School in Tulsa, Oklahoma and Yale University class of 1989. He was in Morse College. Heinberg acted in the Broadway cast of "Laughter on the 23rd Floor" and appeared off-Broadway in "Hello Muddah, Hello Fadduh" and the Vineyard Theatre's production of Bob Merrill's "Hannah...1939" starring Julie Wilson.


title: Allan Heinberg

text: A stageplay called "The Amazon's Voice" helped launch Heinberg's screenwriting career in 1994. The play was produced off-Broadway by the Manhattan Class Company and featured Tim Blake Nelson and Ellen Parker in lead roles.


title: Allan Heinberg

text: Heinberg's "Young Avengers" was a sales success and fan favorite for Marvel Comics. The series also gained favorable press for its inclusions of two gay characters, Wiccan and the alien Hulkling. Heinberg himself is openly gay. He returned to write for the Young Avengers during the "" storyline.


title: Allan Heinberg

text: After co-writing a 5-issue arc of DC Comics's "JLA" with Geoff Johns, Heinberg and artist Terry Dodson relaunched "Wonder Woman" following the "Infinite Crisis" mini-series.


title: Allan Heinberg

text: On television, Heinberg worked on "The Naked Truth", "Party of Five", "Sex and the City", "Gilmore Girls", "The O.C.", "Grey's Anatomy", "Looking", "Scandal" and "The Catch", and served as Executive Producer of The CW's pilot for their Wonder Woman origin series "Amazon" in 2012, but the pilot was not picked up to series. In 2019, it was announced that Heinberg would develop a television adaptation of "The Sandman" for Netflix. He also executive produces the show with Neil Gaiman and David S. Goyer.


title: Allan Heinberg

text: Heinberg wrote the screenplay for the 2017 superhero film "Wonder Woman", as well as co-wrote the story with Zack Snyder and Jason Fuchs.


title: Filename

text: A filename or file name is a name used to uniquely identify a computer file in a directory structure. Different file systems impose different restrictions on filename lengths.


title: Filename

text: The components required to identify a file by utilities and applications varies across operating systems, as does the syntax and format for a valid filename.


title: Filename

text: Filenames may contain any arbitrary bytes the user chooses. This may include things like a revision or generation number of the file such as computer code, a numerical sequence number (widely used by digital cameras through the "DCF" standard), a date and time (widely used by smartphone camera software and for screenshots), and/or a comment such as the name of a subject or a location or any other text to facilitate the searching the files. In fact, even unprintable characters, including bell, 0x00, Return and LineFeed can be part of a filename, although most utilities do not handle them well.


title: Filename

text: Some people use of the term filename when referring to a complete specification of device, subdirectories and filename such as the Windows "C:\Program Files\Microsoft Games\Chess\Chess.exe". The filename in this case is "Chess.exe". Some utilities have settings to suppress the extension as with MS Windows Explorer.


title: Filename

text: On early personal computers using the CP/M operating system, with the File Allocation Table (FAT) filesystem, filenames were always 11 characters. This was referred to as the 8.3 filename with a maximum of an 8 byte name and a maximum of a 3 byte extension. Utilities and applications allowed users to specify filenames without trailing spaces and include a dot before the extension. The dot was not actually stored in the directory. Using only 7 bit characters allowed several file attributes to be included in the actual filename by using the high-order-bit. These attributes included Readonly, Archive, HIDDEN and SYS. Eventually this was too restrictive and the number of characters allowed increased. The attribute bits were moved to a special block of the file including additional information. This led to compatibility problems when moving files between different file systems.


title: Filename

text: During the 1970s, some mainframe and minicomputers where files on the system were identified by a user name, or account number.


title: Filename

text: For example, on Digital Equipment Corporation RSTS/E and TOPS-10 operating systems, files were identified by


title: Filename

text: On the IBM OS/VS1, OS/390 and MVS operating systems, a file name was up to 44 characters, consisting of upper case letters, digits, and the period. A file name must start with a letter or number, a period must occur at least once each 8 characters, two consecutive periods could not appear in the name, and must end with a letter or digit. By convention, the letters and numbers before the first period was the account number of the owner or the project it belonged to, but there was no requirement to use this convention.


