title: Meat pie

text: Middle Eastern meat pies are called sfiha and contain ground beef, olive oil, plain yogurt, tahini, allspice, onion, tomatoes and pine nuts. Greek meat pies are called "kreatopita" and contain ground beef, onions and feta cheese. The filling for "kreatopita" is wrapped in phyllo dough. Indian meat pies are called samosa and usually contain peas, spiced potatoes, coriander, lentils, or ground beef or chicken and are often served with chutney.


title: Meat pie

text: In Turkmenistan, a meat pie is called "ishlekli" or a shepherd's pie. Traditionally, "ishlekli" was baked by shepherds, who buried it in the hot sand of the Turkmen desert and coals. Today, ishlekli is mostly baked in the oven, but the traditional method is still preserved by the Turkmen shepherds.


title: Gavin Packard

text: Gavin Packard (8 June 1964 – 18 May 2012) was an Indian actor of Irish American descent, noted for the villainous roles he portrayed in many Bollywood films of the 1990s like Sadak, "Mohra", "Tadipaar" and "Chamatkar". He had also acted in several Malayalam films like "Aayushkalam", "Season", "Aanaval Mothiram" and "Aryan".


title: Gavin Packard

text: However, he left the industry in the early 2000s. He has also appeared in the 1989 Doordarshan Sci-fi Series "Indradhanush".


title: Gavin Packard

text: He was the eldest of the five children of Earl and Barbara Packard. His father was a computer expert and his mother was a Konkani Maharashtrian. His grandfather John Packard was an Irish American who had come to Bangalore as a member of the US Army and chose to settle there. Packard was known for his physique and was a national and state award-winning bodybuilder. In Bollywood, he was a trainer to Sanjay Dutt, Sunil Shetty and Shera, Salman Khan's bodyguard.


title: Gavin Packard

text: Packard and his wife mutually separated. Gavin has two daughters Erika Packard (elder) Kamille Kyla Packard (younger). Sanjay Dutt is the godfather of Kamille. His final years were spent with Daryl Packard, his younger brother, in Kalyan.


title: Gavin Packard

text: Packard died of respiratory disorder on 18 May 2012 and was buried at the St. Andrews Burial Grounds in Bandra the next day. Despite his long and notable cinematic career, the funeral was conspicuous by the absence of any representative from the film industry. As per the reports, Gavin had met with an accident while riding his bike at Kalyan Flower Market. He had got severely injured in that accident.


title: Gavin Packard

text: He made his debut onscreen through the Malayalam movie "Aryan" in 1988 in which he played the role of Martin, a local goon in Mumbai. His debut in Bollywood came in 1989 through "Ilaaka". That year he also played the full length character of Fabien in P Padmarajan's "Season", arguably his best cinematic performance. His last film was "Yeh Hai Jalwa" released in 2002 and directed by David Dhawan. He acted in nearly 60 films in Hindi and Malayalam in a career that spanned nearly 15 years.


title: History of the Americas

text: The prehistory of the Americas (North, South, and Central America, and the Caribbean) begins with people migrating to these areas from Asia during the height of an ice age. These groups are generally believed to have been isolated from the people of the "Old World" until the coming of Europeans in the 10th century from Iceland led by Leif Erikson and in 1492 with the voyages of Christopher Columbus. While this was the prevailing theory for quite sometime, new genetic and anthropological evidence suggests contact with Polynesian and South East Asian groups, while not confirmed to be frequent, happened with some regularity prior to the arrival of European colonizers as evidenced by cultural and linguistic trade, domesticated crops and livestock, and analysis of DNA from east Peruvian and Andean cultures as well as some sites suggested to be permanent settlements of Oceanic and Polynesian sailors. Some anthropologists also suggest that contact with West African, Chinese, and even some earlier European cultures may have made contact with American civilizations, though these claims are largely unsupported.


title: History of the Americas

text: The ancestors of today's American Indigenous peoples were the Paleo-Indians; they were hunter-gatherers who migrated into North America. The most popular theory asserts that migrants came to the Americas via Beringia, the land mass now covered by the ocean waters of the Bering Strait. Small lithic stage peoples followed megafauna like bison, mammoth (now extinct), and caribou, thus gaining the modern nickname "big-game hunters." Groups of people may also have traveled into North America on shelf or sheet ice along the northern Pacific coast.


title: History of the Americas

text: Sedentary societies developed primarily in two regions: Mezoamerica and Andean South America. Mezoamerican cultures include Zapotec, Toltec, Olmec, Maya, Aztec, Mixtec, Totonac, Teotihuacan, Huastec people, Purépecha, Izapa and Mazatec.


title: History of the Americas

text: Andean cultures include Inca, Caral-Supe, Wari, Tiwanaku, Chimor, Moche, Muisca, Chavin, Paracas and Nazca.


title: History of the Americas

text: After the voyages of Christopher Columbus in 1492, Spanish and later Portuguese, English, French and Dutch colonial expeditions arrived in the New World, conquering and settling the discovered lands, which led to a transformation of the cultural and physical landscape in the Americas. Spain colonized most of the Americas from present-day Southwestern United States, Florida and the Caribbean to the southern tip of South America. Portugal settled in what is mostly present-day Brazil while England established colonies on the Eastern coast of the United States, as well as the North Pacific coast and in most of Canada. France settled in Quebec and other parts of Eastern Canada and claimed an area in what is today the central United States. The Netherlands settled New Netherland (administrative centre New Amsterdam – now New York), some Caribbean islands and parts of Northern South America.


title: History of the Americas

text: European colonization of the Americas led to the rise of new cultures, civilizations and eventually states, which resulted from the fusion of Native American, European, and African traditions, peoples and institutions. The transformation of American cultures through colonization is evident in architecture, religion, gastronomy, the arts and particularly languages, the most widespread being Spanish (376 million speakers), English (348 million) and Portuguese (201 million). The colonial period lasted approximately three centuries, from the early 16th to the early 19th centuries, when Brazil and the larger Hispanic American nations declared independence. The United States obtained independence from Great Britain much earlier, in 1776, while Canada formed a federal dominion in 1867 and received legal independence in 1931. Others remained attached to their European parent state until the end of the 19th century, such as Cuba and Puerto Rico which were linked to Spain until 1898. Smaller territories such as Guyana obtained independence in the mid-20th century, while certain Caribbean islands and French Guiana remain part of a European power to this day.


title: History of the Americas

text: The specifics of Paleo-Indian migration to and throughout the Americas, including the exact dates and routes traveled, are subject to ongoing research and discussion. The traditional theory has been that these early migrants moved into the Beringia land bridge between eastern Siberia and present-day Alaska around 40,000 – 17,000 years ago, when sea levels were significantly lowered due to the Quaternary glaciation. These people are believed to have followed herds of now-extinct Pleistocene megafauna along "ice-free corridors" that stretched between the Laurentide and Cordilleran ice sheets. Another route proposed is that, either on foot or using primitive boats, they migrated down the Pacific Northwest coast to South America. Evidence of the latter would since have been covered by a sea level rise of a hundred meters following the last ice age.


title: History of the Americas

text: Archaeologists contend that the Paleo-Indian migration out of Beringia (eastern Alaska), ranges from 40,000 to around 16,500 years ago. This time range is a hot source of debate. The few agreements achieved to date are the origin from Central Asia, with widespread habitation of the Americas during the end of the last glacial period, or more specifically what is known as the late glacial maximum, around 16,000 – 13,000 years before present.


title: History of the Americas

text: The American Journal of Human Genetics released an article in 2007 stating "Here we show, by using 86 complete mitochondrial genomes, that all Indigenous American haplogroups, including Haplogroup X (mtDNA), were part of a single founding population." Amerindian groups in the Bering Strait region exhibit perhaps the strongest DNA or mitochondrial DNA relations to Siberian peoples. The genetic diversity of Amerindian indigenous groups increase with distance from the assumed entry point into the Americas. Certain genetic diversity patterns from West to East suggest, particularly in South America, that migration proceeded first down the west coast, and then proceeded eastward. Geneticists have variously estimated that peoples of Asia and the Americas were part of the same population from 42,000 to 21,000 years ago.


title: History of the Americas

text: New studies shed light on the founding population of indigenous Americans, suggesting that their ancestry traced to both east Asian and western Eurasians who migrated to North America directly from Siberia. A 2013 study in the journal Nature reported that DNA found in the 24,000-year-old remains of a young boy in Mal’ta Siberia suggest that up to one-third of the indigenous Americans may have ancestry that can be traced back to western Eurasians, who may have "had a more north-easterly distribution 24,000 years ago than commonly thought" Professor Kelly Graf said that "Our findings are significant at two levels. First, it shows that Upper Paleolithic Siberians came from a cosmopolitan population of early modern humans that spread out of Africa to Europe and Central and South Asia. Second, Paleoindian skeletons with phenotypic traits atypical of modern-day Native Americans can be explained as having a direct historical connection to Upper Paleolithic Siberia." A route through Beringia is seen as more likely than the Solutrean hypothesis.


title: History of the Americas

text: On October 3, 2014, the Oregon cave where the oldest DNA evidence of human habitation in North America was found was added to the National Register of Historic Places. The DNA, radiocarbon dated to 14,300 years ago, was found in fossilized human coprolites uncovered in the Paisley Five Mile Point Caves in south central Oregon.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Lithic stage or "Paleo-Indian period", is the earliest classification term referring to the first stage of human habitation in the Americas, covering the Late Pleistocene epoch. The time period derives its name from the appearance of "Lithic flaked" stone tools. Stone tools, particularly projectile points and scrapers, are the primary evidence of the earliest well known human activity in the Americas. Lithic reduction stone tools are used by archaeologists and anthropologists to classify cultural periods.


title: History of the Americas

text: Several thousand years after the first migrations, the first complex civilizations arose as hunter-gatherers settled into semi-agricultural communities. Identifiable sedentary settlements began to emerge in the so-called Middle Archaic period around 6000 BCE. Particular archaeological cultures can be identified and easily classified throughout the Archaic period.


