title: Glamorgan

text: The northern part of the county is a mountainous area, dissected by deep narrow valleys. At the southern edge of the Brecon Beacons, the simple geological structure of Old Red Sandstone gives way to Carboniferous rocks; limestone, shales and millstone grit. In the 19th century, industrial and population growth in the coal-bearing valleys of the Rhymney, Taff, Dare and Rhondda gave rise to a form of urbanisation characterised as ribbon development. The last deep mine, Tower Colliery at Hirwaun, closed in January 2008. A few small drift mines like Unity Mine (formerly Pentreclwydau South) near Glynneath remain. Towns in the region included Aberdare, Caerphilly, Pontypridd, Maesteg, Merthyr Tydfil and Mountain Ash.


title: Glamorgan

text: Further west is Swansea Bay and the Gower Peninsula, an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty. Of all the areas, Gower was the least affected by heavy industry and the ancient landscape was the least impaired. The high ground that runs centrally through the Gower was largely uncultivated common land and its beaches and rocky coastal headlands showed little signs of the tourist trade that played an increasing role on the local economy. The major settlements of the region include Swansea, Neath and Port Talbot.


title: Glamorgan

text: The coastline of Glamorgan stretches for 88 miles from Trowbridge in the east to Gower in the west. It divides naturally into three distinct sections. The coast of the Vale of Glamorgan is mainly characterised by cliffs, while from Porthcawl to Swansea Bay wide sandy shores prevail. The final section, the Gower coast, is made up of a rugged and serrated peninsula.


title: Glamorgan

text: From the east the first major coastline feature is the Rhymney River, once seen as the natural border between Glamorgan and Monmouthshire, until the absorption of Trowbridge into the Cardiff district in 1936. Heading west, the coast is an expanse of alluvial deposits stretching to the mouth of Glamorgan's most well known river, the River Taff. Once marshland, the area was consumed by the rapid growth of the Cardiff Docks during the industrial revolution, but with the downturn in Glamorgan's iron and coal industries, the docks declined. Also flowing into Cardiff Docks is the River Ely, which separates Cardiff from the headland and seaside resort of Penarth in the Vale of Glamorgan. Here the coast stretches southwards for two and a half miles from Penarth Head to Lavernock Point, hidden from vessels travelling up the Bristol Channel. South easterly from Lavernock Point, roughly three miles out in the Channel Estuary is Flat Holm, an island which although geographically is within the Vale, is administered as part of the city of Cardiff. Flat Holm is the most southerly point of Glamorgan and Wales.


title: Glamorgan

text: From Lavernock Point the coast heads sharply west to the town of Barry, a well-known seaside resort, Barry is most notable for its rapid expansion during the late 19th century to become an important dock, at one stage surpassing Cardiff Dock for the tonnage of coal exported. Passing the cliffs of Barry Island the coastline becomes a low-lying promontory called the Lays, which continues west taking in the villages of Rhoose and Aberthaw before reaching Breaksea Point, the most southerly point of mainland Wales. Beyond the point is Limpert Bay, which is overlooked by the village of Gileston and the ancient encampment of Summerhouse Point. Here the cliffs rise and run for eleven miles as far as the estuary of the Ogmore. Along this run of cliffs the coast passes Llantwit Major and St Donats, before heading in a rough north-west direction at Nash Point.


title: Glamorgan

text: The coastline remains as steep cliffs until after Dunraven Head, where the cliff face drops away to expose Southerndown Beach. Two miles beyond, the Ogmore River runs out into a sand-locked bay which can be seen as commencing the second section of the Glamorgan coast, as here the scenery undergoes an abrupt change; from a series of unbroken cliffs to vast regions of sandy beaches. The Ogmore Bay at Ogmore-by-Sea is not only floored with sand but is also backed by high and extensive sand dune system, these impressive natural sand features are commonly known as the Merthyr Mawr sand dunes. Beyond the bay the underlying rocks emerge from the sand to form the promontory of Porthcawl Point. Porthcawl town, once possessing a small dock, abandoned the trade in favour of tourism. The coast continues to the north west as a low rocky formation for three miles to Sker Point, after which the sand line begins again, forming an arid wilderness all the way to Port Talbot. Port Talbot was one of the later industrial towns of Glamorgan, and grew out of the medieval village of Aberavon, a settlement built on the banks of the River Afan. To the west of the mouth of the Afan is the new district of Sandfields, built over the holiday dunes of Aberavon beach in the 1950s to house the workforce of Port Talbot Steelworks.


title: Glamorgan

text: The River Afan commences the wide sweep of Swansea Bay, which from Port Talbot arcs around taking in Baglan Bay, Briton Ferry, Swansea and ending in Mumbles. The whole bay is shut in by high hills and is thickly encircled with sands. Within the bay are two of the major estuaries of Glamorgan; from Port Talbot the first is the River Neath, which is protected by long breakwaters. The second is the Tawe, the central river of Swansea. Beyond the Tawe the bay sweeps for six miles before reaching Mumbles Head, its most westerly point. Mumbles Head is served by Mumbles Lighthouse, which sits on the further of two small islands off the head.


title: Glamorgan

text: At The Mumbles, the coastline begins its third phase, commencing the wild and rugged cliffs of the Gower. From Mumbles Head to Worm's Head, 20 miles to the west, the coast consists of a series of precipitous cliffs, interrupted by a number of sandy bays. The most notable of the bays include Langland Bay, Caswell Bay, Pwlldu Bay, Three Cliffs Bay and Oxwich Bay. Three Cliffs Bay and the adjoining Oxwich Bay are overlooked by three medieval defences, Pennard Castle, Penrice Castle and Oxwich Castle, all three now ruinous. Oxwich Bay ends in the large wooded promontory of Oxwich Point, which leads west to the beach front villages of Horton and Port Eynon. From Port Eynon Point, a five-mile stretch of wild and impressive cliffs leads to Worm's Head and the western termination of the peninsula. This rock face is pierced in places by caverns, the most notable being Culver Hole a bone cave near Port Eynon Point.


title: Glamorgan

text: Worm's Head is one of the stand out features of the Glamorgan coastline, a long narrow ledge of limestone, projecting into the sea, ending in a 200-foot high wedge shaped crag; the Head takes its name from its resemblance to a dragon. On the northern side of the Worm's Head is the village and Bay of Rhossili, a westerly facing bay that leads backwards to a series of downs, some of the highest land in the Gower. Rhossili Bay ends in the northern formation of Llangenydd Burrows and the islet of Burry Holms. The final stretch of Glamorgan coastline turns north-east to form the Burry Inlet, a shallow and sand-choked estuary which leads to a tract of salt marshes which stretch to the mouth of the River Loughor. The Loughor forming the border between Glamorgan and Carmarthenshire.


title: Glamorgan

text: The major rivers of Glamorgan include the Taff, the Ely, the Ogmore, the Neath, Dulais, the Tawe, the Rhymney (which forms the historic boundary with Monmouthshire), and the Loughor (which forms the historic boundary with Carmarthenshire).


title: Glamorgan

text: After the fall of the Welsh kingdom of Morgannwg to Robert FitzHamon in 1091, the region became the English Lordship of Glamorgan, sometimes called the Lordship of Glamorgan and Morgan because it was divided into the Norman settled Plain or Vale of Glamorgan and the Welsh upland area called Morgannwg, anglicized to Morgan. Both areas were under the control of the Norman Lords of Glamorgan (often the Earls of Gloucester). As well as building a military and defensive network, the Normans also undertook an ecclesiastical reorganisation on Glamorgan. In Llandaff there was a small monastic community based on a small church; which was made the headquarters of the diocese, incorporated into the Province of Canterbury. The Diocese of Llandaff covered almost the entirety of Glamorgan and continued throughout the history of the county of Glamorgan, and through to modern times.


title: Glamorgan

text: In 1536, the Laws in Wales Act 1535 attached the Lordship of Gower and Kilvey to Glamorgan and created the historic county of Glamorgan. Along with gaining parliamentary representation in 1536, Glamorgan became part of the King's circuit, with judges from England administering law at the Great Session or Assizes. Local magistrates were appointed to deal with petty sessions while Lords Lieutenant were appointed as the King's representative. Law enforcement within the confines of the shire was the responsibility of the High Sheriff of Glamorgan.


title: Glamorgan

text: From the 1790s a call was made for parliamentary reform to address the imbalance between the number of Members of Parliament for each Welsh county and the population each seat represented. Radnorshire had only a tenth of the population of Glamorganshire, though Radnorshire had one MP to Glamorganshire's two (Glamorgan and the District of Cardiff). The First Reform Act (1832) gave five more seats to Wales, three went to Glamorganshire. The Act increased the number of MPs for Glamorganshire from one to two, it created the separate District of Swansea and Merthyr Tydfil became a borough constituency. Reflecting the increased importance and wealth of Merthyr the borough was given a second MP after the Reform Act 1867. However, the 1867 Act had only a limited impact in Glamorgan as the majority of the population lived in the county constituency. Out of 162,241 inhabitants of the county in 1880, only 12,785 had the vote. Conversely, the borough electorate, in Cardiff, Swansea and Merthyr Tydfil had been greatly expanded. This was particularly true of Merthyr where the electorate was increased tenfold to 14,577. As a result, the nonconformist radical, Henry Richard, was returned as senior member for Merthyr, an important watershed in Welsh political history.


title: Glamorgan

text: In 1884, the county members were the octogenarian C.R.M. Talbot, who had served since 1830 and the Swansea industrialist, Hussey Vivian, first elected in 1857. In 1885, all ten of the Glamorgan seats were captured by the Liberal Party and this election represented the triumph of the nonconformist middle classes. However, the political representation of Glamorgan was transformed between 1884 and 1922. By 1922, the county was represented by eleven Labour MPs. The transformation commenced with the Redistribution of Seats Act 1885. Glamorganshire was split from its two Members of Parliament to five, with the creation of constituencies for East, Mid and South Glamorganshire, Gower and Rhondda. An additional Swansea Town constituency was created, distinct from Swansea District but the Cardiff constituency remained unchanged, and with over 85,000 inhabitants became the largest single-member constituency in the United Kingdom. At this election, all ten members returned for Glamorgan were Liberals, an event which marked the ascendancy of the nonconformist middle-class as a powerful political force. Although most of these seats now had the working-class electorate in a majority they were safe for the Liberals as long as the labour element remained in the Liberal fold.


