title: Bengali language movement

text: During that time, romanization of Bengali was also proposed along with other proposals regarding the determination of the state language of Pakistan. After 1947, many other East Pakistani academics, including Muhammad Qudrat-i-Khuda and Nazirul Islam Mohammad Sufian, supported the idea of writing Bengali in Roman script. In 1948, Mohammad Ferdous Khan opposed it in his pamphlet "The language problem of today".


title: Bengali language movement

text: Abul Fazl Muhammad Akhtar-ud-Din supported the Roman alphabet in his article entitled "Bangla Bornomalar Poribortton" (বাংলা বর্ণমালার পরিবর্ত্তন, Changes in the Bengali Alphabet) published in Daily Azad on 18 April 1949.


title: Bengali language movement

text: The romanisation proposal continued on even after 1952. In 1957, the East Pakistan Education Commission recommended the use of the revised Roman script in adult education.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Around 1957-58, there was a significant demand for the use of Roman letters again. At that time Muhammad Abdul Hai and Muhammad Enamul Haque opposed it.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Students of the University of Dhaka and other colleges of the city organised a general strike on 11 March 1948 to protest the omission of Bengali language from official use, including coins, stamps and recruitment tests for the navy. The movement restated the demand that Bengali be declared an official language of the Dominion of Pakistan. Political leaders such as Shamsul Huq, Shawkat Ali, M Sirajul Islam, Kazi Golam Mahboob, Oli Ahad, Abdul Wahed and others were arrested during the rallies. Rally leader Mohammad Toaha was hospitalised after attempting to snatch a rifle from a police officer. Student leaders, including Abdul Matin and Abdul Malek Ukil took part in the procession.


title: Bengali language movement

text: In the afternoon of 11 March, a meeting was held to protest police brutality and arrests. A group of students marching towards the chief minister Khawaja Nazimuddin's house was stopped in front of the Dhaka High Court. The rally changed its direction and moved in the direction of the Secretariat building. Police attacked the procession injuring several students and leaders, including A. K. Fazlul Huq. Continuing strikes were observed the following four days. Under such circumstances, the chief minister Nazimuddin signed an accord with the student leaders agreeing to some terms and conditions, without complying to the demand that Bengali be made a state language.


title: Bengali language movement

text: On November 18, 1948, the first Prime Minister of Pakistan Liaquat Ali Khan visited East Pakistan. On November 27, he addressed a student meeting at the playground of Dhaka University. In that meeting, the demand for Bengali language in the certificate issued by the Dhaka University Central Student Union was again raised, but he refrained from making any comments. In a meeting of the National Language Working Council held under the chairmanship of Ataur Rahman Khan on November 17, Aziz Ahmad, Abul Kashem, Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Kamruddin Ahmed, Abdul Mannan, Tajuddin Ahmed and others drafted a memorandum and sent it to Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan. The Prime Minister did not respond to this either.


title: Bengali language movement

text: In the height of civic unrest, Governor-General of Pakistan Muhammad Ali Jinnah arrived in Dhaka on 19 March 1948. On 21 March, at a civic reception at Racecourse Ground, he claimed that the language issue was designed by a "fifth column" to divide Pakistani Muslims. Jinnah further declared that "Urdu, and only Urdu" embodied the spirit of Muslim nations and would remain as the state language, labelling those who disagreed with his views as "Enemies of Pakistan". Jinnah delivered a similar speech at Curzon Hall of the University of Dhaka on 24 March. At both meetings, Jinnah was interrupted by large segments of the audience. He later called a meeting of a state language committee of action, and overruled the contract that was signed by Khawaja Nazimuddin with the student leaders. Before Jinnah left Dhaka on 28 March, he delivered a speech on radio reasserting his "Urdu-only" policy.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Muhammad Shahidullah believed that Bengalis could learn Urdu at the same time as learning English, he also believed that: "When Arabic becomes the state language of Pakistan, the creation of the state of Pakistan will be justified." Therefore, in December 1949, he assumed the presidency of the East Pakistan Arabic Language Association, approved a draft memorandum to be submitted to the Assembly, where it was requested to government for Arabic to be made the state language of Pakistan and for the provision of 'Darse Koran' or Quran teaching in various centers and mosques of the city. On January 18, 1950, some students of Rajshahi College called a meeting to demand that Arabic be made the state language. 3 State Bank Governor Zahid Hussain proposed to make Arabic the state language and this proposal was then supported by Syed Akbar Shah, member of Sindh Legislative Council and Vice-Chancellor of Sindh Arabic University. In 1 February 1951 at the session of the World Muslim Conference in Karachi, the leader of the Ismaili community Aga Khan said, if Arabic is made the state language of Pakistan, common communication will be established between the Muslims of the Arab world, North Africa and Indonesia. On February 10, 1951, the Secretary of the Pakistan Buddhist League, Rabindranath Burmi, issued a statement opposing these proposals in favor of Urdu instead of Arabic as state language. These proposals to make Arabic the state language did not gain much support in any part of Pakistan. However, according to Badruddin Umar, as this demand was related to the question of development of Islamic culture, it indirectly supported the demand of the introduction of Arabic script in Bengali language to some extent in some groups.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Shortly thereafter, the East Bengal Language Committee, presided by Maulana Akram Khan, was formed by the East Bengal government to prepare a report on the language problem.


title: Bengali language movement

text: At 1949, Language Committee of the East-Bengal Government conducted a survey among teachers, intellectuals, high civil servants, members of the Legislative Council, according to which, out of 301 respondents, 96 favored the introduction of the Arabic script, 18 the Roman script and 187 gave opinion in favor of the retention of the Bengali script. Besides, many people did not give any answer.


title: Bengali language movement

text: The committee produced it's report by 6 December 1950; but it was not published before 1958. Here an effective measure was proposed by the government to solve the language problem, where they recommended writing Bengali through Arabic characters.


title: Bengali language movement

text: The Urdu-Bengali controversy was reignited when Jinnah's successor, governor-general Khawaja Nazimuddin, staunchly defended the "Urdu-only" policy in a speech on 27 January 1952. On 31 January, the "Shorbodolio Kendrio Rashtrobhasha Kormi Porishod" (All-Party Central Language Action Committee) was formed in a meeting at the Bar Library Hall of the University of Dhaka, chaired by Maulana Bhashani. The central government's proposal of writing the Bengali language in Arabic script by East Pakistan's education secretary Fazlur Rahman was vehemently opposed at the meeting. The action committee called for an all out protest on 21 February, including strikes and rallies. In an attempt to prevent the demonstration, the government imposed Section 144 in Dhaka, thereby banning any gathering.


title: Bengali language movement

text: According to the earlier decision, students of Dhaka University and other educational institutions gathered at Dhaka University premises on February 4. The rally protested the proposal to write Bengali in Arabic script and demanded Bengali as the state language. The students took out a huge demonstration after their assembly.


title: Bengali language movement

text: On February 11, 1952, a long circular (No. 10) titled 'Rashtra Bhashar Andolan' was promoted to the Secretariat of the Bengali Provincial Organizing Committee before the Communist Party of Pakistan'. In this circular, the Communist Party's statement, line, and organizational duties regarding the language movement are clearly indicated.


title: Bengali language movement

text: In accordance with the principles and lines of the State Language Movement laid down in Party Circular No. 10 of the East Bengal Organizing Committee of the Communist Party of Pakistan dated February 11, they circulated a cyclostyled manifesto on February 20, which read, "Respond to the call of the All-Union State Language Working Committee. Do strike, hartal, meeting and march across the province on 21st February to demand Bengali as one of the national languages with equal status for all languages.” This brief manifesto calls for, “English shall no longer be the official language; Want equality of all languages of Pakistan; Bengalis, Punjabis, Pathans, Siddhis, Balochs, Urdu speakers etc. have to be given the right to get education in their own mother tongue and conduct government affairs; We want to make Bengali language one of the national languages. Instead of English, Urdu, Bengali - the movement to give equal status to all languages in the state. English made English as the state language in order to continue the imperialist and feudal system of exploitation while keeping the various linguistic communities of Pak-India backward. The League government also adopted English as the state language for the same purpose; has kept and wants to make the only child the state language. Making one language the state language will leave the various linguistic communities of Pakistan backward and will hinder the overall development of Pakistan. Therefore, all the Bengali, Punjabi, Pathan, Siddhi, Belche, Urdu speaking nations of Pakistan should come together in the movement to give equal status to the different languages of Pakistan and make them the state language."


title: Bengali language movement

text: At nine o'clock in the morning, students began gathering on the University of Dhaka premises in defiance of Section 144. The university vice-chancellor and other officials were present as armed police surrounded the campus. By a quarter past eleven, students gathered at the university gate and attempted to break the police line. Police fired tear gas shells towards the gate to warn the students. A section of students ran into the Dhaka Medical College while others rallied towards the university premises cordoned by the police. The vice-chancellor asked police to stop firing and ordered the students to leave the area. However, the police arrested several students for violating section 144 as they attempted to leave. Enraged by the arrests, the students met around the East Bengal Legislative Assembly and blocked the legislators' way, asking them to present their insistence at the assembly. When a group of students sought to storm into the building, police opened fire and killed a number of students, including Abdus Salam, Rafiq Uddin Ahmed, Sofiur Rahman, Abul Barkat and Abdul Jabbar. The Government reported that 29 people died in that day. As the news of the killings spread, disorder erupted across the city. Shops, offices and public transport were shut down and a general strike began. At the assembly, six legislators including Manoranjan Dhar, Boshontokumar Das, Shamsuddin Ahmed and Dhirendranath Datta requested that chief minister Nurul Amin visit wounded students in hospital and that the assembly be adjourned as a sign of mourning. This motion was supported by some treasury bench members including Maulana Abdur Rashid Tarkabagish, Shorfuddin Ahmed, Shamsuddin Ahmed Khondokar and Mosihuddin Ahmed. However, Nurul Amin refused the requests.