title: History of the Americas

text: In the late Archaic, on the north-central coastal region of Peru, a complex civilization arose which has been termed the Norte Chico civilization, also known as Caral-Supe. It is the oldest known civilization in the Americas and one of the six sites where civilization originated independently and indigenously in the ancient world, flourishing between the 30th and 18th centuries BC. It pre-dated the Mesoamerican Olmec civilization by nearly two millennia. It was contemporaneous with the Egypt following the unification of its kingdom under Narmer and the emergence of the first Egyptian hieroglyphics.


title: History of the Americas

text: Monumental architecture, including earthwork platform mounds and sunken plazas have been identified as part of the civilization. Archaeological evidence points to the use of textile technology and the worship of common god symbols. Government, possibly in the form of theocracy, is assumed to have been required to manage the region. However, numerous questions remain about its organization. In archaeological nomenclature, the culture was pre-ceramic culture of the pre-Columbian Late Archaic period. It appears to have lacked ceramics and art.


title: History of the Americas

text: Ongoing scholarly debate persists over the extent to which the flourishing of Norte Chico resulted from its abundant maritime food resources, and the relationship that these resources would suggest between coastal and inland sites.


title: History of the Americas

text: The role of seafood in the Norte Chico diet has been a subject of scholarly debate. In 1973, examining the Aspero region of Norte Chico, Michael E. Moseley contended that a maritime subsistence (seafood) economy had been the basis of society and its early flourishing. This theory, later termed "maritime foundation of Andean Civilization" was at odds with the general scholarly consensus that civilization arose as a result of intensive grain-based agriculture, as had been the case in the emergence of civilizations in northeast Africa (Egypt) and southwest Asia (Mesopotamia).


title: History of the Americas

text: While earlier research pointed to edible domestic plants such as squash, beans, lucuma, guava, pacay, and camote at Caral, publications by Haas and colleagues have added avocado, achira, and maize (Zea Mays) to the list of foods consumed in the region. In 2013, Haas and colleagues reported that maize was a primary component of the diet throughout the period of 3000 to 1800 BC.


title: History of the Americas

text: Cotton was another widespread crop in Norte Chico, essential to the production of fishing nets and textiles. Jonathan Haas noted a mutual dependency, whereby "The prehistoric residents of the Norte Chico needed the fish resources for their protein and the fishermen needed the cotton to make the nets to catch the fish."


title: History of the Americas

text: In the 2005 book "", journalist Charles C. Mann surveyed the literature at the time, reporting a date "sometime before 3200 BC, and possibly before 3500 BC" as the beginning date for the formation of Norte Chico. He notes that the earliest date securely associated with a city is 3500 BC, at Huaricanga in the (inland) Fortaleza area.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Norte Chico civilization began to decline around 1800 BC as more powerful centers appeared to the south and north along its coast, and to the east within the Andes Mountains.


title: History of the Americas

text: After the decline of the Norte Chico civilization, several large, centralized civilizations developed in the Western Hemisphere: Chavin, Nazca, Moche, Huari, Quitus, Cañaris, Chimu, Pachacamac, Tiahuanaco, Aymara and Inca in the Central Andes (Ecuador, Peru and Bolivia); Muisca in Colombia ; Taínos in Dominican Republic (Hispaniola, Española) and part of Caribbean; and the Olmecs, Maya, Toltecs, Mixtecs, Zapotecs, Aztecs and Purepecha in southern North America (Mexico, Guatemala).


title: History of the Americas

text: The Olmec civilization was the first Mesoamerican civilization, beginning around 1600–1400 BC and ending around 400 BC. Mesoamerica is considered one of the six sites around the globe in which civilization developed independently and indigenously. This civilization is considered the mother culture of the Mesoamerican civilizations. The Mesoamerican calendar, numeral system, writing, and much of the Mesoamerican pantheon seem to have begun with the Olmec.


title: History of the Americas

text: Some elements of agriculture seem to have been practiced in Mesoamerica quite early. The domestication of maize is thought to have begun around 7,500 to 12,000 years ago. The earliest record of lowland maize cultivation dates to around 5100 BC. Agriculture continued to be mixed with a hunting-gathering-fishing lifestyle until quite late compared to other regions, but by 2700 BC, Mesoamericans were relying on maize, and living mostly in villages. Temple mounds and classes started to appear. By 1300/ 1200 BC, small centres coalesced into the Olmec civilization, which seems to have been a set of city-states, united in religious and commercial concerns. The Olmec cities had ceremonial complexes with earth/clay pyramids, palaces, stone monuments, aqueducts and walled plazas. The first of these centers was at San Lorenzo (until 900 bc). La Venta was the last great Olmec centre. Olmec artisans sculpted jade and clay figurines of Jaguars and humans. Their iconic giant heads – believed to be of Olmec rulers – stood in every major city.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Olmec civilization ended in 400 BC, with the defacing and destruction of San Lorenzo and La Venta, two of the major cities. It nevertheless spawned many other states, most notably the Mayan civilization, whose first cities began appearing around 700–600 BC. Olmec influences continued to appear in many later Mesoamerican civilizations.


title: History of the Americas

text: Cities of the Aztecs, Mayas, and Incas were as large and organized as the largest in the Old World, with an estimated population of 200,000 to 350,000 in Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire. The market established in the city was said to have been the largest ever seen by the conquistadors when they arrived. The capital of the Cahokians, Cahokia, located near modern East St. Louis, Illinois, may have reached a population of over 20,000. At its peak, between the 12th and 13th centuries, Cahokia may have been the most populous city in North America. Monk's Mound, the major ceremonial center of Cahokia, remains the largest earthen construction of the prehistoric New World.


title: History of the Americas

text: These civilizations developed agriculture as well, breeding maize (corn) from having ears 2–5 cm in length to perhaps 10–15 cm in length. Potatoes, tomatoes, beans (greens), pumpkins, avocados, and chocolate are now the most popular of the pre-Columbian agricultural products. The civilizations did not develop extensive livestock as there were few suitable species, although alpacas and llamas were domesticated for use as beasts of burden and sources of wool and meat in the Andes. By the 15th century, maize was being farmed in the Mississippi River Valley after introduction from Mexico. The course of further agricultural development was greatly altered by the arrival of Europeans.


title: History of the Americas

text: Cahokia was a major regional chiefdom, with trade and tributary chiefdoms located in a range of areas from bordering the Great Lakes to the Gulf of Mexico.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Iroquois League of Nations or "People of the Long House", based in present-day upstate and western New York, had a confederacy model from the mid-15th century. It has been suggested that their culture contributed to political thinking during the development of the later United States government. Their system of affiliation was a kind of federation, different from the strong, centralized European monarchies.


title: History of the Americas

text: Leadership was restricted to a group of 50 sachem chiefs, each representing one clan within a tribe; the Oneida and Mohawk people had nine seats each; the Onondagas held fourteen; the Cayuga had ten seats; and the Seneca had eight. Representation was not based on population numbers, as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others. When a sachem chief died, his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in consultation with other female members of the clan; property and hereditary leadership were passed matrilineally. Decisions were not made through voting but through consensus decision making, with each sachem chief holding theoretical veto power. The Onondaga were the "firekeepers", responsible for raising topics to be discussed. They occupied one side of a three-sided fire (the Mohawk and Seneca sat on one side of the fire, the Oneida and Cayuga sat on the third side.)


title: History of the Americas

text: Long-distance trading did not prevent warfare and displacement among the indigenous peoples, and their oral histories tell of numerous migrations to the historic territories where Europeans encountered them. The Iroquois invaded and attacked tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky and claimed the hunting grounds. Historians have placed these events as occurring as early as the 13th century, or in the 17th century Beaver Wars.


title: History of the Americas

text: Through warfare, the Iroquois drove several tribes to migrate west to what became known as their historically traditional lands west of the Mississippi River. Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included the Osage, Kaw, Ponca and Omaha people. By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their historical lands in present-day Kansas, Nebraska, Arkansas and Oklahoma. The Osage warred with Caddo-speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Pueblo people of what is now occupied by the Southwestern United States and northern Mexico, living conditions were that of large stone apartment like adobe structures. They live in Arizona, New Mexico, Utah, Colorado, and possibly surrounding areas.


title: History of the Americas

text: Chichimeca was the name that the Mexica (Aztecs) generically applied to a wide range of semi-nomadic peoples who inhabited the north of modern-day Mexico, and carried the same sense as the European term "barbarian". The name was adopted with a pejorative tone by the Spaniards when referring especially to the semi-nomadic hunter-gatherer peoples of northern Mexico.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Olmec civilization emerged around 1200 BCE in Mesoamerica and ended around 400 BCE. Olmec art and concepts influenced surrounding cultures after their downfall. This civilization was thought to be the first in America to develop a writing system. After the Olmecs abandoned their cities for unknown reasons, the Maya, Zapotec and Teotihuacan arose.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Purepecha civilization emerged around 1000 CE in Mesoamerica . They flourished from 1100 CE to 1530 CE. They continue to live on in the state of Michoacán. Fierce warriors, they were never conquered and in their glory years, successfully sealed off huge areas from Aztec domination.


title: History of the Americas

text: Maya history spans 3,000 years. The Classic Maya may have collapsed due to changing climate in the end of the 10th century.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Toltec were a nomadic people, dating from the 10th–12th century, whose language was also spoken by the Aztecs.


title: History of the Americas

text: Teotihuacan (4th century BCE – 7/8th century CE) was both a city, and an empire of the same name, which, at its zenith between 150 and the 5th century, covered most of Mesoamerica.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Aztec having started to build their empire around 14th century found their civilization abruptly ended by the Spanish conquistadors. They lived in Mesoamerica, and surrounding lands. Their capital city Tenochtitlan was one of the largest cities of all time.


title: History of the Americas

text: The oldest known civilization of the Americas was established in the Norte Chico region of modern Peru. Complex society emerged in the group of coastal valleys, between 3000 and 1800 BCE. The Quipu, a distinctive recording device among Andean civilizations, apparently dates from the era of Norte Chico's prominence.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Chavín established a trade network and developed agriculture by as early as (or late compared to the Old World) 900 BCE according to some estimates and archaeological finds. Artifacts were found at a site called Chavín in modern Peru at an elevation of 3,177 meters. Chavín civilization spanned from 900 BCE to 300 BCE.