title: Glamorgan

text: An administrative county of Glamorgan was created under the Local Government Act 1888, excluding Swansea and Cardiff, which became independent county boroughs. In 1908, county borough status was also granted to Merthyr Tydfil, despite protests from the southern part of the borough, where it was claimed that links were stronger with Pontypridd. In 1935, a Royal Commission argued that Merthyr Tydfil County Borough, then heavily burdened by the cost of maintaining many unemployed people, should be abolished and merged with Glamorgan. The county council refused the proposal.


title: Glamorgan

text: The first chairman of the County Council was Henry Vivian, 1st Baron Swansea. The county council's coat of arms, granted in 1950, was: "Or, three chevronels gules between as many Tudor roses barbed and seeded proper". The red chevronels on a gold shield were the arms of the De Clare Marcher Lords, while the roses recorded the shiring of Glamorgan by Henry VIII. The crest above the shield was a Welsh dragon rising from flames, symbolising the revival of the county's industry following a period of economic depression. The dragon supported a flag bearing a clarion from the arms of the De Granville family, lords of Neath. The supporters of the arms were a coalminer and a steel worker. The motto adopted by the county council: "A Ddioddefws A Orfu" or "He Who suffered, conquered" was that of the lineage of Iestyn ap Gwrgant, and was considered appropriate to an area whose wealth depended on great hardship.


title: Glamorgan

text: Under the Local Government Act 1972, the county boroughs and administrative county of Glamorgan were abolished on 1 April 1974, with three new counties being established, each containing a former county borough: West Glamorgan, Mid Glamorgan, South Glamorgan. It 1996 these areas were reorganised into several unitary authorities by the Local Government Act of 1994. The South Wales Police force covers an area that is similar to Glamorgan. Since 2013, Glamorgan has had its own official flag, red with three white chevrons.


title: Glamorgan

text: The earliest forms of transport within Glamorgan were mere paths or trackways linking one settlement to another. With continual use the tracks widened to allow different forms of travel, including the use by pack horses; and as the tracks became more recognisable the first primitive roads came into being. The Romans established a route, Via Julia Maritima, to service their garrisons across South Wales and this is followed largely by the present A48. However, for 1,000 years after the Romans there was little need for major roads. Early roads were not systematically managed, and in Glamorgan as in the rest of Wales, they were in a very poor state. Towards Tudor times the upkeep and repair of the roads came under the administration of each parish, with six days of the week during the summer allowed for track repairs. These repairs were rarely completed and the roadways continued to suffer. An Act of 1555 required each landowner to produce a cart, horses or bullocks, and two men to work 4 days on roads. Supervision was by two unpaid surveyors appointed by the parish. By the late 1600s the situation improved as surveyors were appointed by the magistrates, who were allowed to levy a rate to pay for some of the work.


title: Glamorgan

text: In 1756, after the shire of Glamorgan had come under the rule of the crown, Wales adopted a toll system for the maintenance of the roads; with the governance falling under the control of the turnpike trusts. Further Turnpike Acts came into force in 1799 and 1810, and these Acts allowed trustees to collect a toll for the use of certain roads within a district. In South Wales there were turnpikes along the coast, more or less following the present motorway line, up the Merthyr Valley and across the hills to Abergavenny, Brecon, Llandovery and down to Carmarthen. This system improved travelling conditions, allowing for stage coaches which were then coming into general use. Although the roads improved there were those who felt that the tolls were unjust, and there was a popular uprising between 1839 and 1843 known as the Rebecca Riots where agitators attacked and destroyed the toll houses. Although most of these attacks occurred in Carmarthenshire, there were reports of attacks within Glamorgan, most notably in Swansea. In 1846, County Highway Boards were established in south Wales, to buy out the turnpike trusts and take over their functions. In 1878 all roads that had ceased to be turnpiked after 1870 were deemed as 'main roads' by the Highways and Locomotives Act of 1878. The turnpike system was eventually abolished by the Local Government Act 1888 and the roads were placed under the management of the local county council. County Highway Boards were disbanded. There were, however, a number of urban areas within Glamorgan that retained the right to control their own highways, and the county council never achieved control of the whole highway network.


title: Glamorgan

text: Proposals for a high-quality new road across South Wales were first made in the 1930s. However, the dualling of the A48 Neath bypass was only completed in 1960, with the A48(M) Port Talbot bypass following in 1966. The latter road, an early example of dual carriageway construction through a built-up area, was the first length of motorway opened to traffic in Wales. The Ministry of Transport initially envisaged that the new M4 motorway would terminate at Tredegar Park near Newport, with a series of bypasses to improve the A48 further west. The creation of the Welsh Office led to a re-appraisal of policy and a decision to extend the M4 further into Glamorgan. By 1970, the Welsh Office was committed to building a new route all the way to Pont Abraham in Carmarthenshire. The 1960s also saw the construction of the first road across the Heads of the Valleys, with the A465 Neath-Abergavenny trunk road opening in 1964. However, even at the outset there were complaints about the capacity and safety of its single carriageway, three-lane design.


title: Glamorgan

text: Due to Glamorgan's long coastline, several settlements grew and prospered as harbour and port towns. In 1801, Swansea was Glamorgan's largest urban area with a population five times that of Cardiff's. Cowbridge was the capital town of the Vale, and the centre of agricultural trade, with surplus stock being shipped to the coastal village of Aberthaw and to a lesser extent Newton. Where there were breaks in the rocky coastline, small fishing and cockling communities existed, such as Port Eynon and Penclawdd.


title: Glamorgan

text: The event that changed the face of coastal Glamorgan was the growth of the Merthyr iron industry. Merthyr needed a coastal export point for its iron and Cardiff was the obvious choice being at the mouth of the River Taff. A road was built to connect the two towns, but with only horses to move the cargo, transportation was cumbersome; therefore an alternative was planned. Although Glamorgan had a large number of rivers, few were navigable for any considerable length. Between 1790 and 1794, Acts of Parliament were obtained for the construction of three canals within Glamorgan, the Glamorganshire Canal (1790), Neath Canal (1791) and the Swansea Canal (1794). All three were vital in increasing the transportation of iron, copper, steel and coal from the uplands of the county to the ports at Swansea and Cardiff. Although the first stages of all three canals were completed by 1800 and revolutionised the commercial transportation systems of Glamorgan; in 1804 at Penydarren Ironworks, Richard Trevithick's "Pen-y-Darren" locomotive became the first engine to pull a load along rails; heralding the coming of the railways, which would eventually replace the canals.


title: Glamorgan

text: The port at Cardiff grew quickly during the 19th century, not as a mass exporter of iron but of coal, transported from Pontypridd and the Cynon and Rhondda Valleys. From 1840 to 1870 Cardiff's export tonnage of coal increased from 44,350 to 2,219,000. By 1871, Cardiff had outgrown all of its Welsh rivals to become the most populous town in the country Swansea Docks continued to be the world's leading exporter of copper, but did not experience the growth of Cardiff due to poor links to the coalfields. Ambitious attempts were made to link Swansea's docks to coal rich areas, such as the Rhondda and Swansea Bay Railway, but these plans were never truly economically successful. The biggest threat to Cardiff's dominance came in the early 20th century at Barry. In 1881, Barry had 484 inhabitants, after an 1884 Parliamentary Act authorising the construction of a docks and railway link, the town grew to over 27,000 by 1901. The chief advocate of Barry's growth as a dock was David Davies, and in 1901 Barry was exporting more coal than Cardiff, peaking in 1913 when it shipped 11.41 million tons.


title: Glamorgan

text: The interwar depression experienced by Great Britain brought an end to the prosperity of the Glamorgan ports. During the Second World War, the main ports of Glamorgan were heavily targeted by German bombing raids, though exports were not severely disrupted. By the second half of the 20th century none of the county's docks showed any growth, and with the collapse of the coal trade in South Wales Cardiff and Barry Docks became near derelict, shipping mainly general cargo. Swansea also suffered a vast reduction on trade with the end of the area as a world leader in copper smelting. The only dock to remain a viable exporter was the Port of Port Talbot. First built in 1839, the docks at Port Talbot were a minor concern in relation to the more established ports, but exports increased after the 1916 with the completion of the Margam Steelworks. Exports continued strongly when the Abbey Works were built in 1952. Port Talbot would eventually become the biggest exporting port in Glamorgan, and the second largest in Wales, only surpassed by Milford Haven.


title: Glamorgan

text: Before the use of locomotives, railway track was used at various stages of the canal system to link locations to which the waterways could not reach. These wagons on these tramlines would be pulled by horse over wooden rails, which later were replaced by wrought iron. In 1809 Richard Griffiths built a private tram-road to the Glamorganshire Canal from his coal mine in Gyfeillion. The Gyfeillion site was extended further in 1811 to link Walter Coffin's mine at Dinas Rhondda, allowing the first viable transport link from the Rhondda coal fields to the ports of Cardiff.


title: Glamorgan

text: The first railway network to be built in Glamorgan, the Taff Vale Railway, was also the first in Wales. Linking the ironworks of Merthyr to the ports of Cardiff, the Taff Vale line was given royal assent in 1836, with work commencing the same year. It was completed in 1840, and as well as carrying goods the trains made limited passenger trips from the very beginning. By 1856 the Taff Vale Railway was extended to service the top of the Rhondda Valleys at Treherbert and Maerdy, which allowed the exploitation of the minefields in one of the most coal-rich areas of Britain. The second major railway to open was the South Wales Railway, linking Gloucester in England to Neyland. The line was designed to link the coalfields of Glamorgan to London, and was also part of Isambard Kingdom Brunel's vision of a transport link from London to New York. The South Wales Railway serviced Cardiff, Bridgend, Neath and Swansea, with its final destination within Glamorgan being Loughor, before continuing through Carmarthenshire. Other railway lines that opened during the mid to late 19th century included the Vale of Neath Railway, the Swansea Vale Railway and the Rhymney Railway; all designed with the primary purpose of transporting metals and coal from the uplands of the county to the ever-expanding ports. The cargo carried on these lines was of a very high volume, and in 1850 the Taff Vale Railway was transporting 600,000 tons of coal per annum.