title: Filename

text: In 1985, RFC 959 officially defined a "pathname" to be the character string that must be entered into a file system by a user in order to identify a file.


title: Filename

text: Around 1995, VFAT, an extension to the MS-DOS FAT filesystem, was introduced in Windows 95 and Windows NT. It allowed mixed-case Unicode long filenames (LFNs), in addition to classic "8.3" names.


title: Filename

text: An absolute reference includes all directory levels. In some systems, a filename reference that does not include the complete directory path defaults to the current working directory. This is a relative reference. One advantage of using a relative reference in program configuration files or scripts is that different instances of the script or program can use different files.


title: Filename

text: Unix-like file systems allow a file to have more than one name; in traditional Unix-style file systems, the names are hard links to the file's inode or equivalent. Windows supports hard links on NTFS file systems, and provides the command codice_6 in Windows XP, and codice_7 in later versions, for creating them. Hard links are different from Windows shortcuts, classic Mac OS/macOS aliases, or symbolic links. The introduction of LFNs with VFAT allowed filename aliases. For example, codice_8 with a maximum of eight plus three characters was a filename alias of "codice_9" as a way to conform to 8.3 limitations for older programs.


title: Filename

text: This property was used by the move command algorithm that first creates a second filename and then only removes the first filename.


title: Filename

text: Other filesystems, by design, provide only one filename per file, which guarantees that alteration of one filename's file does not alter the other filename's file.


title: Filename

text: Some filesystems restrict the length of filenames. In some cases, these lengths apply to the entire file name, as in 44 characters on IBM S/370. In other cases, the length limits may apply to particular portions of the filename, such as the name of a file in a directory, or a directory name. For example, 9 (e.g., 8-bit FAT in Standalone Disk BASIC), 11 (e.g. FAT12, FAT16, FAT32 in DOS), 14 (e.g. early Unix), 21 (Human68K), 31, 30 (e.g. Apple DOS 3.2 and 3.3), 15 (e.g. Apple ProDOS), 44 (e.g. IBM S/370), or 255 (e.g. early Berkeley Unix) characters or bytes. Length limits often result from assigning fixed space in a filesystem to storing components of names, so increasing limits often requires an incompatible change, as well as reserving more space.


title: Filename

text: A particular issue with filesystems that store information in nested directories is that it may be possible to create a file with a complete pathname that exceeds implementation limits, since length checking may apply only to individual parts of the name rather than the entire name. Many Windows applications are limited to a codice_10 value of 260, but Windows file names can easily exceed this limit . From Windows 10, version 1607, MAX_PATH limitations have been removed.


title: Filename

text: Many file systems, including FAT, NTFS, and VMS systems, consider as filename extension the part of the file name that consists of one or more characters following the last period in the filename, dividing the filename into two parts: a "base name" or "stem" and an "extension" or "suffix" used by some applications to indicate the file type. Multiple output files created by an application use the same basename and various extensions. For example, a compiler might use the extension codice_11 for source input file (for Fortran code), codice_12 for the object output and codice_13 for the listing. Although there are some common extensions, they are arbitrary and a different application might use codice_14 and codice_15. Extensions have been restricted, at least historically on some systems, to a length of 3 characters, but in general can have any length, e.g., codice_16.


title: Filename

text: File names have to be exchanged between software environments for network file transfer, file system storage, backup and file synchronization software, configuration management, data compression and archiving, etc. It is thus very important not to lose file name information between applications. This led to wide adoption of Unicode as a standard for encoding file names, although legacy software might not be Unicode-aware.


title: Filename

text: Traditionally, filenames allowed any character in their filenames as long as they were file system safe. Although this permitted the use of any encoding, and thus allowed the representation of any local text on any local system, it caused many interoperability issues.


title: Filename

text: A filename could be stored using different byte strings in distinct systems within a single country, such as if one used Japanese Shift JIS encoding and another Japanese EUC encoding. Conversion was not possible as most systems did not expose a description of the encoding used for a filename as part of the extended file information. This forced costly filename encoding guessing with each file access.


title: Filename

text: Nonetheless, some limited interoperability issues remain, such as normalization (equivalence), or the Unicode version in use. For instance, UDF is limited to Unicode 2.0; macOS's HFS+ file system applies NFD Unicode normalization and is optionally case-sensitive (case-insensitive by default.) Filename maximum length is not standard and might depend on the code unit size. Although it is a serious issue, in most cases this is a limited one.