title: History of the Americas

text: Holding their capital at the great city of Cusco, the Inca civilization dominated the Andes region from 1438 to 1533.


title: History of the Americas

text: Around 1000, the Vikings established a short-lived settlement in Newfoundland, now known as L'Anse aux Meadows. Speculations exist about other Old World discoveries of the New World, but none of these are generally or completely accepted by most scholars.


title: History of the Americas

text: Spain sponsored a major exploration led by Italian explorer Christopher Columbus in 1492; it quickly led to extensive European colonization of the Americas. The Europeans brought Old World diseases which are thought to have caused catastrophic epidemics and a huge decrease of the native population. Columbus came at a time in which many technical developments in sailing techniques and communication made it possible to report his voyages easily and to spread word of them throughout Europe. It was also a time of growing religious, imperial and economic rivalries that led to a competition for the establishment of colonies.


title: History of the Americas

text: The formation of sovereign states in the New World began with the United States Declaration of Independence of 1776. The American Revolutionary War lasted through the period of the Siege of Yorktown—its last major campaign—in the early autumn of 1781, with peace being achieved in 1783.


title: History of the Americas

text: The Spanish colonies won their independence in the first quarter of the 19th century, in the Spanish American wars of independence. Simón Bolívar and José de San Martín, among others, led their independence struggle. Although Bolivar attempted to keep the Spanish-speaking parts of Latin America politically allied, they rapidly became independent of one another as well, and several further wars were fought, such as the Paraguayan War and the War of the Pacific. (See Latin American integration.) In the Portuguese colony Dom Pedro I (also Pedro IV of Portugal), son of the Portuguese king Dom João VI, proclaimed the country's independence in 1822 and became Brazil's first Emperor. This was peacefully accepted by the crown in Portugal, upon compensation.


title: History of the Americas

text: Slavery has had a significant role in the economic development of the New World after the colonization of the Americas by the Europeans. The cotton, tobacco, and sugar cane harvested by slaves became important exports for the United States and the Caribbean countries.


title: History of the Americas

text: As a part of the British Empire, Canada immediately entered World War I when it broke out in 1914. Canada bore the brunt of several major battles during the early stages of the war, including the use of poison gas attacks at Ypres. Losses became grave, and the government eventually brought in conscription, despite the fact this was against the wishes of the majority of French Canadians. In the ensuing Conscription Crisis of 1917, riots broke out on the streets of Montreal. In neighboring Newfoundland, the new dominion suffered a devastating loss on July 1, 1916, the First day on the Somme.


title: History of the Americas

text: The United States stayed out of the conflict until 1917, when it joined the Entente powers. The United States was then able to play a crucial role at the Paris Peace Conference of 1919 that shaped interwar Europe. Mexico was not part of the war, as the country was embroiled in the Mexican Revolution at the time.


title: History of the Americas

text: The 1920s brought an age of great prosperity in the United States, and to a lesser degree Canada. But the Wall Street Crash of 1929 combined with drought ushered in a period of economic hardship in the United States and Canada. From 1936 to 1949, there was a popular uprising against the anti-Catholic Mexican government of the time, set off specifically by the anti-clerical provisions of the Mexican Constitution of 1917.


title: History of the Americas

text: Once again, Canada found itself at war before its neighbors, with numerically modest but significant contributions overseas such as the Battle of Hong Kong and the Battle of Britain. The entry of the United States into the war helped to tip the balance in favour of the allies. Two Mexican tankers, transporting oil to the United States, were attacked and sunk by the Germans in the Gulf of Mexico waters, in 1942. The incident happened in spite of Mexico's neutrality at that time. This led Mexico to enter the conflict with a declaration of war on the Axis nations. The destruction of Europe wrought by the war vaulted all North American countries to more important roles in world affairs, especially the United States, which emerged as a "superpower".


title: History of the Americas

text: The early Cold War era saw the United States as the most powerful nation in a Western coalition of which Mexico and Canada were also a part. In Canada, Quebec was transformed by the Quiet Revolution and the emergence of Quebec nationalism. Mexico experienced an era of huge economic growth after World War II, a heavy industrialization process and a growth of its middle class, a period known in Mexican history as ""El Milagro Mexicano"" (the Mexican miracle). The Caribbean saw the beginnings of decolonization, while on the largest island the Cuban Revolution introduced Cold War rivalries into Latin America.


title: History of the Americas

text: The civil rights movement in the U.S. ended Jim Crow and empowered black voters in the 1960s, which allowed black citizens to move into high government offices for the first time since Reconstruction. However, the dominant New Deal coalition collapsed in the mid 1960s in disputes over race and the Vietnam War, and the conservative movement began its rise to power, as the once dominant liberalism weakened and collapsed. Canada during this era was dominated by the leadership of Pierre Elliot Trudeau. In 1982, at the end of his tenure, Canada enshrined a new constitution.


title: History of the Americas

text: Canada's Brian Mulroney not only ran on a similar platform but also favored closer trade ties with the United States. This led to the Canada-United States Free Trade Agreement in January 1989. Mexican presidents Miguel de la Madrid, in the early 1980s and Carlos Salinas de Gortari in the late 1980s, started implementing liberal economic strategies that were seen as a good move. However, Mexico experienced a strong economic recession in 1982 and the Mexican peso suffered a devaluation. In the United States president Ronald Reagan attempted to move the United States back towards a hard anti-communist line in foreign affairs, in what his supporters saw as an attempt to assert moral leadership (compared to the Soviet Union) in the world community. Domestically, Reagan attempted to bring in a package of privatization and regulation to stimulate the economy.


title: History of the Americas

text: The end of the Cold War and the beginning of the era of sustained economic expansion coincided during the 1990s. On January 1, 1994, Canada, Mexico and the United States signed the North American Free Trade Agreement, creating the world's largest free trade area. In 2000, Vicente Fox became the first non-PRI candidate to win the Mexican presidency in over 70 years. The optimism of the 1990s was shattered by the 9/11 attacks of 2001 on the United States, which prompted military intervention in Afghanistan, which also involved Canada. Canada did not support the United States' later move to invade Iraq, however.


title: History of the Americas

text: In the U.S. the Reagan Era of conservative national policies, deregulation and tax cuts took control with the election of Ronald Reagan in 1980. By 2010, political scientists were debating whether the election of Barack Obama in 2008 represented an end of the Reagan Era, or was only a reaction against the bubble economy of the 2000s (decade), which burst in 2008 and became the Late-2000s recession with prolonged unemployment.


title: History of the Americas

text: Despite the failure of a lasting political union, the concept of Central American reunification, though lacking enthusiasm from the leaders of the individual countries, rises from time to time. In 1856–1857 the region successfully established a military coalition to repel an invasion by United States adventurer William Walker. Today, all five nations fly flags that retain the old federal motif of two outer blue bands bounding an inner white stripe. (Costa Rica, traditionally the least committed of the five to regional integration, modified its flag significantly in 1848 by darkening the blue and adding a double-wide inner red band, in honor of the French tricolor).


title: History of the Americas

text: In 1907, a Central American Court of Justice was created. On December 13, 1960, Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, and Nicaragua established the Central American Common Market ("CACM"). Costa Rica, because of its relative economic prosperity and political stability, chose not to participate in the CACM. The goals for the CACM were to create greater political unification and success of import substitution industrialization policies. The project was an immediate economic success, but was abandoned after the 1969 "Football War" between El Salvador and Honduras. A Central American Parliament has operated, as a purely advisory body, since 1991. Costa Rica has repeatedly declined invitations to join the regional parliament, which seats deputies from the four other former members of the Union, as well as from Panama and the Dominican Republic.


title: History of the Americas

text: In the 1960s and 1970s, the governments of Argentina, Brazil, Chile, and Uruguay were overthrown or displaced by U.S.-aligned military dictatorships. These dictatorships detained tens of thousands of political prisoners, many of whom were tortured and/or killed (on inter-state collaboration, see Operation Condor). Economically, they began a transition to neoliberal economic policies. They placed their own actions within the United States Cold War doctrine of "National Security" against internal subversion. Throughout the 1980s and 1990s, Peru suffered from an internal conflict (see Túpac Amaru Revolutionary Movement and Shining Path). Revolutionary movements and right-wing military dictatorships have been common, but starting in the 1980s a wave of democratization came through the continent, and democratic rule is widespread now. Allegations of corruption remain common, and several nations have seen crises which have forced the resignation of their presidents, although normal civilian succession has continued.


title: History of the Americas

text: International indebtedness became a notable problem, as most recently illustrated by Argentina's default in the early 21st century. In recent years, South American governments have drifted to the left, with socialist leaders being elected in Chile, Bolivia, Brazil, Venezuela, and a leftist president in Argentina and Uruguay. Despite the move to the left, South America is still largely capitalist. With the founding of the Union of South American Nations, South America has started down the road of economic integration, with plans for political integration in the European Union style.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: Enterprise Holdings is an American private holding company headquartered in Clayton, Missouri in Greater St. Louis. It is the parent company of car rental agencies Enterprise Rent-A-Car, National Car Rental, Alamo Rent a Car and also operates several other transportation services including commercial fleet management, used car sales (through its Enterprise Car Sales dealers), carsharing, and commercial truck rental operations.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: It is one of the three big rental car holding companies in the United States, holding a 33% market share, placing it behind the Hertz Corporation and ahead of Avis Budget Group.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: Established in 1957 as Executive Leasing Company, the company was renamed Enterprise in 1969 in memory of the World War II ship on which the founder Jack C. Taylor served. Jack Taylor's founding philosophy, which has shaped the company's business policy, has been stated as "Take care of your customers and employees "first", and profits will follow."


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: Enterprise Rent-A-Car was established in St. Louis, Missouri and the company still has its headquarters in the area and remains managed by the Taylor family.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: The holding company was formed on August 3, 2009, as a result of Enterprise Rent-A-Car's 2007 acquisition of Vanguard Automotive Group, the former parent company of National and Alamo. The resulting company was 21st on the 2008 Forbes list of "Largest Private Companies in America". Enterprise Holdings was 9th on the 2021 Forbes list of "Largest Private Companies in America".