title: Glamorgan

text: Towards the turn of the 19th century, two notable events occurred connected to the Taff Vale Railway. In 1888, the Barry Railway Company was formed as part of David Davies' plan to create an alternative export port in south Wales at Barry Docks. As a threat to the monopoly of the TVR, the plans were heavily contested in Parliament, and more parliamentary time was spent on the Barry bill than on any other railway bill in British history. The second event saw the Taff Vale Railway Strike of 1900, an event that saw the House of Lords, in the Taff Vale Case, deem trade unions accountable for the financial losses caused by strike action. The need to reverse the decision was a central factor in the creation of the British Labour Party.


title: Glamorgan

text: In the 20th century, the railways saw a gradual drop in usage as the heavy industrial works and mines began to reduce output and close and many stations became redundant. Following the Second World War, the railways were nationalised in 1948. In the 1960s the main line services in Wales underwent dieselisation, but this modernisation failed to save the rail system and by 1968 many passenger lines were discontinued by the Beeching Axe.


title: Glamorgan

text: Glamorgan was served by several airports and airfields, with Cardiff Airport being the county's chief airport. Cardiff Airport grew from a former RAF station built in 1942 at Rhoose, and was originally known as Rhoose Airport. In 1970 it became 'Glamorgan, Rhoose Airport' before becoming 'Cardiff-Wales airport' in the 1980s.


title: Glamorgan

text: Glamorgan's second commercial airport was Swansea Airport which also began as an RAF station, before being released to commercial usage in 1956. The airport saw varying degrees of success until regular flights ceased in 1969. Several other airports and aerodromes have serviced Glamorgan, but usually for private flights. The most notorious aviation disaster in Wales occurred in Glamorgan in 1950, when a privately hired Avro Tudor crashed at Llandow Aerodrome. The Llandow air disaster was, at the time, the world's worst aviation disaster.


title: Glamorgan

text: Sport was an important part of life in Glamorgan, and the county produced several individuals and teams of note. One of the first recorded team sports in Wales was bando, a variant of bandy. The game was very popular in Glamorgan between the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries before losing in popularity to rugby football. The most notable team to carry the name Glamorgan, is Glamorgan County Cricket Club. Although cricket had been established in Glamorgan since the creation of Cardiff Cricket Club in 1819; county team Glamorgan CCC did not form until 1888. The team gained first-class status in 1921, and still play under the name of Glamorgan. In the first hundred years, the only Welshman to captain an England major tour abroad was Tony Lewis, Glamorgan captain 1967–72.


title: Glamorgan

text: The other bat and ball team sport of note in the area was baseball, which was very popular in Cardiff, reaching its peak in the 1930s.


title: Glamorgan

text: One of the most popular sports in Glamorgan was rugby union, producing some of the oldest rugby clubs in the world. Swansea RFC, Cardiff RFC and Merthyr RFC were founding members of the Welsh Rugby Union in 1881, and both St. Helen's Rugby and Cricket Ground (Swansea) and the Cardiff Arms Park (Cardiff), have been sporting venues for international rugby. Like cricket, rugby union was also played at county level, with Glamorgan represented by Glamorgan County RFC, an invitational team which faced the likes of the All Blacks and the Springboks in the early part of the 20th century. Other rugby clubs of note from the region include Bridgend RFC, Glamorgan Wanderers RFC, Neath RFC and Pontypridd RFC. Although never finding any lasting appeal within Glamorgan, a number of rugby league teams emerged in the early 1900s; and on 1 January 1908, the first true international rugby league game took place in Aberdare between Wales and New Zealand.


title: Glamorgan

text: As well as rugby and cricket, association football was a very popular sport in Glamorgan, producing two teams with a long tradition in British football, Swansea City (formed 1912 as Swansea Town A.F.C.) and Cardiff City (formed 1899 as Riverside AFC). Both clubs played in the English football league system, rather than the Welsh leagues, though Cardiff were more successful during this period, spending 15 seasons in the First Division and winning the FA Cup in 1927. Other teams of note include Merthyr Tydfil F.C. (1945), who have won the Welsh Cup on three occasions.


title: Glamorgan

text: Of all the individual sports, boxing was perhaps Glamorgan's most prolific. From the northern coalfields and ironworks a string of world class boxers were produced, which was later matched by notable fighters from Cardiff. Of note were Rhondda's Percy Jones (World Flyweight Champion), Tom Thomas (British Middleweight Champion), Jimmy Wilde (World Flyweight Champion) and Tommy Farr (Empire Heavyweight Champion); Merthyr's Eddie Thomas (European Welterweight Champion) and Howard Winstone (European Featherweight Champion); Pontypridd's Freddie Welsh (World Lightweight Champion) and Frank Moody (Empire Middleweight Champion). From Cardiff came 'Peerless' Jim Driscoll (British Featherweight Champion) and Jack Petersen (British Heavyweight Champion). Other fighters of note include Dai Dower (European Flyweight Champion) from Abercynon and Bill Beynon (Empire Bantamweight Champion) from Taibach.


title: Glamorgan

text: Glamorgan, and Wales, were never exploited as a tourist destination until the late 18th century. The destination of choice for English gentlemen during the period was the Grand Tour, but after conflicts in mainland Europe, British travellers looked for 'wild' destinations within their own country. These first tourists were important archivists in their writings, paintings and sketches but there was no real tourist trade to receive them. The coming of industrialisation in the early 19th century gave rise to a new prosperous middle-class and improved communications; both led to a burgeoning tourist trade. The late 19th century, with improving rail links, saw the coastal areas of Glamorgan that benefited from a beachfront grow as tourist destinations. These towns, most notably Barry Island, Porthcawl, Aberavon and Mumbles, owed their existence as tourist locations to the development of the south Wales coal field and the introduction of the workers' annual holidays. By the mid 20th century these locations improved the number of visitors they could accommodate with the introduction of caravan parks and chalet parks.


title: Glamorgan

text: As the 20th century progressed, and people's leisure activities extended beyond a once-a-year weeks holiday, the county responded with county parks, museums, art galleries and activity centres.


title: Micky Arison

text: Micky Arison (born June 29, 1949) is an Israeli-American billionaire businessman and chairman of Carnival Corporation, the world's largest cruise operator. From 1979 until 2013, he was also the company's chief executive officer. Arison is also the owner of the NBA's Miami Heat, which under his ownership has won three NBA Championships.


title: Micky Arison

text: Arison attended the University of Miami School of Business at the University of Miami but dropped out to become a sales representative for Carnival Corporation.


title: Micky Arison

text: Arison has been the owner of the Miami Heat since 1995. During his ownership, Arison hired Pat Riley as the team's head coach (and later team president) and under Arison's ownership the team has won three NBA championships (2006, 2012, and 2013).


title: Micky Arison

text: In 2011, "Forbes" magazine calculated Arison's wealth at $7 billion, making him the 169th wealthiest person in the world. In 2009, he earned $7,201,110, which included a base salary of $880,000, a cash bonus of $2,206,116, stocks granted of $3,618,481, and other compensation totaling $496,513.


title: Micky Arison

text: Arison is married to Madeleine Arison, and they have two children. Their son Nick Arison is chief executive officer of the Miami Heat.


title: Micky Arison

text: Arison is the son of Ted Arison, co-founder of Carnival Corporation. His sister is Shari Arison. He also has a brother named Kames Arison. He resides in Bal Harbour, Florida. Arison owns two 200 foot yachts which he uses as homes.


title: Kuno Becker

text: Eduardo Kuno Becker Paz (born January 14, 1978) professionally known as Kuno Becker, is a Mexican actor and film director who has worked in telenovelas, Mexican cinema, and U.S. cinema. He is best known for his portrayal of Ruben Berrizabal in "Soñadoras", and Santiago Muñez in the football film "Goal!" and its sequels and The Lightning McQueen into Latin Spanish in "Cars", "Cars 2" and "Cars 3".


title: Kuno Becker

text: After obtaining a scholarship, he traveled to Europe and began his studies at the Mozarteum in the city of Salzburg, Austria, where he spent several years taking violin lessons with Ruggiero Ricci.


title: Kuno Becker

text: At seventeen Kuno made the decision to set aside his career as a violinist, in order to pursue what he now considers his greatest passion, acting. He auditioned with more than 3,200 candidates and was accepted as a student at the Centro de Educación Artística (CEA) of Televisa.


title: Kuno Becker

text: At the age of nineteen, after two years of drama studies, he obtained his first role in the telenovela "Para toda la vida" (1996). He later participated in 1997, in the music video Corazón by Lynda Thomas, the telenovela "Pueblo chico, infierno grande" (with Verónica Castro and directed by José Alberto Castro), "El Alma no Tiene Color" (directed by Juan Osorio) "Desencuentro" (directed by Ernesto Alonso), "Rencor Apasionado" (directed by Lucero Suárez), "Camila" (directed by Angelli Nesma) and "Soñadoras" his first lead and breakthrough role. In April 2000 Becker concluded shooting the telenovela "Mujeres Engañadas".


title: Kuno Becker

text: In addition to his work in television, Becker has participated in a couple theater productions. His latest theater production was in 2008 when he starred in and produced the critically acclaimed "The Pillowman" written by Martin McDonagh.


title: Kuno Becker

text: In cinema he provided the voice of Cale, Tobias and Lightning McQueen for the Spanish-dubbing of animated films "Titan A.E.", "The 3 Wise Men" and Disney's Cars. He also appeared in the 1997 film "La Primera Noche". In 2002 Becker starred in the film "La Hija del caníbal" ("Lucía, Lucía") opposite the Argentine actress Cecilia Roth. Later he starred opposite Antonio Banderas and Oscar winner Emma Thompson in the drama-thriller Imagining Argentina. Becker also starred in the historical Kazakhstani epic "Nomad" filmed in 2004. The production took two years to make and it hit screens in 2006. He also starred in ESL: English as a Second Language with Maria Conchita Alonso and Soledad St. Hilaire released in 2005. He also landed the lead role of Santiago Munez in the Disney football feature films "Goal!" in 2005 and "" in 2007 which became the most well known football movies in the world. He also appeared briefly in "" in 2009.


title: Kuno Becker

text: His most recent film projects today are "El día de la unión", "Ánima", "108 Costuras", "Spoken Word", "La Ultima Muerte", "Cabeza de Buda" and "Panic 5 Bravo".


