title: Roof

text: The characteristics of a roof are dependent upon the purpose of the building that it covers, the available roofing materials and the local traditions of construction and wider concepts of architectural design and practice, and may also be governed by local or national legislation. In most countries, a roof protects primarily against rain. A verandah may be roofed with material that protects against sunlight but admits the other elements. The roof of a garden conservatory protects plants from cold, wind, and rain, but admits light.


title: Roof

text: Old English 'roof, ceiling, top, summit; heaven, sky', also figuratively, 'highest point of something', from Proto-Germanic (cf. Dutch 'deckhouse, cabin, coffin-lid', Middle High German 'penthouse', Old Norse 'boat shed'). There are no apparent connections outside the Germanic family. "English alone has retained the word in a general sense, for which the other languages use forms corresponding to OE. thatch".


title: Roof

text: The material of a roof may range from banana leaves, wheaten straw or seagrass to laminated glass, copper "(see: copper roofing)", aluminium sheeting and pre-cast concrete. In many parts of the world ceramic roof tiles have been the predominant roofing material for centuries, if not millennia. Other roofing materials include asphalt, coal tar pitch, EPDM rubber, Hypalon, polyurethane foam, PVC, slate, Teflon fabric, TPO, and wood shakes and shingles.


title: Roof

text: The construction of a roof is determined by its method of support and how the underneath space is bridged and whether or not the roof is "pitched". The "pitch" is the angle at which the roof rises from its lowest to highest point. Most US domestic architecture, except in very dry regions, has roofs that are sloped, or "pitched". Although modern construction elements such as drainpipes may remove the need for pitch, roofs are pitched for reasons of tradition and aesthetics. So the pitch is partly dependent upon stylistic factors, and partially to do with practicalities.


title: Roof

text: Some types of roofing, for example thatch, require a steep pitch in order to be waterproof and durable. Other types of roofing, for example pantiles, are unstable on a steeply pitched roof but provide excellent weather protection at a relatively low angle. In regions where there is little rain, an almost flat roof with a slight run-off provides adequate protection against an occasional downpour. Drainpipes also remove the need for a sloping roof.


title: Roof

text: The durability of a roof is a matter of concern because the roof is often the least accessible part of a building for purposes of repair and renewal, while its damage or destruction can have serious effects.


title: Roof

text: The shape of roofs differs greatly from region to region. The main factors which influence the shape of roofs are the climate and the materials available for roof structure and the outer covering.


title: Roof

text: mono-pitched, gabled, mansard, hipped, butterfly, arched and domed. There are many variations on these types. Roofs constructed of flat sections that are sloped are referred to as pitched roofs (generally if the angle exceeds 10 degrees). Pitched roofs, including gabled, hipped and skillion roofs, make up the greatest number of domestic roofs. Some roofs follow organic shapes, either by architectural design or because a flexible material such as thatch has been used in the construction.


title: Roof

text: There are two parts to a roof: its supporting structure and its outer skin, or uppermost weatherproof layer. In a minority of buildings, the outer layer is also a self-supporting structure.


title: Roof

text: The roof structure is generally supported upon walls, although some building styles, for example, geodesic and A-frame, blur the distinction between wall and roof.


title: Roof

text: The supporting structure of a roof usually comprises beams that are long and of strong, fairly rigid material such as timber, and since the mid-19th century, cast iron or steel. In countries that use bamboo extensively, the flexibility of the material causes a distinctive curving line to the roof, characteristic of Oriental architecture.


title: Roof

text: Timber lends itself to a great variety of roof shapes. The timber structure can fulfil an aesthetic as well as practical function, when left exposed to view.


title: Roof

text: Stone lintels have been used to support roofs since prehistoric times, but cannot bridge large distances. The stone arch came into extensive use in the ancient Roman period and in variant forms could be used to span spaces up to across. The stone arch or vault, with or without ribs, dominated the roof structures of major architectural works for about 2,000 years, only giving way to iron beams with the Industrial Revolution and the designing of such buildings as Paxton's Crystal Palace, completed 1851.


title: Roof

text: With continual improvements in steel girders, these became the major structural support for large roofs, and eventually for ordinary houses as well. Another form of girder is the reinforced concrete beam, in which metal rods are encased in concrete, giving it greater strength under tension.


title: Roof

text: Roof support can also serve as living spaces as can be seen in roof decking. Roof decking are spaces within the roof structure that is converted into a room of some sort.


title: Roof

text: This part of the roof shows great variation dependent upon availability of material. In vernacular architecture, roofing material is often vegetation, such as thatches, the most durable being sea grass with a life of perhaps 40 years. In many Asian countries bamboo is used both for the supporting structure and the outer layer where split bamboo stems are laid turned alternately and overlapped. In areas with an abundance of timber, wooden shingles, shakes and boards are used, while in some countries the bark of certain trees can be peeled off in thick, heavy sheets and used for roofing.


title: Roof

text: The 20th century saw the manufacture of composition asphalt shingles which can last from a thin 20-year shingle to the thickest which are limited lifetime shingles, the cost depending on the thickness and durability of the shingle. When a layer of shingles wears out, they are usually stripped, along with the underlay and roofing nails, allowing a new layer to be installed. An alternative method is to install another layer directly over the worn layer. While this method is faster, it does not allow the roof sheathing to be inspected and water damage, often associated with worn shingles, to be repaired. Having multiple layers of old shingles under a new layer causes roofing nails to be located further from the sheathing, weakening their hold. The greatest concern with this method is that the weight of the extra material could exceed the dead load capacity of the roof structure and cause collapse. Because of this, jurisdictions which use the International Building Code prohibit the installation of new roofing on top of an existing roof that has two or more applications of any type of roof covering; the existing roofing material must be removed before installing a new roof.


title: Roof

text: Slate is an ideal, and durable material, while in the Swiss Alps roofs are made from huge slabs of stone, several inches thick. The slate roof is often considered the best type of roofing. A slate roof may last 75 to 150 years, and even longer. However, slate roofs are often expensive to install – in the US, for example, a slate roof may have the same cost as the rest of the house. Often, the first part of a slate roof to fail is the fixing nails; they corrode, allowing the slates to slip. In the UK, this condition is known as "nail sickness". Because of this problem, fixing nails made of stainless steel or copper are recommended, and even these must be protected from the weather.


title: Roof

text: Asbestos, usually in bonded corrugated panels, has been used widely in the 20th century as an inexpensive, non-flammable roofing material with excellent insulating properties. Health and legal issues involved in the mining and handling of asbestos products means that it is no longer used as a new roofing material. However, many asbestos roofs continue to exist, particularly in South America and Asia.


title: Roof

text: Roofs made of cut turf (modern ones known as green roofs, traditional ones as sod roofs) have good insulating properties and are increasingly encouraged as a way of "greening" the Earth. The soil and vegetation function as living insulation, moderating building temperatures. Adobe roofs are roofs of clay, mixed with binding material such as straw or animal hair, and plastered on lathes to form a flat or gently sloped roof, usually in areas of low rainfall.


title: Roof

text: In areas where clay is plentiful, roofs of baked tiles have been the major form of roofing. The casting and firing of roof tiles is an industry that is often associated with brickworks. While the shape and colour of tiles was once regionally distinctive, now tiles of many shapes and colours are produced commercially, to suit the taste and pocketbook of the purchaser. Concrete roof tiles are also a common choice, being available in many different styles and shapes.