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: , Enterprise ranked as the largest car rental company in North America, and was the only investment-grade company in the car rental industry. Further, it was part of the largest global car rental network through its alliance with Europcar. The success of Enterprise can in part be attributed to its major focus on customer service.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: On June 4, 2013, it was announced that Pamela Nicholson would assume the role of chief executive officer. Nicholson was not only the first female CEO in the company's history, but also the first that was not a member of the Taylor family of St. Louis. Her predecessor, Andrew "Andy" Taylor, has continued to stay involved with company activities since then as Executive Chairman. In October 2019, the company announced Nicholson would retire by the end of the year. Two months later, it was announced that Chrissy Taylor, then the company's president and chief operating officer, would be promoted to chief executive officer (CEO), effective January 2020. Taylor is only the fourth CEO in the company's more than 60-year history and the third generation of Taylor family CEO leadership, preceded as CEO by her father Andy Taylor and grandfather Jack Taylor. In addition to being promoted to CEO, she retains her current title of president.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: A planned acquisition of Citer SA was announced in November 2011; this includes the acquisition of subsidiary Atesa. This acquisition would add 30,000 vehicles to the company's fleet and provide entry into the French and Spanish markets.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: PhillyCarShare, a for-profit car-sharing organization in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, was acquired by Enterprise in 2011 and was renamed Enterprise CarShare in 2014.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: Enterprise acquired further car-share companies including Mint Cars-On-Demand in 2012 (New York and Boston), I-GO in 2013 (Chicago), and in 2014 Occasional Car in Denver and AutoShare in Toronto.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: Enterprise acquired Performance Gateway, LLC in 2014, which provided “Software-as-a-service (SAAS) services featuring performance management software for use in network management, vendor and employee feedback and training, vehicle rental, automotive insurance, automotive refinishing, and collision repair applications."


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: Enterprise acquired Zimride ride-matching business on July 10, 2013. Terms of the sale were not released.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: Triangle Rent A Car, another car-rental company based in Raleigh, North Carolina was acquired by Enterprise in 2015 and it was converted into Enterprise Rent-a-Car.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: In 2017, Enterprise merged Cyncast Inc. and Performance Gateway, LLC (both acquired by Enterprise in 2007 and 2014 respectively) into ARMS® Business Solutions (ABS) "to provide an integrated management suite to insurance carriers, adjusters, collisions repair shops, manufacturers, and all partners involved in the claims and repair channels." In October 2019, Enterprise launched Entegral, the new name for its technology platform, which "was formerly known as ARMS® Business Solutions (ABS)."


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: In January 2019, Enterprise acquired Deem, a managed-travel technology platform that "includes Deem Work Fource and Deem Ground Work, a suite of online booking and travel technology products for business travelers, travel managers, travel-management companies and suppliers."


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: In September 2020, Enterprise acquired Canadian company Discount Car and Truck Rental. The company, founded in 1980, had been privately held. This added nearly 600 locations to Enterprise's network in Canada.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: In 2006, Enterprise Rent-A-Car ranked #1 in sales with $9 billion in sales; unclear what the geographical scope of this sales figure was.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: Enterprise Rent-A-Car became an Enterprise Holdings subsidiary in 2009. This subsidiary has been recognized as a "Best Place to Launch a Career" by "BusinessWeek" for several years prior to 2010. It also has a strong culture of promoting from within, which has contributed to its being a top recruiter of college graduates. In addition, the subsidiary has been named the number one ranked car rental company in terms of customer satisfaction by J.D. Power several times.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: In 2008, Enterprise piloted its first on-campus carsharing program at Washington University in St. Louis. The program, called WeCar, was introduced at University of South Florida in July 2009. , WeCar has 100 carsharing programs in more than 30 U.S. states and Canada, and the service offers almost 100 electric cars and plug-in hybrids, including the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt. By September 2013, WeCar was rebranded as Enterprise CarShare.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: In March 2014, Enterprise Holdings acquired AutoShare, a carsharing company that had been founded in Toronto in 1998 and operated in several Canadian cities. It adopted the Enterprise CarShare name soon after.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: During the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020, Enterprise CarShare shut down business operations in New York and Philadelphia, retail rentals in those cities, Honolulu, and St. Louis, and suspended operations on most university campuses.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: In 2012, Enterprise launched a mobile concierge website accessible by scanning a QR code for smart phones. Known as "ONRAMP Concierge", the service is accessed by customers scanning the code printed on a sticker placed on the driver's side window of the vehicle; the codes were made available to nearly all vehicles in Enterprise Rent-A-Car, Alamo Rent A Car, and National Car Rental following a 20,000-vehicle pilot program started in 2011. The application, once scanned, gives users information about their rental vehicle's make and model, company offers and nearby resources such as gas stations or restaurants. Enterprise launched the application in an effort to raise vehicle awareness and generate sales for its auto manufacturing partners.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: To manage and provide feedback about your current rental, you must download the Alamo, Enterprise or National mobile apps in the app store.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: On May 22, 2018, it was announced that Enterprise had purchased the naming rights of the Scottrade Center, home of the St. Louis Blues. The building's name was to become the Enterprise Center, with the name change effective July 1. The arena's renovations continued their second phase during this time; all Phase 2 renovations and signage changes were complete in time for the 2018–19 NHL season.


title: Enterprise Holdings

text: The executive chairman of Enterprise Holdings, Andrew C. Taylor, is a Washington University trustee. His father, Enterprise founder Jack C. Taylor, is a Washington University alumnus and served as a trustee and emeritus trustee. In 2001, the Washington University Enterprise Holdings Scholars Program was founded with a $25 million gift from Enterprise Holdings. In 2011, Jack C. Taylor gave Washington University in St. Louis $25 million to further fund the scholarship program.


Enterprise Holdings


title: Ravindra Jain

text: Ravindra Jain (28 February 1944 – 9 October 2015) was an Indian music composer, lyricist and playback singer. He started his career in the early 1970s by composing for several hit movies. His notable works include "Chor Machaye Shor" (1974), "Geet Gaata Chal" (1975), "Chitchor" (1976) and "Ankhiyon Ke Jharokhon Se" (1978), "Nadiya Ke Paar" (1982), "Ram Teri Ganga Maili" (1985) and "Vivah" (2006). He composed music for many films and TV shows including Ramanand Sagar's epic "Ramayan" (1987), which became iconic. He was awarded the Padma Shri, the fourth-highest civilian award of the Republic of India in 2015 for his contribution to arts.


title: Ravindra Jain

text: Ravindra Jain was born blind on 28 February 1944 to Pandit Indramani Jain and Kiran Jain as the third child of seven brothers and one sister. He belongs to the Jain community. His father was a Sanskrit pandit and his mother was a homemaker.


title: Ravindra Jain

text: His father recognised his talent and sent him to stalwarts like G.L. Jain, Janardhan Sharma and Nathu Ram for formal education in music. At a young age, he started singing bhajans at temples.


title: Ravindra Jain

text: His works include "Saudagar", "Chor Machaye Shor", "Chitchor", "Geet Gaata Chal", "Fakira", "Ankhiyon Ke Jharokhon Se", "Dulhan Wahi Jo Piya Man Bhaye", "Paheli", "Do Jasoos", "Pati Patni Aur Woh", "Insaf Ka Tarazu", "Nadiya Ke Paar", "Ram Teri Ganga Maili" and "Henna". He extensively used Yesudas and Hemlata for singing his songs. He composed many religious albums in different Indian languages, including Bengali and Malayalam. He composed music for several television series. His music for Ramanand Sagar's Ramayana became iconic.


title: Ravindra Jain

text: Some of his most popular works on TV are "Shri Krishna", "Alif Laila", "Jai Ganga Maiya", "Jai Mahalaxmi", "Shree Brahma Vishnu Mahesh", "Sai Baba", "Jai Maa Durga", "Jai Hanuman", Sankat Mochan Hanuman and "Maha Kavya Mahabharat".


title: Ravindra Jain

text: Jain was married to Divya Jain, with whom he has a son Aayushmaan. He died in Mumbai on 9 October 2015 because of multiple organ failure.


title: Ravindra Jain

text: He was awarded the Padma Shri, the fourth-highest civilian award of the Republic of India in 2015 for his contribution to arts. He received the Filmfare Best Music Director award for his work in "Ram Teri Ganga Maili" in 1985. Ravindra Jain won many other awards for his contribution to Indian music.


title: Ravindra Jain

text: His funeral was attended by numerous celebrities including Hema Malini, Ranjit and Sooraj Barjatya. Prime minister Modi said: "He will be remembered for his versatile music and fighting spirit."


title: Shortstop

text: Shortstop, abbreviated SS, is the baseball or softball fielding position between second and third base, which is considered to be among the most demanding defensive positions. Historically the position was assigned to defensive specialists who were typically poor at batting and were often placed at the bottom of the batting order. Today, shortstops are often able to hit well and many are placed at the top of the lineup. In the numbering system used by scorers to record defensive plays, the shortstop is assigned the number 6.


title: Shortstop

text: More hit balls go to the shortstop than to any other position, as there are more right-handed hitters in baseball than left-handed hitters, and most hitters have a tendency to pull the ball slightly. Like a second baseman, a shortstop must be agile, for example when performing a 4-6-3 double play. Also, like a third baseman, the shortstop fields balls hit to the left side of the infield, where a strong arm is needed to throw out a batter-runner before they reach the safety of first base.


title: Shortstop

text: Doc Adams of the Knickerbockers created the concept of the shortstop position, according to baseball historian John Thorn and Baseball Hall of Fame researcher Freddy Berowski. In the first five years the Knickerbockers played, the team fielded anywhere from eight to eleven players. The only infielders were the players covering each of the bases; if there were more than eight players, extra outfielders were sometimes used. The outfielders had difficulty throwing baseballs into the infield because of the balls' light weight. Adams's shortstop position, which he started playing at some time from 1849 to 1850, was used to field throws from the outfielders and throw to the three infielders. With the advent of higher-quality baseballs, Adams moved to the infield, since the distance the balls could travel increased. However, Dickey Pearce, primarily of the Brooklyn Atlantics, is credited as the first to have played the shortstop position as it is played now. Adams had a long playing career with the Knickerbockers: he remained a player with the team until 1860.