title: Kuno Becker

text: He worked on his debut screenplay for the Mexican film "Espacio Interior", which is based on the earthquake that hit Mexico in 1985. He also portrayed Esteban Navarro, a recurring antagonist, in the tenth season of "".


title: Fairfax Financial

text: Fairfax Financial Holdings Limited is a Canadian financial holding company based in Toronto, Ontario, which is engaged in property, casualty, insurance and reinsurance, investment management, and insurance claims management. The company operates primarily through several subsidiaries, including Allied World, Odyssey Re, Northbridge Financial, Crum & Forster, Verassure Insurance, Onlia Agency Inc., and Zenith Insurance Company. The company was also the largest shareholder of Torstar with 40% of the Class B shares, as of May 2020.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: Fairfax was incorporated as Markel Service of Canada on March 13, 1951, and continued under the Canada Business Corporations Act in 1976. The name was subsequently changed to Markel Financial Holdings Ltd.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: In 1984, Prem Watsa left GW Asset Management to found his own asset management firm, Hamblin Watsa Investment Counsel Ltd. together with his former boss from Confed, Tony Hamblin. Tony was the Chief Investment Officer at Confed. The five founding partners were: Tony Hamblin, Prem Watsa, Roger Lace, Brian Bradstreet and Frances Burke.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: In 1985, Watsa took control of Markel Financial, a Canadian-based specialist in trucking insurance. The company was controlled by the Virginia-based Markel family.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: In May 1987, Watsa re-organized Markel Financial Holdings Limited and renamed it Fairfax Financial Holdings Limited "(FAIRFAX: short for "fair, friendly acquisitions")".


title: Fairfax Financial

text: From 1985 to the end of 2010, the firm had a compound growth rate of approximately 25% in book value per share (per year), it is about 243 times what Fairfax began with in 1985.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: Prem Watsa has served as chairman and chief executive officer of Fairfax Financial Holdings Limited since 1985 and as vice president of Hamblin Watsa Investment Counsel since 1985. Watsa, directly, and indirectly through 1109519 Ontario Limited, The Sixty Two Investment Company Limited and 810679 Ontario Ltd., owns the controlling equity voting interest of Fairfax Financial Holdings Limited("Fairfax"). He owns roughly 10% of Fairfax, which accounts for 99% of his personal wealth. His 10-for-1 multiple voting shares give him just over 50% ownership.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: As early as the 2003, in an annual report issued by the company, chief executive Prem Watsa raised concerns about securitized products and talks about the subprime mortgage crisis and the United States housing bubble.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: In an interview in "The Globe and Mail" in 2007, Watsa said believed that the global credit squeeze is in its "early days," and indicated he believed there may be similarities to the Japanese asset price bubble.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: The investment team of HWIC benefited from the subprime fallout, like John Paulson’s New York-based Paulson & Co., Kyle Bass' Hayman Capital, Andrew Lahde’s California-based Lahde Capital, Julian Robertson’s "Tiger Cubs" (formerly known as "Tiger Management Corp."), and Michael Burry's Scion Capital (White Mountains Insurance Group is a minority investor in Scion Capital LLC), they have used derivatives to bet on the housing bubble. As of September 30, 2007, Fairfax and its subsidiaries owned an enormous credit default swap (CDS) book with a $18.5 billion notional amount and an average term to expiry of 4.2 years, on about 25 to 30 companies, the majority of which were bond insurers and mortgage lenders. The CDS book had a cost of $344 million, and a market value of $546 million. The market value of these swaps had fluctuated significantly in the 3rd quarter of 2007 from less than $200 million at the end of June, to $537 million at the end of July to almost $1 billion (twice that value) in August to $544 million at the end of September.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: As of December 31, 2010, Fairfax had total assets of approximately $31.7 billion, and its revenue for the prior twelve months was approximately $6.2 billion. Since Watsa took over, the company book value per share has compounded by 23% per year, while the common stock price has followed the growth at 19% per year.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: On September 23, 2013, Fairfax made an offer to purchase cell phone maker BlackBerry for $4.7 billion or $9.00 a share. BlackBerry announced it had signed a letter of intent but would be open to other offers until November 4, 2013. Fairfax already held 10% of BlackBerry. The deal was later scrapped in favor of a US$1 billion cash injection which, according to one analyst, represented the level of confidence BlackBerry's largest shareholder had in the company.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: In 2016, Fairfax offered seed funding to Kitchener startup, DOZR Inc. through their investment and innovation unit, Fair Ventures. Fair Ventures and Fairfax went on to support DOZR through multiple funding pitches, including the Colorado-based BaseCamp Equity Partners pitch in 2019. This pitch landed DOZR with $14 million CAD.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: In 2017, Fairfax Financial Holdings increased its ownership of Torstar's non-voting shares from 20% to 40%. In late May 2020, Torstar accepted an offer of a sale of the company to NordStar Capital. The $52 million deal, supported by Fairfax, was expected to close by year end.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: On April 24, 2018, it was announced that Fairfax Financial Holdings Ltd. would acquire the Canadian division of Toys "R" Us for approximately $234 million with the intention to keep the 82 remaining stores in Canada open under the Toys "R" Us brand even after the chain's liquidation in the United States. The deal was completed on June 1, 2018. Fairfax sold Toys R Us Canada to businessman Doug Putman in 2021.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: Fairfax Latin America Ltd. is a wholly-owned subsidiary of Fairfax. Based in Miami, Florida, it offers a wide range of general insurance products, including property, automobile and various specialty lines, through its subsidiaries located in Argentina, Chile, Colombia and Uruguay.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: Fairfax Latin America has approximately 970 employees and, in 2021, generated annual gross premiums that exceeded US$727 million.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: Fairfax Latin America underwrites through SBS Seguros Colombia S.A., Southbridge Insurance Company, Meridional Seguros and SBI Seguros Uruguay S.A.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: Fairfax Financial has over 8,200 employees worldwide (5,000 of them in the United States). There are just 30 employees at head office in Toronto.


title: Fairfax Financial

text: On August 9, 2022, Fairfax Financial proposed a $954 million takeover bid for the Canadian restaurant operator Recipe Unlimited Corp.


The Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic (Checheno-Ingush ASSR) was an autonomous republic within the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic, in existence from 1936 to 1944 and again from 1957 to 1992. Its capital was Grozny.


title: Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic

text: As of the 1979 census, the territory had an area of and a population of 611,405 being Chechens, 134,744 Ingush, and the rest being Russians and other ethnic groups.


text: In 1810, the historical Ingushetia voluntarily joined Imperial Russia, and in 1859 the historical Chechnya was annexed to Russia as well, during the long Caucasian war of 1817–64.


text: After the Russian Revolution of 1917, on January 20, 1921, Chechnya and Ingushetia joined the Mountain Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. Partition of the Mountain ASSR began shortly after it was formed, and its Chechen District was separated on November 30, 1922 as Chechen Autonomous Oblast. On July 7, 1924, the remains of the Mountain ASSR were split into North Ossetian Autonomous Oblast and Ingush Autonomous Oblast. On January 15, 1934, Chechen and Ingush Autonomous Oblasts were joined into Checheno-Ingush Autonomous Oblast, which was elevated in status to that of an ASSR (Checheno-Ingush ASSR) on December 5, 1936.


text: During World War II, in 1942–43, the republic was partly occupied by Nazi Germany while 40,000 Chechens fought in the Red Army. On March 7, 1944, on the orders of Joseph Stalin, the republic was disbanded and its population forcibly deported upon the accusations of collaboration with the Axis powers and separatism. The territory of the ASSR was divided between Stavropol Krai (where Grozny Okrug was formed), the Dagestan ASSR, the North Ossetian ASSR, and the Georgian SSR where the extra territory was known as the Akhalkhevi District until 1957.


text: On January 9, 1957, Khruschev implemented a policy which allowed people to come back and the republic was restored.


text: On November 27, 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the Chechen-Ingush Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic adopted a declaration on the state sovereignty of the Chechen-Ingush Republic, and on May 24, 1991, according to the amendments to Art. 71 of the Constitution of the RSFSR, the autonomous republic began to be called the Chechen-Ingush SSR. This decision before the collapse of the USSR (December 1991) was not consistent with Art. 85 of the Constitution of the USSR, which retained the name of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR.


text: On June 8, 1991, at the initiative of Dzhokhar Dudayev, a part of the delegates of the First Chechen National Congress gathered in Grozny, which proclaimed itself the All-National Congress of the Chechen People (OKChN). Following this, was proclaimed the Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho), and the leaders of the Supreme Soviet of the republic were declared "usurpers".


text: The events of August 19–21, 1991 in Moscow became the catalyst for a socio-political explosion in Checheno-Ingushetia. The organizer and leader of the mass movement was the Executive Committee of the OKChN headed by Dzhokhar Dudaev. After the failure of the GKChP, the Executive Committee of the OKChN and organizations of the national-radical wing came forward with a demand for the resignation of the Supreme Soviet of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR and the holding of new elections. On September 1–2, the 3rd session of the OKChN declared the Supreme Soviet of the Autonomous Republic "deposed" and transferred all power in the Chechen part of the republic to the Executive Committee of the OKChN.


text: September 6, 1991 Dudayev announced the dissolution of the republican power structures. Armed supporters of OKChN occupied the building of the TV center and the House of Radio, took by storm the House of Political Education, where the meeting of the Supreme Council was held. On this day, the Supreme Soviet met in full force, heads of local councils, clergy, and heads of enterprises were invited for consultations. Dudayev and other leaders of the OKChN decided to take the building by storm. More than 40 deputies of the Chechen-Ingush parliament were beaten, and the chairman of the Grozny City Council, Vitaly Kutsenko, was thrown out of the window by the separatists, and then finished off in the hospital. Doku Zavgayev resigned from the post of chairman of the Supreme Council of Chechen-Ingushetia under pressure from protesters.


text: On September 15, the Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR Ruslan Khasbulatov arrived in Grozny. Under his leadership in the absence of a quorum the last session of the Supreme Soviet of the republic was held, at which the deputies decided to dissolve the parliament. As a result of negotiations between Khasbulatov and the leaders of the Executive Committee of the OKChN as a temporary authority for the period before the elections (scheduled for November 17) the Provisional Supreme Council of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR was formed of 32 deputies, reduced shortly to 13 deputies, then up to 9. Dudaev's ally Khusein Akhmadov was elected chairman of the Provisional Supreme Council of Chechen-Ingushetia. Assistant to Khasbulatov Yuri Cherny became the deputy chairman of the Council.