title: Roof

text: Sheet metal in the form of copper and lead has also been used for many hundreds of years. Both are expensive but durable, the vast copper roof of Chartres Cathedral, oxidised to a pale green colour, having been in place for hundreds of years. Lead, which is sometimes used for church roofs, was most commonly used as flashing in valleys and around chimneys on domestic roofs, particularly those of slate. Copper was used for the same purpose.


title: Roof

text: In the 19th century, iron, electroplated with zinc to improve its resistance to rust, became a light-weight, easily transported, waterproofing material. Its low cost and easy application made it the most accessible commercial roofing, worldwide. Since then, many types of metal roofing have been developed. Steel shingle or standing-seam roofs last about 50 years or more depending on both the method of installation and the moisture barrier (underlayment) used and are between the cost of shingle roofs and slate roofs.


title: Roof

text: In the 20th century, a large number of roofing materials were developed, including roofs based on bitumen (already used in previous centuries), on rubber and on a range of synthetics such as thermoplastic and on fibreglass.


title: Roof

text: A roof assembly has more than one function. It may provide any or all of the following functions:<br>


title: Roof

text: 1. To shed water i.e., prevent water from standing on the roof surface. Water standing on the roof surface increases the live load on the roof structure, which is a safety issue. Standing water also contributes to premature deterioration of most roofing materials. Some roofing manufacturers' warranties are rendered void due to standing water.<br>


title: Roof

text: 2. To protect the building interior from the effects of weather elements such as rain, wind, sun, heat and snow.<br>


title: Roof

text: 3. To provide thermal insulation. Most modern commercial/industrial roof assemblies incorporate insulation boards or batt insulation. In most cases, the International Building Code and International Residential Code establish the minimum R-value required within the roof assembly.<br>


title: Roof

text: 4. To perform for the expected service life. All standard roofing materials have established histories of their respective longevity, based on anecdotal evidence. Most roof materials will last long after the manufacturer's warranty has expired, given adequate ongoing maintenance, and absent storm damage. Metal and tile roofs may last fifty years or more. Asphalt shingles may last 30–50 years. Coal tar built-up roofs may last forty or more years. Single-ply roofs may last twenty or more years.<br>


title: Roof

text: 5. Provide a desired, unblemished appearance. Some roofs are selected not only for the above functions, but also for aesthetics, similar to wall cladding. Premium prices are often paid for certain systems because of their attractive appearance and "curb appeal."


title: Roof

text: Because the purpose of a roof is to secure people and their possessions from climatic elements, the insulating properties of a roof are a consideration in its structure and the choice of roofing material.


title: Roof

text: Some roofing materials, particularly those of natural fibrous material, such as thatch, have excellent insulating properties. For those that do not, extra insulation is often installed under the outer layer. In developed countries, the majority of dwellings have a ceiling installed under the structural members of the roof. The purpose of a ceiling is to insulate against heat and cold, noise, dirt and often from the droppings and lice of birds who frequently choose roofs as nesting places.


title: Roof

text: Concrete tiles can be used as insulation. When installed leaving a space between the tiles and the roof surface, it can reduce heating caused by the sun.


title: Roof

text: Forms of insulation are felt or plastic sheeting, sometimes with a reflective surface, installed directly below the tiles or other material; synthetic foam batting laid above the ceiling and recycled paper products and other such materials that can be inserted or sprayed into roof cavities. Cool roofs are becoming increasingly popular,<ref name="10.3390/su13094665"></ref> and in some cases are mandated by local codes. Cool roofs are defined as roofs with both high reflectivity and high thermal emittance.


title: Roof

text: Poorly insulated and ventilated roofing can suffer from problems such as the formation of ice dams around the overhanging eaves in cold weather, causing water from melted snow on upper parts of the roof to penetrate the roofing material. Ice dams occur when heat escapes through the uppermost part of the roof, and the snow at those points melts, refreezing as it drips along the shingles, and collecting in the form of ice at the lower points. This can result in structural damage from stress, including the destruction of gutter and drainage systems.


title: Roof

text: The primary job of most roofs is to keep out water. The large area of a roof repels a lot of water, which must be directed in some suitable way, so that it does not cause damage or inconvenience.


title: Roof

text: Flat roof of adobe dwellings generally have a very slight slope. In a Middle Eastern country, where the roof may be used for recreation, it is often walled, and drainage holes must be provided to stop water from pooling and seeping through the porous roofing material.


title: Roof

text: Similar problems, although on a very much larger scale, confront the builders of modern commercial properties which often have flat roofs. Because of the very large nature of such roofs, it is essential that the outer skin be of a highly impermeable material. Most industrial and commercial structures have conventional roofs of low pitch.


title: Roof

text: In general, the pitch of the roof is proportional to the amount of precipitation. Houses in areas of low rainfall frequently have roofs of low pitch while those in areas of high rainfall and snow, have steep roofs. The longhouses of Papua New Guinea, for example, being roof-dominated architecture, the high roofs sweeping almost to the ground. The high steeply-pitched roofs of Germany and Holland are typical in regions of snowfall. In parts of North America such as Buffalo, New York, United States, or Montreal, Quebec, Canada, there is a required minimum slope of 6 in 12 (1:2, a pitch of 30°).


title: Roof

text: There are regional building styles which contradict this trend, the stone roofs of the Alpine chalets being usually of gentler incline. These buildings tend to accumulate a large amount of snow on them, which is seen as a factor in their insulation. The pitch of the roof is in part determined by the roofing material available, a pitch of 3 in 12 (1:4) or greater slope generally being covered with asphalt shingles, wood shake, corrugated steel, slate or tile.


title: Roof

text: The water repelled by the roof during a rainstorm is potentially damaging to the building that the roof protects. If it runs down the walls, it may seep into the mortar or through panels. If it lies around the foundations it may cause seepage to the interior, rising damp or dry rot. For this reason most buildings have a system in place to protect the walls of a building from most of the roof water. Overhanging eaves are commonly employed for this purpose. Most modern roofs and many old ones have systems of valleys, gutters, waterspouts, waterheads and drainpipes to remove the water from the vicinity of the building. In many parts of the world, roofwater is collected and stored for domestic use.


title: Roof

text: Areas prone to heavy snow benefit from a metal roof because their smooth surfaces shed the weight of snow more easily and resist the force of wind better than a wood shingle or a concrete tile roof.


title: Roof

text: Newer systems include solar shingles which generate electricity as well as cover the roof. There are also solar systems available that generate hot water or hot air and which can also act as a roof covering. More complex systems may carry out all of these functions: generate electricity, recover thermal energy, and also act as a roof covering.


title: Perseveration

text: Perseveration, in the fields of psychology, psychiatry, and speech-language pathology, is the repetition of a particular response (such as a word, phrase, or gesture) regardless of the absence or cessation of a stimulus. It is usually caused by a brain injury or other organic disorder. Symptoms include "lacking ability to transition or switch ideas appropriately with the social context, as evidenced by the repetition of words or gestures after they have ceased to be socially relevant or appropriate", or the "act or task of doing so", and are not better described as stereotypy (a highly repetitive idiosyncratic behaviour).


title: Perseveration

text: In a broader sense, it is used for a wide range of functionless behaviours that arise from a failure of the brain to either inhibit prepotent responses or to allow its usual progress to a different behavior, and includes impairment in set shifting and task switching in social and other contexts.


title: Perseveration

text: The primary definition of perseveration in biology and clinical psychiatry involves some form of response repetition or the inability to undertake set shifting (changing of goals, tasks or activities) as required, and is usually evidenced by behaviours such as words and gestures continuing to be repeated despite absence or cessation of a stimulus.