title: Shortstop

text: Unlike the pitcher and catcher, who must start every play in a designated area (the pitcher must be on the pitcher's mound, with one foot in contact with the pitcher's rubber, and the catcher must be behind home plate in the catcher's box) the shortstop and the other fielders can vary their positioning in response to what they anticipate will be the actions of the batter and runner(s) once the play begins.


title: Shortstop

text: The shortstop ordinarily is positioned near second base on the third-base side. Because right-handed hitters tend to hit the ball more toward third base, a shortstop will generally move closer to third base if the batter is batting right-handed, and more toward first base if the batter is batting left-handed. A shortstop typically has a strong throwing arm, because he has a relatively long throw to first base, and often has less time in which to make a throw, given that the ground balls he fields have often traveled relatively far. A shortstop must also be extremely agile, because balls hit to or near the shortstop position are usually hit harder than to other infield positions.


title: Shortstop

text: Shortstops are required to cover second base in double play situations when the ball is hit to the second baseman or first baseman. They also cover second when a runner is attempting a stolen base, but only when a left-handed hitter is batting because the infield will respond to a left-handed batter by shifting toward first base, resulting in the shortstop being the infielder who is closest to second base. Shortstops also must cover third at various times, including the rotation play; the latter occurs when there are runners on first and second and a sacrifice bunt is attempted toward third base, requiring the third baseman to move in away from third base in order to field it. Shortstops generally are given precedence on catching pop-ups in the infield as well, so they end up calling off other players many times, although on deep pop-ups they generally fall back when called off by an outfielder. They often become the cutoff man on balls to any part of the outfield that are being directed towards third base and all balls to left and center field that are destined for second base. Depending on the system the shortstop may cut balls from left field heading home; however, this is usually the job of the third baseman.


title: Shortstop

text: The emphasis on defense makes the position unusually difficult to fill. Historically, a strong shortstop did not have to be a good hitter. Some of the weakest hitters in Major League Baseball have played the position, including Mario Mendoza, for whom George Brett popularized the eponymous Mendoza Line to describe a batting average below .200. Since the 1960s, however, such mediocre hitting has become rarer as teams increasingly demand players with ability to both field and hit.


title: Shortstop

text: In practice, a marginal fielder as a shortstop who hits well can be moved to almost any other position, especially second base or third base, whether early in their careers (examples: George Brett and Mike Schmidt were both tried early in their careers as shortstops) or later due to diminished fielding range, slower reflexes, weaker throwing arms, increased risk of injury, or co-existence with another dominant shortstop, as with Ernie Banks, Cal Ripken Jr., Alex Rodríguez, Michael Young, or Miguel Tejada.


title: Darryl M. Bell

text: Darryl M. Bell (sometimes credited as Daryl Bell; born May 10, 1963) is an American actor best known for his role as Big Brother X-Ray Vision in the 1988 Spike Lee film "School Daze" and as Ron Johnson Jr. on the NBC sitcom "A Different World" (1987–93). Darryl Bell also starred on the short-lived UPN sitcom "Homeboys in Outer Space" as Morris Clay.


title: Darryl M. Bell

text: Bell was born as the son of Travers J. Bell Jr., the founder of the first black firm on the New York Stock Exchange.


title: Darryl M. Bell

text: Bell graduated from Delbarton School in Morristown, New Jersey in May 1981, where he was one of four African American students, accounting for 1% of the school's enrollment.


title: Darryl M. Bell

text: Bell also attended Syracuse University. Bell is a member of Alpha Phi Alpha, having pledged the fraternity through the Delta Zeta chapter in Spring 1982. He is in a 28 year-long committed relationship with actress Tempestt Bledsoe, who co-starred in the NBC TV comedy "The Cosby Show". The couple appeared together in the Fox reality TV series "Househusbands of Hollywood", that debuted in August 2009.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Ambrose Powell Hill Jr. (November 9, 1825April 2, 1865) was a Confederate general who was killed in the American Civil War. He is usually referred to as A. P. Hill to differentiate him from another, unrelated Confederate general, Daniel Harvey Hill.


title: A. P. Hill

text: A native Virginian, Hill was a career United States Army officer who had fought in the Mexican–American War and Seminole Wars prior to joining the Confederacy. After the start of the American Civil War, he gained early fame as the commander of the "Light Division" in the Seven Days Battles and became one of Stonewall Jackson's ablest subordinates, distinguishing himself in the 1862 battles of Cedar Mountain, Second Bull Run, Antietam, and Fredericksburg.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Following Jackson's death in May 1863 at the Battle of Chancellorsville, Hill was promoted to lieutenant general and commanded the Third Corps of Robert E. Lee's Army of Northern Virginia, which he led in the Gettysburg Campaign and the fall campaigns of 1863. His command of the corps in 1864–65 was interrupted on multiple occasions by illness, from which he did not return until just before the end of the war, when he was killed during the Union Army's offensive at the Third Battle of Petersburg.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill, known to his family as "Powell" (and to his soldiers as "Little Powell"), was born in Culpeper, Virginia, the seventh and final child of Thomas and Fannie Russell Baptist Hill. Powell was named for his uncle, Ambrose Powell Hill (1785–1858), who served in both houses of the Virginia legislature, and Capt. Ambrose Powell, an Indian fighter, explorer, sheriff, legislator, and close friend of President James Madison.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill was nominated to enter the United States Military Academy in 1842, in a class that started with 85 cadets. He made friends easily, including such prominent future generals as Darius N. Couch, George Pickett, Jesse L. Reno, George Stoneman, Truman Seymour, Cadmus M. Wilcox, and George B. McClellan. His future commander, Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson, was in the same class but the two did not get along. Hill had a higher social status in Virginia and valued having a good time in his off-hours, whereas Jackson scorned levity and practiced his religion more fervently than Hill could tolerate. In 1844, Hill returned from a furlough with a case of gonorrhea, medical complications from which caused him to miss so many classes that he was required to repeat his third year. Reassigned to the class of 1847, he made new friendships in particular with Henry Heth and Ambrose Burnside. Hill continued to suffer from the effects of VD for the rest of his life, being plagued with recurrent prostatitis, which was not treatable before the advent of antibiotics. He may have also suffered urinary incontinence due to inflammation of the prostate pressing on his urethra, which could also lead to uremic poisoning and kidney damage. He graduated in 1847, ranking 15th of 38. He was appointed to the 1st U.S. Artillery as a brevet second lieutenant. He served in a cavalry company during the final months of the Mexican–American War, but fought in no major battles. After some garrison assignments along the Atlantic seaboard, he served in the Seminole Wars, again arriving near the end of the war and fighting various minor skirmishes. He was promoted to first lieutenant in September 1851.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Robertson's biography of Hill quotes his wife Kitty as saying her husband, "never owned slaves and never approved of the institution of slavery." In the 1850 census, Thomas Hill (Hill's father) owned 20 slaves in Culpeper County. Ten years later, Thomas Hill Jr. owned at least 38 slaves in Culpeper County. Hill's uncle (also named Ambrose P. Hill) farmed in Culpeper County, Virginia, using enslaved labor. In the 1840 census Ambrose P. Hill owned 32 slaves, and 30 slaves in the 1850 census.


title: A. P. Hill

text: From 1855 to 1860, A. P. Hill worked for the United States' Coast Survey. He was once engaged to Ellen B. Marcy, the future wife of Hill's West Point roommate George B. McClellan, before her parents pressured her to break off the engagement. Although Hill denied he felt ill will about the affair afterward, during the war a rumor spread that Hill always fought harder if he knew McClellan was present with the opposing army, because of Ellen's rejection. On July 18, 1859, Hill married Kitty ("Dolly") Morgan McClung, a young widow, thus becoming the brother-in-law of future Confederate cavalry generals John Hunt Morgan (Hill's best man at the wedding) and Basil W. Duke.


title: A. P. Hill

text: On March 1, 1861, after some Southern states had seceded (and as the Virginia Secession Convention of 1861 met, Hill resigned his U.S. Army commission. After Virginia seceded, he accepted a commission as colonel of the 13th Virginia Infantry Regiment, which included units from his native Culpeper County, and nearby Orange, Louisa and Frederick Counties, as well as the Lanier Guards of Maryland and the Frontier Rifles of Hampshire County in what would soon become West Virginia. The 13th Virginia was one of the regiments in Brig. Gen. Joseph E. Johnston's army that were transported by railroad as reinforcements to the First Battle of Bull Run, but Hill and his men were sent to guard the Confederate right flank near Manassas and saw no action during the battle. Hill was promoted to brigadier general on February 26, 1862, and command of a brigade in the (Confederate) Army of the Potomac.


title: A. P. Hill

text: In the Peninsula Campaign of 1862, Hill performed well as a brigade commander at the Battle of Williamsburg, where his brigade blunted a Union attack, and was promoted to major general and division command on May 26. Hill's new division was composed mainly of brigades pulled from the Carolinas and Georgia.


title: A. P. Hill

text: His division did not participate in the Battle of Seven Pines (May 31June 1), the battle in which Joseph E. Johnston was wounded and replaced in command of the Army of Northern Virginia by Robert E. Lee. June 1 was the first day that Hill began using a nickname for his division: the "Light Division". This contradictory name for the largest division in all of the Confederate armies may have been selected because Hill wished his men to have a reputation for speed and agility. One of Hill's soldiers wrote after the war, "The name was applicable, for we often marched without coats, blankets, knapsacks, or any other burdens except our arms and haversacks, which were never heavy and sometimes empty."


