title: TV Land

text: Shortly after TV Land's debut, MCA filed a lawsuit against Viacom. Because MCA's original agreement with Paramount Pictures to operate USA Network prohibited either partner from operating other pay-television networks outside the joint venture, Viacom had been in breach of contract ever since the company bought Paramount in 1994, because it had operated MTV Networks (including Nickelodeon, MTV and VH1) since its founding in 1983, and Showtime Networks (owners of Showtime, The Movie Channel and Flix) since it was founded in 1985. MCA claimed that the intention of TV Land was to compete directly with USA, a claim that turned out to be true. Viacom claimed that the matter had already been settled when Sumner Redstone released Frank Biondi from his contract to let him work at MCA. The suit was eventually settled when Viacom agreed to sell its 50% stake in USA Networks to MCA (MCA later became Universal Studios, formerly just a subsidiary, which eventually merged with NBC and, later, Comcast).


title: TV Land

text: In February 1999, according to Nielsen ratings data, TV Land averaged a 1.0 share during primetime, tying ESPN for tenth place among all pay-television networks. Its siblings, MTV and VH1, tied for 17th and 26th place respectively. Columnist John Dempsey reported in "Variety:" "That February rating put TV Land into the top 10 for the first time since it began operating, and opened the eyes of the TV industry to the rich vein of golden-oldie TV shows that distributors are mining for an audience of nostalgia buffs and kids who are stumbling across the series for the first time."


title: TV Land

text: The network first forayed into original scripted programming in 2010 with the debut of the sitcom "Hot in Cleveland" (starring established sitcom stars Valerie Bertinelli, Jane Leeves, Wendie Malick and Betty White), which premiered in June 2010 to 4.75 million viewers, a record audience for the channel. (The success of that series led to a spinoff called "The Soul Man", which debuted in June 2012.) This was followed by the January 19, 2011, debut of "Retired at 35".


title: TV Land

text: In November 2014, amid growing allegations of sexual assault against Bill Cosby, the network removed reruns of "The Cosby Show" from its lineup and deleted all references of the series from its website. A marathon of "The Cosby Show" episodes that had been scheduled for Thanksgiving was also canceled. Episodes from the Steve Harvey run of "Family Feud" were aired instead.


title: TV Land

text: The network began a programming transition in March 2015, when the new Sutton Foster series "Younger" was launched without either traditional network branding or advertising. After the series finale of "Hot in Cleveland", a new logo was unveiled as part of a larger rebranding that saw TV Land shift its focus to Generation X viewers who grew into the network's demographic. New original series "Impastor" and "The Jim Gaffigan Show" were unveiled as the network officially announced the rebranding on June 23, 2015. Completing the shift to edgier, single-camera programming, TV Land announced on July 28 that the upcoming fifth season of the multi-camera sitcom "The Soul Man" would be its last. Less than two weeks later, on August 10, TV Land's last remaining multi-camera sitcom "The Exes" was canceled as its fourth season was still airing, and the final episode aired on September 16.


title: TV Land

text: In July 2015, TV Land dropped reruns of "The Dukes of Hazzard" after the removal of the Confederate battle flag from the grounds of the South Carolina State House because the flag is displayed atop the show's car, the General Lee.


title: TV Land

text: Since 2017, Viacom has been reorganizing its media businesses around six flagship brands, including Paramount Pictures, BET, Comedy Central, Nickelodeon, Nick Jr. and MTV. Network president Keith Cox was reassigned to the newly rebranded Paramount Network (the former Spike), and two series originally slated for TV Land—"American Woman" and "Heathers"—were reassigned to the channel. The former was canceled after its first season, while the latter eventually aired in a heavily edited and redacted form. "Younger" was also supposed to move to Paramount Network for its sixth season, but the move was reversed before the newest season launched. The series would eventually move to Paramount+ for its final season.


title: TV Land

text: On August 20, 2019, two TV Land-branded channels, TV Land Drama and TV Land Sitcoms, were launched on Pluto TV, a free streaming service acquired by Viacom in March 2019. The latter channel was a rebrand of the former Pluto TV Sitcoms channel.


title: TV Land

text: TV Land's programming originally focused on television series from the 1950s to the early 1980s. Such programming continues to air during the daytime hours, while the network's primetime lineup focuses on both recent and contemporary sitcoms originating from the late 1990s. The network held its own annual award show, the TV Land Awards, from 2003 to 2016.