title: Bengali language movement

text: On the same day, the East Bengal Organizing Committee of the East Pakistan Communist Party circulated a cyclostyled manifesto entitled "To build a united East Bengal Tumdal United Movement against the barbaric killings of the tyrant Nurul Amin Sarkar", calling on all institutions and the multi-lingual public of Pakistan, regardless of party affiliation. Support is invited for the following demands:


title: Bengali language movement

text: Disorder spread across the province as large processions ignored section 144 and condemned the actions of the police. More than 30,000 people congregated at Curzon Hall in Dhaka. During the continued protests, police actions led to the death of four more people. This prompted officers and clerks from different organisations, including colleges, banks and the radio station, to boycott offices and join the procession. Protesters burned the offices of two leading pro-government news agencies, the "Jubilee Press" and the "Morning News". Police fired on a major "janaza", or mourning rally, as it was passing through Nawabpur Road. The shooting killed several people including activist Sofiur Rahman and a nine-year-old boy named Ohiullah.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Through the night of 23 February, students of Dhaka Medical College worked on the construction of a "Shaheed Smritistombho", or Monument of Martyrs. Completed at dawn on 24 February, the monument had a handwritten note attached to it with the words ""Shaheed Smritistombho"". Inaugurated by the father of the slain activist Sofiur Rahman, the monument was destroyed on 26 February by police. On 25 February, industrial workers in the town of Narayanganj observed a general strike. A protest followed on 29 February whose participants faced severe police beating.


title: Bengali language movement

text: The government censored news reports and withheld exact casualty figures during the protests. Most pro-government media held Hindus and communists responsible for encouraging the disorder and student unrest. The families of Abul Barkat and Rafiq Uddin Ahmed tried to charge the police with murder, but the charges were dismissed by the police. On 8 April government report on the incidents failed to show any particular justification for police firings on the students.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Although the Language Movement is considered to have laid the foundations for ethnic nationalism in many of the Bengalis of East Bengal and later East Pakistan, it also heightened the cultural animosity between the authorities of the two wings of Pakistan. In the western wing of the Dominion of Pakistan, the movement was seen as a sectional uprising against Pakistani national interests. The rejection of the "Urdu-only" policy was seen as a contravention of the Perso-Arabic culture of Muslims and the founding ideology of Pakistan, the two-nation theory. Some of the most powerful politicians from the western wing of Pakistan considered Urdu a product of Indian Islamic culture, but saw Bengali as a part of "Hinduized" Bengali culture. Most stood by the "Urdu only" policy because they believed that only a single language, one that was not indigenous to Pakistan, should serve as the national language. This kind of thinking also provoked considerable opposition in the western wing, wherein there existed several linguistic groups. As late as in 1967, military dictator Ayub Khan said, "East Bengal is ... still under considerable Hindu culture and influence."


title: Bengali language movement

text: The "Shorbodolio Kendrio Rashtrobhasha Kormi Porishod", with support from the Awami Muslim League, decided to commemorate 21 February as "Shohid Dibosh" . On the first anniversary of the protests, people across East Bengal wore black badges in solidarity with the victims. Most offices, banks and educational institutions were closed to observe the occasion. Student groups made agreements with college and police officials to preserve law and order. More than 100,000 people assembled at a public meeting held in Dhaka, where community leaders called for the immediate release of Maulana Bhashani and other political prisoners. However, Pakistani politicians such as Fazlur Rahman aggravated sectional tensions by declaring that anyone who wanted Bengali to become an official language would be considered an "enemy of the state". Bengali students and civilians disobeyed the restrictions to celebrate the anniversary of the protests. Demonstrations broke out on the night of 21 February 1954 with various halls of the University of Dhaka raising black flags in mourning.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Political tensions came to a held as elections to the provincial assembly of East Bengal were held in 1954. The ruling Muslim League denounced the opposition United Front coalition, which—led by A. K. Fazlul Huq and the Awami League—wanted greater provincial autonomy. Several United Front leaders and activists were arrested. A meeting of parliament's Muslim League members, chaired by prime minister Muhammad Ali Bogra, resolved to give official recognition to Bengali. This decision was followed by a major wave of unrest as other ethnic groups sought recognition of other regional languages. Proponents of Urdu such as Maulvi Abdul Haq condemned any proposal to grant official status to Bengali. He led a rally of 100,000 people to protest against the Muslim League's decision. Consequently, the implementation failed and the United Front won a vast majority of seats in the legislative assembly, while the representation of the Muslim League was reduced to a historic low.


title: Bengali language movement

text: The United Front ministry ordered the creation of the Bangla Academy to promote, develop, and preserve Bengali language, literature, and heritage. However, the United Front rule was temporary, as Governor General Ghulam Muhammad cancelled the government and started Governor's rule on 30 May 1954. The United Front again formed the ministry on 6 June 1955 after the governor's regime ended. The Awami League did not participate in this ministry though.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Following the return of the United Front to power, the anniversary on 21 February 1956 was observed for the first time in a peaceful atmosphere. The Government supported a major project to construct a new Shaheed Minar. The session of the constituent assembly was stopped for five minutes to express condolence for the students slain in the police shootings. Major rallies were organised by Bengali leaders and all public offices and businesses remained closed.


title: Bengali language movement

text: With the defeat of the Muslim League in the East Bengal assembly elections, the central government became flexible in recognizing Bengali as the state language of Pakistan along with Urdu. At least a few thousand people protested in the National Assembly on April 22 against the decision.


title: Bengali language movement

text: On 7 May 1954, the constituent assembly resolved, with the Muslim League's support, to grant official status to Bengali. Bengali was adopted as an official language of Pakistan along with Urdu in the article 214(1) when the first constitution of Pakistan was enacted on 29 February 1956. Mohammad Ali Bogra raised the language related clauses of the constitution in Parliament. According to the clauses, Bengali language was given equal recognition as state language like Urdu. In Parliament and the Legislative Assembly, besides Urdu and English, there was an opportunity to speak in Bengali. The constitution also provided opportunities for higher education in Bengali.


title: Bengali language movement

text: However, the military government formed by Ayub Khan made attempts to re-establish Urdu as the sole national language. On 6 January 1959, the military regime issued an official statement and reinstated the official stance of supporting the 1956 constitution's policy of two state languages.


title: Bengali language movement

text: The Bengali language movement and the banning of Rabindranath Tagore's works by the central government of Pakistan led to a movement by the intellectuals of Dhaka that led to an increase in the use of Central Standard Bengali in the city in the 1950s and 1960s.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Although the question of official languages was settled by 1956, the military regime of Ayub Khan promoted the interests of West Pakistan at the expense of East Pakistan. Despite forming the majority of the national population, the East Pakistani population continued to be under-represented in the civil and military services, and received a minority of state funding and other government help. Due to regional economic, social, and political imbalances, sectional divisions grew, and the Bengali ethnic nationalist Awami League invoked the 6-point movement for greater provincial autonomy. One demand was that East Pakistan be called "Bangladesh" (Land/Country of Bengal), which subsequently led to the Bangladesh Liberation War.


title: Bengali language movement

text: The Language Movement had a major cultural impact on Bengali society. It has inspired the development and celebration of the Bengali language, literature and culture. 21 February, celebrated as Language Movement Day or "Shohid Dibosh" (Martyrs' Day), is a major national holiday in Bangladesh. A month-long event called the Ekushey Book Fair is held every year to commemorate the movement. "Ekushey Padak", one of the highest civilian awards in Bangladesh, is awarded annually in memory of the sacrifices of the movement. Songs such as Abdul Gaffar Choudhury's "Ekusher Gaan", set to music by Shaheed Altaf Mahmud, as well as plays, works of art and poetry played a considerable role in rousing the people's emotions during the movement. Since the events of February 1952, poems, songs, novels, plays, films, cartoons and paintings were created to capture the movement from varied point of views. Notable artistic depictions include the poems "Bornomala, Amar Dukhini Bornomala" and "February 1969" by Shamsur Rahman, the film "Jibon Theke Neya" by Zahir Raihan, the stage play "Kobor" by Munier Chowdhury and the novels "Ekushey February" by Raihan and "Artonaad" by Shawkat Osman.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Two years after the first monument was destroyed by the police, a new "Shaheed Minar" (Monument of Martyrs) was constructed in 1954 to commemorate the protesters who lost their lives. Work on a larger monument designed by the architect Hamidur Rahman began in 1957 with the support of the United Front ministry, and approved by a planning committee chaired by University of Dhaka Vice-Chancellor Mahmud Husain and College of Fine Arts principal Zainul Abedin. Hamidur Rahman's model consisted of a large complex in the yard of the Dhaka Medical College Hostel. The design included a half-circular column symbolizing a mother with her martyred sons standing at the dais in the centre of the monument. Although the imposition of martial law in 1958 interrupted the work, the monument was completed and inaugurated on 21 February 1963 by Abul Barkat's mother, Hasina Begum. Pakistani forces demolished the monument during the Bangladesh Liberation War of 1971, but the Bangladeshi government reconstructed it in 1973. Ekushey Television, one of the oldest privately owned television channels in Bangladesh, was named after the date of the event.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Bangladesh officially sent a proposal to UNESCO to declare 21 February as International Mother Language Day. The proposal was supported unanimously at the 30th General Conference of UNESCO held on 17 November 1999.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Although the Bengali language movement is considered to have laid the foundations for ethno-nationalism for many Bengalis in East Bengal and later East Pakistan but also increased cultural hostility between the two wings of Pakistan authorities. In the western wing of Pakistan, they considered the linguistic movement to be nothing but an uprising for some segments of society. To the West Pakistan, objection to the Urdu policy against the national interests of Pakistan seemed to be only tantamount objecting to the Persian Arabic culture of the Muslims as well as the establishment of ideology and a new thought in Pakistan as two states. Also, some political influences in the western wing saw Urdu language as a product of Islamic Hindi culture, while Bengali language as a part of Hinduism, and most of them took side of the western part and they believe that Urdu is the only indigenous language of the country, and this belief had raised a great deal of controversy in the western part of Pakistan where there were other language groups. At the end of 1967 dictator Ayub Khan stated that East Bengal was still under Hindu influence and culture. After the Bengali language movement, the Muslim Awami League party was transformed into the Bengali National Awami League, and the word Muslim was deleted. Also, the language movement of the Pakistani people expressed their disapproval and protest against the wrongdoing of the Western Front of Pakistan. The political turmoil in Eastern Pakistan and the competition between the central government and the United Front led by the provincial government was one of the main factors that led to the 1958 revolution on the policy of Ayub Khan.