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill's rookie division was in the thick of the fighting during the Seven Days Battles, being heavily engaged at Mechanicsville, Gaines Mill, and Glendale. Following the campaign, Hill became involved in a dispute with James Longstreet over a series of newspaper articles that appeared in the "Richmond Examiner"; relations between them deteriorated to the point that Hill was placed under arrest and Hill challenged Longstreet to a duel. Following the Seven Days Battles, Lee reorganized the army into two corps and assigned Hill's division to Stonewall Jackson. Their relationship was less than amicable and the two quarreled many times. Hill frequently found himself under arrest by Jackson.


title: A. P. Hill

text: At the Battle of Cedar Mountain on August 9, Hill launched a counterattack that stabilized the Confederate left flank, preventing it from being routed. Three weeks later at the Second Battle of Bull Run (Second Manassas), Hill was placed on the Confederate left along the unfinished railroad cut and held it against repeated Union attacks. During the campaign, Hill became involved in several minor disputes with Jackson concerning Jackson's marching orders to Hill.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill's performance at the Battle of Antietam was particularly noteworthy. While Lee's army was enduring strong attacks by the Army of the Potomac outside Sharpsburg, Maryland, Hill's Light Division had been left behind to process Union prisoners at Harpers Ferry. Responding to an urgent call for assistance from Lee, Hill marched his men at a grueling pace and reached the battlefield just in time to counterattack a strong forward movement by the corps of Maj. Gen. Ambrose Burnside, which threatened to destroy Lee's right flank. Hill's arrival neutralized the threat, bringing an end to the battle with Lee's army battered but undefeated. Hours after the battle, Hill told an inquisitive major that Burnside owed him $8,000. During the retreat back to Virginia, he had his division push back a few regiments from the Union V Corps.


title: A. P. Hill

text: At the Battle of Fredericksburg in December 1862, Hill was positioned near the Confederate right along a ridge; because of some swampy ground along his front, there was a 600-yard gap in Hill's front line, and the nearest brigade behind it was nearly a quarter mile away; the dense vegetation prevented the brigade commander from seeing any Union troops advancing on his position. During the battle, Maj. Gen. George Meade's division routed two of Hill's brigades and part of a third. Hill required the assistance from Maj. Gen. Jubal A. Early's division to repulse the Union attack. Hill's division suffered over 2,000 casualties during the battle, which was nearly two-thirds of the casualties in Jackson's corps; two of his brigade commanders were wounded, one (Maxcy Gregg) mortally. After the battle one of his brigade commanders, Brig. Gen. James J. Archer, criticized him about the gap left in the division's front line, saying that Hill had been warned about it before the battle but had done nothing to correct it. Hill was also absent from his division, and there is no record of where he was during the battle; this led to a rumor spread through the lines that he had been captured during the initial Union assault.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill and Jackson argued several times during the Northern Virginia Campaign and the 1862 Maryland Campaign. During the invasion of Maryland, Jackson had Hill arrested and after the campaign charged him with eight counts of dereliction of duty. During the lull in campaigning following the Battle of Fredericksburg, Hill repeatedly requested that Lee set up a court of inquiry, but the commanding general did not wish to lose the effective teamwork of his two experienced lieutenants and so refused to approve Hill's request. Their feud was put aside whenever a battle was being fought and then resumed afterward, a practice that lasted until the Battle of Chancellorsville in May 1863. There, Jackson was accidentally wounded by the 18th North Carolina Infantry of Hill's division. Hill briefly took command of the Second Corps and was wounded himself in the calves of his legs. While in the infirmary, he requested that the cavalry commander, J. E. B. Stuart, take his place in command.


title: A. P. Hill

text: After Jackson's death from pneumonia, Hill was promoted on May 24, 1863, to lieutenant general (becoming the Army of Northern Virginia's fourth highest-ranking general) and placed in command of the newly created Third Corps of Lee's army, which he led in the Gettysburg Campaign of 1863. One of Hill's divisions, led by his West Point classmate Maj. Gen. Henry Heth, was the first to engage Union troops at the Battle of Gettysburg. Although the first day of the battle was a resounding Confederate success, Hill received much postbellum criticism from proponents of the Lost Cause movement, suggesting that he had unwisely brought on a general engagement against orders before Lee's army was fully concentrated. His division under Maj. Gen. Richard H. Anderson fought in the unsuccessful second day assaults against Cemetery Ridge, while his favorite division commander, Maj. Gen. William Dorsey Pender, commanding the Light Division, was severely wounded, which prevented that division from cooperating with the assault. On the third day, two thirds of the men in Pickett's Charge were from Hill's corps, but Robert E. Lee chose James Longstreet to be overall commander of the assault. Of all three infantry corps of the Army of Northern Virginia, Hill's suffered the most casualties at Gettysburg, which prompted Lee to order them to lead the retreat back into Virginia.


title: A. P. Hill

text: During the autumn campaign of the same year, Hill launched his Corps "too hastily" in the Battle of Bristoe Station and was bloodily repulsed by Maj. Gen. Gouverneur K. Warren's II Corps. Lee did not criticize him for this afterward, but ordered him to detail himself to the dead and wounded after hearing his account. Hill's corps also took part in the Battle of Mine Run. Other than a brief visit to Richmond in January 1864, Hill remained with his corps in its winter encampments near Orange Court House.


title: A. P. Hill

text: In the Overland Campaign of 1864, Hill's corps held back multiple Union attacks during the first day of the Battle of the Wilderness, but became severely disorganized as a result. Despite several requests from his division commanders, Hill refused to straighten and strengthen his line during the night, possibly due to Lee's plan to relieve them at daylight. At dawn on the second day of the battle, the Union army launched an attack that briefly drove Hill's corps back, with several units routed, but the First Corps under Longstreet arrived just in time to reinforce him. Hill was medically incapacitated with an unspecified illness at Spotsylvania Court House, so Maj. Gen. Jubal Early temporarily took command of the Third Corps, but Hill was able to hear that his men were doing well and to observe the battle at Lee's side. After recovering and regaining his corps, he was later rebuked by Lee for his piecemeal attacks at the Battle of North Anna. By then, Lee himself was too ill to coordinate his subordinates in springing a planned trap of the Union Army. Hill held the Confederate left flank at Cold Harbor, but two divisions of his corps were used to defend against the main Union attack on the right flank on June 3; when part of the troops to his right gave way, Hill used one brigade to launch a successful counterattack.


title: A. P. Hill

text: During the Siege of Petersburg of 1864–65, Hill and his men participated in several battles during the various Union offensives, particularly Jerusalem Plank Road, the Crater, Globe Tavern, Second Reams Station, and Peebles Farm. During the Battle of the Crater, he fought against his West Point classmate Ambrose Burnside, whom the former repulsed at Antietam and Fredericksburg. Hill was ill several times that winter; in March 1865, his health had deteriorated to the point where he had to recuperate in Richmond until April 1, 1865.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill had said he had no desire to live to see the collapse of the Confederacy, and on April 2, 1865 (during the Union breakthrough in the Third Battle of Petersburg, just seven days before Lee's surrender at Appomattox Court House), he was shot dead by a Union soldier, Corporal John W. Mauck of the 138th Pennsylvania, as he rode to the front of the Petersburg lines, accompanied by one staff officer. They had called upon the Union soldiers to surrender. Instead, the federals refused the demand and shot Hill through the chest. The rifle bullet traveled through his heart, exited his chest, and sliced off his left thumb. Hill fell to the ground and died within moments.


title: A. P. Hill

text: In April 1912, the SCV unveiled two monuments denoting the death of A. P. Hill in Dinwiddie County. The larger of these two monuments is located at the intersection of the Boydton Plank Road and Duncan Road.


title: A. P. Hill

text: It is thought that this location was chosen because it was easily accessible from the road. A small parking area is located behind the monument on Duncan Road making it easy and safe to visit and access. The marker is located at GPS coordinates: 37° 11.365′ N, 77° 28.52′ W.


title: A. P. Hill

text: The SCV also marked what is thought to be the exact site where Hill fell in April 1912. The small granite marker at the site reads:


title: A. P. Hill

text: The GPS coordinates for this marker are: 37° 11.553′ N, 77° 28.847′ W. It is approximately a half mile from the larger stone. The marker is located near Sentry Hill Court and is on land that was preserved by the American Battlefield Trust. It is publicly accessible via a short trail.


title: A. P. Hill

text: The marker was replaced as recently as 2015. It is Virginia Historical Marker S-49. It is located just south of the turn off for the marker in the Sentry Hill area. There is no designated pull off area for this marker. It is located at GPS coordinates: 37° 11.348′ N, 77° 28.601′ W.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Confederates recovered Hill's corpse shortly afterward. When Lee heard of Hill's death, he tearfully uttered, "He is now at rest, and we who are left are the ones to suffer." Hill's family had hoped to bury Hill in Richmond, but the city's evacuation by the Confederate government during the next days and capture by Union forces led to Hill's burial in Chesterfield County. Per his last will and testament, Hill was interred standing up.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill did not escape controversy during the war. He had a frail physique and suffered from frequent illnesses that reduced his effectiveness at Gettysburg, the Wilderness, and Spotsylvania Court House. (Some historians believe these illnesses were related to the venereal disease he contracted as a West Point cadet.)


title: A. P. Hill

text: Some analysts consider Hill an example of the Peter principle. Although he was extremely successful commanding his famed "Light Division," he was less effective as a corps commander. Historian Larry Tagg described Hill as "always emotional ... so high strung before battle that he had an increasing tendency to become unwell when the fighting was about to commence." This tendency was to some extent balanced by the implied combative attitude that he displayed. He often donned a red calico hunting shirt when a battle was about to start and the men under his command would pass the word, "Little Powell's got on his battle shirt!" and begin to check their weapons.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill was affectionate with the rank-and-file soldiers and one officer called him "the most lovable of all Lee's generals." Although it was said that "his manner [was] so courteous as almost to lack decision," his actions were often impetuous, and did not lack decision, but judgment.


title: A. P. Hill

text: In 1887, the Sons of Confederate Veterans in Petersburg held its first meeting and decided to name its camp for A. P. Hill, because he defended the city, his Third Corps included Petersburg's own 12th Virginia Infantry regiment, and because Gen. Hill died in nearby Dinwiddie County during the Third Battle of Petersburg a few days before General Lee surrendered the Army of Northern Virginia. They also erected a marker where Hill fell mortally wounded. Prominent commanders of the camp (lodge) included Congressman Patrick Henry Drewry and Petersburg's multi-term state senator Samuel D. Rodgers. The camp may have lapsed after 1938, but was revived on June 9, 1959 with David Lyon as its Commander. Petersburg also named a school after Hill, and others for Lee, Stonewall Jackson and J.E.B. Stuart.