text: By the beginning of October 1991, a conflict arose in the Provisional High Council between supporters of the OKChN (4 members, headed by Khusein Akhmadov) and his opponents (5 members, headed by Yuri Cherny). Akhmadov, on behalf of the entire Council, issued a number of laws and decrees that created the legal basis for the activities of the Executive Committee of the OKChN as the supreme authority, on October 1, announced the division of the Chechen-Ingush Republic into an independent Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho) and the Ingush Autonomous Republic within the RSFSR.


text: On October 5, 7 out of 9 members of the Provisional Supreme Council made a decision on the resignation of Akhmedov and on the abolition of illegal acts. On the same day, the National Guard of the Executive Committee of the OKChN seized the building of the House of Trade Unions, in which the Council sat, and also seized the building of the KGB of the Chechen-Ingush ASSR. On October 6, the Executive Committee of the OKChN announced the dissolution of the Provisional Supreme Council "for subversive and provocative activities". The Council did not comply with this decision and the very next day made a decision to resume activity in full force (32 deputies). Lawyer Badruddin Bakhmadov was elected as the new chairman.


text: On October 8, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR declared the Provisional Supreme Soviet to be the only legitimate body of state power on the territory of Checheno-Ingushetia until the election of a new composition of the Supreme Soviet of the republic.


text: On October 27, 1991, under the control of supporters of the OKChN in the Chechen part of the republic, presidential and parliamentary elections were held for the Chechen Republic (Nokhchi-cho). Dzhokhar Dudayev was elected President of the self-proclaimed republic. The results of the elections were not recognized by the Council of Ministers of Checheno-Ingushetia, heads of enterprises and departments, heads of a number of regions of the autonomous republic. On November 2, 1991, by the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR, these elections were declared illegal. The structures of legitimate power remained for several months after the September coup of Dudayev. Thus, the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the KGB of Checheno-Ingushetia were abolished only by the end of 1991.


text: On November 7, the President of the RSFSR Boris Yeltsin issued a decree declaring a state of emergency on the territory of Checheno-Ingushetia. However, practical measures to implement it have failed. Two planes with special forces that landed at the airfield in Khankala were blocked by Chechen separatists. Leaders of anti-Dudayev parties and movements went over to the side of Chechen separatists. The Provisional Supreme Council of Checheno-Ingushetia and its militia disintegrated in the first days of the crisis.


text: On November 8, Chechen guards blocked the buildings of the Ministry of Internal Affairs and the KGB, as well as military camps. Civilians and fuel trucks were used in the blockade.


text: On November 11, the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR refused to approve the decree of President Yeltsin on the introduction of a state of emergency in Checheno-Ingushetia.


text: November 30 – December 1, 1991 in three Ingush regions of Checheno-Ingushetia – Malgobek, Nazran and Sunzhensky – a referendum was held on the creation of the Ingush Republic within the RSFSR. 75% of the Ingush population took part in the referendum, 90% were in favor.


text: As a result of the “Chechen revolution,” the Checheno-Ingushetia was de facto divided into the Chechen Republic of Ichkeria and Ingushetia, which remained outside the territorial-administrative division.


text: On May 16, 1992, according to the amendment to the Constitution of the RSFSR, the de facto disintegrated Chechen-Ingush SSR received the name Chechen-Ingush Republic.


text: On June 4, 1992, the Supreme Soviet of the Russian Federation adopted the Law on the Education of the Ingush Republic. The creation of the republic was submitted for approval by the supreme authority of Russia – the Congress of People's Deputies. On December 10, 1992, the Congress of People's Deputies of Russia approved the formation of the Ingush Republic by its resolution and made a corresponding amendment to the Constitution of the RSFSR 1978, which officially divided the Chechen-Ingush Republic into the Ingush Republic and the Chechen Republic. This amendment was published on December 29, 1992 in the "Rossiyskaya Gazeta" and entered into force on January 9, 1993 after 10 days from the date of official publication.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: John Coburn Stewart (September 5, 1939 – January 19, 2008) was an American songwriter and singer. He is known for his contributions to the American folk music movement of the 1960s while with the Kingston Trio (1961–1967) and as a popular music songwriter of the Monkees' No. 1 hit "Daydream Believer" and his own No. 5 hit "Gold" during a solo career spanning 40 years that included almost four dozen albums and more than 600 recorded songs.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Born in San Diego, Stewart was the son of horse trainer John S. Stewart and spent his childhood and adolescence in Southern California, living mostly in the cities of Pasadena and Claremont. He graduated in 1957 from Pomona Catholic High School, which at the time was a coeducational school. Following graduation from high school, John went on to attend Mt. San Antonio Junior College in Pomona, California, during 1957–1958, when he was active in its music and theater programs. He demonstrated an early talent for music, learning the guitar and banjo. He composed his first song, "Shrunken Head Boogie," when he was ten years old. In an interview in Michael Oberman's Music makers column (The Washington, DC Star Newspaper) on 30 October 1971, Stewart said, "I bought a ukulele when I was in Pasadena. I would listen to Sons of the Pioneers records. Tex Ritter really turned me on to music. 'I Love My Rooster' was Top Ten as far as I was concerned."


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Stewart's first venture into popular music was with a high school garage band known as Johnny Stewart and the Furies. Influenced by the reigning icons of the day, Elvis Presley and Buddy Holly, the Furies toured southern California colleges and coffee houses, releasing one single, "Rockin' Anna," which was a minor, regional hit.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Following the breakup of the Furies and a short time as a member of the Woodsmen, Stewart teamed up with Gil Robbins (father of actor Tim Robbins) and John Montgomery to form the Cumberland Three, a group patterned after, and heavily influenced by, the increasingly popular Kingston Trio. The major accomplishment of the Cumberland Three was a two-LP set of "Songs from the Civil War", with the albums containing a compilation of songs from the Confederacy and the Union, respectively. In all, the Cumberland Three released three albums, after which Stewart left the group to join the Kingston Trio, replacing Trio founder Dave Guard in 1961.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: The Kingston Trio had emerged from the relatively crowded San Francisco folk music culture in 1957, using a mixture of calypso, pop, and folk styles, along with several forms of comedy, in their act. Relying on new pop-oriented arrangements of folk music classics as well as some original compositions, the Trio earned their first gold record with "Tom Dooley" and thereby launched a major revival in folk music that led to and influenced the careers of Bob Dylan, Peter, Paul, & Mary, and John Denver, among others. The group had become one of the best-known and best-selling acts on the folk music scene and were enjoying a lucrative recording and touring contract with Capitol Records, having ten albums under their collective belts, when Dave Guard departed the group in 1961 to explore other musical directions. Stewart was selected by the remaining members Nick Reynolds and Bob Shane as Guard's successor, bringing with him his respected skills as a musician, composer, and performer.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Reynolds, Shane, and Stewart recorded a dozen albums together, taking the music of the Trio into new directions, including more original material, and performing songs by relative newcomers Tom Paxton, Mason Williams and Gordon Lightfoot.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: The pop-folk era began to wane as the music of groups such as the Beatles, the Rolling Stones, and fellow Californians the Beach Boys increasingly dominated the charts, and in 1967 the members of the Kingston Trio decided to disband.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Stewart continued to write songs and record for Capitol, while touring as a solo act. It was during this time that he composed the hit "Daydream Believer" for the Monkees, which was a hit for Anne Murray as well, and the closest Stewart came to writing a "standard". He later toured with Robert F. Kennedy's ill-fated 1968 presidential campaign and met and married in 1975 fellow folk singer Buffy Ford (with whom he remained until his death). He recorded a string of albums, including his signature album, "California Bloodlines", as well as "Willard", "Cannons in the Rain", and "Wingless Angels".


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Though usually successful with critics and a core group of fans, Stewart's albums were not considered commercial successes; he left Capitol after only two solo releases and was signed by Warner Bros. Records, where he also recorded just two albums before moving on to RCA Records, with whom he released three LPs (including a live performance album, "The Phoenix Concerts"). Stewart followed his release from RCA with a contract at the Robert Stigwood organization, the same organization that serviced the recording contracts for Eric Clapton, the Bee Gees, as well as several other disco performers. It was at RSO Records that Stewart enjoyed his most commercially successful years as a solo artist. Teaming up with Stevie Nicks and Lindsey Buckingham (then in Fleetwood Mac), Stewart recorded and released "Bombs Away Dream Babies", which made it to #10 on "Billboard"'s album chart and included the #5 hit, "Gold," in 1979. (Perhaps fittingly, considering the song's cynical attitude, Stewart later stopped performing "Gold" in concert, calling it "vapid" and "empty". The artist further claimed the tune meant nothing to him, having done it for the money and to please his record company.)


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Two other tracks from "Bombs Away", "Midnight Wind" and "Lost Her in the Sun", also hit the Top 40, making Stewart a sudden pop star at the age of 40. However, the follow-up album, "Dream Babies Go Hollywood" (1980), proved to be a commercial disappointment, hitting only #85 on the album chart. None of the singles from that LP (or any of his subsequent albums) made the Billboard Hot 100, though Stewart continued to perform right up to the time of his death.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Stewart's later and most significant success was as a songwriter. Several of his songs were recorded by a number of popular acts, including Nanci Griffith ("Sweet Dreams Will Come"), Rosanne Cash ("Runaway Train", "Dance with the Tiger"), Joan Baez ("Strange Rivers"). He also continued to record new material, producing CDs on his own "Neon Dreams" label in between commercial releases. They usually coincided with one of his tours. His last album was "The Day the River Sang" in 2006.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: In his later years, Stewart teamed up with former Kingston Trio member Nick Reynolds to offer fans the ultimate Trio Fantasy: performing for and with Stewart and Reynolds. In 2005 and 2006 Bob Shane attended and performed a few songs with Stewart and Reynolds at the Trio "Fantasy Camp", which is held annually in Scottsdale, Arizona.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: A tape of Stewart's 1969 song "Mother Country" from "California Bloodlines" was played on the Apollo 11 spacecraft during its return to Earth. The production team of CNN's 2019 film "Apollo 11" heard the song while listening to archival footage of the flight and included a blend of the astronaut's tape with the original studio recording of the tune in the soundtrack as the craft approached the Earth's atmosphere.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: Stewart had a passion for painting, doing art shows and covers for his recordings and books. He continued to be a prolific songwriter and toured the United States and Europe regularly. He resided in Marin County, California with his wife, Buffy Ford Stewart. Stewart's brother Mike, who died in 2002, founded the folk-rock group We Five in the mid 1960s. He was the uncle of Jamie Stewart of the band Xiu Xiu.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: In 2007, Stewart was diagnosed with the early stages of Alzheimer's disease, but resolved to continue performing for as long as he was able. On January 19, 2008, he died from a stroke at a San Diego hospital, ten days before a scheduled performance in Scottsdale, Arizona. He was 68 years old.


title: John Stewart (musician)

text: In addition to his wife, Buffy, he was survived by their son Luke, along with three children from a previous marriage: Amy, Jeremy, and Mikael (a sound technician).