title: Bengali language movement

text: Many songs, poems, novels and plays, and films and memoirs have featured the language movement, and its associated memory. For example:


title: Bengali language movement

text: Outside East Bengal, movement for equal status of Bengali also took place in the Indian state of Assam. On 19 May 1961, 11 Bengalis were killed in police firing in Silchar Railway Station, Assam, while demanding state recognition of Bengali language. Subsequently, Bengali was given co-official status in the three Bengali-majority districts of Assam.


title: Bengali language movement

text: The Silchar railway station has a memorial for the 11 student language activists who were killed by the police in 1961.


title: Sebastian Stahl

text: Sebastian Stahl (born 20 September 1978) is a German racing driver. He is the stepbrother of former Formula One drivers Ralf Schumacher and seven-time Formula One World Champion Michael Schumacher.


title: Sebastian Stahl

text: Stahl raced in the VLN endurance series at the Nürburgring and the 24 Hours Nürburgring for "Airnergy-Motorsport", driving a BMW M3 GT with Kenneth Heyer.


title: Dynamic range

text: Dynamic range (abbreviated DR, DNR, or DYR) is the ratio between the largest and smallest values that a certain quantity can assume. It is often used in the context of signals, like sound and light. It is measured either as a ratio or as a base-10 (decibel) or base-2 (doublings, bits or stops) logarithmic value of the difference between the smallest and largest signal values.


title: Dynamic range

text: Electronically reproduced audio and video is often processed to fit the original material with a wide dynamic range into a narrower recorded dynamic range that can more easily be stored and reproduced; this processing is called dynamic range compression.


title: Dynamic range

text: The human senses of sight and hearing have a relatively high dynamic range. However, a human cannot perform these feats of perception at both extremes of the scale at the same time. The human eye takes time to adjust to different light levels, and its dynamic range in a given scene is actually quite limited due to optical glare. The instantaneous dynamic range of human audio perception is similarly subject to masking so that, for example, a whisper cannot be heard in loud surroundings.


title: Dynamic range

text: A human is capable of hearing (and usefully discerning) anything from a quiet murmur in a soundproofed room to the loudest heavy metal concert. Such a difference can exceed 100 dB which represents a factor of 100,000 in amplitude and a factor 10,000,000,000 in power. The dynamic range of human hearing is roughly 140 dB, varying with frequency, from the threshold of hearing (around −9 dB SPL at 3 kHz) to the threshold of pain (from 120–140 dB SPL). This wide dynamic range cannot be perceived all at once, however; the tensor tympani, stapedius muscle, and outer hair cells all act as mechanical dynamic range compressors to adjust the sensitivity of the ear to different ambient levels.


title: Dynamic range

text: A human can see objects in starlight or in bright sunlight, even though on a moonless night objects receive one billionth (10) of the illumination they would on a bright sunny day; a dynamic range of 90 dB.


title: Dynamic range

text: In practice, it is difficult for humans to achieve the full dynamic experience using electronic equipment. For example, a good quality liquid-crystal display (LCD) has a dynamic range limited to around 1000:1, and some of the latest image sensors now have measured dynamic ranges of about 23,000:1. Paper reflectance can produce a dynamic range of about 100:1. A professional video camera such as the Sony Digital Betacam achieves a dynamic range of greater than 90 dB in audio recording.


title: Dynamic range

text: Audio engineers use "dynamic range" to describe the ratio of the amplitude of the loudest possible undistorted signal to the noise floor, say of a microphone or loudspeaker. Dynamic range is therefore the signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) for the case where the signal is the loudest possible for the system. For example, if the ceiling of a device is 5 V (rms) and the noise floor is 10 µV (rms) then the dynamic range is 500000:1, or 114 dB:


title: Dynamic range

text: In digital audio theory the dynamic range is limited by quantization error. The maximum achievable dynamic range for a digital audio system with "Q"-bit uniform quantization is calculated as the ratio of the largest sine-wave rms to rms noise is:


title: Dynamic range

text: However, the usable dynamic range may be greater, as a properly dithered recording device can record signals well below the noise floor.


title: Dynamic range

text: The 16-bit compact disc has a theoretical undithered dynamic range of about 96 dB; however, the "perceived" dynamic range of 16-bit audio can be 120 dB or more with noise-shaped dither, taking advantage of the frequency response of the human ear.


title: Dynamic range

text: Digital audio with undithered 20-bit quantization is theoretically capable of 120 dB dynamic range, while 24-bit digital audio affords 144 dB dynamic range. Most Digital audio workstations process audio with 32-bit floating-point representation which affords even higher dynamic range and so loss of dynamic range is no longer a concern in terms of digital audio processing. Dynamic range limitations typically result from improper gain staging, recording technique including ambient noise and intentional application of dynamic range compression.


title: Dynamic range

text: Dynamic range in analog audio is the difference between low-level thermal noise in the electronic circuitry and high-level signal saturation resulting in increased distortion and, if pushed higher, clipping. Multiple noise processes determine the noise floor of a system. Noise can be picked up from microphone self-noise, preamp noise, wiring and interconnection noise, media noise, etc.


title: Dynamic range

text: Early 78 rpm phonograph discs had a dynamic range of up to 40 dB, soon reduced to 30 dB and worse due to wear from repeated play. Vinyl microgroove phonograph records typically yield 55-65 dB, though the first play of the higher-fidelity outer rings can achieve a dynamic range of 70 dB.


title: Dynamic range

text: German magnetic tape in 1941 was reported to have had a dynamic range of 60 dB, though modern day restoration experts of such tapes note 45-50 dB as the observed dynamic range. Ampex tape recorders in the 1950s achieved 60 dB in practical usage, In the 1960s, improvements in tape formulation processes resulted in 7 dB greater range, and Ray Dolby developed the Dolby A-Type noise reduction system that increased low- and mid-frequency dynamic range on magnetic tape by 10 dB, and high-frequency by 15 dB, using companding (compression and expansion) of four frequency bands. The peak of professional analog magnetic recording tape technology reached 90 dB dynamic range in the midband frequencies at 3% distortion, or about 80 dB in practical broadband applications. The Dolby SR noise reduction system gave a 20 dB further increased range resulting in 110 dB in the midband frequencies at 3% distortion.


title: Dynamic range

text: Compact Cassette tape performance ranges from 50 to 56 dB depending on tape formulation, with type IV tape tapes giving the greatest dynamic range, and systems such as XDR, dbx and Dolby noise reduction system increasing it further. Specialized bias and record head improvements by Nakamichi and Tandberg combined with Dolby C noise reduction yielded 72 dB dynamic range for the cassette.


title: Dynamic range

text: A dynamic microphone is able to withstand high sound intensity and can have a dynamic range of up to 140 dB. Condenser microphones are also rugged but their dynamic range may be limited by the overloading of their associated electronic circuitry. Practical considerations of acceptable distortion levels in microphones combined with typical practices in a recording studio result in a useful dynamic range of 125 dB.


title: Dynamic range

text: In 1981, researchers at Ampex determined that a dynamic range of 118 dB on a dithered digital audio stream was necessary for subjective noise-free playback of music in quiet listening environments.


title: Dynamic range

text: Since the early 1990s, it has been recommended by several authorities, including the Audio Engineering Society, that measurements of dynamic range be made with an audio signal present, which is then filtered out in the noise floor measurement used in determining dynamic range. This avoids questionable measurements based on the use of blank media, or muting circuits.


title: Dynamic range

text: The term "dynamic range" may be confusing in audio production because it has two conflicting definitions, particularly in the understanding of the loudness war phenomenon. "Dynamic range" may refer to micro-dynamics, related to crest factor, whereas the European Broadcasting Union, in EBU3342 Loudness Range, defines "dynamic range" as the difference between the quietest and loudest volume, a matter of macro-dynamics.


title: Dynamic range

text: In audio and electronics applications, the ratio involved is often large enough that it is converted to a logarithm and specified in decibels.


title: Dynamic range

text: In metrology, such as when performed in support of science, engineering or manufacturing objectives, dynamic range refers to the range of values that can be measured by a sensor or metrology instrument. Often this dynamic range of measurement is limited at one end of the range by saturation of a sensing signal sensor or by physical limits that exist on the motion or other response capability of a mechanical indicator. The other end of the dynamic range of measurement is often limited by one or more sources of random noise or uncertainty in signal levels that may be described as defining the sensitivity of the sensor or metrology device. When digital sensors or sensor signal converters are a component of the sensor or metrology device, the dynamic range of measurement will be also related to the number of binary digits (bits) used in a digital numeric representation in which the measured value is linearly related to the digital number. For example, a 12-bit digital sensor or converter can provide a dynamic range in which the ratio of the maximum measured value to the minimum measured value is up to 2 = 4096.


title: Dynamic range

text: Metrology systems and devices may use several basic methods to increase their basic dynamic range. These methods include averaging and other forms of filtering, correction of receivers characteristics, repetition of measurements, nonlinear transformations to avoid saturation, etc. In more advance forms of metrology, such as multiwavelength digital holography, interferometry measurements made at different scales (different wavelengths) can be combined to retain the same low-end resolution while extending the upper end of the dynamic range of measurement by orders of magnitude.


title: Dynamic range

text: In music, dynamic range describes the difference between the quietest and loudest volume of an instrument, part or piece of music. In modern recording, this range is often limited through dynamic range compression, which allows for louder volume, but can make the recording sound less exciting or live.