title: Perseveration

text: More broadly in clinical psychology, it describes mental or physical behaviours which are not excessive in terms of quantity but are apparently both functionless and involve a narrow range of behaviours.


title: Perseveration

text: For an example of the word, one would use a scenario. Two woman are going camping, and when they briefly leave their campsite and return, they find their belongings missing. One assumes it was their neighbor and perseverates throughout the evening. “I bet our neighbor stole our chairs,” and again “it has to be the neighbor.” The woman continued the utterance, even well after the crime had taken place.


title: Perseveration

text: Etymologically, the term derives from "persevere", meaning "to continue determinedly", from Latin "perseverare", meaning "to persist": persistent behaviour directed toward an identifiable goal is called "perseverance", but when not directed toward such a goal is called "perseveration". In general English, "perseveration" refers to insistent or redundant repetition, not necessarily in a clinical context.


title: Perseveration

text: Perseveration of thought indicates an inability to switch ideas or responses. An example of perseveration is, during a conversation, if an issue has been fully explored and discussed to a point of resolution, it is not uncommon for something to trigger the reinvestigation of the matter. This can happen at any time during a conversation.


title: Inuksuk

text: An inuksuk (plural inuksuit) or inukshuk (from the , plural ; alternatively ' in Inuinnaqtun, ' in Iñupiaq, in Greenlandic) is a type of stone landmark or cairn built by, and for the use of, Inuit, Iñupiat, Kalaallit, Yupik, and other peoples of the Arctic region of North America. These structures are found in northern Canada, Greenland, and Alaska (United States). This combined region, north of the Arctic Circle, is dominated by the tundra biome and has areas with few natural landmarks.


title: Inuksuk

text: The inuksuk may historically have been used for navigation, as a point of reference, a marker for travel routes, fishing places, camps, hunting grounds, places of veneration, drift fences used in hunting, or to mark a food cache. The Iñupiat in northern Alaska used inuksuit to assist in the herding of caribou into contained areas for slaughter. Varying in shape and size, the inuksuit have ancient roots in Inuit culture.


title: Inuksuk

text: Historically, the most common types of inuksuit are built with stone placed upon stone. The simplest type is a single stone positioned in an upright manner. There is some debate as to whether the appearance of human- or cross-shaped cairns developed in the Inuit culture before the arrival of European missionaries and explorers. The size of some inuksuit suggests that the construction was often a communal effort.


title: Inuksuk

text: At Inuksuk Point (Enukso Point) on Baffin Island, there are more than 100 inuksuit. The site was designated a National Historic Site of Canada in 1969.


title: Inuksuk

text: The word means "that which acts in the capacity of a human". The word comes from the morphemes ("person") and ("ersatz, substitute"). It is pronounced in Nunavik and the southern part of Baffin Island (see Inuit phonology for the linguistic reasons). In many of the central Nunavut dialects, it has the etymologically related name (plural: ).


title: Inuksuk

text: While the predominant English spelling is , both the Government of Nunavut and the Government of Canada through Indigenous and Northern Affairs Canada promote the Inuit-preferred spelling .


title: Inuksuk

text: A structure similar to an inuksuk is called an (, "imitation of a person", plural ); it is meant to represent a human figure. has become widely familiar to non-Inuit, and is particularly found in Greenland. However, it is not the most common type of inuksuk. It is distinguished from inuksuit in general.


title: Inuksuk

text: Inuksuit continue to serve as an Inuit cultural symbol. An inuksuk is the centrepiece of the flag and coat of arms of the Canadian territory of Nunavut, and the flag of Nunatsiavut. The Inuksuk High School in Iqaluit is named after the landmark.


title: Inuksuk

text: Inuksuitparticularly, but not exclusively, of the varietyare also increasingly serving as a mainstream Canadian national symbol. In 1999, Inukshuk was the name for the International Arctic Art & Music Project of ARBOS in the Canadian provinces of Quebec, Ontario, Nunavik, and Nunavut; and in Greenland, Austria, Denmark and Norway.


title: Inuksuk

text: On July 13, 2005, Canadian military personnel erected an inuksuk on Hans Island, along with a plaque and a Canadian flag, as part of Canada's longstanding dispute with Denmark over the small Arctic island. The markers have been erected throughout the country, often as generic gateways into tourist regions, including a inuksuk that stands in Toronto on the shores of Lake Ontario. Located in Battery Park, it commemorates the World Youth Day 2002 festival that was held in the city in July 2002.


title: Inuksuk

text: An is the basis of the logo of the 2010 Winter Olympics designed by Vancouver artist Elena Rivera MacGregor. Its use in this context has been controversial among the Inuit, and the First Nations within British Columbia. Although the design has been questioned, people believe it pays tribute to Alvin Kanak's 1986 inuksuk at English Bay. Friendship and the welcoming of the world are the meanings of both the English Bay structure and the 2010 Winter Olympics emblem.


title: Inuksuk

text: The Vancouver 2010 logo and the construction of inuksuit around the world have led to increasing recognition of them. There are five authentic inuksuit which were donated to other jurisdictions wholly or in partby the government of Canada: they are located in Brisbane, Australia; Monterrey, Mexico; Oslo, Norway; Washington, D.C., United States; and Guatemala City, Guatemala.


title: Inuksuk

text: A Canadian-donated inuksuk was built in Monterrey, Mexico, in October 2007 by the Inuvialuit artist Bill Nasogaluak. The sculpture was presented to the people of the northern state of Nuevo León as a gift from the Monterrey chapter of the Canadian Chamber of Commerce in Mexico and the Government of Canada, to mark the chamber's 10th anniversary in the city. The sculpture stands over the Santa Lucía Riverwalk. Nasogaluak, of Tuktoyaktuk, personally chose the rocks for the structure from a local quarry near Monterrey. The inuksuk contains two rocks which the artist took to Mexico from Canada, one from the high Arctic and another from his home town of Toronto. Together they form the inuksuk's heart.


title: Inuksuk

text: The inuksuk was also used as the symbol of the Summit of the Americas, because of its connotations of "guidance and unity ... towards common goals."


title: Inuksuk

text: Officials in various wilderness parks throughout Canada routinely dismantle inuksuit constructed by hikers and campers, for fear that they could misdirect park visitors from the cairns and other markers that indicate hiking trails. The practice of erecting inuksuit in parks has become so widespread that Killarney Provincial Park, on the north shore of Ontario's Georgian Bay, issued a notice in 2007 urging visitors to "stop the invasion" of inuksuit.


title: Inuksuk

text: A large number of inuksuit have been built in some areas along the Trans-Canada Highway, including Northern Ontario. In 2010, a journalist from Sudbury's "Northern Life" counted 93 inuksuit along Highway 69 between Sudbury and Parry Sound. The journalist successfully tracked down a person who had built two inuksuit along the route; he attributed his action to having had a "fill the dreams moment where I needed to stop and do it" while driving home from a family funeral.


title: Inuksuk

text: In 2015, a small group of women near Hamilton, Ontario, constructed 1,181 inuksuit on the Chedoke Rail Trail to memorialize the issue of Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women, while seeking government action. It was one of many types of activism across the county, and the newly elected government committed to conducting a national inquiry that year.


title: Inuksuk

text: According to "Guinness World Records", the tallest inuksuk is in Schomberg, Ontario, Canada. Built in 2007, it is tall.


title: Inuksuk

text: On the occasion of the 20th Anniversary of the Rome Statute, to mark Canada's support for the International Criminal Court (ICC) and as a symbol for its commitment to reconciliation with Canada's First Nations, Canadian Minister of Justice and Attorney General Wilson-Raybould on 7 March 2018 donated an inuksuk as a gift to the ICC. It was unveiled by her and ICC President Judge Silvia Fernández de Gurmendi at the ICC premises in The Hague.