title: Filename

text: On Linux, this means the filename is not enough to open a file: additionally, the exact byte representation of the filename on the storage device is needed. This can be solved at the application level, with some tricky normalization calls.


title: Filename

text: The issue of Unicode equivalence is known as "normalized-name collision". A solution is the "Non-normalizing Unicode Composition Awareness" used in the Subversion and Apache technical communities. This solution does not normalize paths in the repository. Paths are only normalized for the purpose of comparisons. Nonetheless, some communities have patented this strategy, forbidding its use by other communities.


title: Filename

text: Those considerations create a limitation not allowing a switch to a future encoding different from UTF-8.


title: Filename

text: For this purpose, several software companies provided software for migrating filenames to the new Unicode encoding.


title: Filename

text: Mac OS X 10.3 marked Apple's adoption of Unicode 3.2 character decomposition, superseding the Unicode 2.1 decomposition used previously. This change caused problems for developers writing software for Mac OS X.


title: Filename

text: Within a single directory, filenames must be unique. Since the filename syntax also applies for directories, it is not possible to create a file and directory entries with the same name in a single directory. Multiple files in different directories may have the same name.


title: Filename

text: Uniqueness approach may differ both on the case sensitivity and on the Unicode normalization form such as NFC, NFD.


title: Filename

text: This means two separate files might be created with the same text filename and a different byte implementation of the filename, such as L"\x00C0.txt" (UTF-16, NFC) (Latin capital A with grave) and L"\x0041\x0300.txt" (UTF-16, NFD) (Latin capital A, grave combining).


title: Filename

text: Some filesystems, such as FAT, store filenames as upper-case regardless of the letter case used to create them. For example, a file created with the name "MyName.Txt" or "myname.txt" would be stored with the filename "MYNAME.TXT". Any variation of upper and lower case can be used to refer to the same file. These kinds of file systems are called case-insensitive and are not case-preserving. Some filesystems prohibit the use of lower case letters in filenames altogether.


title: Filename

text: Some file systems store filenames in the form that they were originally created; these are referred to as case-retentive or case-preserving. Such a file system can be case-sensitive or case-insensitive. If case-sensitive, then "MyName.Txt" and "myname.txt" may refer to two different files in the same directory, and each file must be referenced by the exact capitalization by which it is named. On a case-insensitive, case-preserving file system, on the other hand, only one of "MyName.Txt", "myname.txt" and "Myname.TXT" can be the name of a file in a given directory at a given time, and a file with one of these names can be referenced by any capitalization of the name.


title: Filename

text: From its original inception, Unix and its derivative systems were case-preserving. However, not all Unix-like file systems are case-sensitive; by default, HFS+ in macOS is case-insensitive, and SMB servers usually provide case-insensitive behavior (even when the underlying file system is case-sensitive, e.g. Samba on most Unix-like systems), and SMB client file systems provide case-insensitive behavior. File system case sensitivity is a considerable challenge for software such as Samba and Wine, which must interoperate efficiently with both systems that treat uppercase and lowercase files as different and with systems that treat them the same.


title: Filename

text: File systems have not always provided the same character set for composing a filename. Before Unicode became a de facto standard, file systems mostly used a locale-dependent character set. By contrast, some new systems permit a filename to be composed of almost any character of the Unicode repertoire, and even some non-Unicode byte sequences. Limitations may be imposed by the file system, operating system, application, or requirements for interoperability with other systems.


title: Filename

text: Many file system utilities prohibit control characters from appearing in filenames. In Unix-like file systems, the null character and the path separator codice_17 are prohibited.


title: Filename

text: File system utilities and naming conventions on various systems prohibit particular characters from appearing in filenames or make them problematic:


title: Filename

text: Note 1: While they are allowed in Unix file and folder names, most Unix shells require specific characters such as spaces, <, >, |, \, and sometimes :, (, ), &, ;, #, as well as wildcards such as ? and *, to be quoted or escaped:


title: Filename

text: The character (codice_21) was not allowed as the first letter in a filename under 86-DOS and MS-DOS/PC DOS 1.x-2.x, but can be used in later versions.