title: Dynamic range

text: The dynamic range of music as normally perceived in a concert hall does not exceed 80 dB, and human speech is normally perceived over a range of about 40 dB.


title: Dynamic range

text: Photographers use "dynamic range" to describe the luminance range of a scene being photographed, or the limits of luminance range that a given digital camera or film can capture, or the opacity range of developed film images, or the reflectance range of images on photographic papers.


title: Dynamic range

text: The dynamic range of digital photography is comparable to the capabilities of photographic film and both are comparable to the capabilities of the human eye.


title: Dynamic range

text: Consumer-grade image file formats sometimes restrict dynamic range. The most severe dynamic-range limitation in photography may not involve encoding, but rather reproduction to, say, a paper print or computer screen. In that case, not only local tone mapping but also "dynamic range adjustment" can be effective in revealing detail throughout light and dark areas: The principle is the same as that of dodging and burning (using different lengths of exposures in different areas when making a photographic print) in the chemical darkroom. The principle is also similar to gain riding or automatic level control in audio work, which serves to keep a signal audible in a noisy listening environment and to avoid peak levels that overload the reproducing equipment, or which are unnaturally or uncomfortably loud.


title: Dynamic range

text: If a camera sensor is incapable of recording the full dynamic range of a scene, high-dynamic-range (HDR) techniques may be used in postprocessing, which generally involve combining multiple exposures using software.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: Marlin Firearms Co. is an American manufacturer of semi-automatic, lever-action, and bolt-action rifles. In the past, the company, now based in Madison, North Carolina, and formerly based in North Haven, Connecticut, made shotguns, derringers, and revolvers. Marlin owned the firearm manufacturer H&R Firearms. In 2007, Remington Arms, part of the Remington Outdoor Company, acquired Marlin Firearms. Remington produced Marlin-brand firearms at its Kentucky and New York manufacturing facilities. In 2020, Sturm, Ruger & Co. bought the company from bankrupt Remington Outdoor Company.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: Marlin Firearms was founded in the 1870s by John Marlin. Marlin produced a large assortment of firearms such as lever-action rifles, pump-action shotguns and single-shot rifles. Marlin was considered the main competitor to Winchester.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: In World War I Marlin became one of the largest machine gun producers in the world for the US and its Allies, building the M1895 Colt–Browning machine gun and a later variant called the "Marlin gun" optimized for aircraft use. In 1917 Marlin Rockwell bought out the Hopkins & Allen Arms Company to promote an expanded line of firearms and restore the image of the Marlin company as makers of "sporting arms".


title: Marlin Firearms

text: Marlin Firearms labored for a century as an underdog levergun maker to Winchester (formerly of New Haven). However, in the 1980s and 1990s, Marlin finally began to outpace its old rival. It is currently the dominant seller of lever-action rifles in North America. Its use of side ejection allows for flat-topped firearms, thereby making the mounting of scopes easier than for traditional Winchesters. This helped Marlin capture more market share as American shooters came to rely more and more on optics. Marlins are larger, stronger and heavier than most of the comparable Winchester line, allowing Marlin to use higher powered cartridges such as the .45-70. Marlin's model 1894 lever-action rifles and carbines are available in handgun calibers, including .357 Magnum, .44 Magnum and .41 Magnum, making them suitable companion long guns for revolvers in those calibers.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: In November 2000, Marlin purchased the assets of H&R 1871, Inc., a Massachusetts-based manufacturer of shotguns and rifles (New England Firearms branded), founded in 1871, and now located in Gardner, Massachusetts. Marketing its products under the brand names of Harrington & Richardson and New England Firearms, H&R 1871 claimed to be the largest manufacturer of Single-shot shotguns and rifles in the world.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: In December 2007 Remington Arms Company purchased Marlin. Remington announced in April 2008 that it would close the Gardner manufacturing plant by the end of 2008 affecting 200 workers. In March 2010, Marlin announced that it would close its North Haven plant, and move the work to Remington plants in Ilion, New York, and Mayfield, Kentucky.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: Significant variations of many of these rifles have usually also been manufactured. For example, there are six distinctly different variations manufactured for the Marlin Model 60.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: Marlin has been making lever-action rifles since 1881, and in 2008, they produced their 30 millionth lever-action rifle, which was donated to the National Rifle Association.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: In 1953 Marlin Firearms was issued for what was named MicroGroove Rifling, which was a departure from the standard "Ballard," or cut rifling. One purpose of Microgroove rifling was to increase the speed of producing rifle barrels. Microgroove rifling is described in the patent as having 5 grooves for every 1/10 of an inch bore diameter, and that the driving side of each land would be "tangentially disposed" to prevent accumulating fouling in use.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: Marlin introduced Microgroove rifling in their .22 Rimfire barrels in July 1953, with 16 grooves that were .014" wide, and nominally .0015" deep. Ballard rifled barrels have grooves generally in the range of .069–.090" wide, and .0015–.003" deep. This change was marketed in the 1954 Marlin catalog, as having numerous advantages that this new form of rifling had, including better accuracy, ease of cleaning, elimination of gas leakage, higher velocities and lower chamber pressures. The catalog also claimed that Microgroove rifling did not distort the bullet jacket as deeply as Ballard rifling hence improving accuracy with jacketed bullets at standard velocity.


title: Marlin Firearms

text: Designed for factory loaded ammunition, Microgroove barrels have a reputation for accuracy problems with centerfire ammunition handloaded with cast lead bullets due to the increased bore diameter generated by the shallow grooves. The use of oversized cast bullets greatly solves this problem, restoring accuracy with cast bullet handloads to levels seen from Ballard rifled barrels. Early Marlin .30-30 microgroove barrels had a twist rate of 1 turn in 10 inches optimized for factory ammunition with jacketed bullets; later Marlin .30-30 microgroove barrels show a twist rate of 1 turn in 10.5 inches which improves accuracy with cartridges loaded to lower velocity than standard.


title: Ella Raines

text: Raines was born Ella Wallace Raines on August 6, 1920, in Fall City, Washington. She studied drama at the University of Washington and was appearing in a play there when she was seen by director Howard Hawks. She became the first actress signed to the new production company he had formed with the actor Charles Boyer, B-H Productions, and made her film debut in "Corvette K-225" (1943) which Hawks produced.


title: Ella Raines

text: Immediately following her role in "Corvette K-225", Raines was cast in the all-female war film "Cry "Havoc"" (also 1943). She starred in the film noir "Phantom Lady", the Preston Sturges comedy "Hail the Conquering Hero", and the John Wayne western "Tall in the Saddle" (all 1944).


title: Ella Raines

text: She appeared in films such as "The Strange Affair of Uncle Harry" (1945) with Geraldine Fitzgerald and George Sanders, and the thriller "The Web" (1947). With the exception of "Brute Force" (1947), in which Raines appeared with Burt Lancaster, none of her later films were nearly as successful as her earlier movies and her career began to decline.


title: Ella Raines

text: In 1949, she took the role originally intended for Jean Wallace in A Dangerous Profession, as Wallace had made a suicide attempt following her divorce from Franchot Tone.


title: Ella Raines

text: In 1954 and 1955 she starred in the television series "Janet Dean, Registered Nurse". She also appeared in such television series as "Robert Montgomery Presents", "Douglas Fairbanks, Jr., Presents", "Lights Out", "Pulitzer Prize Playhouse" and "The Christophers". After a main role in a British-made thriller ("The Man in the Road") in 1956, she retired from acting the following year, but made one further screen appearance with a guest role in the series "Matt Houston" in 1984. Raines appeared on the cover of "Life magazine" twice, once for "Brute Force" in 1947 and, in 1944, for her work in "Phantom Lady". Also in 1944, she appeared as a pin-up girl in the June 2 and June 16 issue of the G.I. magazine "Yank".


title: Ella Raines

text: Raines has two stars on the Hollywood Walk of Fame for her contribution to motion pictures at 7021 Hollywood Boulevard, and for television at 6600 Hollywood Boulevard.


title: Ella Raines

text: On August 11, 1942, a few days after her graduation from the University of Washington, Raines married her high school sweetheart, United States Army Air Forces Major Kenneth William Trout. The couple divorced December 18, 1945.


title: Ella Raines

text: On February 6, 1947, Raines married triple-ace fighter pilot Robin Olds, who was eventually promoted to United States Air Force brigadier general; the couple had three children, one of whom was stillborn. She also had two miscarriages which she blamed on the unsanitary conditions of serving abroad in Africa. They separated in 1975 and divorced in 1976.


title: Ella Raines

text: Raines was a conservative and anti-communist Republican who supported Dwight Eisenhower, Richard Nixon, Gerald Ford and Ronald Reagan in their presidential elections.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Crouzon syndrome is an autosomal dominant genetic disorder known as a branchial arch syndrome. Specifically, this syndrome affects the first branchial (or pharyngeal) arch, which is the precursor of the maxilla and mandible. Since the branchial arches are important developmental features in a growing embryo, disturbances in their development create lasting and widespread effects.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: This syndrome is named after Octave Crouzon, a French physician who first described this disorder. First called "craniofacial dysostosis" ("craniofacial" refers to the skull and face, and "dysostosis" refers to malformation of bone), the disorder was characterized by a number of clinical features which can be described by the rudimentary meanings of its former name. This syndrome is caused by a mutation in the fibroblast growth factor receptor 2 ("FGFR2"), located on chromosome 10. The developing fetus's skull and facial bones fuse early or are unable to expand. Thus, normal bone growth cannot occur. Fusion of different sutures leads to abnormal patterns of growth of the skull.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: A defining characteristic of Crouzon syndrome is craniosynostosis, which results in an abnormal head shape. This is present in combinations of: frontal bossing, trigonocephaly (fusion of the metopic suture), brachycephaly (fusion of the coronal suture), dolichocephaly (fusion of the sagittal suture), plagiocephaly (unilateral premature closure of lambdoid and coronal sutures), oxycephaly (fusion of coronal and lambdoidal sutures), and complex craniosynostosis (premature closure of some or all sutures).