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: The third season of the ABC American television drama series "How to Get Away with Murder" was ordered on March 3, 2016, by ABC. It began airing on September 22, 2016, with 15 episodes like the previous seasons and concluded on February 23, 2017. This was made in a deal with Viola Davis that the series would be a limited series with only 15 or 16 episodes per season.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: Annalise Keating, law professor and criminal defense attorney at Middleton University, selects five students to intern at her firm: Wes Gibbins, Connor Walsh, Michaela Pratt, Asher Millstone, and Laurel Castillo—along with Annalise's employees Frank Delfino and Bonnie Winterbottom, an associate lawyer.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: The first nine episodes focus on Annalise teaching Criminal Law and her students being defense attorneys, each one proving their cases to be the representation. However, Annalise's position at the university is threatened after an unknown person targets her with a series of flyers identifying her as a killer. Frank has also gone missing with Annalise and Nate trying to find him, while the murder of Wallace Mahoney is still under investigation. In the mid-season finale, Annalise is arrested after Wes' corpse is retrieved from her burning house. However, Nate discovers that Wes was already dead before the fire started.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: The second part of the season focuses on the investigation about Wes' death, and the identity of his murderer. While Annalise is having a hard time in jail, tensions rise within the remaining Keating 4, as they do not agree to consider if Annalise is really guilty or being framed. Soon, it appears that the DA's office wants to keep Annalise in prison at any cost, so Bonnie and Frank team up to get her free.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: ABC renewed the series for a third season on March 3, 2016, along with several other shows. It was announced that the third season would premiere on September 22, 2016. Production began on May 27, 2016, when showrunner Peter Nowalk announced, on Twitter, that the writing staff was in full swing mapping out the third season. The table read for the premiere happened on July 6, 2016, and filming started a week later. A promotional poster showcasing Viola Davis as Annalise Keating was released on August 9, 2016. ABC released a promo for the third season on August 29, 2016.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: The season began airing on September 22, 2016 and aired nine episodes in the fall, just like the rest of ABC's primetime Thursday lineup, "Grey's Anatomy" and "Notorious". The remaining fall schedule for ABC was announced on October 22, 2016: "How to Get Away with Murder" would air nine episodes in the fall with the fall finale to air on November 17, 2016, just like the rest of ABC's primetime lineup, which was the same last year. The remaining six episodes would air after the winter break, on January 26, 2017.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: In an interview with "Entertainment Weekly", showrunner Peter Nowalk talked about what would happen in the third season regarding Frank's disappearance and commented: "Yes, I can see the three-piece suits and the hair product all falling apart. It’s more what Frank feels about himself". When talking about the trust between Annalise and Frank, Nowalk said: "...Frank has two choices: To run away and hope she never catches him, just to cut bait; or he can try to win his way back. That’s a long road." Charlie Weber commented on Frank's whereabouts to "Entertainment Weekly": "I think he’s hiding, and I think he’s alone. If he does have a lifeline, I don’t think it’s Laurel."


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: Nowalk said Laurel's backstory with her family would be explored in the upcoming season, "I feel like it’s very present. The promise of our show is that we won’t dangle things out too long. The likelihood is yes. We’ve raised that question too many times not to answer it sooner than later." Michaela's backstory will also be explored; Nowalk said: "We have so much to explore with her. Aja is so talented. I’m just excited to really delve into her personal life next year." Norwalk told "The Hollywood Reporter" the show would explore Annalise and Nate's relationship, as well as both their families.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: The third season will have ten roles receiving star billing, with all of them returning from the previous season. Viola Davis will play the protagonist of the series, Professor Annalise Keating, a high-profile defense attorney, teaching a class at Middleton University. Billy Brown will play Detective Nate Lahey, Annalise's boyfriend. There are five students who work at Annalise's law firm. Alfred Enoch would portray Wes Gibbins, Jack Falahee will portray Connor Walsh, the ruthless student. Aja Naomi King will play Michaela Pratt, the ambitious student who wants to be as successful as Annalise. Matt McGorry will continue portraying Asher Millstone, a student who comes from a privileged background. Karla Souza will play Laurel Castillo, an idealistic student. Charlie Weber will portray Frank Delfino, an employee of Annalise's firm who is not a lawyer but handles special duties requiring discretion. Liza Weil will play Bonnie Winterbottom, who is an associate attorney in Annalise's firm. Conrad Ricamora will portray Oliver Hampton, a hacker who is in a relationship with Connor.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: After the second-season finale, it was confirmed that every series regular was expected to return for the third season. "TVLine" announced on March 18, 2016, that Conrad Ricamora playing Oliver Hampton had been upgraded to a series-regular for the third season. On July 20, 2016, it was announced that "Dexter"-alum Lauren Vélez had been cast in a recurring role as the President of Middleton University. The role was described as “self-assured, friendly, warm and diplomatic.” It was reported on August 6, 2016, that Esai Morales and Amy Madigan had been added to the show as guest stars for the third season. It was later revealed that Morales would be replacing José Zúniga as Jorge Castillo, Laurel's father. "Deadline" announced on August 31, 2016, that Mary J. Blige had landed a guest role in the third season. On September 13, 2016, it was reported that Brett Butler will appear in a guest role during the third season.


title: How to Get Away with Murder (season 3)

text: The third season received positive reviews from critics. The season has a rating of 90% fresh on Rotten Tomatoes based on 30 reviews. The season premiere was watched by 5.11 million in total viewership, a decline of 39 percent compared to the second-season premiere, and a 1.4 in the key demographic Adults 18–49, a decline of 46 percent from the previous premiere.


title: Fartlek

text: Fartlek (Swedish, "speed play", originally in upper case, now generally in lower case), otherwise known as the "Swedish natural method" or simply the "Swedish method", is a middle and long distance runner's training approach developed in the late 1930's by Swedish Olympian, Gösta Holmér. As more recently described (and therefore accommodating changes in practice and definition that have occurred since the 1930s), fartlek is a "relatively unscientific blending" of "continuous training" (e.g., long slow distance training), with its steady pace of moderate-high intensity aerobic intensity, and "interval training", with its "spacing of [more intense] exercise and rest intervals". Most generally and simply stated, in its widely adapted contemporary forms, fartlek training can be seen simply as alternating periods of faster and slower running, intermixed, often over natural terrain outdoors, including over both "level and hilly terrain".


title: Fartlek

text: As such, Holmér's original approach to fartlek training has been widely adapted, and has evolved considerably since its introduction in the early 20th century. While Fartlek training is generally associated with running, it can in principle be incorporated into almost any kind of exercise. The variable intensities and the continuous nature of the exercise stresses both the aerobic and anaerobic parts of the runner's physiology. It differs from traditional interval training in that it is more unstructured; intensities (speeds) and their durations can vary, as the coach and athlete wish.


title: Fartlek

text: As stated, although primarily a level surface and standard track training routine in its inception, it has moved far beyond, now including workouts off track, and up grades. An example of its more modern manifestations in the training of serious runners is found in "Mona fartlek", named for Australian distance runner Steve Moneghetti, devised by Olympian Chris Wardlaw, which injects speed into a 20-minute session, pairing alternating periods of effort and recovery: 90-seconds on, 90-seconds off (performed twice), then 60-seconds on-then-off, and 30-seconds on-then-off, and 15-seconds on-then-off (each of these performed four times), generally, with intensity (pace) increasing as the effort period shortens, with the specifics determined by coach and athlete.


title: Fartlek

text: "continuous training" —whose forms include long slow distance training—with its steady pace of moderate-high intensity aerobic intensity (where by this is implied a level of activity at 60-80% VO) and "interval training", with its "spacing of [more intense] exercise and rest intervals". Hence, in its widely adapted contemporary forms, fartlek training can simply be described as alternating periods of faster and slower exercise (i.e., running), intermixed. In this adaptation of these other well-characterized training methods, the interplay between the effort (exercise) and recovery (relief) are not systematically manipulated; instead, the athlete and coach determine the interplay "based on 'how it feels'" during the training. To some extent, in distinction to the earliest forms of fartlek, it's evolution has taken it further in directions away from the track, toward natural outdoor terrain, including both "level and hilly terrain".


title: Fartlek

text: From the perspective of exercise physiology,[w]hen properly applied, [a fartlek training approach] overloads one or all of the energy systems... [and so] provides ideal general conditioning and off-season training strategies... [adding] freedom and variety to workouts.In relation to continuous and interval training methods, these same authors note that there is "[i]nsufficient evidence... proclaiming superiority of any specific training method to improve aerobic capacity and associated physiologic variables... Each form of training produces success." They go on to argue that, "[o]ne can probably use the various training methods interchangeably, particularly to modify training and achieve a more psychologically pleasing exercise or training regimen."


title: Fartlek

text: Swedish coach Gösta Holmér developed fartlek in the 1930s; since then, many runners and running coaches have adopted it. It was designed for the Swedish cross country running teams, which had been beaten throughout the 1920s by Paavo Nurmi and the Finnish team. Holmér's new training plan applied a faster-than-race training pace, and concentrated on a mix of speed and endurance training.