title: Jackie Cruz

text: Jackie Cruz (born August 8, 1986) is a Dominican–American actress, singer and former model. She is known for her role as Marisol "Flaca" Gonzales on the Netflix original series "Orange Is the New Black".


title: Jackie Cruz

text: Born Jacqueline Chavez in Queens, New York on August 8, 1986, Cruz grew up between Los Angeles, California, and Santiago, Dominican Republic. She was raised by a single mother, and she speaks fluent English and Spanish. Cruz was inspired to become an entertainer at the age of seven after watching Whitney Houston in "The Bodyguard". She attended Alexander Hamilton High School in Los Angeles, where she was a member of the school's music academy.


title: Jackie Cruz

text: At age 16, Cruz moved out of her mother's apartment and became homeless. When she was 17, she was the victim of a car accident where she suffered a collapsed lung, fell into a coma and required brain surgery. Her song "Sweet Sixteen" is based on the incident.


title: Jackie Cruz

text: When Cruz was in high school, she worked with will.i.am's producers in a girl group called Krush Velvet, although the group never signed to a record label. Her debut extended play, "Hollywood Gypsy", was released independently in 2010.


title: Jackie Cruz

text: In 2009, Cruz began making appearances on the E! television series "Kourtney and Khloé Take Miami". She and Kourtney Kardashian became friends after meeting in an art class, which led to further appearances on the series. In one episode, Cruz and Kardashian were filmed kissing, an incident that Kardashian later stated she was "so embarrassed" by. Although Cruz initially stated that she and Kardashian remained friends following the incident, Kardashian later stated that she "can never talk to [Cruz] again".


title: Jackie Cruz

text: Cruz was working as a model and a waitress at New York City restaurant Lavo before she was cast as Marisol "Flaca" Gonzales on the Netflix series "Orange Is the New Black". Originally a recurring character for the first three seasons, it was announced in April 2015 that she would be promoted to series regular for the fourth season.


title: Jackie Cruz

text: In May 2022, she wrapped filming on the horror-thriller "History of Evil". Her recasting into the role wasn’t known until afterward.


title: Jackie Cruz

text: In 2016, Cruz told AfterEllen: "I like the person whether it's a woman—we don't like to be labeled. I'm in a relationship with a man right now, but I've liked women in the past. So I guess we don't want to be labeled. We don't really talk about it, but the actions speak louder than words, am I right? So you're seeing it. You're living it."


title: Jackie Cruz

text: In August 2020, Cruz married artist Fernando Garcia. In December 2021, Cruz and Garcia announced they're expecting twins. In March 2022, Cruz announced on Instagram that she had welcomed her twins.


title: Tesla turbine

text: The Tesla turbine is a bladeless centripetal flow turbine patented by Nikola Tesla in 1913. It is referred to as a "bladeless turbine".


title: Tesla turbine

text: The Tesla turbine also known as the "boundary-layer turbine", "cohesion-type turbine", and "Prandtl-layer turbine" (after Ludwig Prandtl) because it uses the boundary-layer effect and not a fluid impinging upon the blades as with a conventional turbine. Bioengineering researchers have referred to it as a multiple-disk centrifugal pump.


title: Tesla turbine

text: One of Tesla's desires for implementation this turbine was for geothermal power, which was described in "Our Future Motive Power".


title: Tesla turbine

text: In standard steam turbines, the steam has to press on the blades for the rotor to extract energy from the speed of the steam, due to the difference between the relative speed of the steam and the blades. In the bladed steam turbine, the blades must be carefully oriented in the optimal speed regime of the turbine's work, as to minimize the angle of the steam attack to the blade surface area. In their words, in the optimal regime, the orientation of the blades is trying to minimize the angle (blade pitch) with which the steam is hitting their surface area, as to create smooth steam flow, to try to minimize turbulence. These eddies are created in reaction to the steam impacting (although the minimized angle in the optimal turbine speed) the surface of the blades. In this dynamic, the first eddies a loss of the useful energy that can be extracted from the system, and second, as they are in opposite directions, they subtract from the energy of the incoming steam flow.


title: Tesla turbine

text: In the Tesla turbine, considering that there are no blades to be impacted, the mechanics of the reaction forces are different. The reaction force, to the steam head pressure, actually builds, relatively quickly, as a steam pressure "belt" along the periphery of the turbine. That belt is most dense, and pressurized, in the periphery as its pressure, when the rotor is not under load, will be not much less than the (incoming) steam pressure. In a normal operational mode, that peripheral pressure, as Tesla noted, plays a role of BEMF (Back Electromotive Force), limiting the flow of the incoming stream, and in this way, the Tesla turbine can be said to be self-governing. When the rotor is not under load the relative speeds between the "steam compressed spirals" (SCS, the steam spirally rotating between the disks) and the disks are minimal.


title: Tesla turbine

text: When a load is applied on the Tesla turbine shaft slows down, i.e., the relative speed of the discs to the (moving) fluid increases as the fluid, at least initially, preserves its angular momentum. For example, in a radius where at 9000 RPM the peripheral disk speeds are , when there is no load on the rotor, the disks move at approximately the same speed as the fluid, but when the rotor is loaded, the relative velocity differential (between the SCS and the metal disks) increases and rotor speed has a relative speed of 45 m/s to the SCS. This is a dynamic environment, and these speeds reach these values over time delta and not instantly. Here we have to note that fluids start to behave like solid bodies at high relative velocities, and in the TT case, we also have to take into consideration the additional pressure. According to the old literature on steam boilers, it is said that steam at high speed, resulting from a high-pressure source, cuts steel as a "knife cuts butter". According to the logic, this pressure and relative velocity toward the faces of the discs, the steam should start behaving like a solid body (SCS) dragging on disk metal surfaces. The created "friction" can only lead to the generation of additional heat directly on the disk and in SCS and will be most pronounced in the peripheral layer, where the relative velocity between the metal discs and SCS discs is the highest. This increase in the temperature, due to the friction between the SCS disks and the turbine disks, will be translated to an increase in the SCS temperature, and that will lead to SCS steam expansion and pressure increase perpendicular to the metal discs as well as radially on the axis of rotation (SCS trying to expand, to absorb additional heat energy), and so this fluid dynamic model appears to be positive feedback for transmitting a stronger "dragging" on the metal disks and consequently increasing the torque at the axis of rotation.


title: Tesla turbine

text: The guiding idea for developing the Tesla turbine is the fact that to attain the highest efficiency, the changes in the velocity and direction of movement of fluid should be as gradual as possible. Therefore, the propelling fluid of the Tesla turbine moves in natural paths or streamlines of the least resistance.


title: Tesla turbine

text: A Tesla turbine consists of a set of smooth disks, with nozzles applying a moving fluid to the edge of the disk. The fluid drags on the disk through viscosity and the adhesion of the surface layer of the fluid. As the fluid slows and adds energy to the disks, it spirals into the Centre exhaust. Since the rotor has no projections, it is very sturdy.


title: Tesla turbine

text: Tesla wrote: "This turbine is an efficient self-starting prime mover which may be operated as a steam or mixed fluid turbine at will, without changes in construction and is on this account very convenient. Minor departures from the turbine, as may be dictated by the circumstances in each case, will suggest themselves but if it is carried out on these general lines it will be found highly profitable to the owners of the steam plant while permitting the use of their old installation. However, the best economic results in the development of power from steam by the Tesla turbine will be obtained in plants especially adapted for the purpose."