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Exophthalmos (bulging eyes due to shallow eye sockets after early fusion of surrounding bones), hypertelorism (greater than normal distance between the eyes), and psittichorhina (beak-like nose) are also very common features. Other facial characteristics that are present in many cases include external strabismus and hypoplastic maxilla (insufficient growth of the midface), which results in relative mandibular prognathism (protruding chin) and gives the effect of the patient having a concave face.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Most symptoms are secondary to the abnormal skull structure. Approximately 30% of people with Crouzon syndrome develop hydrocephalus. Sensorineural hearing loss is present in some cases. The abnormalities in the manner in which the eyes fit in the eye sockets can cause vision problems, the most common of which is corneal exposure that can lead to visual impairment. Some people with the condition have a restricted airway and can experience severe problems breathing.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Common features are a narrow/high-arched palate, posterior bilateral crossbite, hypodontia (missing some teeth), and crowding of teeth. Due to maxillary hypoplasia, people with Crouzon syndrome generally have a considerable permanent underbite.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: The current research indicates fibroblast growth factor receptors (FGFR) FGFR2 and FGFR3 as the leading factors in causing the autosomal dominant Crouzon syndrome. These two transmembrane proteins are two of four fibroblast growth factor receptors involved in osteoblast differentiation during embryonic development; mutations amongst these receptors are involved in several genetic disorders.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: There are 40 known mutations, most of which are caused by a missense mutation. FGFR2 is the most commonly mutated gene, a missense at cysteine 342 in exon 9, which creates a gain-of-function. The FGFR2lllc isoform, created via alternative splicing of exon 3 of the FGFR2 gene, uses exon 9 and is used in mesenchymal stem cells to control ossification. However, the mutation constitutively activates the transmembrane protein via a disulfide bond formed incorrectly due to the loss of cysteine 342. FGFR3 is expressed more in the frontal bones during embryonic development, guiding cranial bone development. A point mutation causes constitutive activation of tyrosine in the activation loop, located in the cytosolic region of the protein, leading to accelerated differentiation of frontal osteoblasts, resulting in premature fusion of frontal cranial bones.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Diagnosis of Crouzon syndrome usually can occur at birth by assessing the physical appearance of the infant. Further analysis, including radiographs, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) scans, genetic testing and CT scans can be used to confirm the diagnosis of Crouzon syndrome.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Surgery is typically used to prevent the closure of sutures of the skull from damaging the brain's development. Without surgery, blindness and intellectual disability are typical outcomes. To move the orbits forward, surgeons expose the skull and orbits and reshape the bone. To treat the midface deficiency, surgeons can move the lower orbit and midface bones forward.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: People with Crouzon syndrome tend to have multiple sutures involved, most specifically bilateral coronal craniosynostoses, and either open vault surgery or strip craniectomy (if the child is under 6 months) can be performed. In the latter scenario, a helmet is worn for several months following surgery.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Once treated for the cranial vault abnormalities, Crouzon patients generally go on to live a normal lifespan.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Incidence of Crouzon syndrome is currently estimated at 1.6 out of every 100,000 people. It is the most common craniostenosis syndrome.


title: Crouzon syndrome

text: Crouzon syndrome was first described by Octave Crouzon in 1912. He noted the affected patients were a mother and her daughter, implying a genetic basis.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Orthorexia nervosa (also known as orthorexia) (ON) is a proposed eating disorder characterized by an excessive preoccupation with eating healthy food. The term was introduced in 1997 by American physician Steven Bratman, M.D. He suggested that some people's dietary restrictions intended to promote health may paradoxically lead to unhealthy consequences, such as social isolation; anxiety; loss of ability to eat in a natural, intuitive manner; reduced interest in the full range of other healthy human activities; and, in rare cases, severe malnutrition or even death.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: In 2009, Ursula Philpot, chair of the British Dietetic Association and senior lecturer at Leeds Metropolitan University, described people with orthorexia nervosa as being "solely concerned with the quality of the food they put in their bodies, refining and restricting their diets according to their personal understanding of which foods are truly 'pure'." This differs from other eating disorders, such as anorexia nervosa and bulimia nervosa, where those affected focus on the quantity of food eaten.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Orthorexia nervosa also differs from anorexia nervosa in that it does not disproportionally affect one gender. Studies have found that orthorexia nervosa is equally found in both men and women with no significant gender differences at all. Furthermore, research has found significant positive correlations between ON and both narcissism and perfectionism, but no significant correlation between ON and self esteem. This shows that high-ON individuals likely take pride over their healthy eating habits over others and that is the driving force behind their orthorexia as opposed to body image like anorexia.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Orthorexia nervosa is not recognized as an eating disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, and so is not mentioned as an official diagnosis in the widely used "Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders" (DSM).


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Symptoms of orthorexia nervosa include "obsessive focus on food choice, planning, purchase, preparation, and consumption; food regarded primarily as source of health rather than pleasure; distress or disgust when in proximity to prohibited foods; exaggerated faith that inclusion or elimination of particular kinds of food can prevent or cure disease or affect daily well-being; periodic shifts in dietary beliefs while other processes persist unchanged; moral judgment of others based on dietary choices; body image distortion around sense of physical "impurity" rather than weight; persistent belief that dietary practices are health-promoting despite evidence of malnutrition."


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: There has been no investigation into whether there may be a biological cause specific to orthorexia nervosa. It may be a food-centered manifestation of obsessive-compulsive disorder, which has a lot to do with control.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: In 2016, formal criteria for orthorexia were proposed in the peer-reviewed journal "Eating Behaviors" by Thom Dunn and Steven Bratman. These criteria are as follows:


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Criterion A. Obsessive focus on "healthy" eating, as defined by a dietary theory or set of beliefs whose specific details may vary; marked by exaggerated emotional distress in relationship to food choices perceived as unhealthy; weight loss may ensue, but this is conceptualized as an aspect of ideal health rather than as the primary goal. As evidenced by the following:


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Criterion B. The compulsive behavior and mental preoccupation becomes clinically impairing by any of the following:


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: A diagnostic questionnaire has been developed for orthorexia sufferers, similar to questionnaires for other eating disorders, named the ORTO-15. However, Dunn and Bratman critique this survey tool as lacking appropriate internal and external validation.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Results across scientific findings have yet to find a definitive conclusion to support whether nutrition students and professionals are at higher risk than other population subgroups, due to differing results in the research literature. There are only a few notable scientific works that, in an attempt to explore the breadth and depth of the still vaguely-understood illness, have tried to identify which groups in society are most vulnerable to its onset. This includes a 2008 German study, which based its research on the widespread suspicion that the most nutritionally-informed, such as university nutrition students, are a potential high-risk group for eating disorders, due to a substantial accumulation of knowledge on food and its relationship to health; the idea being that the more one knows about health, the more likely an unhealthy fixation about being healthy can develop. This study also inferred that orthorexic tendencies may even fuel a desire to study the science, indicating that many within this field might suffer from the disorder before commencing the course. However the results found that the students in the study, upon initial embarkation of their degree, did not have higher orthorexic values than other non-nutrition university students, and thus the report concluded that further research is needed to clarify the relationship between food-education and the onset of ON.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Similarly, in a Portuguese study on nutrition tertiary students, the participants' orthorexic scores (according to the ORTO-15 diagnostic questionnaire) actually decreased as they progressed through their course, as well as the overall risk of developing an eating disorder being an insignificant 4.2 percent. The participants also answered questionnaires to provide insight into their eating behaviours and attitudes, and despite this study finding that nutrition and health-science students tend to have more restrictive eating behaviours, these studies however found no evidence to support that these students have "more disturbed or disordered eating patterns than other students". These two aforementioned studies conclude that the more understanding of food one has is not necessarily a risk factor for ON, explaining that the data gathered suggests dietetics professionals are not at significant risk of it.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: However, these epidemiologic studies have been critiqued as using a fundamentally flawed survey tool that inflates prevalence rates. Scholars have questioned both the reliability and validity of the ORTO-15.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Most scientific findings tend to agree, however, young adults and adolescents are extremely susceptible to developing eating disorders. One study found that there was no relationship between BOT score and college major, which may indicate the prevalence of mental health issues and eating disorders on college campuses and that health and science majors are no longer the only ones affected. More studies have also been conducted on the link between increased Instagram use and Orthorexia nervosa. The social media based healthy community has recently grown in popularity especially on platforms such as Instagram. The hashtag #food is one of the top 25 most popular hashtags on Instagram. A study that investigated this relationship found that increased use of Instagram correlated between symptoms of ON with no other social media platform having the same effect. With young adults and adolescents making up the majority of social media users, exposure to this type of content can lead to developing unhealthy behavior.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: In a 1997 article in the magazine "Yoga Journal", the American physician Steven Bratman coined the term "orthorexia nervosa" from the Greek ορθο- ("ortho", "right" or "correct"), and όρεξις ("orexis", "appetite"), literally meaning 'correct appetite', but in practice meaning 'correct diet'. The term is modeled on "anorexia", literally meaning "without appetite", as used in the definition of the condition anorexia nervosa. (In both terms, "nervosa" indicates an unhealthy psychological state.) Bratman described orthorexia as an unhealthy fixation with what the individual considers to be healthy eating. Beliefs about what constitutes healthy eating commonly originate in one or another dietary theory such as raw foods veganism or macrobiotics, but are then taken to extremes, leading to disordered eating patterns and psychological and/or physical impairment. Bratman based this proposed condition on his personal experiences in the 1970s, as well as behaviors he observed among his patients in the 1990s. In 2000, Bratman, with David Knight, authored the book "Health Food Junkies", which further expanded on the subject.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Following the publication of the book, in 2004 a team of Italian researchers from La Sapienza University of Rome, published the first empirical study attempting to develop a tool to measure the prevalence of orthorexia, known as the ORTO-15.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: In 2015, responding to news articles in which the term orthorexia is applied to people who merely follow a non-mainstream theory of healthy eating, Bratman specified the following: "A theory may be conventional or unconventional, extreme or lax, sensible or totally wacky, but, regardless of the details, followers of the theory do not necessarily have orthorexia. They are simply adherents of a dietary theory. The term 'orthorexia' only applies when an eating disorder develops around that theory." Bratman elsewhere clarifies that with a few exceptions, most common theories of healthy eating are followed safely by the majority of their adherents; however, "for some people, going down the path of a restrictive diet in search of health may escalate into dietary perfectionism." Karin Kratina, PhD, writing for the National Eating Disorders Association, summarizes this process as follows: "Eventually food choices become so restrictive, in both variety and calories, that health suffers – an ironic twist for a person so completely dedicated to healthy eating."