title: TV Land

text: In 2001, Craig Media launched a Category 2 pay-television specialty channel called TV Land Canada through a brand licensing agreement with Viacom (which later acquired a minority ownership stake in the channel months after its launch). On August 2, 2010, TV Land Canada was rebranded as Comedy Gold, reformatting the channel as an offshoot of The Comedy Network. The rebranded channel focuses primarily on sitcoms and sketch-comedy programs from the 1970s to the 1990s. Viacom sold back its stake in the channel to CTVglobemedia (which would later be acquired outright by minority shareholder BCE, Inc. on September 10 of that year to form Bell Media) following the rebrand. The channel was shuttered on September 1, 2019, after its broadcast license was sold to Wow Unlimited Media.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Stephen Clark Bullock (born April 11, 1966) is an American politician and lawyer, who served as the 24th governor of Montana from 2013 to 2021. He is a member of the Democratic Party.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Born in Missoula, Montana, Bullock graduated from Claremont McKenna College and Columbia Law School. He began his career working as legal counsel to the Secretary of State of Montana before becoming the Executive Assistant Attorney General and acting Chief Deputy Attorney General of Montana. Bullock then entered private practice as a lawyer for Steptoe & Johnson. He was an adjunct professor at George Washington University Law School before opening his own law firm upon returning to Montana. In 2008, Bullock was elected Attorney General of Montana, and he served one term from 2009 to 2013.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock declared his candidacy for governor of Montana on September 7, 2011. The seat was open in 2012, as incumbent governor Brian Schweitzer, a Democrat, could not seek reelection due to term limits. Bullock won the Democratic primary with 87% of the vote and defeated Republican former Congressman Rick Hill in the general election with 48.9% of the vote. In 2016, Bullock was reelected with 50.2% of the vote, defeating Republican nominee Greg Gianforte.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock chaired the National Governors Association from 2018 to 2019. He was a Democratic candidate for President of the United States in 2020. After suspending his presidential campaign, he announced his candidacy for the United States Senate in the 2020 election which he lost to incumbent Senator Steve Daines.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock currently sits on the bipartisan advisory board of States United Democracy Center. On January 20, 2022, Bullock was appointed by Secretary of the Interior Deb Haaland to the inaugural board of directors of the Foundation for America's Public Lands, a congressionally-chartered non-profit tasked with leveraging private and public money to protect public lands under the Bureau of Land Management.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock was born in Missoula, Montana, and raised in Helena, the state capital. He is the son of Penny Clark, a school board trustee, and Mike Bullock, a teacher and administrator. Bullock attended Helena High School where he met his wife and graduated in 1984. His parents divorced when he was in grade school. Bullock received his B.A. degree in Philosophy, Politics & Economics (PPE) from Claremont McKenna College and his J.D. degree with honors from Columbia Law School.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 1996, Bullock served as chief legal counsel to Montana Secretary of State Mike Cooney. He went on to work for four years with the Montana Department of Justice under Attorney General Joe Mazurek, first as executive assistant attorney general, and later as acting chief deputy (1997–2001). During this time, he also served as legislative director, coordinating the Attorney General's legislative efforts.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: He was unsuccessful in his first race for Montana Attorney General, losing the 2000 Democratic primary to Mike McGrath, who went on to be elected Attorney General that year and now serves as Chief Justice of the Montana Supreme Court. From 2001 to 2004, Bullock practiced law with Steptoe & Johnson in Washington, D.C., where he also served as an adjunct professor at George Washington University Law School. He returned to Montana in 2004, working in private practice in Helena.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock was the Democratic nominee for Attorney General in 2008, defeating two other candidates in the June primary election. He went on to win the contested general election race with 52.64% of the vote against Republican Tim Fox. Bullock received 245,669 votes, more than either other candidate. Under Bullock, the Attorney General's office initiated the 24/7 Sobriety Program which requires repeat DUI offenders to take daily alcohol tests.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: The Attorney General's office also pursued the railroad industry for monopolistic business practices and took part in a 16 state effort to urge the federal government to use antitrust authority against consolidation in agriculture. Bullock focused on the misclassification of employees as independent contractors and allowing FedEx to avoid paying millions in state taxes and fees. His efforts resulted in changes by FedEx to comply with federal and state laws.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock attracted national attention by challenging the "Citizens United" decision through his defense of Montana's 100-year-old ban on corporate campaign expenditures. After winning in the Montana Supreme Court, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled against the State of Montana in a 5–4 decision.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock, who authored the state's opinion guaranteeing access to rivers, streams, and public lands, worked with the legislature and Governor Brian Schweitzer to codify the access opinion into law.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: On September 7, 2011, Bullock announced his candidacy for governor of Montana in 2012. In the Democratic primary, he faced Helena resident Heather Margolis. Bullock won with 87% of the vote. Bullock's running mate was John Walsh, the former Adjutant General of the Montana National Guard.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock pledged to give Montana homeowners a one-time $400 property tax rebate to refund a portion of the state's $400 million budget surplus. The proposal became a bill in 2013 but died in committee.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock narrowly won the November 6 election, defeating former Republican Congressman Rick Hill with 48.9% of the vote to Hill's 47.3%. Libertarian candidate Ron Vandevender received 3.8%.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2016, Bullock was reelected with 50.2% of the vote, defeating Republican nominee Greg Gianforte. His running mate was Lt. Gov. Mike Cooney, who had become lieutenant governor in January 2016 after being appointed by Bullock to fill a vacancy. Bullock and Cooney were the only two Democrats to retain statewide offices in the 2016 elections as the Republicans captured the offices of Montana Superintendent of Public Instruction, Montana State Auditor, and Montana Secretary of State and held onto the offices of Montana Attorney General and U.S. Representative for Montana's at-large congressional district.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock and Walsh were sworn in on January 7, 2013. Bullock later appointed Walsh to become the new Senator from Montana to replace Max Baucus, who had been appointed Ambassador to China. Bullock then appointed Angela McLean to replace Walsh as lieutenant governor. In November 2015, McLean announced her resignation as lieutenant governor, effective upon the appointment of her successor, in order to accept the position of director of American Indian and minority achievement in the office of the state commissioner of higher education. In December 2015, Bullock announced the appointment of Mike Cooney as McLean's replacement. Cooney was sworn in on January 4, 2016. According to a September 20, 2016, survey by "Morning Consult", Bullock, with a 66% approval rating and a 19% disapproval rating, was the most popular Democratic governor in the United States, as well as the fourth-most popular overall, behind Republicans Dennis Daugaard of South Dakota, Larry Hogan of Maryland, and Charlie Baker of Massachusetts.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock began his second term on January 2, 2017, alongside Lieutenant Governor Cooney. Following the 2016 elections, Bullock faced large Republican majorities in the Montana Legislature. Republicans gained three State Senate seats and widened their Senate majority over the Democrats to 32–18 while maintaining a 59–41 majority in the Montana House of Representatives, the same as in 2015.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In the 2018 state legislative elections in Montana, Democrats won 42 of 100 seats in the Montana House of Representatives and gained two seats in the Montana Senate. This meant that, in the 2019 state legislative session that Bullock presided over, Republicans held 60% of the seats in the upper chamber and 58% in the lower chamber of the legislature.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In November 2020, Bullock was named as a potential Secretary of the Interior in the Biden Administration.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic, Bullock created a task force on March 3, 2020, declared a state of emergency on March 12, and closed public schools March 15. He issued a stay-at-home order on March 26; earlier that day, the Montana Hospital Association requested such an order. The order was described as having been implemented early in the pandemic and before many other states. In July, Bullock issued a statewide face mask mandate for indoor public places and large outdoor gatherings. In August, he gave county election officials permission to implement all-mail-in voting if they choose.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2017 Bullock formed the Big Sky Values PAC, which by spring 2019 had raised nearly $1.8 million, to pay for travel around the United States. On May 14, 2019, Bullock announced his candidacy for the 2020 presidential election. In his announcement video, Bullock said that opposing political "dark money" and legislating against the "Citizens United" Supreme Court ruling would be among his utmost priorities. Based on his three statewide electoral victories in a Republican-leaning, largely rural state, Bullock held a certain cachet of "electability", and appeared to have a plausible path to the nomination. His mid-May entrance was relatively late, but he was still able to qualify for the second Democratic debate in July. Even so, the late start left him with less media exposure than his numerous rivals: he found it hard to raise funds, and never rose above 1% in nationwide polls. He ended his campaign on December 2, 2019.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: On March 4, 2020, after months of speculation and denials from Bullock himself, "The New York Times" reported that Bullock would enter Montana's U.S. Senate election to challenge Republican incumbent Steve Daines. The move came after Senate Minority Leader Chuck Schumer (D-NY) flew to Montana to persuade Bullock to run and after Bullock talked with former president Barack Obama. Both believed that he was the only formidable candidate against Daines. Bullock ran for the seat formerly held for six terms by Democrat Max Baucus.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock officially declared his candidacy on March 9, 2020, the last day to file. The announcement prompted all other candidates for the Democratic nomination except one to drop out and endorse Bullock. This included the mayor of Helena, Wilmot Collins. On June 2, 2020, Bullock won the Democratic primary with 94.8% of the vote to challenger John Mues's 2.8%. On November 3, 2020, Daines defeated Bullock by just over 10 points in the general election.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock has been described by "The Washington Post" and "ABC News" as a moderate Democrat. "The New York Times" referred to Bullock as being among centrist Democratic governors.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2017, Bullock vetoed measures to outlaw abortions after 20 weeks, citing constitutional rulings on the women's ability to protect their lives and health and arguing that elected officials should not put personal beliefs above medical professionals' judgment. He has said that he personally believes life begins at viability but that "it's not up to people like me to be making these decisions". In 2018, Bullock wrote a letter to Secretary of Health and Human Services Alex Azar requesting that Title X funding for reproductive health care and family planning for low-income women remain in effect, saying the program had generated more than $29 million in savings.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: As Attorney General of Montana, Bullock advocated on behalf of the state's century-old ban on corporate money in elections, the Montana Corrupt Practices Act of 1912. After that and similar laws were struck down by the U.S. Supreme Court's "Citizens United" decision in 2010, Bullock countered with a new case, "American Tradition Partnership, Inc. v. Bullock" (2012). The Supreme Court disposed of the case in a 5–4 decision, but Bullock continued to advocate for campaign finance reform throughout his time as governor of Montana.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2015, Bullock steered the DISCLOSE Act, a bipartisan campaign finance reform bill that bolstered disclosure requirements in Montana elections, through a GOP-controlled state legislature.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In June 2018, Bullock signed an executive order that required the recipients of major government contracts in Montana to disclose "dark money spending" in elections, including spending disclosure not explicitly required by federal law.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: On July 24, 2018, Bullock sued the Internal Revenue Service and the U.S. Department of the Treasury over a recent decision to dispense with donor requirements for nonprofit organizations.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock acknowledges the scientific consensus on climate change and has said, "To not acknowledge or deal with our changing climate in a responsible way is shortsighted and dangerous." Montana became the first state to halt preparations for the Clean Power Plan when the United States Supreme Court announced a stay of the plan in February 2016.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In September 2014, Bullock signed an executive order creating a habitat conservation plan for sage-grouse in a bid to keep management of the imperiled bird in state hands rather than see it come under federal Endangered Species Act protection.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2015, Bullock said that there are "roles for all of us Democrats" in the Democratic party, referring to liberals, moderates, and conservatives alike.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock endorsed Hillary Clinton in the 2016 general election but expressed disagreement with Clinton's opposition to coal mining, an important industry in Montana. He did not attend the 2016 Democratic National Convention, citing his duties as governor.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In the 2016 elections, Bullock was one of just two Democrats, and the only Democratic incumbent, to win a gubernatorial election in states Donald Trump won. He has publicly argued that the Democratic Party needs to expand its reach beyond urban areas and the coasts, encouraging Democrats to engage with and attempt to persuade voters in suburban and rural areas rather than relying solely on base turnout. He visited Iowa, Wisconsin, and Colorado to speak in support of Democratic candidates during the 2018 election cycle, leading some to speculate, correctly, that he was considering a presidential run.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2019, Bullock said he supports the death penalty in "limited circumstances" like terrorism—a stance that distinguished him from the crowded 2020 Democratic presidential field.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2009, Bullock opposed a ban on semiautomatic weapons. In 2016, he opposed gun control and universal background checks, saying that "Second Amendment rights [had] been expanded in Montana" during his tenure. But in 2018, Bullock wrote an op-ed in "The Great Falls Tribune" saying he had come to support universal background checks, as well as magazine size limits and red flag laws, citing research showing lowered deaths from domestic violence, suicide, and the killing of law enforcement officers. He called himself "a gun owner who believes in the Constitution, yet also recognizes its limits". In the wake of the Stoneman Douglas High School shooting, he also reversed his opposition to banning assault weapons, saying they were rarely used for hunting or self-defense. He continues to oppose measures such as mandatory gun registration, and has suggested that extreme proposals by Democrats may play into the hands of industry lobbyists.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock expanded Medicaid coverage in Montana under the Affordable Care Act with a Republican-dominated state legislature. He is in favor of expanding accessibility to healthcare and trying to protect, improve, and strengthen the Affordable Care Act. He favors a public option, rather than a single-payer system.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In his role as Attorney General, Bullock opposed a 2012 voter-approved law intended to deny government jobs and services to undocumented immigrants by requiring state agencies to verify the immigration status of applicants through a federal database. The law was ultimately ruled unconstitutional and legally unenforceable.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2015, Bullock supported a federal decision to allow the admission of Syrian refugees, despite pushback from Republican state legislators; he promised that ensuring the safety of Montanans would be his "top priority" and that the vetting process was "extraordinarily thorough".


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock supports the Deferred Action for Childhood Arrivals (DACA) program and in 2017 was one of 11 governors to sign a letter in support of legislation to protect DACA recipients and ensure they can "continue to live, work, and contribute to the country they have called home for most of their lives."


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2018, Bullock refused to deploy National Guard troops from Montana to the Mexican border "based simply on the whim of the President's morning Twitter habit." He voiced opposition to the Trump administration's family separation policy, saying the separations "must end immediately."