title: Fartlek

text: In the late 1930's, the decade following Finnish runners' supremacy under Paavo Nurmi, Gosta Holmer was the national coach for Sweden (see Gösta Holmér article), and he devised an approach that has been called as "innovative as any idea in athletics’ history", introducing "faster-than-race-pace, simultaneous speed/endurance training" which he termed "Fartlek" (with a capital "f"), meaning "speed play". In Holmér's hands, the sustainable speed of his runners was not achieved through Fartlek workouts alone; his training regimen included "[r]epeat track workouts, tempo runs and time trials... alternated or combined with Fartlek" through each training week. For his Swedish runners, which were world-class, the original Fartlek workout has been described as "a total of 12 kilometres running[,] with up to 5,000 metres... being at faster than race pace." Described by another, a typical workout might be "seven total miles of running with 4,000 or 5,000 meters worth of lickety-splits [faster-paced intervals], from 40 meter sprints to upwards of 2,400 meter pick-ups".


title: Fartlek

text: Fartlek training was, by one account, introduced in the United States, in the 1940s. By the 1960's, in the hands of Doris Brown Heritage, an inductee of the Track and Field Hall of Fame and running coach at Seattle Pacific University, her fartlek workouts had become assigned to 20-minute sessions beginning and ending with mile runs, between which were sandwiched an unstructured intermix of "40 to 200-yard sprints and five to seven minute segment 'perceived exertions'". In her university coaching, her cross country and track runners faced these, as well as "lots of short sprints... [and] five to seven minute runs".


title: Fartlek

text: At Portsea on the Australian shore, at a "rough and tumble training resort", Percy Cerutty had, through the 1950s and into the 1960s, applied forms of fartlek focusing on the freedom of training variations it allowed; his forms were "deeper and steeper", involving "20 percent beach running in heavy sand, 10 percent repetitions [running] up dunes... and the remainder... sprints, jogs and middle-distance runs" akin to those introduced by Holmér, which he led "along cliff top paths... [and] seashore and dirt roads." The work on the dunes was noteworthy in that some were "as high as 80 feet and as steeply graded as the stairs up the Statue of Liberty". (Quoting sprint champion Joe Schatzle, Sr., Runner's World notes that "Cerruty... took training to places no one ever thought of before—and few have thought about since.") For Australian runners training at Portsea, which for some comprised half of their yearly schedules, the training was without any traditional, structured track work. In the early 1960s, innovative and highly regarded distance coaches such as New Zealander Arthur Lydiard adapted Holmér's training approach, and like Cerutty, introduced fartlek-type workouts (alongside his long slow distance methods), again "over both flat and varied trails", using markers to indicate points at which sprint and middle-distance changes in pace were to be made. As described by Joe Rogers, who coached at Ball State University and West Point, "[t]he Swedes used... pine needle forest trails... terrain training, and hilly Fartlek courses... [but] primarily, it was on level paths", whereas Lydiard used both flat and graded elements in his training: "On the flats, athletes changed paces at markers. The hill courses had built-in stressors."


title: Fartlek

text: This is the first session that was designed by Gösta Holmér for a cross country (multi-terrain) runner. It is an example of what a fartlek session might look like—although fartlek sessions should be designed for an athlete's own event or sport, as well as catering to their individual needs.


title: Fartlek

text: According to this source, sessions should be at an intensity that causes the athlete to work at 60% to 80% of his or her maximum heart rate. This should mean that the body will not experience too much discomfort while exercising. An athlete should also include a good warm up at the beginning of the session, and a cool down at the end of the session, to improve performance, minimize post-workout muscle soreness, to decrease the chances of injury and for other reasons. Specifically, the workout should include:


title: Fartlek

text: The whole routine is then repeated until the total time prescribed on the training schedule has elapsed.


title: Fartlek

text: Australian distance runner Steve Moneghetti lends his knickname to a training workout "well known... in Australia", which was "devised by his... coach Chris Wardlaw... a dual Olympian". The workout, which provides a "way to inject... speed" into a run, has been described as a "cut-down ladder-fartlek", and was a track workout in its original design but is suited to any continuous course. The workout was designed to fit a 20-minute session, accompanied by a requisite warmup and cooldown, e.g., of half the training length (i.e., ca. 10-minutes each). It pairs periods of effort and recovery, specifically consisting of two 90-second efforts (each followed by the same length of recovery), with the same pattern then being followed for four efforts of 60-seconds, four efforts of 30-seconds, and four efforts of 15-seconds. A stated assumption of the workout is that as the period of effort shortens, the intensity (pace) of the effort increases, although actual workouts are tailored to individual runners' needs (i.e., there is "no hard and fast rule"). In one description of the workout, beginning pace during the effort portions is intended to fall about at the runners "5K pace", with subsequent shorter intervals being taken at faster pace as the runner is able, and with recoveries varying from walking and easy jogging for newer and other runners needing "more recovery between hard efforts", to half-marathon/marathon "race pace recovery" or 5K/10K race pace "moderate recovery" for more experienced runners. In more sophisticated presentations, the workout is adapted to particular periods of a runner's "training year":[F]or example... in a base building period... the efforts remain completely aerobic, but very near the top of the anaerobic threshold. The recoveries are floats, rather than easy jogging. During this [period], the run more resembles a tempo run with a higher level of intensity than what a tempo effort in one [continuous] strong effort can typically offer. During the quality [periods] of training, the recoveries can be a jog, while the efforts delve into the anaerobic realm. The efforts should be done by feel and can range in... pace from 1500m... to 10k race pace, again depending on the time of year.


title: Fartlek

text: In order to add more variety and complexity, runners can add another speed into the run. Within any run, “there is no reason why three different paces should not be included." This would change a normal fartlek by doing a jog, run, and a full out sprint.


title: Fartlek

text: Runners hypothetically “run hard for two mailboxes, recover for three, run hard for three, recover for two." When executing this type, the runner continues like this for the allotted time or distance determined.


title: Fartlek

text: Runners speed up when they get close to a dog in order to pass them; after passing the dog, they would then slow down for the recovery period.


title: Fartlek

text: Many runners use music while they run. Runners can use their music as a template for their fartlek run by changing their speed according to different parts of a song. For example, they can speed up during the chorus and slow down for the rest of the song.


title: Fartlek

text: Fartlek can simply include periods of jogging combined with short periods sprinting, or, for beginners, walking combined with jogging; e.g., a person may be asked to “sprint all out from one light pole to the next, jog to the corner, give a medium effort for a couple of blocks, jog between four light poles and sprint to a stop sign, and so on", until the desired distance or running time is reached."


title: Fartlek

text: Since this workout is very easily manipulated, “fartlek training allows you to add an endless variety of intervals to your aerobic workouts, which helps to keep you stimulated." A great plus to performing this workout is the variety it adds to fitness regimens; it is possible to change the amount of distance, time, fast bursts, recovery periods, and even the time at which you do each component.


title: Fartlek

text: For competitive runners, fartleks and all other types of interval runs are the key for race day readiness. The alternating speeds that are the defining point of fartleks allow runners to work “both the aerobic and anaerobic training systems while simulating the ebb and flow nature of competitive running."


title: Fartlek

text: Fartleks keep runners' bodies at top shape so that they can keep racing. Putting fartlek runs in a workout routine keeps “muscles, tendons, nerves, etc. used in running going at top capacity." In other words, regularly implementing fartleks keeps your body strong enough to maintain the mechanics of racing.


title: Fartlek

text: By alternating the “intensity of your workouts, you will burn more calories than you would by keeping a steady pace." While running, the runner's body uses a combination of carbohydrate and fat, with relatively more carbohydrate metabolized at faster speeds and relatively more fat the longer the workout lasts. A fartlek workout will allow the body to adapt to using both sources of energy, with the desired adaptation towards fat metabolism occurring during slower periods. In addition, varying speeds improves cardiovascular endurance slightly better than running at a steady pace for the same time and total distance.


title: Fartlek

text: Fartleks can be specially tailored to fit the needs of different types of athletes. An example includes basketball, where “you must exert maximum effort while running a fast break, while you exert very little effort while standing at the foul line." It is possible to alter the type and timing of the fartlek in order to mimic the intensity of an average basketball game. This can be done for other sports such as tennis, rugby, soccer, and football as well.


title: Fartlek

text: Other routines include the traditional interval training, and ladder and tempo runs. These workouts have some similarities to fartlek routines, but are distinguished from them and one from another by their slight differences.


title: Fartlek

text: Intervals “are short, intense efforts followed by equal or slightly longer recovery time." By the end of a short burst of speed, the runner is barely able to keep up that pace. Unlike fartleks, interval runs are much more structured; usually running the fast and slow spurts at exact times or distances. Interval runs and tempo runs differ in the fact that tempo runs maintain a slightly fast pace for a set amount of time, while interval runs consist of alternating between sprints and slow sections instead of keeping one speed.


title: Fartlek

text: This workout is defined as “a speed workout in which the fast parts vary in length." Basically, athletes will run a small amount at a hard pace, work their way up, and work their way back down with timed breaks in between. Ladders are similar to interval training in that they require more structure, but they are different because the faster speed sections vary in time or distance. Although ladders are most similar to interval runs, the fact that the portions performed at the faster speed vary in length or time mirrors fartlek runs.


title: Fartlek

text: Tempo runs are typically run for 20 to 25 minutes at a 6 or 7 RPE (out of 10). This exercise is “like an Oreo cookie, with the warmup and cooldown as the cookie, and a run at an effort at or slightly above your anaerobic threshold (the place where your body shifts to using more glycogen for energy) as the filling." What runners do here is warm up at a slow and steady pace, then run harder than they would on a normal distance jog for an allotted amount of time, and then do a cool down with a very similar speed to the warm up.


title: A Collection of Great Dance Songs

text: A Collection of Great Dance Songs is a compilation album by English rock band Pink Floyd. It was released on 23 November 1981 in the United Kingdom by Harvest Records and in the United States by Columbia Records.


title: A Collection of Great Dance Songs

text: The album contains alternative mixes of "Shine On You Crazy Diamond" (comprised parts 1, 2, 4 and 7) and "Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)".


title: A Collection of Great Dance Songs

text: "Money" was entirely re-recorded, as Capitol Records refused to license the track to Columbia/CBS Records. David Gilmour re-recorded the track himself, guitars, keyboards, bass guitar and vocals and co-producing the song with James Guthrie. Dick Parry reprised his saxophone role on the track. There are some differences between the re-recorded version and the original; mainly in the saxophone and guitar solos and the overall use of reverb and Gilmour repeating "away" at the end instead of the high pitch scat singing on the original. The drumming is noticeably different from Nick Mason's, especially during the guitar solo, with very little of the tom-tom fills heard on the original.