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Although orthorexia is not recognized as a mental disorder by the American Psychiatric Association, and it is not listed in the DSM-5, as of January 2016, four case reports and more than 40 other articles on the subject have been published in a variety of peer-reviewed journals internationally. According to a study published in 2011, two-thirds of a sample of 111 Dutch-speaking eating disorder specialists felt they had observed the syndrome in their clinical practice.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: According to the "Macmillan English Dictionary," the word is entering the English lexicon. The concept of orthorexia as a newly developing eating disorder has attracted significant media attention in the 21st century.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Orthorexia differs from anorexia and bulimia in its relationship to food. Instead of focusing on food intake in an attempt to lose weight and eat less, orthorexia is an "obsession about the quality of food intake" and is fueled by a feeling of achieving perfection and purity by only consuming "healthy" foods.


title: Orthorexia nervosa

text: Orthorexic behaviors can often lead to malnutrition and weight loss, and it is often associated with anorexia nervosa. Studies have also shown that obsessive-compulsive tendencies are linked to the development of orthorexia, and some researchers suggest that orthorexia should be diagnosed as OCD because it is driven by an obsession for attaining a perfect diet.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: An electronic countermeasure (ECM) is an electrical or electronic device designed to trick or deceive radar, sonar, or other detection systems, like infrared (IR) or lasers. It may be used both offensively and defensively to deny targeting information to an enemy. The system may make many separate targets appear to the enemy, or make the real target appear to disappear or move about randomly. It is used effectively to protect aircraft from guided missiles. Most air forces use ECM to protect their aircraft from attack. It has also been deployed by military ships and recently on some advanced tanks to fool laser/IR guided missiles. It is frequently coupled with stealth advances so that the ECM systems have an easier job. Offensive ECM often takes the form of jamming. Self-protecting (defensive) ECM includes using blip enhancement and jamming of missile terminal homers.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: The first example of electronic countermeasures being applied in a combat situation took place during the Russo-Japanese war. On July 13, 1904, Russian wireless telegraphy stations installed in the Port Arthur fortress and on board Russian light cruisers successfully interrupted wireless communication between a group of Japanese battleships. The spark-gap transmitters in the Russian stations generated senseless noise while the Japanese were making attempts to coordinate their efforts in the bombing of a Russian naval base. Germany and United Kingdom interfered with enemy communications along the western front during World War I while the Royal Navy tried to intercept German naval radio transmissions. There were also efforts at sending false radio signals, having shore stations send transmissions using ships' call signs, and jamming enemy radio signals.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: World War II ECM expanded to include dropping chaff (originally called Window), jamming and spoofing radar and navigation signals. German bomber aircraft navigated using radio signals transmitted from ground stations, which the British disrupted with spoofed signals in the Battle of the Beams. During the RAF's night attacks on Germany the extent of electronic countermeasures was much expanded, and a specialised organisation, No. 100 Group RAF, was formed to counter the increasing German night fighter force and radar defences. Cold War developments included anti-radiation missiles designed to home in on enemy radar transmitters.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: In the 2007 Operation Orchard Israeli attack on a suspected Syrian nuclear weapons site, the Israel Air Force used electronic warfare to take control of Syrian airspace prior to the attack. Israeli electronic warfare (EW) systems took over Syria's air defense systems, feeding them a false sky-picture while Israel Air Force jets crossed much of Syria, bombed their targets and returned.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: Basic radar ECM strategies are (1) radar interference, (2) target modifications, and (3) changing the electrical properties of air. Interference techniques include jamming and deception. Jamming is accomplished by a friendly platform transmitting signals on the radar frequency to produce a noise level sufficient to hide echos. The jammer's continuous transmissions will provide a clear direction to the enemy radar, but no range information. Deception may use a transponder to mimic the radar echo with a delay to indicate incorrect range. Transponders may alternatively increase return echo strength to make a small decoy appear to be a larger target. Target modifications include radar absorbing coatings and modifications of the surface shape to either "stealth" a high-value target or enhance reflections from a decoy. Dispersal of small aluminium strips called chaff is a common method of changing the electromagnetic properties of air to provide confusing radar echos.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: Radio jamming or communications jamming is the deliberate transmission of radio signals that disrupt communications by decreasing the signal-to-noise ratio to the point where the target communications link is either degraded or denied service.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: ECM is practiced by nearly all modern military units—land, sea or air. Aircraft, however, are the primary weapons in the ECM battle because they can "see" a larger patch of earth than a sea or land-based unit. When employed effectively, ECM can keep aircraft from being tracked by search radars, or targeted by surface-to-air missiles or air-to-air missiles. An aircraft ECM can take the form of an attachable underwing pod or could be embedded in the airframe. Fighter planes using a conventional electronically scanned antenna mount dedicated jamming pods instead or, in the case of the US, German, and Italian air forces, may rely on electronic warfare aircraft to carry them. ECM pods vary widely in power and capability; while many fighter aircraft are capable of carrying an ECM pod, these pods are generally less powerful, capable and of shorter range than the equipment carried by dedicated ECM aircraft, thus making them an important part of the inventory.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: The Next Generation Jammer is being developed to replace the current AN/ALQ-99 carried on the E/A-18G electronic warfare plane. Planned for adoption around 2020, it will use a small AESA antenna divided into quadrants for all around coverage and retain the capability of highly directional jamming.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: DARPA's Precision Electronic Warfare (PREW) project aims to develop a low-cost system capable of synchronizing several simple airborne jamming pods with enough precision to replicate the directionality of an electronically scanned antenna, avoiding collateral jamming of non-targeted receivers.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: An expendable active decoy that uses DRFM technology to jam RF based threats has already been developed by Selex ES (merged into Leonardo new name of Finmeccanica since 2017). The system, named BriteCloud, is self-contained within a small canister that is similar to a standard flare cartridge. The 55 mm format of the system has undergone flight trials with the Gripen aircraft and the development of a 218 variant is at an advanced stage.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: The ULQ-6 deception transmitter was one of the earlier shipboard ECM installations. The Raytheon SLQ-32 shipboard ECM package came in three versions providing warning, identification and bearing information about radar-guided cruise missiles. The SLQ-32 V3 included quick reaction electronic countermeasures for cruisers and large amphibious ships and auxiliaries in addition to the RBOC (Rapid Blooming Off-board Chaff) launchers found on most surface ships. The BLR-14 Submarine Acoustic Warfare System (or SAWS) provides an integrated receiver, processor, display, and countermeasures launch system for submarines.


title: Electronic countermeasure

text: Infrared homing systems can be decoyed with flares and other infrared countermeasures. Acoustic homing and detection systems used for ships are also susceptible to countermeasures. United States warships use Masker and PRAIRIE (propeller AIR Ingestion and Emission) systems to create small air bubbles around a ship's hull and wake to reduce sound transmission. Surface ships tow noisemakers like the AN/SLQ-25 Nixie to decoy homing torpedoes. Submarines can deploy similar acoustic device countermeasures (or ADCs) from a 3-inch (75-mm) signal launching tube. United States ballistic missile submarines could deploy the Mark 70 MOSS (Mobile submarine simulator) decoy from torpedo tubes to simulate a full size submarine. Most navies additionally equip surface ships with decoy launchers.


title: Tradwife

text: A tradwife (short for traditional wife or traditional housewife) denotes a woman who prefers to take a traditional role in marriage, including the beliefs that a woman does not lose anything by choosing to stay at home and by doing so can support their family needs better. The term is a neologism. Some may have chosen to leave careers in business or in public life to focus instead on their families and raising children.


title: Tradwife

text: Usage of the term has spread in part through social media accounts on YouTube and Instagram, featuring women extolling the virtues of staying at home, fixing meals, having many children and raising them, submitting to male leadership, and behaving like "traditional wives". A report in "America" magazine, a Catholic publication, suggested that some tradwife adherents had adopted the practice of wearing veils in church in order to appeal to men.


title: Tradwife

text: The concept is controversial partly because of the associations in the United States and in Britain with the alt-right, white nationalism, and the Republican party. It rejects many of the precepts of feminism, and accepts the notion of the husband being the dominant figure in the home. The "New York Times" columnist Annie Kelly suggested that there were connections between the idea of tradwives and white supremacy in that the movement urged more white women to have babies to offset a declining birthrate. Hephzibah Anderson, writing in "Prospect," described the tradwife movement as a fringe development.


title: Tradwife

text: For some women who identify as tradwives, submitting to a husband means putting him in charge of all of the family's finances, with the wife getting a spending allowance. Alena Pettitt felt "alienated" growing up in the 1990s, and didn't like the sentiment of "let's fight the boys and go out and be independent and break glass ceilings", and instead she related to the TV shows of the 1950s and 1960s. She explained:


title: Tradwife

text: An example of a high profile woman abandoning her career to become a tradwife is Canadian Cynthia Loewen, a former Miss Canada, gave up her path of becoming a doctor to become a full-time housewife for her husband. She says that she is "more happy as a result" with her husband as the breadwinner and with her being in charge of the home, and she said that she gets fulfillment from this arrangement.


title: Jared Golden

text: Jared Forrest Golden (born July 25, 1982) is an American politician and a Marine Corps veteran serving as the U.S. representative for Maine's 2nd congressional district since 2019. A member of the Democratic Party, his district, the largest east of the Mississippi River by area, covers the northern four-fifths of the state, including Lewiston, Bangor, and Auburn. Golden, along with Angus King and Chellie Pingree, are the first members of Congress to be elected by ranked-choice voting. Golden is the only member of Congress elected after finishing second in the first round of tabulation. He was deployed to Iraq and Afghanistan as a United States Marine.