title: A. P. Hill

text: Hill's remains were reinterred twice in Richmond. In February 1867, Hill's remains were reinterred in Richmond's Hollywood Cemetery. During the late 1880s, several former comrades raised funds for a monument to Hill in Richmond. Hill's remains were again transferred, to the base of a monument that was dedicated on May 30, 1892 on land donated by developer Lewis Ginter. The site was located in the center of the intersection of Laburnum Avenue and Hermitage Road in what is now the city's Hermitage Road Historic District. This monument was the only one of its type in Richmond under which the subject individual was actually interred. On June 26, 2020, the Hermitage Road Historic District Association released a public statement requesting that the City of Richmond remove and relocate the monument to a more appropriate location. This request occurred within the context of the contemporary Black Lives Matter movement, and further impetus for the removal of Confederate monuments had been provided by protests in Richmond and elsewhere that followed the murder of George Floyd by a Minneapolis police officer in May 2020.


title: A. P. Hill

text: In January 2022 the administration of Richmond mayor Levar Stoney announced that the Richmond statue and remains of Hill would be removed in the very near future. The City of Richmond had gained authority to remove monuments to war veterans on public city grounds from legislation signed into law by Virginia Governor Ralph Northam on April 11, 2020. Because Hill was the only Confederate general who was actually buried under his monument in Richmond, government officials decided to delay any tampering with the monument until they could find a final resting place for Hill's remains. Following the filing of a lawsuit by members of A. P. Hill's extended family of descendants, who claimed that they, and not the City of Richmond, had the right to determine the disposition of the statue, a Virginia circuit court ruled in favor of the city's plan to transfer the statue to the Black History Museum and Cultural Center of Virginia. The statue was removed on December 12, 2022 after the denial of a motion by the extended family members to stay its removal. It was the last statue of a Confederate officer standing in Richmond. The remains of A. P. Hill, which were exhumed one day later on December 13, are expected to be reinterred in a cemetery in Culpeper, Virginia. The statue will remain in storage until an appeal by A. P. Hill's descendants is resolved, who want the statue to be relocated to Cedar Mountain Battlefield for it to continue to serve as Hill's grave marker.


title: A. P. Hill

text: The United States military honored Hill by naming both a fort and a ship after him. Fort A.P. Hill is located in Caroline County, Virginia, about halfway between Richmond and Washington, D.C. During World War II, the United States Navy named a Liberty Ship the SS "A. P. Hill" in his honor. In 2020, during the George Floyd protests, there were calls to rename U.S. Army installations named after Confederate soldiers, including Fort A.P. Hill.


title: Don Callis

text: Donald Callis (born October 13, 1963) is a Canadian professional wrestling manager, color commentator, and former professional wrestler and business executive. He is signed to All Elite Wrestling (AEW), where he works as the on-screen manager of Kenny Omega and as a backstage consultant.


title: Don Callis

text: A former wrestler, Callis spent the majority of his career performing as either Cyrus (shortened from Cyrus the Virus) or Don Callis. He first gained international attention working under the name The Jackyl for the World Wrestling Federation (WWF). While in the WWF, Callis managed a group known as The Truth Commission and later managed The Oddities and The Acolytes before being released in 1999. From 1999 to 2001, he worked for Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) as a manager and commentator, during which he was portrayed as a fictional "network representative" who headed a group known as The Network. In 2003, he was introduced as an on-screen character for Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) and returned to the company, now called Impact Wrestling, in 2017 becoming an executive vice president and commentator for the promotion. While with Impact, Callis also worked for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) where he served as an English language commentator on NJPW World. In 2020, through Impact's relationship with AEW, Callis began appearing on AEW programming. The following year in 2021, Callis' time as Impact executive vice president came to an end, with Callis remaining in the company as an on-air talent until October 2021 when the AEW and Impact partnership ended.


title: Don Callis

text: Callis was trained by Manitoba wrestling promoter Tony Condello, debuting in 1989 in Condello's West Four Wrestling Alliance (WFWA) promotion under his birth name. Later that year, Callis adopted the ring name "The Natural". In May 1991, The Natural won the WFWA Canadian Heavyweight Championship. Between 1991 and 1994, he held the championship a total of four times. In 1994, the West Four Wrestling Alliance was renamed the International Wrestling Alliance (IWA). Callis held the IWA Heavyweight Championship twice in 1996.


title: Don Callis

text: In 1992, Callis wrestled for the Quebec-based Lutte Lanaudière as "The General", teaming with El Diablero as "The Jet Set Team". The Jet Set Team held the Lutte Lanaudière Tag Team Championship for eight months.


title: Don Callis

text: Callis received a try-out match with the World Wrestling Federation (WWF) in 1996 and was eventually hired to form a tag team with Rick Martel, which was dubbed "The Models". When Martel officially departed from the WWF for World Championship Wrestling (WCW), Callis was left without a gimmick and spot on WWF television. In a shoot interview with RF Video, Callis first revealed that he and Rick Martel were set to debut on WWF TV as "The Supermodels" in 1997, before he would eventually turned on Martel, turning Martel into a babyface for the first time since Martel walked out on his former teammate Tito Santana at WrestleMania V. Callis later reaffirmed that he and Martel were set to debut as a team during an interview with WWE.com in 2015.


title: Don Callis

text: On September 20, 1997, Callis debuted in the WWF as "The Jackyl", a member (and eventually leader) of a group of wrestlers known as "The Truth Commission" (a take on the South African Truth and Reconciliation Commission) replacing the Commandant for refusing to take bumps. An article in "WWF Magazine" claimed that he was a lower-level WWF employee during the early 1990s, and that he developed a messianic complex when he led a group of WWF wrestlers out of Kuwait when they were stranded there during the Gulf War. In an effort to play up The Jackyl's gimmick as a charismatic, power-hungry fanatic, commentator Jim Ross often referred to him as the "David Koresh of the World Wrestling Federation". The Jackyl, though mainly a manager, would sometimes would compete in singles matches mainly on "Shotgun Saturday Night" and at house shows. Notably, The Jackyl fought in his hometown, Winnipeg, as "The General", against Jim Neidhart in a losing effort. Jackyl would frequently participate in tag team matches with The Interrogator (later known as Kurrgan). The Truth Commission stable was not particularly successful, with their biggest achievement being a victory over the Disciples of Apocalypse at Survivor Series 1997. At WrestleMania XIV, The Jackyl ordered Kurrgan to eliminate stablemates Recon and Sniper from the Tag Team Battle Royal, effectively disbanding the stable.


title: Don Callis

text: Callis returned to television in 1998, forming a stable known as "The Parade of Human Oddities" (later known as simply "The Oddities"). The group consisted of "freakish" wrestlers, including Golga (a masked Earthquake) and Kurrgan, among others. The group had entrance music performed by the Insane Clown Posse. The stable did not last long, and Callis eventually started managing the new tag team of Faarooq and Bradshaw, "The Acolytes", until he was released by the WWF. Callis claims he was released by Bruce Prichard for "getting himself over at the expense of the talent". Shortly after being released, Callis began writing weekly wrestling columns for the Sun Media Group and co-hosted a local Winnipeg radio show called "No Holds Barred" with Joe Aiello on CITI-FM.


title: Don Callis

text: In mid-1999, Callis debuted in Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) as "Cyrus the Virus" (a name lifted from the 1997 movie "Con Air"), a commentator with a gimmick similar to that of his WWF persona. He would broadcast exclusively on pay-per-view along with Joey Styles. As the real-life issues between ECW and their network TNN heightened, Callis was then presented as working for the network, under the shortened moniker of "Cyrus". His character represented many of the real problems between ECW and TNN at that point, as he constantly criticized the violent nature of ECW programming. He would also display affection for "RollerJam" and "Rockin' Bowl", two programs on the network that ECW fans alike despised, due to the network giving them preferential treatment despite poor ratings in comparison with ECW. He singled out Joel Gertner for disciplinary measures, among other things due to Gertner "getting himself over at the expense of the talent", which was the reason given to Callis by Bruce Prichard for his WWF release.


title: Don Callis

text: Cyrus then displayed authority in ECW due to his executive position with the network, working as a heel to crusade against ECW fan favorites (in kayfabe), but to also appease the network by preventing the lewd content (as a shoot). Cyrus then teamed with the anti-hardcore Steve Corino, and eventually formed a stable with Corino, his manager Jack Victory, and their hired guns Yoshihiro Tajiri and Rhino. They were collectively known as The Network. He engaged in a long-term feud with commentator Joel Gertner, which culminated in a match on October 1, 2000, at Anarchy Rulz 2000, in which Gertner was triumphant.


title: Don Callis

text: Following this, Cyrus (kayfabe) canceled "ECW on TNN" (as the show was soon to be canceled legitimately, in favor of "WWF Raw"). Cyrus would then go on to aid Rhino in winning his first ECW World Heavyweight Championship at the final pay-per-view, Guilty as Charged 2001. ECW would declare bankruptcy soon after.


title: Don Callis

text: With ECW out of business and WCW, which had expressed interest in signing Callis, purchased by the WWF, Callis returned to university, eventually earning a Master of Business Administration (MBA).


title: Don Callis

text: Following ECW's closing, Callis wrestled on the independent circuit, primarily appearing for Canadian promotions such as the Prairie Wrestling Association, Pro Outlaw Wrestling, and Top Rope Championship Wrestling. From 2001 to 2002, he appeared with Border City Wrestling, holding the BCW Can-Am Tag Team Championship with Terry Taylor. Callis also briefly operated the No Holds Barred Wrestling Camp, a Winnipeg-based wrestling training camp.


title: Don Callis

text: On July 13, 2018, it was announced Callis would serve as part of the broadcast team for the September 1 All In event, alongside Ian Riccaboni, Sean Mooney, Excalibur, Alicia Atout, Justin Roberts, and Bobby Cruise.


title: Don Callis

text: In 2003, Callis debuted in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling (TNA) as a "Management Consultant". During this time, he claimed credit for the creation of the Ultimate X match, which he said he devised to settle a dispute over who was the rightful X Division champion was.


title: Don Callis

text: In storyline, Callis engaged in a power struggle with then Director of Authority Erik Watts and used his power to make life difficult for Jerry Lynn, repeatedly fining and suspending him. On January 28, 2004, Callis succeeded in ousting Watts from TNA when he defeated him in a match for control of the promotion, though he quietly departed TNA soon afterward.