title: Tesla turbine

text: Smooth rotor disks were originally proposed, but these gave poor starting torque. Tesla subsequently discovered that smooth rotor disks with small washers bridging the disks in about 12 to 24 places around the perimeter of a 10″ disk and a second ring of 6–12 washers at a sub-diameter made for a significant improvement in starting torque without compromising efficiency.


title: Tesla turbine

text: In Tesla's time, the efficiency of conventional turbines was low because turbines used a direct drive system that severely limited the potential speed of a turbine to whatever it was driving. At the time of introduction, modern ship turbines were massive and included dozens, or even hundreds of stages of turbines, yet produced extremely low efficiency due to their low speed. For example, the turbine on "Olympic" and "Titanic" weighed over 400 tons, ran at just 165 rpm, and used steam at a pressure of only 6 psi. This limited it to harvesting waste steam from the main power plants, a pair of reciprocating steam engines. The Tesla turbine also could run on higher-temperature gasses than bladed turbines of the time, which contributed to its greater efficiency. Eventually, axial turbines were given gearing to allow them to operate at higher speeds, but the efficiency of axial turbines remained very low in comparison to the Tesla turbine.


title: Tesla turbine

text: As time went on, competing for axial turbines became dramatically more efficient and powerful, and the second stage of reduction gears was introduced in most cutting-edge U.S. naval ships of the 1930s. The improvement in steam technology gave the U.S. Navy aircraft carriers a clear advantage in speed over both Allied and enemy aircraft carriers, and so the proven axial steam turbines became the preferred form of propulsion until the 1973 oil crisis took place. It drove the majority of new civilian vessels to turn to diesel engines. Axial steam turbines still had not exceeded 50% efficiency by that time, and so civilian ships chose to use diesel engines due to their superior efficiency. By this time, the comparably efficient Tesla turbine was over 60 years old.


title: Tesla turbine

text: Tesla's design attempted to sidestep the key drawbacks of the bladed axial turbines, and even the lowest estimates for efficiency still dramatically outperformed the efficiency of axial steam turbines of the day. However, in testing against more modern engines, the Tesla turbine had expansion efficiencies far below contemporary steam turbines and far below contemporary reciprocating steam engines. It does suffer from other problems, such as shear losses and flows restrictions, but this is partially offset by the relatively massive reduction in weight and volume. Some of Tesla's turbine advantages lie in relatively low flow rate applications or when small applications are called for. The disks need to be as thin as possible at the edges in order not to introduce turbulence as the fluid leaves the disks. This translates to needing to increase the number of disks as the flow rate increases. Maximum efficiency comes in this system when the inter-disk spacing approximates the thickness of the boundary layer, and since boundary layer thickness is dependent on viscosity and pressure, the claim that a single design can be used efficiently for a variety of fuels and fluids is incorrect. A Tesla turbine differs from a conventional turbine only in the mechanism used for transferring energy to the shaft. Various analyses demonstrate that the flow rate between the disks must be kept relatively low to maintain efficiency. Reportedly, the efficiency of the Tesla turbine drops with increased load. Under light load, the spiral taken by the fluid moving from the intake to the exhaust is a tight spiral, undergoing many rotations. Under load, the number of rotations drops, and the spiral becomes progressively shorter. This will increase the shear losses and also reduce the efficiency because the gas is in contact with the discs for less distance.


title: Tesla turbine

text: The turbine efficiency (defined as the ratio of the ideal change in enthalpy to the real enthalpy for the same change in pressure) of the gas Tesla turbine is estimated to be above 60%. The turbine efficiency is different from the cycle efficiency of the engine using the turbine. Axial turbines that operate today in steam plants or jet engines have efficiencies of over 90%. This is different from the cycle efficiencies of the plant or engine, which are between approximately 25% and 42%, and are limited by any irreversibility to be below the Carnot cycle efficiency. Tesla claimed that a steam version of his device would achieve around 95% efficiency. The thermodynamic efficiency is a measure of how well it performs compared to an isentropic case. It is the ratio of the ideal to the actual work input/output.


title: Tesla turbine

text: In the 1950s, Warren Rice attempted to recreate Tesla's experiments, but he did not perform these early tests on a pump built strictly in line with Tesla's patented design (it, among other things, was not a Tesla multiple staged turbine nor did it possess Tesla's nozzle). Rice's experimental single-stage system's working fluid was air. Rice's test turbines, as published in early reports, produced an overall measured efficiency of 36–41% for a "single stage". Higher efficiency would be expected if designed as originally proposed by Tesla.


title: Tesla turbine

text: In his final work with the Tesla turbine and published just before his retirement, Rice conducted a bulk-parameter analysis of model laminar flow in multiple disk turbines. A very high claim for rotor efficiency (as opposed to overall device efficiency) for this design was published in 1991 titled "Tesla Turbomachinery". This paper states:


title: Tesla turbine

text: Modern multiple-stage bladed turbines typically reach 60–70% efficiency, while large steam turbines often show turbine efficiency of over 90% in practice. Volute rotor-matched Tesla-type machines of reasonable size with common fluids (steam, gas, and water) would also be expected to show efficiencies in the vicinity of 60–70% and possibly higher.


title: Tesla turbine

text: Tesla's patents state that the device was intended for the use of fluids as motive agents, as distinguished from the propulsion or compression of fluids (though it can also be used for those purposes). As of 2016, the Tesla turbine has not seen widespread commercial use. The Tesla pump, however, has been commercially available since 1982 and is used to pump fluids that are abrasive, viscous, shear sensitive, contain solids, or are otherwise difficult to handle with other pumps. Tesla himself did not procure a large contract for production. The main disadvantage was poor knowledge of materials characteristics and behaviors at high temperatures. The best metallurgy of the day could not prevent the turbine disks from moving and warping unacceptably during operation.


title: Tesla turbine

text: Many amateur experiments have been conducted using Tesla turbines with compressed air, or steam as the power source (the steam is generated with heat from fuel combustion or solar radiation). Disc warping has been ameliorated by using new materials such as carbon fiber.


title: Tesla turbine

text: One proposed application for the device is a waste pump, in factories and mills where normal vane-type turbine pumps typically become fouled.


title: Tesla turbine

text: Applications of the Tesla turbine as a multiple-disk centrifugal blood pump have yielded promising results due to the low peak shear force.Biomedical engineering research on such applications has continued into the 21st century.