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden was born in Lewiston and raised in Leeds. He attended Leavitt Area High School. Golden enrolled as a student at the University of Maine at Farmington but left after one year to join the United States Marine Corps in 2002. He served combat tours in Iraq and Afghanistan.


title: Jared Golden

text: After returning home to Maine, Golden attended Bates College, graduating with a degree in history and politics. He went on to work for an international logistics firm and then for Maine's Republican Senator Susan Collins on the Homeland Security and Governmental Affairs Committee.


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden returned to Maine in 2013 to work for the House Democratic Office in the Maine Legislature. As a Democrat, Golden ran for and was elected to the Maine House of Representatives in 2014, representing part of the city of Lewiston. He was reelected in 2016. In the subsequent legislative session, Golden became Assistant House Majority Leader. Golden chaired the Elections Committee and the Joint Select Committee on Joint Rules.


title: Jared Golden

text: On August 24, 2017, Golden announced his candidacy against Bruce Poliquin to serve in the United States House of Representatives for . On June 20, 2018, he was declared the winner of the Democratic primary, defeating environmentalist Lucas St. Clair and bookstore owner Craig Olson.


title: Jared Golden

text: On election night, Golden trailed Poliquin by 2,000 votes. As neither candidate won a majority, Maine's newly implemented ranked-choice voting system called for the votes of independents Tiffany Bond and William Hoar to be redistributed to Poliquin or Golden in accordance with their voters' second choice. Exit polls indicated that 90% of the independents' supporters ranked Golden as their second choice, which on paper was enough to give Golden the victory. The independents' supporters ranked Golden as their second choice by an overwhelming margin, allowing him to defeat Poliquin by 3,000 votes after the final tabulation. He is the first challenger to unseat an incumbent in the district since 1916.


title: Jared Golden

text: Poliquin opposed the use of ranked-choice voting in the election and claimed to be the winner due to his first-round lead. He filed a lawsuit in federal court to have ranked-choice voting declared unconstitutional and be declared the winner. Judge Lance E. Walker rejected all of Poliquin's arguments and upheld the certified results. Poliquin appealed to the U.S. Court of Appeals for the First Circuit and requested an order to prevent Golden from being certified as the winner, but the request was rejected. On December 24, Poliquin dropped his lawsuit, allowing Golden to take the seat.


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden ran for reelection in 2020 and won the Democratic primary unopposed. His Republican opponent was Dale Crafts, a former Maine Representative. Most political pundits expected Golden to win the general election easily; polling showed him ahead of Crafts by an average of about 19%, Sabato's Crystal Ball and "The Cook Political Report" both rating the contest as "Likely Democratic", and analysis website FiveThirtyEight predicted that Golden had a 96 out of 100 chance of winning, with Golden garnering nearly 57% of the vote in their projection of the most likely scenario.


title: Jared Golden

text: In November, Golden defeated Crafts 53%–47%, a closer margin than expected. President Donald Trump carried the district in that same election.


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden ran for reelection in 2022 and won the Democratic primary unopposed. He faced former Republican congressman Bruce Poliquin, whom he narrowly beat in 2018, and independent Tiffany Bond, who also ran for the 2nd congressional district seat in 2018. In July, Golden was endorsed by the Fraternal Order of Police, Maine's largest police union, which "split the ticket" by also endorsing former Republican governor Paul LePage. Polls again showed Golden with a lead, but many organizations rated the seat as a "tossup", as incumbent President Joe Biden was unpopular and inflation was approaching 40-year highs; "Decision Desk HQ" even gave the seat a "Leans Republican" rating. Nonetheless, Golden led the field in the first round, and defeated Poliquin 53%–47% after Bond's second-choice votes mostly flowed to him.


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden was sworn in on January 3, 2019. During the election for Speaker of the House, he voted against Democratic Caucus nominee Nancy Pelosi, as he had pledged to do during his campaign, instead voting for Representative Cheri Bustos of Illinois. On December 18, 2019, Golden voted for Article I of the articles of impeachment against Donald Trump but was one of three Democrats to vote against Article II.


title: Jared Golden

text: On February 6, 2020, Golden endorsed Senator Michael Bennet of Colorado for president during the 2020 Democratic Party presidential primaries.


title: Jared Golden

text: As of August 2022, Golden had voted in line with Joe Biden's stated position 85.7% of the time, the lowest rate of any member of the Democratic caucus.


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden was the lone House Democrat to vote against the Build Back Better Act, citing concerns about the elimination of the $10,000 cap on the SALT deduction and the lack of prescription drug pricing reform.


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden was one of two House Democrats, alongside Kurt Schrader, to vote against the first version of the American Rescue Plan Act of 2021, a stimulus bill intended to address the ongoing COVID-19 pandemic and the resultant economic fallout. He cited concerns such as broad eligibility for $1,400 stimulus checks and high levels of public debt, saying, "At some point, the bill has to come due."


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden was one of 38 Democrats to vote against the United States–Mexico–Canada Agreement Implementation Act. Explaining his vote, he said the law’s labeling requirements would not be enough to keep international companies from misbranding products, putting Maine’s businesses at a disadvantage. He was skeptical it would be enforced sufficiently to protect workers, saying "we have a bad track record" in doing so with other trade deals.


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden was the only Democrat to vote against the Bipartisan Background Checks Act to expand background checks on gun purchases and one of two Democrats, along with Ron Kind of Wisconsin, to vote against the Enhanced Background Checks Act of 2021, designed to close the so-called Charleston loophole. Both bills passed the House in March 2021.


title: Jared Golden

text: In 2022, Golden was one of two Democrats, the other being Kurt Schrader of Oregon, to vote against raising the minimum age to purchase semi-automatic rifles from 18 to 21.


title: Jared Golden

text: On July 29, 2022, Golden and four other Democrats joined the Republicans in voting against a bill banning assault weapons.


title: Jared Golden

text: On March 2, 2021, Golden was one of 97 Democrats to vote for an amendment to create a federal mandate that states allow convicted felons to vote while serving their prison sentences.


title: Jared Golden

text: The next day, Golden was one of two Democrats, alongside Ron Kind, to vote against the George Floyd Justice in Policing Act. In a statement after the vote, Golden said the bill "includes many good provisions that would bring about positive change", mentioning the establishment of a national registry for police misconduct, increased data collection, encouragement of de-escalation tactics, and banning chokeholds unless deadly force is authorized. But Golden voiced concern about the provision that would restrict qualified immunity and lamented that there had "been no negotiations since the legislation's first passage, and the bill before us retains those same problematic changes".


title: Jared Golden

text: Golden's wife Isobel (née Moiles) served as a city councilor in Lewiston from 2016 to 2018. They have a daughter who was born in May 2021.


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: The eleventh season of the American competitive television series "BattleBots" premiered on Discovery Channel on January 6, 2022. The show continued to use their modified logo, with a pair of "B"'s, making a "BB" logo atop the term "BATTLEBOTS", as well as the subtitle, "Fight Night" for qualifying rounds.


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: MLB/NFL Sportscaster Chris Rose and former UFC fighter Kenny Florian return to host for the eleventh season, as well as arena announcer Faruq Tauheed and "Bot Whisperer" Pete Abrahamson.


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: Brand new this season, in the ever evolving sport of combat robotics, the BattleBox changes with the inclusion of an "upper deck", complete with its own set of spinning saw blades, totally adds new geometry angles to the playing surface.


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: Also new for this season, BattleBots has changed locations from Los Angeles, California to Las Vegas, Nevada, now known as "The Fight Capital of the World".


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: The matches took place between Monday, August 23rd, 2021, culminating on September 4th, 2021. Qualifying fights took place on the 23rd, 24th, 27th, and 28th, with two fight cards each day from 12PM-4PM and 6PM-10PM. Tournament rounds took place on the 29th and 31st of August, and the 2nd, 3rd, and 4th of September. As with the qualifying rounds, there were two rounds of fights each day at the same times as the qualifiers.


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: Caesars Entertainment Studios, at 4165 Koval Lane, was the new venue for the battlebox and the pits. Previously, competitions had taken place in the former Boeing Post 52 building at the Long Beach Airport.


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: This season, the judges score on an 11-point scale: 5 points for damage; 3 points for aggression; and 3 points for control.


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: This season marked the 22nd year of the "BattleBots" competition. The lineup features 62 of the best heavyweight robots to fight head-to-head in the Battle Arena.


title: BattleBots (season 11)

text: Every team will fight up to three times in the qualifying rounds. Their goal is to earn a spot in the top 32 in the winner-take-all championship tournament and ultimately become the 2021 "BattleBots" World Champion.


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: "Turn the Page" is a song originally recorded by Bob Seger in 1971 and released on his "Back in '72" album in 1973. It was not released as a single until Seger's live version of the song on the 1976 "Live Bullet" album got released in Germany and the UK. The song became a mainstay of album-oriented rock radio stations, and still gets significant airplay on classic rock stations.


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: "Turn the Page" is about the emotional and social ups and downs of a rock musician's life on the road. Seger wrote it in 1972 while touring with Teegarden & Van Winkle. Drummer David Teegarden (of Teegarden & Van Winkle and later the Silver Bullet Band) recalls: We had been playing somewhere in the Midwest, or the northern reaches, on our way to North or South Dakota. [Guitarist] Mike Bruce was with us. We'd been traveling all night from the Detroit area to make this gig, driving in this blinding snowstorm. It was probably 3 in the morning. Mike decided it was time to get gas. He was slowing down to exit the interstate and spied a truck stop. We all had very long hair back then – it was the hippie era – but Skip, Mike and Bob had all stuffed their hair up in their hats. You had to be careful out on the road like that, because you'd get ostracized. When I walked in, there was this gauntlet of truckers making comments – "Is that a girl or man?" I was seething; those guys were laughing their asses off, a big funny joke. That next night, after we played our gig – I think it was Mitchell, S.D. – Seger says, "Hey, I've been working on this song for a bit, I've got this new line for it. He played it on acoustic guitar, and there was that line: "Oh, the same old cliches / 'Is that a woman or a man?' " It was "Turn the Page."