title: Filename

text: In Windows utilities, the space and the period are not allowed as the final character of a filename. The period is allowed as the first character, but some Windows applications, such as Windows Explorer, forbid creating or renaming such files (despite this convention being used in Unix-like systems to describe hidden files and directories). Workarounds include appending a dot when renaming the file (that is then automatically removed afterwards), using alternative file managers, creating the file using the command line, or saving a file with the desired filename from within an application.


title: Filename

text: Some file systems on a given operating system (especially file systems originally implemented on other operating systems), and particular applications on that operating system, may apply further restrictions and interpretations. See comparison of file systems for more details on restrictions.


title: Filename

text: In Unix-like systems, DOS, and Windows, the filenames "." and ".." have special meanings (current and parent directory respectively). Windows 95/98/ME also uses names like "...", "..." and so on to denote grandparent or great-grandparent directories. All Windows versions forbid creation of filenames that consist of only dots, although names consist of three dots ("...") or more are legal in Unix.


title: Filename

text: In addition, in Windows and DOS utilities, some words are also reserved and cannot be used as filenames. For example, DOS device files:


title: Filename

text: Systems that have these restrictions cause incompatibilities with some other filesystems. For example, Windows will fail to handle, or raise error reports for, these legal UNIX filenames: aux.c, q"uote"s.txt, or NUL.txt.


title: Socialist economics

text: Socialist economics comprises the economic theories, practices and norms of hypothetical and existing socialist economic systems. A socialist economic system is characterized by social ownership and operation of the means of production that may take the form of autonomous cooperatives or direct public ownership wherein production is carried out directly for use rather than for profit. Socialist systems that utilize markets for allocating capital goods and factors of production among economic units are designated market socialism. When planning is utilized, the economic system is designated as a socialist planned economy. Non-market forms of socialism usually include a system of accounting based on calculation-in-kind to value resources and goods.


title: Socialist economics

text: Socialist economics has been associated with different schools of economic thought. Marxian economics provided a foundation for socialism based on analysis of capitalism while neoclassical economics and evolutionary economics provided comprehensive models of socialism. During the 20th century, proposals and models for both socialist planned and market economies were based heavily on neoclassical economics or a synthesis of neoclassical economics with Marxian or institutional economics.


title: Socialist economics

text: As a term, socialist economics may also be applied to the analysis of former and existing economic systems that were implemented in socialist states such as in the works of Hungarian economist János Kornai. 19th-century American individualist anarchist Benjamin Tucker, who connected the classical economics of Adam Smith and the Ricardian socialists as well as that of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, Karl Marx and Josiah Warren to socialism, held that there were two schools of socialist thought, namely anarchist socialism and state socialism, maintaining that what they had in common was the labor theory of value. Socialists disagree about the degree to which social control or regulation of the economy is necessary; how far society should intervene and whether government, particularly existing government, is the correct vehicle for change are issues of disagreement.


title: Socialist economics

text: Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels believed that hunter-gatherer societies and some primitive agricultural societies were communal, and called this primitive communism. Engels wrote about this at length in the book "The Origin of the Family, Private Property and the State", which was based on the unpublished notes of Marx on the work of Lewis Henry Morgan.


title: Socialist economics

text: Values of "socialism" have roots in pre-capitalist institutions such as the religious communes, reciprocal obligations and communal charity of medieval Europe, the development of its economic theory primarily reflects and responds to the monumental changes brought about by the dissolution of feudalism and the emergence of specifically capitalist social relations. As such it is commonly regarded as a movement belonging to the modern era. Many socialists have considered their advocacy as the preservation and extension of the radical humanist ideas expressed in Enlightenment doctrine such as Jean-Jacques Rousseau's "Discourse on Inequality", Wilhelm von Humboldt's "Limits of State Action", or Immanuel Kant's insistent defense of the French Revolution.


title: Socialist economics

text: Capitalism appeared in mature form as a result of the problems raised when an industrial factory system requiring long-term investment and entailing corresponding risks was introduced into an internationalized commercial (mercantilist) framework. Historically speaking, the most pressing needs of this new system were an assured supply of the elements of industry (land, elaborate machinery, and labour) and these imperatives led to the commodification of these elements.