title: Tesla turbine

text: The device functions as a pump if a similar set of disks and a housing with an involute shape (versus circular for the turbine) are used. In this configuration, a motor is attached to the shaft. The fluid enters near the center, is energized by the disks, then exits at the periphery. The Tesla turbine does not use friction in the conventional sense; precisely, it avoids it and uses adhesion (the Coandă effect) and viscosity instead. It uses the boundary-layer effect on the disc blades.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: Vidor ( ) is a city in western Orange County, Texas, United States. A city of Southeast Texas, it lies at the intersection of Interstate 10 and Farm to Market Road 105, east of Beaumont. The town is mainly a bedroom community for the nearby refining complexes in Beaumont and Port Arthur and is part of the Beaumont-Port Arthur metropolitan statistical area. Its population was 9,789 at the 2020 census.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: The area was heavily logged after the construction of the Texarkana and Fort Smith Railway that was later part of a line that ran from Kansas City to Port Arthur, Texas. The city was named after lumberman Charles Shelton Vidor, owner of the Miller-Vidor Lumber Company and father of director King Vidor. By 1909, the Vidor community had a post office and four years later a company tram road was built. Almost all Vidor residents worked for the company. In 1924, the Miller-Vidor Lumber Company moved to Lakeview, just north of Vidor, in search of virgin timber. A small settlement remained and the Miller-Vidor subdivision was laid out in 1929.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: Vidor had and still has a reputation as a "sundown town", where African Americans are not allowed after sunset. In 1993, after district court judge William Wayne Justice ordered that 36 counties in East Texas, including Vidor, desegregate public housing by making some units available for minorities, the Klan from another area held a march in the community after a long legal battle was lost by Vidor's leaders. Church leaders held a well-attended prayer rally in opposition to the KKK hatred. After four Black families moved into the complex, the residents suffered racial threats including a bomb threat to the complex. All nine Black residents eventually moved out under this pressure. One of the residents, Bill Simpson, was interviewed about his negative experiences while living there. "I've had people who drive by and tell me they're going home to get a rope and come back and hang me. . . ." Shortly after moving out of the complex, Mr. Simpson was killed in Beaumont, coincidentally, by a black gang. During the summer of 2020, Black Lives Matter held a rally in Vidor that was attended by a diverse crowd of 150–200 people.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: In 2005, 2008, and 2017, Vidor and surrounding areas suffered extensive damage from Hurricanes Rita, Ike, and Harvey. A mandatory evacuation was imposed upon its residents for about two weeks.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , of which, are land and 0.09% is covered by water.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: As of the 2020 United States census, there were 9,789 people, 4,129 households, and 2,639 families residing in the city.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: As of the census of 2000, 11,440 people, 4,222 households, and 3,158 families were residing in the city. The population density was 1,083.6 people per square mile (418.3/km). The 4,652 housing units averaged 440.6 per square mile (170.1/km). The racial makeup of the city was 97.3% White, 0.1% African American, 0.5% Native American, 0.2% Asian, 0.73% from other races, and 1.21% from two or more races. Hispanics or Latinos of any race were 3.49% of the population.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: Of the 4,222 households, 34.7% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 56.3% were married couples living together, 13.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.2% were not families. About 22.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and 10.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.66, and the average family size was 3.09.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: In the city, the population distribution was 26.7% under the age of 18, 9.9% from 18 to 24, 27.4% from 25 to 44, 21.9% from 45 to 64, and 14.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 35 years. For every 100 females, there were 91.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.1 males.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: The median income for a household in the city was $31,982, and for a family was $37,572. Males had a median income of $35,781 versus $21,054 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,381. About 10.7% of families and 14.5% of the population were below the poverty line, including 19.5% of those under age 18 and 8.9% of those age 65 or over.


title: Vidor, Texas

text: The City of Vidor is served by the Vidor Independent School District, which is the largest of the six school districts in the county.


title: Mike Fuentes (musician)

text: Michael Christopher "Mike" Fuentes (born December 14, 1984) is a former American musician. He is best known as the former drummer for the post-hardcore band Pierce the Veil alongside his older brother Vic Fuentes. Fuentes was the percussionist for the supergroup Isles & Glaciers. He had more recently began a hip hop solo project under the stage name MikeyWhiskeyHands in which he raps on instrumentals produced by Pierce the Veil's bassist Jaime Preciado. Fuentes signed to Velocity Records in March 2012. Both brothers attended Mission Bay Senior High School. Mike graduated with the Class of 2003, where he was also voted "Most Likely To Be Famous" in the yearbook that year.


title: Mike Fuentes (musician)

text: In mid-November 2017 Fuentes was accused of statutory rape and soliciting nude photos via AOL Instant Messenger by a child. The incidents have alleged to occur over several years roughly a decade prior; the pair initiated contact on MySpace before meeting for the first time at a Pierce the Veil Concert at Chain Reaction club in Anaheim, California, when Fuentes was 24 and the child was a minor of 16. The child stated they had sex after meeting again at the Pomona concert stop during Warped Tour. The relationship was said to have lasted until she became an adult, turning 18.


title: Mike Fuentes (musician)

text: Meanwhile a second woman accused him of sexual misconduct, specifically for requesting nude pictures from her when she was a minor. The 23-year-old opened up, first meeting Fuentes at Warped Tour 2008. Both exchanged mobile phone numbers and stayed in contact afterwards. When she turned 15, Fuentes requested nude photos from her.


title: Mike Fuentes (musician)

text: The band replied to these accusations in mid December. On December 16, 2017, Fuentes responded to the allegations and stated that he is taking a break from Pierce the Veil.


title: ABAP

text: ABAP (Advanced Business Application Programming, originally "Allgemeiner Berichts-Aufbereitungs-Prozessor", German for "general report preparation processor") is a high-level programming language created by the German software company SAP SE. It is currently positioned, alongside Java, as the language for programming the SAP NetWeaver Application Server, which is part of the SAP NetWeaver platform for building business applications.


title: ABAP

text: ABAP is one of the many application-specific fourth-generation languages (4GLs) first developed in the 1980s. It was originally the report language for SAP R/2, a platform that enabled large corporations to build mainframe business applications for materials management and financial and management accounting.


title: ABAP

text: ABAP used to be an abbreviation of Allgemeiner Berichts-Aufbereitungs-Prozessor", German for "generic report preparation processor", but was later renamed to the English Advanced Business Application Programming". ABAP was one of the first languages to include the concept of "Logical Databases" (LDBs), which provides a high level of abstraction from the basic database level(s),which supports every platform, language and units.


title: ABAP

text: The ABAP language was originally used by developers to develop the SAP R/3 platform. It was also intended to be used by SAP customers to enhance SAP applications – customers can develop custom reports and interfaces with ABAP programming. The language was geared towards more technical customers with programming experience.


title: ABAP

text: ABAP remains as the language for creating programs for the client–server R/3 system, which SAP first released in 1992. As computer hardware evolved through the 1990s, more and more of SAP's applications and systems were written in ABAP. By 2001, all but the most basic functions were written in ABAP. In 1999, SAP released an object-oriented extension to ABAP called ABAP Objects, along with R/3 release 4.6.


title: ABAP

text: ABAP has an abstraction between the business applications, the operating system and database. This ensures that applications do not depend directly upon a specific server or database platform and can easily be ported from one platform to another.


title: ABAP

text: SAP Netweaver currently runs on UNIX (AIX, HP-UX, Solaris, Linux), Microsoft Windows, i5/OS on IBM System i (formerly iSeries, AS/400), and z/OS on IBM System z (formerly zSeries, S/390). Supported databases are HANA, SAP ASE (formerly Sybase), IBM Db2, Informix, MaxDB, Oracle, and Microsoft SQL Server (support for Informix was discontinued in SAP Basis release 7.00).


title: ABAP

text: All ABAP programs reside inside the SAP database. They are not stored in separate external files like Java or C++ programs. In the database all ABAP code exists in two forms: source code, which can be viewed and edited with the ABAP Workbench tools; and generated code, a binary representation somewhat comparable with Java bytecode. ABAP programs execute under the control of the runtime system, which is part of the SAP kernel. The runtime system is responsible for processing ABAP statements, controlling the flow logic of screens and responding to events (such as a user clicking on a screen button); in this respect it can be seen as a Virtual Machine comparable with the Java VM. A key component of the ABAP runtime system is the Database Interface, which turns database-independent ABAP statements ("Open SQL") into statements understood by the underlying DBMS ("Native SQL"). The database interface handles all the communication with the relational database on behalf of ABAP programs; It also contains extra features such as buffering of tables and frequently accessed data in the local memory of the application server.