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock supports same-sex marriage and praised the federal judge who struck down Montana's same-sex marriage ban in 2014, making Montana the 34th U.S. state to legalize same-sex marriage. He also supported the U.S. Supreme Court's ruling in "Obergefell v. Hodges", which legalized same-sex marriage nationwide, and said in a statement on June 26, 2015: "This ruling protects the right of all Montanans to marry the person they love, and moves our state and nation closer to the promise of freedom, dignity, and equality that they were founded upon. All people, regardless of their sexual orientation, should have the opportunity to make a good life for themselves and their families." Bullock has also spoken at Pride rallies in Montana and in 2015 became the first sitting governor in Montana history to officiate a same-sex wedding.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: In 2016, Bullock enacted an executive order that prohibits state agencies, state contractors, and subcontractors from discriminating in employment on the basis of sexual orientation or gender identity. The executive order expanded upon one signed by Governor Brian Schweitzer in 2008, which had similar goals but did not include protections for gender identity and did not apply to contractors or subcontractors.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock supports net neutrality and opposed the Federal Communications Commission's decision to repeal it. On January 22, 2018, Bullock signed an executive order prohibiting any internet service provider with a state government contract from blocking or charging additional fees for faster delivery of websites, two major principles of net neutrality. Through this executive order, Montana became the first state to implement and enforce net neutrality after the FCC repeal. The governors of New York, New Jersey, Vermont, Hawaii, and Rhode Island eventually followed suit.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock has been recognized and endorsed by the American Federation of Labor and Congress of Industrial Organizations (AFL–CIO) and the Montana Education Association - Montana Federation of Teachers for his support of worker's rights and public education.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: Bullock opposes right-to-work legislation, which allows workers to forgo paying union dues while still benefitting from union-negotiated labor contracts. Montana is the only state in the Upper Rocky Mountain region of the U.S. that does not have right-to-work legislation in place; its neighboring states do not provide the same level of protection for labor unions.


title: Steve Bullock (American politician)

text: On January 18, 2018, Bullock filed an amicus brief to the U.S. Supreme Court in support of allowing labor unions to make "agency fees" mandatory. He opposed the U.S. Supreme Court's decision in "Janus v. AFSCME" and said in a statement: "The US Supreme Court just overturned 40 years of settled law that workers, employers and unions across the country rely on. All the more ironic, the 5–4 decision cited "Citizens United" as a reason to do so."


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: The Epistle to the Philippians is a Pauline epistle of the New Testament of the Christian Bible. The epistle is attributed to Paul the Apostle and Timothy is named with him as co-author or co-sender. The letter is addressed to the Christian church in Philippi. Paul, Timothy, Silas (and perhaps Luke) first visited Philippi in Greece (Macedonia) during Paul's second missionary journey from Antioch, which occurred between approximately 49 and 51 AD. In the account of his visit in the Acts of the Apostles, Paul and Silas are accused of "disturbing the city".


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: There is a general consensus that Philippians consists of authentically Pauline material, and that the epistle is a composite of multiple letter fragments from Paul to the church in Philippi. These letters could have been written from Ephesus in 52–55 AD or Caesarea Maritima in 57–59, but the most likely city of provenance is Rome, around 62 AD, or about 10 years after Paul's first visit to Philippi.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: Starting in the 1960s, a general consensus has emerged among biblical scholars that Philippians was not written as one unified letter, but is rather a compilation of fragments from three separate letters from Paul to the church in Philippi. According to Philip Sellew, Philippians contains the following letter fragments:


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: In support of the idea that Philippians is a composite work, scholars point to the abrupt shifts in tone and topic within the text. There also seem to be chronological inconsistencies from one chapter to the next concerning Paul's associate Epaphroditus:


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: These letter fragments likely would have been edited into a single document by the first collector of the Pauline corpus, although there is no clear consensus among scholars regarding who this initial collector may have been, or when the first collection of Pauline epistles may have been published.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: Today, a number of scholars believe that Philippians is a composite of multiple letter fragments. According to the theologian G. Walter Hansen, "The traditional view that Philippians was composed as one letter in the form presented in the NT "[New Testament]" can no longer claim widespread support." Nevertheless, many scholars continue to argue for the unity of Philippians.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: Regardless of the literary unity of the letter, scholars agree that the material that was compiled into the Epistle to the Philippians was originally composed in Greek, sometime during the 50s or early 60s AD.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: It is uncertain where Paul was when he wrote the letter(s) that make up Philippians. Internal evidence in the letter itself points clearly to it being composed while Paul was in custody, but it is unclear "which" period of imprisonment the letter refers to. If the testimony of the Acts of the Apostles is to be trusted, candidates would include the Roman imprisonment at the end of Acts, and the earlier Caesarean imprisonment. Any identification of the place of writing of Philippians is complicated by the fact that some scholars view Acts as being an unreliable source of information about the early Church.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: Jim Reiher has suggested that the letters could stem from the second period of Roman imprisonment attested by early church fathers. The main reasons suggested for a later date include:


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: In Chapters 1 and 2 of Philippians (Letter B), Paul sends word to the Philippians of his upcoming sentence in Rome and of his optimism in the face of death, along with exhortations to imitate his capacity to rejoice in the Lord despite one's circumstances. Paul assures the Philippians that his imprisonment is actually helping to spread the Christian message, rather than hindering it. He also expresses gratitude for the devotion and heroism of Epaphroditus, who the Philippian church had sent to visit Paul and bring him gifts. Some time during his visit with Paul, Epaphroditus apparently contracted some life-threatening debilitating illness. But he recovers before being sent back to the Philippians.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: In Chapter 3 (Letter C), Paul warns the Philippians about those Christians who insist that circumcision is necessary for salvation. He testifies that while he once was a devout Pharisee and follower of the Jewish law, he now considers these things to be worthless and worldly compared to the gospel of Jesus.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: In Chapter 4, Paul urges the Philippians to resolve conflicts within their fellowship. In the latter part of the chapter (Letter A), Paul expresses his gratitude for the gifts that the Philippians had sent him, and assures them that God will reward them for their generosity.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: Throughout the epistle there is a sense of optimism. Paul is hopeful that he will be released, and on this basis he promises to send Timothy to the Philippians for ministry, and also expects to pay them a personal visit.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: Chapter 2 of the epistle contains a famous poem describing the nature of Christ and his act of redemption:


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: Due to its unique poetic style, Bart D. Ehrman suggests that this passage constitutes an early Christian poem that was composed by someone else prior to Paul's writings, as early as the mid-late 30s AD and was later used by Paul in his epistle. While the passage is often called a "hymn," some scholars believe this to be an inappropriate name since it does not have a rhythmic or metrical structure in the original Greek.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: The Christ poem is significant because it strongly suggests that there were very early Christians who understood Jesus to be a pre-existent celestial being, who chose to take on human form, rather than a human who was later exalted to a divine status.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: Importantly, while the author of the poem did believe that Jesus existed in heaven before his physical incarnation, this does not necessarily mean that he was believed to be "equal" to God the Father prior to his death and resurrection. This largely depends on how the Greek word "harpagmon" (, accusative form of ) is translated in verse 6 ("Something to be grasped after / exploited"). If "harpagmon" is rendered as "something to be exploited," as it is in many Christian Bible translations, then the implication is that Christ was already equal to God prior to his incarnation. But Bart Ehrman and others have argued that the correct translation is in fact "something to be grasped after," implying that Jesus was "not" equal to God before his resurrection. Outside of this passage, "harpagmon" and related words were almost always used to refer to something that a person doesn't yet possess but tries to acquire.


title: Epistle to the Philippians

text: It is widely agreed by interpreters, however, that the Christ poem depicts Jesus as equal to God "after" his resurrection. This is because the last two stanzas quote Isaiah 45:22–23: ("Every knee shall bow, every tongue confess"), which in the original context clearly refers to God the Father.


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: "Pancho and Lefty", originally "Poncho and Lefty", is a song written by American country music singer-songwriter Townes Van Zandt. Often considered his "most enduring and well-known song", Van Zandt first recorded it for his 1972 album "The Late Great Townes Van Zandt". The song has been recorded by several artists since its composition and performance by Van Zandt, with the Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard version selling the most copies and reaching number one on the "Billboard" country chart.


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: The song is composed as a ballad of four stanzas which use the two-verse refrain: "All the Federales say they could've had him any day/ They only let him slip away out of kindness I suppose." The first two stanzas are sung back-to-back with the refrain being sung only after the second stanza. The verses of the first stanza introduce Lefty as a restless young soul who leaves home and his loving mother to seek his fortune south of the border. The verses of the second stanza introduce Pancho as a Mexican "bandit boy", who "wore his gun outside his pants for all the honest world to feel". After the refrain, the third stanza tells of Pancho's eventual death in "the deserts down in Mexico" and implies that he was betrayed by his associate Lefty who was paid off by the Mexican "federales". Lefty uses the money to "split for" Ohio, trying to return to friends and family who apparently have moved on. Lefty grows old in cheap hotels without his friend from Mexico. Following the refrain, the fourth stanza poetizes Pancho's life and appears to evoke sympathy for Lefty's attempted homecoming. A final extended refrain extends the two verse refrain to three.


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: Although the lyrics are not exactly reconcilable with the historic details of the life and death of the famous Mexican revolutionary Pancho Villa, Van Zandt does not rule out the idea. In an interview, he recalled, "I realize that I wrote it, but it's hard to take credit for the writing, because it came from out of the blue. It came through me and it's a real nice song, and I think, I've finally found out what it's about. I've always wondered what it's about. I kinda always knew it wasn't about Pancho Villa, and "then" somebody told me that Pancho Villa had a buddy whose name in Spanish meant 'Lefty.' But in the song, my song, Pancho gets hung. 'They only let him "hang" around out of kindness I suppose' and the real Pancho Villa was assassinated."


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: Like much of Van Zandt's output, the song went largely unnoticed at the time of its release in 1972. Neither it nor its parent album made any music charts. In 1977, Emmylou Harris covered the song on her critically acclaimed number one album "Luxury Liner". Harris says she feels it is "her song", and it was this recording of the song that Willie Nelson first heard.