title: Socialist economics

text: According to influential socialist economic historian Karl Polanyi's classic account, the forceful transformation of land, money and especially labour into commodities to be allocated by an autonomous market mechanism was an alien and inhuman rupture of the pre-existing social fabric. Marx had viewed the process in a similar light, referring to it as part of the process of "primitive accumulation" whereby enough initial capital is amassed to begin capitalist production. The dislocation that Polyani and others describe, triggered natural counter-movements in efforts to re-embed the economy in society. These counter-movements, that included, for example, the Luddite rebellions, are the incipient socialist movements. Over time such movements gave birth to or acquired an array of intellectual defenders who attempted to develop their ideas in theory.


title: Socialist economics

text: As Polanyi noted, these counter-movements were mostly reactive and therefore not full-fledged socialist movements. Some demands went no further than a wish to mitigate the capitalist market's worst effects. Later, a full socialist program developed, arguing for systemic transformation. Its theorists believed that even if markets and private property could be tamed so as not to be excessively "exploitative", or crises could be effectively mitigated, capitalist social relations would remain significantly unjust and anti-democratic, suppressing universal human needs for fulfilling, empowering and creative work, diversity and solidarity.


title: Socialist economics

text: Within this context, socialism has undergone four periods: the first in the 19th century was a period of utopian visions (1780s–1850s); then occurred the rise of revolutionary socialist and communist movements in the 19th century as the primary opposition to the rise of corporations and industrialization (1830–1916); the polarisation of socialism around the question of the Soviet Union and adoption of socialist or social democratic policies in response (1916–1989); and the response of socialism in the neoliberal era (1970s–present). As socialism developed, so did the socialist system of economics.


title: Socialist economics

text: The first theories which came to hold the term "socialism" began to be formulated in the late 18th century and were termed "socialism" early in the 19th century. The central beliefs of the socialism of this period rested on the exploitation of those who labored by those who owned capital or rented land and housing. The abject misery, poverty and disease to which laboring classes seemed destined was the inspiration for a series of schools of thought which argued that life under a class of masters or "capitalists", as they were then becoming to be called, would consist of working classes being driven down to subsistence wages (see the iron law of wages).


title: Socialist economics

text: Socialist ideas found expression in utopian movements, which often formed agricultural communes aimed at being self-sufficient on the land. These included many religious movements, such as the Christian socialism of the Shakers in America and the Hutterites. The Zionist kibbutzim and communes of the counterculture are also manifestations of utopian socialist ideas.


title: Socialist economics

text: Utopian socialism had little to offer in terms of a systematic theory of economic phenomena. In theory, economic problems were dissolved by a utopian society which had transcended material scarcity. In practice, small communities with a common spirit could sometimes resolve allocation problems.


title: Socialist economics

text: The first organized theories of socialist economics were significantly impacted by classical economic theory, including elements in Adam Smith, Robert Malthus and David Ricardo. In Smith there is a conception of a common good not provided by the market, a class analysis, a concern for the dehumanizing aspects of the factory system, and the concept of rent as being unproductive. Ricardo argued that the renting class was parasitic. This, and the possibility of a "general glut", an over accumulation of capital to produce goods for sale rather than for use, became the foundation of a rising critique of the concept that free markets with competition would be sufficient to prevent disastrous downturns in the economy, and whether the need for expansion would inevitably lead to war.


title: Socialist economics

text: A key early socialist theorist of political economy was Pierre-Joseph Proudhon. He was the most well-known of nineteenth century mutualist theorists and the first thinker to refer to himself as an anarchist. Others were: Technocrats like Henri de Saint-Simon, agrarian radicals like Thomas Spence, William Ogilvie and William Cobbett; anti-capitalists like Thomas Hodgskin; communitarian and utopian socialists like Robert Owen, William Thompson and Charles Fourier; anti-market socialists like John Gray and John Francis Bray; the Christian mutualist William Batchelder Greene; as well as the theorists of the Chartist movement and early proponents of syndicalism.


title: Socialist economics

text: The first advocates of socialism promoted social leveling in order to create a meritocratic or technocratic society based upon individual talent. Count Henri de Saint-Simon was the first individual to coin the term "socialism". Saint-Simon was fascinated by the enormous potential of science and technology, which led him to advocate a socialist society that would eliminate the disorderly aspects of capitalism and which would be based upon equal opportunities. Saint-Simon advocated a society in which people were ranked according to their capacities and rewarded according to their work. This was accompanied by a desire to implement a rationally organized economy based on planning and geared towards large-scale scientific and material progress, which embodied a desire for a semi-planned economy.