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: Tom Weschler, then road manager for Seger, remembers the same incident: "Turn the Page," Bob's great road song, came along in '72, while we were driving home from a gig. I think we were in Dubuque, Iowa, in winter and stopped at a restaurant. We stood out when we entered a store or a gas station or a restaurant en masse. At this restaurant it was particularly bright inside, so there weren't any dark corners to hide in. All these local guys were looking at us like, "What are these guys? Is that a woman or a man?" – just like in the song. ... That was one incident, but there were so many others on the road that led Seger to write that song.


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: While on tour in Milwaukee, Wisconsin, on November 16, 2006, promoting his 16th studio album "Face the Promise", Seger said he wrote the song in a hotel room in Eau Claire, Wisconsin.


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: Both Seger's studio and live versions of "Turn the Page" feature a Mellotron and a saxophone part played by founding Silver Bullet member Alto Reed. Tom Weschler allegedly helped inspire Reed to create the opening melody. During recording, Weschler told Reed: "Alto, think about it like this: You're in New York City, on the Bowery. It's 3 a.m. You're under a streetlamp. There's a light mist coming down. You're all by yourself. Show me what that sounds like." With that, Reed played the opening melody to "Turn the Page".


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: Australian singer Jon English released a version of the song in 1974 as the lead single from his second studio album, "It's All a Game". The song peaked at number 20 on the Kent Music Report.


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: American heavy metal band Metallica released a version of the song as the first single from their 1998 "Garage Inc." album. The song reached number 1 on the "Billboard" Hot Mainstream Rock Tracks chart for 11 consecutive weeks, the highest number of weeks Metallica has ever spent at the top; the song also reached number 2 on the "Billboard" Bubbling Under Hot 100. Drummer Lars Ulrich had heard the original song while driving across the Golden Gate Bridge and later commented that he thought it "had [Metallica frontman] James Hetfield all over it". Metallica's rendition is taken at much the same tempo as Seger's, but with a heavier feel; the saxophone melody is replaced by a high slide guitar line from Kirk Hammett. The accompanying music video explores a day in the life not of musicians, but a single mother (played by Ginger Lynn) who is a sex worker; that is, she works as a stripper by day, and a prostitute by night. MTV refused to air the video due to nudity and a scene depicting sexual assault between the mother and a client. The video was directed by Jonas Åkerlund.


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: When asked about his thoughts on this version, Seger told Artisan News, "I loved it. Yeah. It was great. They told me they were gonna do it, and I loved it. I really like the drums especially because our drums are really simple, and it's a cool take on it."


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: Country singer Jason Aldean said before his performance of the song with Seger at CMT Crossroads "it was a song I used to always sing" when he was playing nightclubs & bars at 14, 15 years old, even though he had "no idea what the hell it meant." After stating it had a whole new meaning to it 20-something years later, he added "it's always been one of my favorite songs of all time by any singer."


title: Turn the Page (Bob Seger song)

text: Jon Bon Jovi has claimed that the song was a big influence on him and Richie Sambora when they were writing their 1986 song "Wanted Dead or Alive".


title: Colt M1892

text: The Colt M1892 Navy and Army was the first general issue double-action revolver with a swing out cylinder used by the U.S. military.


title: Colt M1892

text: In 1892, the revolver was adopted by the United States Army chambered for .38 Long Colt cartridges, and was given the appellation "New Army and Navy". Initial experience with the gun caused officials to request some improvements. This would be an ongoing condition, resulting in Models 1892, 1894, 1896, 1901, and 1903 for the Army, as well as a Model 1895 for the Navy and a Model 1905 Marine Corps variant.


title: Colt M1892

text: The revolver featured a counter-clockwise rotating cylinder, which could be opened for loading and ejection by simply pulling back on a catch mounted on the left side of the frame behind the recoil shield. It was easily manipulated by the thumb of the right hand, and upon release the cylinder could be poked out sideways with the shooter's forefinger. Empty cases were removed by simply pushing back on an ejector rod to activate a star extractor. The six-shooter could then be quickly reloaded and the cylinder clicked back into place.


title: Colt M1892

text: Sights were the basic rounded front blade and topstrap notch. The finish on all military revolvers was blue, though civilian guns could be nickeled or with other special finishes and embellishments.


title: Colt M1892

text: The M1892's counter-clockwise cylinder rotation tended to force the cylinder out of alignment with the frame over time, and this was exacerbated by relatively weak lockwork used to "time", or match individual chambers to the barrel. In 1908, Colt improved and strengthened the lockwork, and changed the cylinder rotation to a clockwise movement.


title: Colt M1892

text: A Model 1892 revolver was recovered from the USS "Maine" after it exploded in Havana Harbor in 1898. It was presented to then-Assistant Secretary of the Navy Theodore Roosevelt, who would later become President of the United States. Roosevelt brandished this pistol to rally his Rough Riders during the famed charge up San Juan Hill on July 1, 1898. This revolver was on display at Sagamore Hill and was stolen from there in 1963, recovered and then stolen again in 1990. It was recovered in 2006 and returned to Sagamore Hill on June 14, 2006.


title: Colt M1892

text: This revolver was thought of as a decent handgun for its time, but complaints arose from the military concerning the revolver's cartridge chambering. Beginning in 1899, combat reports arose from the Philippines campaign regarding the poor performance of the M1892's .38-caliber ammunition. Specifically, users complained that the .38 bullet repeatedly failed to stop charging Filipino rebels at close ranges, even when hit multiple times. The complaints caused the U.S. Army to hurriedly issue stocks of .45 caliber revolvers, and played a central role in its decision to replace the M1892 with the .45 Colt M1909 New Service revolver in 1909.


title: Colt M1892

text: In the rush to furnish arms to the rapidly expanding Army and Navy after the United States entered World War I, surplus stocks of these old Colts were inspected, refurbished as needed, and then issued to rear-echelon Army troops and Navy officers as a substitute standard side arm.


title: Colt M1892

text: During its service life, the M1892 series received modifications to the basic design, including cylinder lockwork, the addition (in 1894) of an interlock between the cylinder latch and the trigger and hammer, different barrel markings, the addition of a lanyard ring in the Model 1901, and a reduction of bore diameter in the Model 1903 in an effort to increase accuracy.


title: The Greatest American

text: The Greatest American was a four-part American television series hosted by Matt Lauer in 2005. The show featured biographies and lists of influential persons in U.S. history, and culminated in a contest in which millions in the audience nominated and voted for the person they felt was the "greatest American". The four-part competition was conducted by AOL and the Discovery Channel and reported on by the BBC.


title: The Greatest American

text: President Ronald Reagan achieved the highest position. His son, Ronald Reagan Jr., commented to the network that "I'm sure he would be very honored to be in the company of these great gentlemen." In total, the American public cast over 2.4 million votes during the nomination process.


title: The Greatest American

text: In detail, Martin Luther King Jr. was the highest-ranked person of color, at number three, while Oprah Winfrey, at number nine, was the highest-ranked woman. George W. Bush, at number six, had the highest status of any living American.


title: The Greatest American

text: Nominations were accepted through 31 January 2005. The seven-hour-long series was broken into four episodes: The first episode counted down the top 100 and introduced the top 25 nominees in alphabetical order. The second episode featured biographies of the top 25 nominees as well as commentaries from influential people such as celebrities and politicians. The third episode, called "The Great Debate", introduced the top five nominees and pitted the studio audience supporters of each of the nominees and a person selected to represent each of the top five candidates against a panel of three celebrities. In the finale, the top five "Greatest Americans" were announced as well as what percentage of the votes each had received. Votes were taken through a toll-free (if calling from a land line) phone number, through text messages from cellphones, and through online voting. Voters were allowed to vote three times per voting method, so anyone had a chance of voting at least nine times.


title: TV Land

text: TV Land is an American pay television channel owned by Paramount Global through its networks division. Originally a spinoff of Nick at Nite consisting exclusively of classic television shows, the channel now airs a combination of recent and classic television series (ranging from the 1960s to the 2010s), original scripted series and limited theatrically released movies. The network is headquartered at One Astor Plaza in New York City.


title: TV Land

text: The network launched at 10:00 p.m. Eastern on April 29, 1996, as Nick at Nite's TV Land. Following a seven-minute short film introducing the network, the first program aired was a syndicated edit of "The Best of The Ed Sullivan Show" featuring the Beatles' American debut along with routines by Joan Rivers, Richard Pryor and Señor Wences. The show led off a launch-day lineup that rebroadcast numerous series premieres, pilot episodes and television firsts.


title: TV Land

text: The network's original lineup consisted of "Hill Street Blues"; "St. Elsewhere"; "The Ed Sullivan Show"; "Gunsmoke"; "That Girl"; "The Sonny & Cher Comedy Hour"; "Honey West"; "The Addams Family"; "Love, American Style"; "Petticoat Junction"; "Green Acres"; "The Phil Silvers Show"; and "Hogan's Heroes".


title: TV Land

text: The channel launched during a time when retransmission consent was becoming more common with subscription networks and terrestrial television stations nationwide as a result of a provision in the 1992 Cable Act. However, MTV Networks offered TV Land to subscription providers for free for its five years of operation if providers would agree to add the channel to their expanded basic tiers during the 1996 calendar year. USSB, then one of two services that used the DirecTV satellite, offered TV Land as a free channel to USSB and DirecTV satellite users, without requiring a subscription, for its first years on air.