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: Willie Nelson and Merle Haggard took the song to number one on the country charts in July 1983 on their duet album "Pancho & Lefty". In the biopic "Be Here To Love Me", Nelson states that when he asked Van Zandt what the song was about Van Zandt replied that he didn't know. Nelson also recalls how his album with Haggard was nearly completed but he felt they didn't have "that blockbuster, you know, that one big song for a good single and a video, and my daughter Lana suggested that we listen to "Pancho and Lefty". I had never heard it and Merle had never heard it." Lana Nelson returned with a copy of the song and Nelson cut it immediately with his band in the middle of the night but had to retrieve a sleeping Haggard, who had retired to his bus hours earlier, to record his vocal part.


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: The vocals were recorded in one take that night. The next day, Haggard wanted to rerecord his part, but Nelson told him the song had already been sent to New York. Haggard later stated that the song was the only he had ever recorded before "he really knew it".


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: Van Zandt appears in the video for the song, playing one of the Mexican federales. "It was real nice they invited me," Van Zandt told Aretha Sills in 1994. "They didn't have to invite me and I made I think $100 dollars a day. I was the captain of the federales. And plus I got to ride a horse. I always like that. It took four and a half days and that video was four and a half minutes long...The money goes by a strange life, or elsewhere. I mean it doesn't come to me. But money's not the question. I would like if I could write a song that would somehow turn one five-year-old girl around to do right. Then I've done good. That's what I care about."


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: The royalties would provide Van Zandt with some badly needed income, though by all accounts he remained impervious to the song's success. One story involving the song that Van Zandt loved to tell was when he got pulled over for speeding in Berkshire, Texas by two policeman, the first a blue-eyed Aryan type with a crew cut, and his partner a bronze, dark eyed Mexican. Although his driver's license was up-to-date, the inspection sticker had expired, and the bedraggled singer found himself in the back of the police cruiser. As Van Zandt recounted on "Austin Pickers", "We got stopped by these two policeman and...they said 'What do you do for a living?', and I said, 'Well, I'm a songwriter,' and they both kind of looked around like "pitiful, pitiful," and so on to that I added, 'I wrote that song Pancho and Lefty. You ever heard that song Pancho and Lefty? I wrote that', and they looked back around and they looked at each other and started grinning..." The policemen explained that their police-radio code names were Pancho and Lefty and they let Van Zandt off with a warning.


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: The song is probably Van Zandt's most recognizable and has become a staple for aspiring folksingers and country bar bands alike. Steve Earle told John Kruth in 2004, "You won't find a song that's better written, that says more or impresses songwriters more." In the film "Be Here To Love Me", Kris Kristofferson recites the opening lines of the song – "Livin' on the road my friend was supposed to keep you free and clean, now you wear your skin like iron and your breath's as hard as kerosene" – and then marvels, "And I could think, 'That was me!'"


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: Bob Dylan, whose album "The Times They Are A-Changin"' had a major impact on Van Zandt, performed the song as a duet on television with Willie Nelson at Nelson's 60th birthday concert in 1993, which Andy Greene of "Rolling Stone" remembers as "the highlight of the night".


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: A music video was released for the song in 1983, depicting Willie Nelson as Pancho, and Merle Haggard as Lefty. Townes Van Zandt also appears in a supporting role. Nelson's daughter Lana (who incidentally was the one that suggested the recording of the duet) directed the video, the first for Nelson and second for Haggard, the first being for "Are the Good Times Really Over?" a year prior (albeit as mostly a performance video).


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: The song reached No. 1 on "Billboard"s Hot Country Songs chart dated July 23, 1983. The Willie Nelson release has sold 648,000 digital copies in the United States as of October 2019 since becoming available for download.


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: "Pancho and Lefty" was covered by Merle Haggard and Willie Nelson; it was the title track of their duet album "Pancho & Lefty", and a number one country hit that entered the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2020.


title: Pancho and Lefty

text: In June 2004, "Rolling Stone" ranked "Pancho and Lefty" 41st on its list of the "100 Greatest Country Songs of All Time".


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The 2019 IAAF World Athletics Championships () was the seventeenth edition of the biennial, global athletics competition organised by the International Association of Athletics Federations (IAAF), since renamed World Athletics. It was held between 27 September and 6 October 2019 in Doha, Qatar, at the renovated multi-purpose Khalifa International Stadium, but reduced to 21,000 available seats. 1,772 athletes from 206 teams competed in 49 athletics events over the ten-day competition, comprising 24 events each for men and women, plus a mixed relay. There were 43 track and field events, 4 racewalking events, and 2 marathon road running events. The racewalking and marathon events were held in Doha Corniche.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: It was the first edition of the competition under its modified name, having previously been known as the World Championships in Athletics, and the last held before the IAAF assumed its new identity as World Athletics. It was also the first time the competition was in the Middle East and also the first time it ended in October. Due to the hot climate, there were no morning sessions and events were held in the late afternoon onward. Long-distance road events were scheduled to start around midnight local time. For the first time, sponsors of national teams were permitted to appear on the kit that the athletes compete in.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Some athletes competing in Doha criticised the lack of spectators, the flat atmosphere, the heat, and the timing of events, and also questioned why Doha was awarded the championships at all; despite this, World Athletics President Sebastian Coe described the 2019 Championships as the best in history, in terms of the quality of performances produced by the athletes.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Three world records were set, and six championships records were broken. A total of 43 nations reached the medal table, and 68 nations had an athlete with a top eight finish. Based on the IAAF scoring tables, the best male and female performers were men's shot put gold medallist Joe Kovacs, and women's long jump gold medalist Malaika Mihambo.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Three cities entered the bidding process to host the event. Assessment of the bids was carried out by the IAAF Evaluation Commission, which consisted of three IAAF Council Members (IAAF Vice President Sebastian Coe, Abby Hoffman and Katsuyuki Tanaka), three IAAF Office members (Essar Gabriel, Nick Davies and Paul Hardy), public relations staff from Dentsu (Ryo Wakabayashi) as well as marketing staff from Athletics Management & Services (Nigel Swinscoe).


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Both Doha and Eugene are hosts of IAAF Diamond League meetings. Doha had previously applied for and failed to win the bid for the 2017 World Championships in Athletics, and had hosted the 2010 IAAF World Indoor Championships. Sheikh Saoud bin Abdulrahman Al Thani, a member of Qatar's ruling family, led the Doha bid. The bid was part of a movement among the leaders of Qatar to make the country a destination for international sports tourism, within the framework of the Qatar National Vision 2030, which included the hosting of global sports events, such as the 2014 FINA World Swimming Championships (25 m), 2018 World Artistic Gymnastics Championships, the 2022 FIFA World Cup, and a Doha bid for the 2020 Summer Olympics.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Eugene had hosted the 2014 World Junior Championships in Athletics. Barcelona hosted the 2012 World Junior Championships in Athletics and the 2010 European Athletics Championships, as well as the annual Míting Internacional d´Atletisme Ciutat de Barcelona. The final selection of the host city was carried out on 18 November 2014 in Monaco.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Barcelona was eliminated in the first round of voting, receiving only six of the 27 votes, then Doha prevailed in the final round with fifteen votes to Eugene's twelve. The IAAF later awarded Eugene the hosting rights for the next championships, which was later moved to 2022. IAAF President said that the Doha bid would develop the country and its community through sport. José María Odriozola, the president of the Royal Spanish Athletics Federation, said that the worst bid had won the vote and "the only thing they have there is money".


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: In 2016, the French newspaper "Le Monde" claimed the selection of the host would have been paid with US$3.5 million transferred between October and November 2011 according to the US tax administration, to Papa Massata Diack, the son of Lamine Diack (former president of the IAAF). In 2019 "The Guardian" reported documents showing an agreement to pay US$4.5 million to Sporting Age, a Singapore-based company linked to Papa Massata Diack, in order to transfer the value of World Championships ticket sales and sponsorship to Qatari officials. In 2019, the French prosecutors charged some protagonists for corruption: the head of beIN Sports Yousef Al-Obaidly, the former president of IAAF Lamine Diack, and the head of Paris Saint Germain Nasser Al-Khelaifi. A French judge opened investigations into Dentsu and Athletics Management & Services in 2019, on the basis that the companies (which had been involved in the host evaluation) had played key roles in the diversion of funds to Papa Massata Diack.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The selection of Doha as the host city was later criticised by numerous athletes present at the championships. Marathon fifth-placer Volha Mazuronak said organisers were disrespectful to athletes to make them compete in the conditions, and 50 km walk world champion Yohann Diniz was unhappy that the road events had not been located in the air-conditioned stadium instead. Decathlon world record holder Kevin Mayer said organisers had not prioritised athletes in respect of the climate and low spectator attendance. In response to low attendances, the stadium capacity was reduced to 21,000 for the championships, with large banners covering the empty seats, yet on the third day less than half these seats were filled despite the organisers giving free tickets to migrant workers and children. In response to the issue, IAAF Chief Executive Jon Ridgeon worked with the local organisers to take attendance-boosting measures. Ridgeon suggested that sessions were organised late in the evening for European television audiences, which meant working Qataris had gone home before the last event finals had begun (around 11 pm local time). He also said the IAAF's plan had been for the championships to serve people across the Middle East, but the Qatar diplomatic crisis had blocked people from other countries in the region from attending. Three days before the competition it was reported that 50,000 tickets had been sold for the 10-day event, signalling a 90% reduction in sales compared to the 2017 World Championships in Athletics. In response, local organisers purchased tickets and distributed them for free to ensure sizeable attendances, and also ran an initiative to allow spectators to enter the stadium and fill vacant seats left by audience members who left mid-session.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The issue of human rights in Qatar was also raised as over 6,000 migrant labourers, some involved in construction and cleaning of the host stadium, had lodged complaints over unpaid wages against Qatari companies. IAAF President Coe responded that the championships was a way to achieve social change and "rise above political structures".