title: ABAP

text: All SAP data exists and all SAP software runs in the context of a "SAP system". A system consists of a central relational database and one or more application ("instances") accessing the data and programs in this database. A SAP system contains at least one instance but may contain more, mostly for reasons of sizing and performance. In a system with multiple instances, load balancing mechanisms ensure that the load is spread evenly over the available application servers.


title: ABAP

text: Installations of the Web Application Server ("landscapes") typically consist of three systems: one for development; one for testing and quality assurance; and one for production. The landscape may contain more systems (e.g., separate systems for unit testing and pre-production testing) or it may contain fewer (e.g., only development and production, without separate QA); nevertheless three is the most common configuration. ABAP programs are created and undergo first testing in the development system. Afterwards they are distributed to the other systems in the landscape. These actions take place under control of the Change and Transport System (CTS), which is responsible for concurrency control (e.g., preventing two developers from changing the same code at the same time), version management, and deployment of programs on the QA and production systems.


title: ABAP

text: The Web Application Server consists of three layers: the database layer; the application layer; and the presentation layer. These layers may run on the same or on different physical machines. The "database layer" contains the relational database and the database software. The "application layer" knowledge contains the instance or instances of the system. All application processes, including the business transactions and the ABAP development, run on the application layer. The "presentation layer" handles the interaction with users of the system. Online access to ABAP application servers can go via a proprietary graphical interface, which is called "SAP GUI", or via a Web browser.


title: ABAP

text: A transaction in SAP terminology is the execution of a program. The normal way of executing ABAP code in the SAP system is by entering a transaction code (for instance, VA01 is the transaction code for "Create Sales Order"). Transactions can be called via system-defined or user-specific, role-based menus. They can also be started by entering the transaction code directly into a command field, which is present in every SAP screen. Transactions can also be invoked programmatically by means of the ABAP statements CALL TRANSACTION and LEAVE TO TRANSACTION.


title: ABAP

text: The general notion of a transaction is called a Logical Unit of Work (LUW) in SAP terminology; the short form of transaction code is "T-code".


title: ABAP

text: As in other programming languages, an ABAP program is either an executable unit or a library, which provides reusable code to other programs and is not independently executable.


title: ABAP

text: Reports follow a relatively simple programming model whereby a user optionally enters a set of parameters (e.g., a selection over a subSET of data) and the program then uses the input parameters to produce a report in the form of an interactive list. The term "report" can be somewhat misleading in that reports can also be designed to "modify" data; the reason why these programs are called reports is the "list-oriented" nature of the output they produce.


title: ABAP

text: Module pools define more complex patterns of user interaction using a collection of screens. The term “screen” refers to the actual, physical image that the user sees. Each screen also has a "flow logic", which refers to the ABAP code implicitly invoked by the screens, which is divided into a "PBO" (Process Before Output) and "PAI" (Process After Input) section. In SAP documentation the term “dynpro” (dynamic program) refers to the combination of the screen and its flow logic.


title: ABAP

text: ABAP programs are composed of individual sentences (statements). The first word in a statement is called an ABAP keyword. Each statement ends with a period. Words must always be separated by at least one space. Statements can be indented as you wish. With keywords, additions and operands, the ABAP runtime system does not differentiate between upper and lowercase.


title: ABAP

text: Statements can extend beyond one line. You can have several statements in a single line (though this is not recommended). Lines that begin with asterisk * in the first column are recognized as comment lines by the ABAP runtime system and are ignored. Double quotations marks (") indicate that the remainder of a line is a comment.


title: ABAP

text: There are two possible ways to develop in ABAP. The availability depends on the release of the ABAP system.


title: ABAP

text: The ABAP Workbench is part of the ABAP system and is accessed via SAP GUI. It contains different tools for editing programs. The most important of these are (transaction codes are shown in parentheses):


title: ABAP

text: The "Object Navigator" (transaction SE80) provides a single integrated interface into these various tools.


title: ABAP

text: The ABAP Development Tools (ADT), formally known as "ABAP in Eclipse", is a set of plugins for the Eclipse platform to develop ABAP.


title: ABAP

text: In this scenario, the ABAP developer installs the required tools on his computer and works locally, whereas a continuous synchronization with the backend is performed.


title: ABAP

text: The ABAP Dictionary contains all metadata about the data in the SAP system. It is closely linked with the ABAP Workbench in that any reference to data (e.g., a table, a view, or a data type) will be obtained from the dictionary. Developers use the ABAP Dictionary transactions (directly or through the SE80 Object Navigator inside the ABAP Workbench) to display and maintain this metadata.


title: ABAP

text: When a dictionary object is changed, a program that references the changed object will automatically reference the new version the next time the program runs. Because ABAP is interpreted, it is not necessary to recompile programs that reference changed dictionary objects.


title: ABAP

text: This example contains two statements: codice_1 and codice_2. The program displays a list on the screen. In this case, the list consists of the single line "Hello World". The codice_1 statement indicates that this program is a report. This program could be a module pool after replacing the codice_1 statement with codice_5.


title: ABAP

text: Consecutive statements with an identical first (leftmost) part can be combined into a "chained" statement using the chain operator codice_6. The common part of the statements is written to the left of the colon, the differing parts are written to the right of the colon and separated by commas. The colon operator is attached directly to the preceding token, without a space (the same applies to the commas in the token list on, as can be seen in the examples below).


title: ABAP

text: Chaining is often used in codice_2 statements. codice_2 accepts just one argument, so if for instance you wanted to display three fields from a structure called FLIGHTINFO, you would have to code:


title: ABAP

text: In a chain statement, the first part (before the colon) is not limited to the statement name alone. The entire common part of the consecutive statements can be placed before the colon. Example:


title: ABAP

text: assigns to variable x the substring of the variable a, starting from b with the length defined by the variable c.


title: ABAP

text: assigns to variable x the sum of the variable a and the result of the call to method b with the parameter c.


title: ABAP

text: In contrast with languages like C/C++ or Java, which define a limited set of language-specific statements and provide most functionality via libraries, ABAP contains an extensive amount of built-in statements. These statements traditionally used sentence-like structures and avoided symbols, making ABAP programs relatively verbose. However, in more recent versions of the ABAP language, a terser style is possible.


title: ABAP

text: An example of statement based syntax (whose syntax originates in COBOL) versus expression-based syntax (as in C/Java):


title: ABAP

text: ABAP provides a set of built-in data types. In addition, every structure, table, view or data element defined in the ABAP Dictionary can be used to type a variable. Also, object classes and interfaces can be used as types.


title: ABAP

text: Date variables or constants (type D) contain the number of days since January 1, 1 AD. Time variables or constants (type T) contain the number of seconds since midnight. A special characteristic of both types is that they can be accessed both as integers and as character strings (with internal format "YYYYMMDD" for dates and "hhmmss" for times), which can be used for date and time handling. For example, the code snippet below calculates the last day of the previous month (note: SY-DATUM is a system-defined variable containing the current date):


title: ABAP

text: All ABAP variables have to be explicitly declared in order to be used. They can be declared either with individual statements and explicit typing or, since ABAP 7.40, inline with inferred typing.


title: ABAP

text: Normally all declarations are placed at the top of the code module (program, subroutine, function) before the first executable statement; this placement is a convention and not an enforced syntax rule. The declaration consists of the name, type, length (where applicable), additional modifiers (e.g. the number of implied decimals for a packed decimal field) and optionally an initial value:


title: ABAP

text: For this type of declaration it must be possible to infer the type statically, e.g. by method signature or database table structure.


title: ABAP

text: The ABAP language supports object-oriented programming, through a feature known as "ABAP Objects". This helps to simplify applications and make them more controllable.