title: Don Callis

text: Callis departed from TNA on good terms in 2004, having been offered a job in International trade that made use of his MBA. While having generally retired from professional wrestling, Callis made an appearance at the ECW reunion show Hardcore Homecoming on June 10, 2005.


title: Don Callis

text: Following his departure from TNA, Callis began writing weekly wrestling columns for the Sun Media Group and co-hosted a local Winnipeg radio show called "No Holds Barred" with Joe Aiello on 92 CITI FM. On October 18, 2016, Callis debuted a new podcast with longtime friend Lance Storm called "Killing the Town with Storm and Cyrus".


title: Don Callis

text: On January 17, 2017, Callis announced that he had accepted an offer to become the new English color commentator for New Japan Pro-Wrestling (NJPW) events on the NJPW World streaming service, working alongside Kevin Kelly. Callis replaced Steve Corino who had signed with WWE. At the December 11 World Tag League 2017 Final, Callis was attacked by Chris Jericho in an angle that promoted Jericho's match with Kenny Omega at Wrestle Kingdom 12 – a match Callis helped NJPW to book.


title: Don Callis

text: On December 5, 2017, Impact Wrestling announced Callis as the promotion's new co-executive vice president, alongside Scott D'Amore.


title: Don Callis

text: On April 22, 2018, Callis served as the color commentator for the Redemption pay-per-view event as well as on the following episode of "Impact!". During the Summer and Fall of 2018, Callis began appearing regularly alongside Josh Matthews on commentary for Impact events, eventually becoming the permanent color commentator for the promotion. Callis was later replaced on commentary by Madison Rayne, though he would remain Impact's co-executive vice president.


title: Don Callis

text: In May 2021, it was reported that Callis' time as Impact executive vice president has ended, though he would remain as an on-air talent. On the June 17 episode of "Impact!", Callis role as executive vice president was terminated by Tommy Dreamer.


title: Don Callis

text: Callis made his All Elite Wrestling (AEW) debut as a special guest commentator, at the request of Kenny Omega, during the World Title Eliminator Tournament Final between Omega and "Hangman" Adam Page at Full Gear.


title: Don Callis

text: On December 2, 2020, at Winter Is Coming, Callis was a special guest commentator for the AEW World Championship match between the champion Jon Moxley and the challenger Omega. During the match, Callis helped Omega win the title. When asked about his interference, he assured everyone that their questions would get answered on the December 8 episode of "Impact!". On December 9, Callis returned to "Dynamite", arriving by helicopter with Omega. Callis then revealed he had been planning Omega's championship victory since both men first met in their native country of Canada decades ago.


title: Kombu Vatcha Singamda

text: Kombu Vatcha Singamda () is a 2022 Indian Tamil-language action drama film written and directed by S.R. Prabhakaran and produced by Redhan The Cinema People. The film stars M. Sasikumar and Madonna Sebastian with a supporting cast including Soori, Mahendran, Hareesh Peradi and Inder Kumar. The film's music and score is composed by Dhibu Ninan Thomas, with cinematography handled by N. K. Ekambaram and editing done by V. Don Bosco. The film released in theatres on 13 January 2022. The film received mixed reviews.


title: Kombu Vatcha Singamda

text: The film marked M. Sasikumar's second collaboration with S. R. Prabhakaran after "Sundarapandian" (2012). The cast was finalized with Madonna Sebastian playing the female lead opposite Sasikumar. The principal photography began with a pooja ceremony on 13 October 2020. The film was shot in Karaikudi, Coimbatore, Pollachi, Palani, Tenkasi, Kovilpatti, Virudhunagar and Madurai cities and was wrapped up in a single schedule in May 2021.


title: Kombu Vatcha Singamda

text: The trailer of the film was released in September 2021. The film released in theatres on 13 January 2022.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: Lou Hoover (née Henry; March 29, 1874 – January 7, 1944) was an American philanthropist, geologist, and First Lady of the United States from 1929 to 1933 as the wife of President Herbert Hoover. She was active in numerous community organizations and volunteer groups throughout her life, including the Girl Scouts of the USA, of which she was the head from 1922 to 1925 and from 1935 to 1937. Throughout her life, Hoover supported women's rights and women's independence. She was a proficient linguist, being fluent in six languages, and she was the primary translator of the complex 16th century metallurgy text "De re metallica" from Latin to English.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: She was raised in California while it was part of the American frontier, and she attended Stanford University as the first female geology major in the United States. She met fellow geology student Herbert Hoover at Stanford, and they married in 1899. She traveled widely with him while he worked as a mining engineer, assisting him in his work. The Hoovers first resided in China, during which time the Boxer Rebellion broke out, and they were present for the Battle of Tientsin. They moved to London where Hoover raised their two sons and became a popular hostess between their international travels. During World War I, the Hoovers led humanitarian efforts to assist war refugees. Hoover organized refugee support and transportation in the United Kingdom and went on fundraising tours in the United States. The family moved to Washington, D.C. when Herbert was appointed head of the Food and Drug Administration, and Lou became a conservation activist in support of his work.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: Hoover became the First Lady of the United States when her husband was inaugurated as president in 1929. She minimized her public role as White House hostess, dedicating her time as first lady to her volunteer work. She refused to give interviews to reporters, but she became the first first lady to give regular radio broadcasts. Her invitation of Jessie De Priest to the White House for tea was controversial for its implied support of racial integration and civil rights. Hoover was responsible for refurbishing the White House during her tenure, and she also saw to the construction of a presidential retreat at Rapidan Camp. Hoover's reputation declined alongside her husband's during the Great Depression as she was seen as uncaring of the struggles faced by Americans. Both the public and those close to her were unaware of her extensive charitable work to support the poor while serving as first lady, as she believed that publicizing generosity was improper.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: After her husband lost his reelection campaign in 1932, the Hoovers returned to California, and they moved to New York City in 1940. Hoover was bitter about her husband's loss, blaming dishonest reporting and underhanded campaigning tactics, and she strongly opposed the Roosevelt administration. She provided humanitarian support with her husband during World War II until her sudden death of a heart attack in 1944.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: Lou Henry was born in Waterloo, Iowa, to Florence Ida (née Weed) and Charles Delano Henry, who was a banker by trade. She was the older of two daughters, raised first in Waterloo, and later in the California towns of Whittier and Monterey. She was proficient in school, receiving a traditional education so she could become a teacher. While she was a child, Lou's father educated her in outdoorsmanship, and she learned to camp, shoot, and ride. She took up sports, including baseball, basketball, and archery. Her parents also taught her other practical skills, such as bookkeeping and sewing. Her family was nominally Episcopalian, but they were close to the local Quaker community.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: Henry began her postsecondary schooling at the Los Angeles Normal School (now the University of California, Los Angeles). She then transferred to San Jose Normal School (now San José State University), from which she obtained a teaching credential in 1893. After graduation, she took a job at her father's bank in addition to working as a substitute teacher. The following year, she attended a lecture by geologist John Casper Branner. Fascinated by the subject, she enrolled in Branner's program at Stanford University to pursue a degree in geology. It was there that Branner introduced her to her future husband, Herbert Hoover, who was then a senior. The two became friends, and the friendship evolved into a courtship. She studied geology with the intention of doing field work, but she and Branner were unable to find any employers willing to accept a female geologist. She was the school’s only female geology major at the time, and received her bachelor's degree in geology in 1898. She was the first woman in the United States to hold such a degree.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: In 1897, Herbert was offered an engineering job in Australia. Before leaving, he had dinner with the Henrys and their engagement was informally agreed upon. While he was in Australia, Lou and Herbert maintained a long-distance relationship. He sent her a marriage proposal by cable, reading "Going to China via San Francisco. Will you go with me?". They were married in the Henry's home on February 10, 1899. Lou also announced her intention to change her religious faith from Episcopalian to her husband's Quaker religion, but there was no Quaker Meeting in Monterey, and she never did so. Instead, they were married in a civil ceremony performed by a Spanish Roman Catholic priest at her family home.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: The day after their marriage, the Hoovers sailed from San Francisco, and they briefly honeymooned at the Royal Hawaiian Hotel in Honolulu. They arrived in Shanghai on March 8, where they spent four days in the Astor House Hotel. Hoover stayed with a missionary couple in the foreign colony in Tientsin (now Tianjin) while her husband was working, and they moved into a home of their own the following September. It was their first home as a married couple, a Western-style brick house at the edge of the colony. It was here that Hoover began homemaking and interior decoration. Within the home, she managed a staff and entertained for guests. She also took up typing while in China, purchasing a typewriter and writing scientific articles on Chinese mining with her husband. While in China, she started a collection of Chinese porcelain that she would maintain throughout her life.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: The Hoovers lived in China until August 1900. The Boxer Rebellion began while they lived in China, and despite her husband's pleas, she refused to leave his side amidst the danger. They participated in the Battle of Tientsin in 1900, with Lou serving as a nurse while Herbert worked as an engineer. Artillery shelling was a constant danger throughout the conflict. For a month, Hoover carried a revolver while she ran supplies to soldiers on her bicycle. As foreigners, they were in particular danger during the conflict, including one instance in which Hoover's bicycle tire was shot out while she was riding. One Monterey newspaper mistakenly published her obituary. They would briefly return to China once more with Lou's sister Jean for several months in 1901, at which point the Boxer Rebellion had ended and China was safe for tourists.


title: Lou Henry Hoover

text: From China, the Hoovers moved their primary residence to London, which would remain the Hoover's primary residence while they traveled for work. Herbert became an independent mining consultant, and his work made them millionaires. Because of their travels, Hoover spent much time on steamboats; the trips were relatively comfortable as they traveled in first class, and she spent much of her time on these months-long voyages by reading or by hosting social visits with other travelers using portable tea sets and tables. Their work took them throughout Europe and to many other countries, including Australia, Burma, Ceylon, Egypt, India, Japan, New Zealand, and Russia. The Hoovers had two sons who would accompany them as they traveled. Herbert Hoover Jr. was born in 1903, and Allan Hoover was born in 1907.