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The decision to hold the World Athletics Championships in the Middle East presented organisational challenges due to the hot and humid climate in Doha in September and October. In previous years the World Championships had mostly qualifying competitions in morning sessions and finals mostly in afternoon sessions. Weather conditions meant that traditional arrangement was not workable and in Doha the schedule was redesigned to have a "pre-session" in the afternoon and a "main session" in the evening. The Khalifa International Stadium used an open-air conditioning system to bring the temperature of the stadium to below , which was a world first for a stadium.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: In collaboration with Seiko, a starting blocks camera view was broadcast from the Khalifa International Stadium's Block Cams. The intimate views from the blocks were the subject of complaint by the German Athletics Association, which said its female sprinters had not been consulted on the broadcasting of the images. The IAAF agreed to only show Block Cam images of athletes immediately prior to the starting pistol and to delete video data at other times on a daily basis. Gina Lückenkemper said the technology was "unpleasant" as it captured close images of athletes' crotches in tight clothing. The stadium also features an advanced lighting system, which was used in the introductions of some event finals, projecting coloured lines on to the lane boundaries and the competing athlete's names moving around the 400 m track. New graphical detail of athletes' performance was provided in television coverage, including top speed of athletes in the track and jumping events, angle and release speed in the throws, and the distance of each phase of a triple jump.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Non-stadium racewalking and marathon events were set on a looped course around the Doha Corniche – a waterfront promenade. Organisers set the start time around midnight local time for road events to avoid the hottest conditions, although the women's marathon still began at a temperature of and humidity over 70%. The IAAF and local organisers undertook preparation for the conditions by recruiting medical experts to inform their preparations, as well as increasing water and refreshments, ice baths, and medical support along the route. It sent advisory notices to all national federations in the six months before the competition with recommendations for athletes. However, postponement of the events until after the championships was deemed a last resort. The IAAF President Sebastian Coe stated his belief that the humidity was a greater challenge for runners than the temperature itself.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: For training and warm-up purposes, an outdoor venue attached to the Khalifa Stadium is available for athletes in running and jumping events, while all athletes (including throwing events) have full training facilities available at the Qatar Sports Club venue near Doha Corniche. At the Aspire Zone, indoor training facilities are available for running and jumping disciplines while a separate outdoor throws training venue is also available.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The event mascot was "Falah", an anthropomorphic falcon dressed in athletic gear in the maroon colour of the flag of Qatar. The mascot was designed by a Filipino expatriate in Doha, Theodore Paul Manuel, and his design was announced as the winner of the design competition on Qatar's national sports day. Twenty-one sketches were submitted and a group of young Qataris were invited to vote on their favourite designs. Following this, the head of the Qatar Olympic Committee Joaan bin Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani and members of the local organising committee narrowed the choices down to a shortlist of three for final voting.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The IAAF announced that athletes would qualify by their IAAF World Rankings position, wildcard (reigning world champion or 2019 IAAF Diamond League champion) or by achieving the entry standard. Following criticism that the qualification method was biased the IAAF reverted to their traditional qualifying method. The qualification period for the 10,000 metres, marathon, race walks, relays, and combined events ran from 7 March 2018 to 6 September 2019. For all other events, the qualification period runs from 7 September 2018 to 6 September 2019.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Countries who have no male and/or no female athletes who have achieved the Entry Standard or considered as having achieved the entry standard (see above) or qualified relay team, may enter one unqualified male athlete OR one unqualified female athlete in one event of the championships (except the road events and field events, combined events, 10,000 m and 3000 m steeplechase).


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: At the end of the qualification period, the 2019 IAAF World Rankings published on 6 September 2019 were used to invite additional athletes to the World Championships where the target number of athletes had not been achieved for that event through other methods of qualification. The maximum of three athletes per country in individual events is not affected by this rule. National athletics associations retained the right to confirm or reject athlete selections through this method. Where the highest ranked athletes were from a country that had already had three or more entrants for the event, or where the national association rejected an entrant, the next highest ranked athlete became eligible for entry via world rankings.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: In the men's 100 metres, the semi-finals were dominated by world leader Christian Coleman from the United States, finishing in 9.88 seconds while no other qualifiers broke 10 seconds. In the final, defending champion American Justin Gatlin got a good start to gain a step on the field, except Coleman got a better start, gaining that step on Gatlin and extending his lead to a dominating victory in 9.76 seconds, a new personal best and world-leading time for the season that becomes the 6th best in history, just 2 ticks behind Gatlin's best. Returning to form, Canada's Andre De Grasse closed and nearly caught Gatlin at the line in 9.90, a new wind-legal personal best, though he has run as fast as 9.69 wind-aided.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The women's marathon began at midnight local time on 28 September with the temperature at and 70 per cent humidity. By the end of the race, 28 of the 68 starters had dropped out, including all three Ethiopian runners. Five runners in a lead pack stayed together for the first and the pack was down to only four athletes by , including Ruth Chepngetich and Edna Kiplagat of Kenya, Bahrain's Rose Chelimo and Namibia's Helalia Johannes. Chepngetich broke out into a sprint in the final lap to finish at 2:32:43, followed by Chelimo (2:33:46) and Johannes (2:35:15).


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The women's 10,000 metres began the following night with Germany's Alina Reh taking an early lead before falling back and eventually dropping out. By the ninth lap, a lead pack of three Kenyans and three Ethiopians developed. By the half-way point, the Netherlands' Sifan Hassan had latched on to back of the lead pack, headed by Kenya's Rosemary Wanjiru and Agnes Tirop. Letesenbet Gidey of Ethiopia surged with four laps remaining with Hassan following close behind. Hassan took the lead on the final lap and finished in 30:17.33, more than three seconds ahead of Gidey, and almost eight seconds ahead of Tirop in third place.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: In the men's 400 m hurdles, most of the top ranked athletes reached the final, though world number 4 Ludvy Vaillant was eliminated.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The last place qualifier to the men's long jump final was Jamaica's Tajay Gayle with . In the final on 28 September, Gayle jumped a personal best to take the lead in the first round. No other jumper would beat that mark. World leader Juan Miguel Echevarría from Cuba jumped while giving up the entire width of the board. His jump was bettered by American Jeff Henderson with an three jumpers later. In the third round, Echevarría improved to and Henderson responded again with , which ultimately settled the medal positions. In the fourth round, Gayle improved his winning jump to .


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: In the men's shot put, 4 men surpassed the previous Championship Record, with 22.53, a distance surpassing any winning mark in any global championship to this time, only falling in 4th. Joe Kovacs won with 22.91, silver went to Ryan Crouser with 22.90(22.71), and Tom Walsh took bronze with 22.90(22.56).With world record holder and defending champion Anita Włodarczyk absent from the women's hammer throw due to injury, world leader DeAnna Price seized the opportunity on the second throw of the competition with , then a best of in the third round – no athlete could match her. The next thrower into the ring was Włodarczyk's Polish teammate Joanna Fiodorow, who threw her personal best to win the silver medal and drop Zalina Petrivskaya's first throw of the competition to third place after the first three throwers. Although Petrivskaya threw in the third round and maintained that position, China's Wang Zheng threw the hammer to to grab the bronze medal in the middle of the fifth round.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The men's 50 kilometres walk started at midnight local time on 29 September. Most walkers were wary of starting too fast; only the 20K world record holder, Japan's Yusuke Suzuki, went out fast, opening up a gap just a few minutes into the race. By 5K he had a 10-second lead over a chase pack and by 20K he had expanded the lead to two minutes. Suzuki crossed the halfway point at 2:01:07 and, by 35K, Suzuki had opened his lead up to 3:34. Suzuki first showed signs of cracking, stopping at the water station at 44K before getting back on stride. At that point he still had two minutes on China's Niu Wenbin, an additional minute on Portugal's João Vieira, with the next chaser Canada's Evan Dunfee another minute back, now ahead of China's Luo Yadong. Suzuki struggled through the final lap while Vieira and Dunfee were applying the pressure. Both passed Niu, with Dunfee closing down his gap to Vieira. Suzuki got across the finish line first, only 39 seconds ahead of Vieira, who held off Dunfee by only three seconds.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: In its second appearance since the event's debut in 2017, the women's 50 kilometres walk began simultaneously with the men's. A lead quartet of China's Liang Rui and Li Maocuo with Italy's Eleonora Giorgi and Portugal's Inês Henriques crossed the 10K mark together, before Giorgi and Henriques dropped back. Liang continued to expand her lead with Li following comfortably ahead of Giorgi as the athletes reached 40K mark. Liang won the race in 4:23:26, more than three minutes ahead of her teammate Li, to become the first Chinese athlete to win the world title at that distance. Giorgi finished almost four minutes behind Li to win bronze.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: One final was contested on the first day: Kenyan Ruth Chepngetich won the women's marathon in 2:32:43, beating the defending champion Rose Chelimo of Bahrain in the first ever World Championships race to start at midnight. Braima Sundar Dabo of Guinea Bissau won plaudits for assisting competitor Jonathan Busby of Aruba to the finish of the men's 5000 m heats. A record 17 athletes qualified for the women's pole vault final. Cuban Juan Miguel Echevarría's jump of was the best performance in men's long jump qualifying for ten years. Christian Coleman had the first sub-10 run of the championships in the men's 100 metres heats. "Athletics Weekly" noted the lack of spectators on the first day and the difficultly in travelling to the stadium, while decathlon World Champion Kevin Mayer was highly critical: "it's a disaster, there is no-one in the stands and the heat has not been adapted at all...We haven't really prioritised athletes when organising the championships here".