title: Socialist economics

text: Other early socialist thinkers were influenced by the classical economists. The Ricardian socialists, such as Thomas Hodgskin and Charles Hall, were based on the work of David Ricardo and reasoned that the equilibrium value of commodities approximated producer prices when those commodities were in elastic supply, and that these producer prices corresponded to the embodied labor. The Ricardian socialists viewed profit, interest and rent as deductions from this exchange-value.


title: Socialist economics

text: Karl Marx employed systematic analysis in an attempt to elucidate capitalism's contradictory laws of motion, as well as to expose the specific mechanisms by which it exploits and alienates. He radically modified classical political economic theories. Marx transformed the labor theory of value, which had been worked upon by Adam Smith and David Ricardo, into his "law of value", and used it for the purpose of revealing how commodity fetishism obscures the reality of capitalist society.


title: Socialist economics

text: His approach, which Friedrich Engels would call "scientific socialism", would stand as the branching point in economic theory. In one direction went those who rejected the capitalist system as fundamentally anti-social, arguing that it could never be harnessed to effectively realize the fullest development of human potentialities wherein "the free development of each is the condition for the free development of all".


title: Socialist economics

text: Marx's "Das Kapital" is an incomplete work of economic theory; he had planned four volumes but completed two and left his collaborator Engels to complete the third. In many ways, the work is modelled on Smith's "Wealth of Nations", seeking to be a comprehensive logical description of production, consumption, and finance in relation to morality and the state. The work of philosophy, anthropology, sociology, and economics includes the following topics:


title: Socialist economics

text: Anarchist economics is the set of theories and practices of economics and economic activity within the political philosophy of anarchism.


title: Socialist economics

text: Pierre Joseph Proudhon was involved with the Lyons mutualists and later adopted the name to describe his own teachings. Mutualism is an anarchist school of thought that originates in the writings of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon, who envisioned a society where each person might possess a means of production, either individually or collectively, with trade representing equivalent amounts of labor in the free market. Integral to the scheme was the establishment of a mutual-credit bank that would lend to producers at a minimal interest rate, just high enough to cover administration. Mutualism is based on a labor theory of value that holds that when labor or its product is sold, in exchange, it ought to receive goods or services embodying "the amount of labor necessary to produce an article of exactly similar and equal utility". Receiving anything less would be considered exploitation, theft of labor, or usury.


title: Socialist economics

text: Collectivist anarchism is a revolutionary doctrine that advocates the abolition of the state and private ownership of the means of production. Instead, it envisions the means of production being owned collectively and controlled and managed by the producers themselves. Once collectivization takes place, workers' salaries would be determined in democratic organizations based on the amount of time they contributed to production. These salaries would be used to purchase goods in a communal market. Collectivist anarchism is most commonly associated with Mikhail Bakunin, the anti-authoritarian sections of the First International, and the early Spanish anarchist movement.


title: Socialist economics

text: Anarcho-communism is a theory of anarchism which advocates the abolition of the state, private property, and capitalism in favor of common ownership of the means of production, direct democracy and a horizontal network of voluntary associations, and workers' councils with production and consumption based on the guiding principle: "from each according to ability, to each according to need". Unlike mutualism, collectivist anarchism and Marxism, anarcho-communism as defended by Peter Kropotkin and Errico Malatesta rejected the labor theory of value altogether, instead advocating a gift economy and to base distribution on need. As a coherent, modern economic-political philosophy, anarcho-communism was first formulated in the Italian section of the First International by Carlo Cafiero, Emilio Covelli, Errico Malatesta, Andrea Costa, and other ex-Mazzinian Republicans. Out of respect for Mikhail Bakunin, they did not make their differences with collectivist anarchism explicit until after Bakunin's death. By the early 1880s, most of the European anarchist movement had adopted an anarcho-communist position, advocating the abolition of wage labour and distribution according to need. Ironically, the "collectivist" label then became more commonly associated with Marxist state socialists who advocated the retention of some sort of wage system during the transition to full communism.