title: A Collection of Great Dance Songs

text: All songs featured in this collection are also represented (albeit not in the same mixed form) on the later collection, "".


title: A Collection of Great Dance Songs

text: The ironic title was a reference to the disco rhythms of "Another Brick in the Wall (Part 2)", as well as Nick Mason's joke that the band's U.S. label "probably thought they were a dance band". The album art featured a photograph of ballroom dancers anchored to the ground so they cannot move. The inner sleeve had pictures of dancers in either a white (UK) or black (US) background.


title: A Collection of Great Dance Songs

text: The album was certified Gold by the RIAA on 29 January 1982 and Platinum on 6 July 1989 and Double Platinum in August 2001. The album reached number 37 on the United Kingdom charts and number 31 in the United States. Columbia issued the remastered CD in 1997 in the US and most of the world save Europe. Then a 1997 remastered CD was re-released in 2000 on Capitol Records in the US and EMI for the rest of the world including Europe. The album was released once again in 2016 under the band's Pink Floyd Records imprint, distributed by Sony Music internationally and by Warner Music in Europe, and was released on LP as well as CD.


title: A Collection of Great Dance Songs

text: Reviewing in "" (1990), Robert Christgau said of the album: "With the rerecorded 'Money' sporting a livelier bottom to protect them from truth-in-titling and felonious injury charges, this gathers up their tuneful moments, which have always been far between – so far between, in fact, that even the unconverted may miss the ersatz symphonic structures in which they're properly embedded." Rob Sheffield was less enthusiastic in "The Rolling Stone Album Guide" (2004), writing that both this compilation and the next, 1983's "Works", are "pointless 'hits' collections from a band that disdained hits".


title: Allosteric regulation

text: In biochemistry, allosteric regulation (or allosteric control) is the regulation of an enzyme by binding an effector molecule at a site other than the enzyme's active site.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: The site to which the effector binds is termed the "allosteric site" or "regulatory site". Allosteric sites allow effectors to bind to the protein, often resulting in a conformational change and/or a change in protein dynamics. Effectors that enhance the protein's activity are referred to as "allosteric activators", whereas those that decrease the protein's activity are called "allosteric inhibitors".


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Allosteric regulations are a natural example of control loops, such as feedback from downstream products or feedforward from upstream substrates. Long-range allostery is especially important in cell signaling. Allosteric regulation is also particularly important in the cell's ability to adjust enzyme activity.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: The term "allostery" comes from the Ancient Greek "allos" (), "other", and "stereos" (), "solid (object)". This is in reference to the fact that the regulatory site of an allosteric protein is physically distinct from its active site.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Many allosteric effects can be explained by the "concerted" MWC model put forth by Monod, Wyman, and Changeux, or by the sequential model (also known as the KNF model) described by Koshland, Nemethy, and Filmer. Both postulate that protein subunits exist in one of two conformations, tensed (T) or relaxed (R), and that relaxed subunits bind substrate more readily than those in the tense state. The two models differ most in their assumptions about subunit interaction and the preexistence of both states. For proteins in which subunits exist in more than two conformations, the allostery landscape model described by Cuendet, Weinstein, and LeVine, can be used.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: The concerted model of allostery, also referred to as the symmetry model or MWC model, postulates that enzyme subunits are connected in such a way that a conformational change in one subunit is necessarily conferred to all other subunits. Thus, all subunits must exist in the same conformation. The model further holds that, in the absence of any ligand (substrate or otherwise), the equilibrium favors one of the conformational states, T or R. The equilibrium can be shifted to the R or T state through the binding of one ligand (the allosteric effector or ligand) to a site that is different from the active site


title: Allosteric regulation

text: The sequential model of allosteric regulation holds that subunits are not connected in such a way that a conformational change in one induces a similar change in the others. Thus, all enzyme subunits do not necessitate the same conformation. Moreover, the sequential model dictates that molecules of a substrate bind via an induced fit protocol. While such an induced fit converts a subunit from the tensed state to relaxed state, it does not propagate the conformational change to adjacent subunits. Instead, substrate-binding at one subunit only slightly alters the structure of other subunits so that their binding sites are more receptive to substrate. To summarize:


title: Allosteric regulation

text: A morpheein is a homo-oligomeric structure that can exist as an ensemble of physiologically significant and functionally different alternate quaternary assemblies. Transitions between alternate morpheein assemblies involve oligomer dissociation, conformational change in the dissociated state, and reassembly to a different oligomer. The required oligomer disassembly step differentiates the morpheein model for allosteric regulation from the classic MWC and KNF models.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Ensemble models of allosteric regulation enumerate an allosteric system's statistical ensemble as a function of its potential energy function, and then relate specific statistical measurements of allostery to specific energy terms in the energy function (such as an intermolecular salt bridge between two domains). Ensemble models like the ensemble allosteric model and allosteric Ising model assume that each domain of the system can adopt two states similar to the MWC model. The allostery landscape model introduced by Cuendet, Weinstein, and LeVine allows for the domains to have any number of states and the contribution of a specific molecular interaction to a given allosteric coupling can be estimated using a rigorous set of rules. Molecular dynamics simulations can be used to estimate a system's statistical ensemble so that it can be analyzed with the allostery landscape model.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Allosteric modulation is used to alter the activity of molecules and enzymes in biochemistry and pharmacology. For comparison, a typical drug is made to bind to the active site of an enzyme which thus prohibits binding of a substrate to that enzyme causing a decrease in enzyme activity. Allosteric modulation occurs when an effector binds to an allosteric site (also known as a regulatory site) of an enzyme and alters the enzyme activity. Allosteric modulators are designed to fit the allosteric site to cause a conformational change of the enzyme, in particular a change in the shape of the active site, which then causes a change in its activity. In contrast to typical drugs, modulators are not competitive inhibitors. They can be positive (activating) causing an increase of the enzyme activity or negative (inhibiting) causing a decrease of the enzyme activity. The use of allosteric modulation allows the control of the effects of specific enzyme activities; as a result, allosteric modulators are very effective in pharmacology. In a biological system, allosteric modulation can be difficult to distinguish from modulation by substrate presentation.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: An example of this model is seen with the "Mycobacterium tuberculosis", a bacterium that is perfectly suited to adapt to living in the macrophages of humans. The enzyme's sites serve as a communication between different substrates. Specifically between AMP and G6P. Sites like these also serve as a sensing mechanism for the enzyme's performance.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Positive allosteric modulation (also known as "allosteric activation") occurs when the binding of one ligand enhances the attraction between substrate molecules and other binding sites. An example is the binding of oxygen molecules to hemoglobin, where oxygen is effectively both the substrate and the effector. The allosteric, or "other", site is the active site of an adjoining protein subunit. The binding of oxygen to one subunit induces a conformational change in that subunit that interacts with the remaining active sites to enhance "their" oxygen affinity.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Another example of allosteric activation is seen in cytosolic IMP-GMP specific 5'-nucleotidase II (cN-II), where the affinity for substrate GMP increases upon GTP binding at the dimer interface.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Negative allosteric modulation (also known as "allosteric inhibition") occurs when the binding of one ligand decreases the affinity for substrate at other active sites. For example, when 2,3-BPG binds to an allosteric site on hemoglobin, the affinity for oxygen of all subunits decreases. This is when a regulator is absent from the binding site.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Direct thrombin inhibitors provides an excellent example of negative allosteric modulation. Allosteric inhibitors of thrombin have been discovered that could potentially be used as anticoagulants.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Another example is strychnine, a convulsant poison, which acts as an allosteric inhibitor of the glycine receptor. Glycine is a major post-synaptic inhibitory neurotransmitter in mammalian spinal cord and brain stem. Strychnine acts at a separate binding site on the glycine receptor in an allosteric manner; i.e., its binding lowers the affinity of the glycine receptor for glycine. Thus, strychnine inhibits the action of an inhibitory transmitter, leading to convulsions.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Another instance in which negative allosteric modulation can be seen is between ATP and the enzyme phosphofructokinase within the negative feedback loop that regulates glycolysis. Phosphofructokinase (generally referred to as PFK) is an enzyme that catalyses the third step of glycolysis: the phosphorylation of fructose-6-phosphate into fructose 1,6-bisphosphate. PFK can be allosterically inhibited by high levels of ATP within the cell. When ATP levels are high, ATP will bind to an allosteric site on phosphofructokinase, causing a change in the enzyme's three-dimensional shape. This change causes its affinity for substrate (fructose-6-phosphate and ATP) at the active site to decrease, and the enzyme is deemed inactive. This causes glycolysis to cease when ATP levels are high, thus conserving the body's glucose and maintaining balanced levels of cellular ATP. In this way, ATP serves as a negative allosteric modulator for PFK, despite the fact that it is also a substrate of the enzyme.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: A homotropic allosteric modulator is a substrate for its target protein, as well as a regulatory molecule of the protein's activity. It is typically an activator of the protein. For example, O and CO are homotropic allosteric modulators of hemoglobin. Likewise, in IMP/GMP specific 5' nucleotidase, binding of one GMP molecule to a single subunit of the tetrameric enzyme leads to increased affinity for GMP by the subsequent subunits as revealed by sigmoidal substrate versus velocity plots.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: A heterotropic allosteric modulator is a regulatory molecule that is not the enzyme's substrate. It may be either an activator or an inhibitor of the enzyme. For example, H, CO, and 2,3-bisphosphoglycerate are heterotropic allosteric modulators of hemoglobin. Once again, in IMP/GMP specific 5' nucleotidase, binding of GTP molecule at the dimer interface in the tetrameric enzyme leads to increased affinity for substrate GMP at the active site indicating towards K-type heterotropic allosteric activation.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: As has been amply highlighted above, some allosteric proteins can be regulated by both their substrates and other molecules. Such proteins are capable of both homotropic and heterotropic interactions.


title: Allosteric regulation

text: Some allosteric activators are referred to as "essential", or "obligate" activators, in the sense that in their absence, the activity of their target enzyme activity is very low or negligible, as is the case with N-acetylglutamate's activity on carbamoyl phosphate synthetase I, for example.