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: There were six finals on the second day of competition. DeAnna Price became the first American to win the women's hammer throw while Tajay Gayle became Jamaica's first men's long jump world champion, surprising the field by adding 37 centimetres to his personal best and improving to tenth on the all-time lists. Sifan Hassan broke the African dominance of the women's 10,000 metres that stretched back to 1997, by taking gold for the Netherlands. America's Christian Coleman won the men's 100 metres final in a time of 9.76 seconds. The qualifiers for the mixed 4 × 400 m relay resulted in the first world record of the championships, with the American quartet finishing in 3:12.42 minutes. Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce ran the fastest time ever recorded in the heats stage of the women's 100 metres with 10.80 seconds.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: On the third day, five finals were scheduled. Shelly-Ann Fraser-Pryce won her fourth world title in the women's 100 m, recording her second fastest time ever (10.71) to hold off the British record-breaking Dina Asher-Smith. In the, Christian Taylor also won a fourth title in the men's triple jump, with compatriot Will Claye finishing runner-up as he had in 2017, and Hugues Fabrice Zango winning Burkina Faso's first ever World Championships medal in third. The mixed 4 × 400 m relay final brought another world record (3:09.34) and a twelfth gold medal for Allyson Felix, taking her ahead of Usain Bolt on the all-time medal tally. Poland drew interest in the mixed relay for its choice to place men on the two middle legs – the opposite of all the other teams. Anzhelika Sidorova won her first world title in the women's pole vault final, competing as an Authorised Neutral Athlete. Liu Hong was the last winner of the day, taking her third World Championships gold in the women's 20 km walk, where Qieyang Shenjie and Yang Liujing helped make it a medal sweep for the Chinese team. Liu, Felix and Fraser-Pryce all returned victorious to the World Championships after having had children in the previous two years, and in her post-race interview Fraser-Pryce said she hoped to inspire other women to start families and return to elite sport.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Day four featured six gold medal events. In men's discus throw Daniel Ståhl won Sweden's first gold medal in the event, while runner-up Fedrick Dacres won Jamaica's first discus medal and Lukas Weisshaidinger became Austria's first male World Championships medallist. Mariya Lasitskene defended her title in the women's high jump, winning on countback ahead of Yaroslava Mahuchikh, who set a world under-20 record of . Sprint finishes from Muktar Edris and Selemon Barega made it an Ethiopian 1–2 in the men's 5000 metres final, where the early leader Jakob Ingebrigtsen collapsed over the line and missed a medal. Beatrice Chepkoech was dominant in the women's steeplechase, establishing a significant lead on her way to a championships record of 8:57.84 minutes. In her first global final, Halimah Nakaayi surprised with a Ugandan national record of 1:58.04 minutes to win the women's 800 metres. Karsten Warholm kept the men's 400 m hurdles final to the form book by retaining his world title, while Abderrahman Samba's bronze medal added the host nation Qatar to the medal table.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: On the fifth day, the United States team won three of the four finals. Donavan Brazier broke records that had lasted over 30 years in the men's 800 metres final with a championship record and American record of 1:42.34 minutes. Silver medallist Amel Tuka gave Bosnia and Herzegovina's best ever performance of the championships. Noah Lyles had a clear victory in the men's 200 metres final. Sam Kendricks won the men's pole vault on countback in a closely fought final – the medallists Kendricks, Armand Duplantis and Piotr Lisek celebrated together on the landing mat with a synchronised backflip. The fourth gold medallist of the evening was Australia's Kelsey-Lee Barber, who surprised China's Liu Shiying and Lü Huihui by moving up from fourth to first place with her final throw of the competition. In qualifying Amalie Iuel set a Norwegian record as the second fastest qualifier in the women's 400 m hurdles, while Abdalelah Haroun of the host nation Qatar exited the men's 400 m in the first round.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: There were three finals on the sixth day. Poland's Paweł Fajdek won a record fourth straight title in the men's hammer throw final, and officials played a role in the minor medals – fourth-placer Wojciech Nowicki was also awarded a bronze medal as irregularities with Bence Halász's bronze medal-winning throw was adjudged to have disadvantaged Nowicki, while Great Britain was unsuccessful in its appeal over Nick Miller's second round throw, which looked to be good enough for a silver medal but was judged a foul. In his international debut, Grant Holloway won the gold medal in the men's 110 metres hurdles final, where defending champion Omar McLeod collapsed after hitting several hurdles. McLeod crashed into Orlando Ortega impeding the Spaniard and although the Spanish team's appeal to have the race re-run was rejected, Ortega was instead awarded an additional bronze medal. Dina Asher-Smith won the women's 200 metres final by a large margin, becoming Britain's first global champion in the women's sprints with a British record time. In the first day of combined events, thirty points separated the top three in the men's decathlon (Damian Warner, Pierce LePage and Kevin Mayer) while in the women's heptathlon Katarina Johnson-Thompson set the fourth best ever day one score for a 96-point lead over defending champion Nafissatou Thiam.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The four finals of the seventh day centred around the conclusion of the combined events. Katarina Johnson-Thompson defeated Nafi Thiam in the heptathlon with a British record score of 6981 points, which moved her up to sixth on the all-time lists. The second day of the decathlon brought surprises as world record holder Kevin Mayer dropped out and Germany's Niklas Kaul set a championship decathlon best in the javelin to help him surge from eleventh place to the gold medal, making him the youngest winner of the title at age 21. The women's 400 metres final was among the fastest ever with five women under 50 seconds for the first time at the championships – 21-year-old Salwa Eid Naser of Bahrain seized the lead early on and crossed the line in 48.14 seconds for the third fastest time ever, leaving the Olympic champion Shaunae Miller-Uibo in second place with 48.37 seconds (becoming the sixth fastest athlete ever). China's Gong Lijiao defended her women's shot put title, reaching the podium for a sixth straight championships, while silver medallist Danniel Thomas-Dodd made history as Jamaica's first woman to win a global medal in the throws.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Among the six finals of the eighth day, the men's high jump final helped fill out the stadium for the first time as Qatari Mutaz Essa Barshim won a high quality contest for the host nation. Barshim, Mikhail Akimenko and Ilya Ivanyuk all cleared before the home athlete topped to win his country's first gold of the event. In the women's 400 metres hurdles final, Americans Dalilah Muhammad and Sydney McLaughlin turned the race into a duel which resulted in Olympic champion Muhammad setting a world record of 52.16 seconds to hold off 20-year-old McLaughlin, who ran the third fastest time ever. Ethiopian Lamecha Girma attempted to break Kenya's winning streak in the men's steeplechase final but was edged out on the line by Kenya's defending champion Conseslus Kipruto, with one hundredth of a second separating the two. Steven Gardiner of the Bahamas had a dominant run to win the men's 400 metres final, finishing over half a second ahead of the field and setting a Bahamian record of 43.48 seconds. Gardiner's presence was only possible due to a public fund-raising campaign for his national team, as Hurricane Dorian had devastated the Caribbean nation just one month earlier. The women's discus final was a Cuban affair between Yaime Pérez and Denia Caballero, with Pérez ultimately winning the gold with a fifth round effort of . The first round of the men's and women's 4 × 100 metres relay saw athletes run an African record, a South American record and three national records. Toshikazu Yamanishi took the gold medal in the men's 20 km walk in the overnight session.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Six finals were scheduled for the ninth day. The men's shot put final saw four men surpass the previous championships record. Only one centimetre separated medallists Tom Walsh, Ryan Crouser, and Joe Kovacs, with Kovacs getting the win in – the best performance in nearly three decades. Yulimar Rojas was dominant in the women's triple jump final, taking the gold medal with a mark of – the fourth best jump ever. Sifan Hassan became the first woman to achieve a 1500/10,000 m double at the championships, and her winning time of 3:51.95 minutes was a championship and European record. Hassan gave an emotional post-race interview, defending herself against doping accusations which had arisen due to the four-year doping ban of her coach Alberto Salazar in the previous days. Hellen Obiri defended her title in the women's 5000 metres final and ran a championship record of 14:26.72 minutes in order to do so. The men's 4 × 100 metres relay final brought a slew of records with the United States winning with a national record time of 37.10 seconds (the third fastest ever) and Great Britain, Japan and Brazil setting continental area records for the next three places. Lelisa Desisa and Mosinet Geremew made it a 1–2 for Ethiopia in the late-night men's marathon, held in easier weather conditions than the women's race.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: On the tenth and final day of the championships, seven finals were held. Malaika Mihambo of Germany won a clear gold in the women's long jump final by producing the twelfth best ever performance of . In the men's 1500 metres final Kenya's Timothy Cheruiyot set a quick pace and surged at the end to take the gold medal. Joshua Cheptegei of Uganda held off Yomif Kejelcha in the men's 10,000 metres final to claim his second world of the year, having already topped the 2019 IAAF World Cross Country Championships podium. Anderson Peters of Grenada upset a field of more decorated European athletes in the men's javelin throw final as no one bettered his opening throw of , while silver medallist Magnus Kirt of Estonia injured himself in the effort to beat his rival. Nia Ali of the United States surprised in the women's 100 metres hurdles final by winning gold in 12.34 seconds, making herself the ninth fastest of all-time and pushing the more favoured Danielle Williams and Kendra Harrison into the minor medals. The championships was brought to a close with the men's and women's 4 × 400 metres relay finals. The United States won both in world leading times to finish as the medal leader – its haul of 29 medals and 14 gold medals was almost three times that of second-placed Kenya (five golds and eleven medals). Jamaica ranked third on the medal table with three golds and twelve medals – its final bronze coming from the women's 4 × 400 metres relay after a successful appeal against an initial disqualification.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: IAAF does not include the medals won by athletes competing as Authorised Neutral Athletes in their official medal table.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The Placing table assigns points to the top eight athletes in the final, with eight points to first place, seven to second place, and so on until one point for eighth place. Teams or athletes that do not finish or are disqualified do not receive points.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: At the 2019 World Athletics Championships, three world records, one world under-20 record, six championships records, 21 area records and 86 national records in athletics were set. Furthermore, two championship combined event bests were set and 23 world-leading performances (WL) were achieved at the competition.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Allyson Felix became the most decorated athlete in World Championships, reaching a career total of 13 gold medals through wins in the women's and the mixed 4 × 400 metres relays.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: 205 out of the 214 member federations of the IAAF participated in the Championships, as well as an Athlete Refugee Team, for a total of 1,772 athletes out of 1,972 originally entered. Due to the IAAF suspension of the Russian Athletics Federation, confirmed on 23 September by the IAAF Council, Russian athletes competed as Authorised Neutral Athletes. A total of 101 federations entered one athlete only (25 of those athletes were women). IAAF members Libya, Liechtenstein, Montserrat, Norfolk Island, and Tuvalu did not enter any athletes, while the Central African Republic, Dominica, Sudan, and the United Arab Emirates originally entered athletes but those did not start for various reasons.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The gender split between the preliminary entrants was 53% male and 47% female, and IAAF President Sebastian Coe noted after a meeting with the Executive Board of the International Olympic Committee that the organisation was looking to extend gender equality to its governing structures also.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Several prominent athletes were absent from the competition. The reigning women's 100 metres hurdles world champion Sally Pearson announced her retirement one month before the championships. Several reigning world champions could not attempt to defend their global titles due to injury, including Anita Włodarczyk (women's hammer throw), Wayde van Niekerk (men's 400 m), Ivana Španović (women's long jump), Elijah Manangoi (men's 1500 m), and Éider Arévalo (men's 20 km walk).


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Among other high-profile injury withdrawals were women's 1500 m world record holder Genzebe Dibaba, 10,000 m world record holder Almaz Ayana, two-time shot put world champion David Storl, Olympic women's pole vault medallist Eliza McCartney, 2017 world sprint hurdles medallist Pamela Dutkiewicz, world champion in the relay Chijindu Ujah, world decathlon runner-up Rico Freimuth, and former European champions Arthur Abele, Mahiedine Mekhissi-Benabbad, Timur Morgunov, and Morhad Amdouni. World medallist Eilidh Doyle was absent due to pregnancy.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The three 2016 Olympic medallists in the women's 800 metres were all excluded from the 2019 World Athletics Championships under the IAAF's testosterone rules. Caster Semenya, Francine Niyonsaba and Margaret Wambui all acknowledged they had a difference in sex development (DSD) which resulted in their bodies producing levels of testosterone above the limits set by the IAAF for women's competition. The IAAF rules stipulate such athletes must take testosterone-reducing medication in order to compete in women's races. Caster Semenya's appeal to the Court of Arbitration for Sport (CAS) against this rule was ongoing at the time of the World Championships. All three athletes declined to adhere to the IAAF's ruling and thus could not compete. CAS had previously made a decision in May 2019 to uphold the IAAF's rules on the grounds that they were discriminatory to athletes with a DSD, but that discriminatory action was "a necessary, reasonable and proportionate means of achieving the legitimate objective of ensuring fair competition in female athletics". Kenyan athletes, 800 m national champion Jackline Wambui and Linda Kageha, who was in the mixed relay team, were excluded from selection for Kenya as they refused to submit to a testosterone test. Because of the testosterone rule, 400 metres world No. 3 Aminatou Seyni competed in the women's 200 metres instead of women's 400 metres.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Working alongside the Local Organising Committee and the Qatar Anti-Doping Commission, the IAAF's Athletics Integrity Unit oversaw an anti-doping programme at the World Championships for the second time, having been created two years earlier. The 2019 World Championships was the first in which national federations were obligated to ensure all athletes they selected had been subject to three out-of-competition tests and one in-competition test prior to the competition. This rule resulted in the exclusion of two Kenyan runners, Michael Kibet and Daniel Simiyu, who had not failed a test but had not been tested sufficiently before Doha. At the host venue, around 700 athletes' blood samples were collected as part of the biological passport scheme designed to identify the use of steroids, EPO or human growth hormone. A further 500 in-competition tests are due to take place, mostly urine-based. Samples taken at the World Championships will be transferred to a World Anti-Doping Agency-accredited laboratory outside of the host country, in order to remove conflicts of interest that had affected prior events. In collaboration with the IAAF Athletes' Commission, an athlete education and support site was set up in Doha: the Athletics Integrity Hub. The hub provided information on anti-doping and also support for reporting of illegal gambling, bribery and corruption, harassment and abuse.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The Russian Athletics Federation was excluded from the World Championships for a second time running as it remained suspended by the IAAF due to systemic doping. The Russian Federation had failed to gain reinstatement that year because tests from the Russian Anti-Doping Agency's Moscow laboratory indicated evidence of manipulation. Russian athletes had to apply to the IAAF to compete under the Authorised Neutral Athlete scheme. Although not nationally suspended, Kenya came under scrutiny for a culture of doping, with Brett Clothier of the Athletics Integrity Unit stating that "EPO is readily available and everyone knows where to get it and how to use it" in a documentary released by German broadcaster ZDF shortly before the World Championships.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The world leader in the men's 100 metres, Christian Coleman, was suspended by the United States Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) after missing three out-of-competition tests within a 12-month period, but successfully appealed a ban on a technicality of the test dates and gained entry to the competition. During the championships, the USADA issued a four-year ban for doping violations to Alberto Salazar, head coach of the Nike Oregon Project – a training group that included several athletes who would go on to medal at the championships.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Dilshod Nazarov, the reigning Olympic champion in the men's hammer throw and also president of the Tajikistan Athletics Federation, was banned shortly before the competition, after retesting of a sample from the 2011 World Championships in Athletics showed metabolites of Turinabol. Other athletes suspended on anti-doping grounds shortly before the championships were the 2015 women's 800 m world champion Maryna Arzamasova, 2019 Pan American Games women's discus silver medallist Andressa de Morais, the 2018 Commonwealth Games women's 100 m champion Michelle-Lee Ahye, African sprint medallist Carina Horn and Asian long-distance medallist Albert Rop.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: Due to the re-analysis of samples taken from previous championships, 13 current and former athletes received their world championship medals during the championships. Marija Šestak received her triple jump bronze medal from the 2007 World Championships. Oleksiy Kasyanov, Antonietta Di Martino and Naide Gomes received their bronze medals from the 2009 World Championships. Habiba Ghribi received her 3000-meter steeplechase gold medal from the 2011 World Championships. Race walkers Jared Tallent and Kim Hyun-sub collected their silver and bronze medals respectively, whilst the 2019 world champion Gong Lijiao received her shot put bronze medal and javelin thrower Sunette Viljoen received her silver medal. 800 meter runners Janeth Jepkosgei and Alysia Montaño collected their silver and bronze medals. Montano also collected her bronze medal from the 2013 World Championships as her teammate Brenda Martinez collected the silver. Hammer thrower Anita Włodarczyk also collected her gold medal from the 2013 championships.


title: 2019 World Athletics Championships

text: The IAAF agreed broadcasting agreements with 160 territories, with remaining areas receiving coverage direct from the IAAF via the organisation's official YouTube channel.


title: Hormesis

text: Hormesis is a characteristic of many biological processes, namely a biphasic or triphasic response to exposure to increasing amounts of a substance or condition. Within the hormetic zone, the biological response to low exposures to toxins and other stressors is generally favorable. The term "hormesis" comes from Greek "hórmēsis" "rapid motion, eagerness", itself from ancient Greek "hormáein" "to set in motion, impel, urge on", the same Greek root as the word "hormone". The term 'hormetics' has been proposed for the study and science of hormesis.


title: Hormesis

text: In toxicology, hormesis is a dose response phenomenon to xenobiotics or other stressors characterized by a low-dose stimulation, with zero dose and high-dose inhibition, thus resulting in a J-shaped or an inverted U-shaped dose response (e.g. the arms of the "U" are inhibitory or toxic concentrations whereas the curve region stimulates a beneficial response.) Generally speaking, hormesis pertains to the study of benefits of exposure to toxins such as radiation or mercury (perhaps analogous to such as the smoker's paradox, although differing by virtue of dose-dependent effects). Microdosing, and to some extent homeopathy, are often regarded as applications of hormesis.


title: Hormesis

text: In physiology and nutrition, hormesis can be visualized as a hormetic curve with regions of deficiency, homeostasis, and toxicity. Physiological concentrations deviating above or below homeostasis concentrations adversely affects an organism, thus in this context, the hormetic zone is synonymously known as the region of homeostasis. In pharmacology the hormetic zone is similar to the therapeutic window. Some psychological or environmental factors that would seem to produce positive responses have also been termed "eustress".


title: Hormesis

text: In the context of toxicology, the hormesis model of dose response is vigorously debated. The biochemical mechanisms by which hormesis works (particularly in applied cases pertaining to behavior and toxins) remain under early laboratory research and are not well understood. The notion that hormesis is an important policy factor for chemical risk regulations is not widely accepted.


title: Hormesis

text: A form of hormesis famous in antiquity was Mithridatism, the practice whereby Mithridates VI of Pontus supposedly made himself immune to a variety of toxins by regular exposure to small doses. Mithridate and theriac, polypharmaceutical electuaries claiming descent from his formula and initially including flesh from poisonous animals, were consumed for centuries by emperors, kings, and queens as protection against poison and ill health. In the Renaissance, the Swiss doctor Paracelsus said, "All things are poison, and nothing is without poison; the dosage alone makes it so a thing is not a poison."


title: Hormesis

text: German pharmacologist Hugo Schulz first described such a phenomenon in 1888 following his own observations that the growth of yeast could be stimulated by small doses of poisons. This was coupled with the work of German physician Rudolph Arndt, who studied animals given low doses of drugs, eventually giving rise to the Arndt-Schulz rule. Arndt's advocacy of homeopathy contributed to the rule's diminished credibility in the 1920s and 1930s. The term "hormesis" was coined and used for the first time in a scientific paper by Chester M. Southam and J. Ehrlich in 1943 in the journal "Phytopathology", volume 33, pp. 517–541.


title: Hormesis

text: Recently, Edward Calabrese revived the concept of hormesis. Over 600 substances show a U-shaped dose–response relationship; Calabrese and Baldwin wrote: "One percent (195 out of 20,285) of the published articles contained 668 dose-response relationships that met the entry criteria [of a U-shaped response indicative of hormesis]"


title: Hormesis

text: Carbon monoxide is produced in small quantities across phylogenetic kingdoms, where it has essential roles as a neurotransmitter (subcategorized as a gasotransmitter). The majority of endogenous carbon monoxide is produced by heme oxygenase; the loss of heme oxygenase and subsequent loss of carbon monoxide signaling has catastrophic implications for an organism. In addition to physiological roles, small amounts of carbon monoxide can be inhaled or administered in the form of carbon monoxide-releasing molecules as a therapeutic agent.


title: Hormesis

text: Many organisms maintain a hormesis relationship with oxygen, which follows a hormetic curve akin to carbon monoxide:


title: Hormesis

text: Individuals with low levels of physical activity are at risk for high levels of oxidative stress and disease, as are individuals engaged in highly intensive exercise programs; however, individuals engaged in moderately intensive, regular exercise experience lower levels of oxidative stress.


title: Hormesis

text: This relationship, characterized by positive effects at an intermediate dose of the stressor (exercise), has been claimed to be characteristic of hormesis. Some evidence, however, indicates that the oxidative stress associated with intensive exercise may have long-term health benefits. This would imply that oxidative stress, itself, provides an example of hormesis (see section on Mitochondrial hormesis), but physical exercise does not.


title: Hormesis

text: Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a source of chemical energy. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) have been discarded as unwanted byproducts of oxidative phosphorylation in mitochondria by the proponents of the free-radical theory of aging promoted by Denham Harman. The free-radical theory suggests that the use of compounds that inactivate ROS, such as antioxidants, would lead to a reduction of oxidative stress and thereby produce an increase in lifespan. However, in over 19 clinical trials, "nutritional and genetic interventions to boost antioxidants have generally failed to increase life span."


title: Hormesis

text: ROS may perform an essential and potentially lifespan-promoting role as redox signaling molecules that transduce signals from the mitochondrial compartment to other compartments of the cell. Increased formation of ROS within the mitochondria may cause an adaptive reaction which produces increased stress resistance and a long-term reduction of oxidative stress. This kind of reverse effect of the response to ROS stress has been named mitochondrial hormesis or mitohormesis and is hypothesized to be responsible for the respective lifespan-extending and health-promoting capabilities of glucose restriction and physical exercise.


title: Hormesis

text: Whether this concept applies to humans remains to be shown, although recent epidemiological findings support the process of mitohormesis, and even suggest that some antioxidant supplements may increase disease prevalence in humans. In other words, antioxidants might not retard chronic degeneration, but rather, increase it, as observed in clinical trials.


title: Hormesis

text: Alcohol is believed to be hormetic in preventing heart disease and stroke, although the benefits of light drinking may have been exaggerated. The gut microbiome of a typical healthy individual naturally ferments small amounts of ethanol, and in rare cases dysbiosis leads to auto-brewery syndrome, therefore whether benefits of alcohol are derived from the behavior of consuming alcoholic drinks or as a homeostasis factor in normal physiology via metabolites from commensal microbiota remains unclear.


title: Hormesis

text: In 2012, researchers at UCLA found that tiny amounts (1 mM, or 0.005%) of ethanol doubled the lifespan of "Caenorhabditis elegans", a roundworm frequently used in biological studies, that were starved of other nutrients. Higher doses of 0.4% provided no longevity benefit. However, worms exposed to 0.005% did not develop normally (their development was arrested). The authors argue that the worms were using ethanol as an alternative energy source in the absence of other nutrition, or had initiated a stress response. They did not test the effect of ethanol on worms fed a normal diet.


title: Hormesis

text: In 2010, a paper in the journal "Environmental Toxicology & Chemistry" showed that low doses of methylmercury, a potent neurotoxic pollutant, improved the hatching rate of mallard eggs. The author of the study, Gary Heinz, who led the study for the U.S. Geological Survey at the Patuxent Wildlife Research Center in Beltsville, stated that other explanations are possible. For instance, the flock he studied might have harbored some low, subclinical infection and that mercury, well known to be antimicrobial, might have killed the infection that otherwise hurt reproduction in the untreated birds.


title: Hormesis

text: Hormesis has been observed in a number of cases in humans and animals exposed to chronic low doses of ionizing radiation. A-bomb survivors who received high doses exhibited shortened lifespan and increased cancer mortality, but at low doses, the ratios of cancer deaths in A-bomb survivors are smaller than those of Japanese averages.


title: Hormesis

text: In Taiwan, recycled radiocontaminated steel was inadvertently used in the construction of over 100 apartment buildings, causing the long-term exposure of 10,000 people. The average dose rate was 50 mSv/year and a subset of the population (1,000 people) received a total dose over 4,000 mSv over ten years. In the widely used linear no-threshold model (LNT) used by regulatory bodies, the expected cancer deaths in this population would have been 302 with 70 caused by the extra ionizing radiation, with the remainder caused by natural background radiation. The observed cancer rate, though, was quite low at 7 cancer deaths when 232 would be predicted by the LNT model had they not been exposed to the radiation from the building materials. Ionizing radiation hormesis appears to be at work.


title: Hormesis

text: No experiment can be performed in perfect isolation. Thick lead shielding around a chemical dose experiment to rule out the effects of ionizing radiation is built and rigorously controlled for in the laboratory, and certainly not the field. Likewise the same applies for ionizing radiation studies. Ionizing radiation is released when an unstable particle releases radiation, creating two new substances and energy in the form of an electromagnetic wave. The resulting materials are then free to interact with any environmental elements, and the energy released can also be used as a catalyst in further ionizing radiation interactions.


title: Hormesis

text: The resulting confusion in the low-dose exposure field (radiation and chemical) arise from lack of consideration of this concept as described by Mothersill and Seymory.


title: Hormesis

text: One of the areas where the concept of hormesis has been explored extensively with respect to its applicability is aging.


title: Hormesis

text: Since the basic survival capacity of any biological system depends on its homeostatic ability, biogerontologists proposed that exposing cells and organisms to mild stress should result in the adaptive or hormetic response with various biological benefits. This idea has gathered a large body of supportive evidence showing that repetitive mild stress exposure has anti-aging effects. Exercise is a paradigm for hormesis in this respect. Some of the mild stresses used for such studies on the application of hormesis in aging research and interventions are heat shock, irradiation, prooxidants, hypergravity, and food restriction.


title: Hormesis

text: Some other natural and synthetic molecules, such as celastrols from medicinal herbs and curcumin from the spice turmeric have also been found to have hormetic beneficial effects. Such compounds which bring about their health beneficial effects by stimulating or by modulating stress response pathways in cells have been termed "hormetins".


title: Hormesis

text: Hormetic interventions have also been proposed at the clinical level, with a variety of psychological stimuli, challenges and stressful actions, that aim to increase the dynamical complexity of the biological systems in humans.


title: Hormesis

text: Hormesis suggests dangerous substances have benefits. Concerns exist that the concept has been leveraged by lobbyists to weaken environmental regulations of some well-known toxic substances in the USA.


title: Hormesis

text: The hypothesis of hormesis has generated the most controversy when applied to ionizing radiation. This hypothesis is called radiation hormesis. For policy-making purposes, the commonly accepted model of dose response in radiobiology is the linear no-threshold model (LNT), which assumes a strictly linear dependence between the risk of radiation-induced adverse health effects and radiation dose, implying that there is no safe dose of radiation for humans.


title: Hormesis

text: Nonetheless, many countries including the Czech Republic, Germany, Austria, Poland, and the United States have radon therapy centers whose whole primary operating principle is the assumption of radiation hormesis, or beneficial impact of small doses of radiation on human health. Countries such as Germany and Austria at the same time have imposed very strict antinuclear regulations, which have been described as radiophobic inconsistency.


title: Hormesis

text: The United States National Research Council (part of the National Academy of Sciences), the National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements (a body commissioned by the United States Congress) and the United Nations Scientific Committee on the Effects of Ionizing Radiation all agree that radiation hormesis is not clearly shown, nor clearly the rule for radiation doses.


title: Hormesis

text: A United States-based National Council on Radiation Protection and Measurements stated in 2001 that evidence for radiation hormesis is insufficient and radiation protection authorities should continue to apply the LNT model for purposes of risk estimation.


title: Hormesis

text: A 2005 report commissioned by the French National Academy concluded that evidence for hormesis occurring at low doses is sufficient and LNT should be reconsidered as the methodology used to estimate risks from low-level sources of radiation, such as deep geological repositories for nuclear waste.


title: Hormesis

text: Hormesis remains largely unknown to the public. Any policy change ought to consider hormesis first as a public-health issue (versus an industrial regulatory issue). This would include the assessment of the public concern regarding exposure to small toxic doses. In addition, impact of hormesis policy change upon the management of industrial risks should be studied.