title: ABAP

text: ABAP Objects is fully compatible with the existing language, so one can use existing statements and modularization units in programs that use ABAP Objects, and can also use ABAP Objects in existing ABAP programs. Syntax checking is stronger in ABAP Objects programs, and some syntactical forms (usually older ones) of certain statements are not permitted.


title: ABAP

text: Objects form a capsule which combines the character to the respective behavior. Objects should enable programmers to map a real problem and its proposed software solution on a one-to-one basis. Typical objects in a business environment are, for example, ‘Customer’, ‘Order’, or ‘Invoice’. From Release 3.1 onwards, the Business Object Repository (BOR) of SAP Web Application Server ABAP has contained examples of such objects. The BOR object model will be integrated into ABAP Objects in the next Release by migrating the BOR object types to the ABAP class library.


title: ABAP

text: A comprehensive introduction to object orientation as a whole would go far beyond the limits of this introduction to ABAP Objects. This documentation introduces a selection of terms that are used universally in object orientation and also occur in ABAP Objects. In subsequent sections, it goes on to discuss in more detail how these terms are used in ABAP Objects. The end of this section contains a list of further reading, with a selection of titles about object orientation.


title: ABAP

text: The ABAP Core Data Services (ABAP CDS) are the implementation of the general CDS concept for AS ABAP. ABAP CDS makes it possible to define semantic data models on the central database of the application server. On AS ABAP, these models can be defined independently of the database system. The entities of these models provide enhanced access functions when compared with existing database tables and views defined in ABAP Dictionary, making it possible to optimize Open SQL-based applications. This is particularly clear when an AS ABAP uses a SAP HANA database, since its in-memory characteristics can be implemented in an optimum manner.


title: ABAP

text: The data models are defined using the data definition language (DDL) and data control language (DCL) provided in the ABAP CDS in the ABAP CDS syntax. The objects defined using these languages are integrated into ABAP Dictionary and managed here too.


title: ABAP

text: CDS source code can only be programmed in the Eclipse-based ABAP Development Tools (ADT). The Data Definition Language (DDL) and the Data Control Language (DCL) use different editors.


title: ABAP

text: Internal tables are an important feature of the ABAP language. An internal table is defined similarly to a vector of "struct"s in C++ or a vector of objects in Java. The main difference with these languages is that ABAP provides a collection of statements to easily access and manipulate the contents of internal tables. Note that ABAP does not support arrays; the only way to define a multi-element data object is to use an internal table.


title: ABAP

text: Internal tables are a way to store variable data sets of a fixed structure in the working memory of ABAP, and provides the functionality of dynamic arrays. The data is stored on a row-by-row basis, where each row has the same structure.


title: ABAP

text: Internal tables are preferably used to store and format the content of database tables from within a program. Furthermore, internal tables in connection with structures are an important means of defining complex data structures in an ABAP program.


title: ABAP

text: The following example defines an internal table with two fields with the format of database table VBRK.


title: ABAP

text: The following list only gives a rough overview about some important milestones in the history of the language ABAP. For more details, see ABAP - Release-Specific Changes.


title: Tom Perez

text: Thomas Edward Perez (born October 7, 1961) is an American politician and attorney who served as the Chair of the Democratic National Committee from February 2017 until January 2021. Perez was previously Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights (2009–2013) and United States Secretary of Labor (2013–2017). He was a GU Politics Fellow at the Georgetown Institute of Politics and Public Service in 2021.


title: Tom Perez

text: Born in Buffalo, New York, Perez is a graduate of Brown University, Harvard Law School, and the John F. Kennedy School of Government. He clerked for Judge Zita Weinshienk in Colorado prior to serving as a federal civil rights prosecutor for the Department of Justice. He next worked for Senator Ted Kennedy and then served as the Director of the Office for Civil Rights at the Department of Health and Human Services in the final years of the Clinton administration.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez was then elected to the Montgomery County (Maryland) Council in 2002, serving as the council's president from 2005, until the end of his tenure in 2006. He attempted to run for the Democratic nomination for Attorney General of Maryland, but was disqualified for not having sufficient time as a member of the Maryland state bar. Perez was appointed by Maryland Governor Martin O'Malley to serve as Secretary of the Maryland Department of Labor, Licensing and Regulation in January 2007, until his October 2009 confirmation by the United States Senate as Assistant Attorney General. In 2013, Perez was nominated by President Barack Obama to be the United States Secretary of Labor, replacing outgoing Secretary Hilda Solis.


title: Tom Perez

text: After the 2016 elections, Perez announced his candidacy for Chair of the Democratic National Committee in the 2017 party election. After a tight race against Keith Ellison, Perez was elected Chairman on the second ballot and immediately appointed Ellison as deputy chair. Perez declined to run for re-election in 2021, and Jaime Harrison was elected to succeed Perez on January 21, 2021. In June 2021, Perez announced that he would be running for the Democratic nomination in the 2022 Maryland gubernatorial election, but lost to Baltimore author Wes Moore in the Democratic primary.


title: Tom Perez

text: Thomas Edward Perez was born and raised in Buffalo, New York, to parents Grace (née Altagracia Brache Bernard) and Dr. Rafael Antonio de Jesús Pérez Lara, who were both first-generation immigrants from Dominican Republic.


title: Tom Perez

text: His father, who earned U.S. citizenship after enlisting in the U.S. Army after World War II, worked as a doctor in Atlanta, Georgia, before moving to Buffalo, where he worked as a physician at a Veterans Affairs hospital.


title: Tom Perez

text: His mother, Grace, came to the United States in 1930 after her father, Rafael Brache, was appointed as the Dominican Republic's Ambassador to the United States. Brache was initially an ally of Dominican dictator Rafael Trujillo, but after disagreements with the regime, he was declared an enemy of the state, forcing him and his family to remain in the United States.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez is the youngest of five brothers and sisters, all of whom but Perez followed their father in becoming physicians. His father died of a heart attack when Perez was 12 years old. He attended Christ the King in Amherst, NY until the 8th Grade. Perez graduated from Canisius High School, an all boys Jesuit school in Buffalo, in 1979.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez received his Bachelor of Arts in international relations and political science from Brown University in 1983. He joined the Sigma Chi Fraternity there. He covered the cost of attending Brown with scholarships and Pell Grants and by working as a trash collector and in a warehouse. He worked in Brown's dining hall and for the Rhode Island Commission for Human Rights.


title: Tom Perez

text: In 1987, Perez received a Juris Doctor "cum laude" from Harvard Law School and a Master of Public Policy from the John F. Kennedy School of Government.


title: Tom Perez

text: After graduating from Harvard, Perez worked as a law clerk for Judge Zita Weinshienk of the United States District Court for the District of Colorado from 1987 to 1989.


title: Tom Perez

text: From 1989 to 1995, he worked as a federal prosecutor in the Department of Justice's Civil Rights Division. He later served as Deputy Assistant Attorney General for Civil Rights under Attorney General Janet Reno. Perez chaired the interagency Worker Exploitation Task Force, which oversaw a variety of initiatives designed to protect workers.


title: Tom Perez

text: From 1995 to 1998, Perez worked as Democratic Massachusetts Senator Ted Kennedy's principal adviser on civil rights, criminal justice, and constitutional issues. During the final two years of the second Clinton administration, he worked as the Director of the Office for Civil Rights at the United States Department of Health and Human Services.


title: Tom Perez

text: From 2001 to 2007, Perez was a professor at the University of Maryland School of Law, where he taught in the clinical law and the law and health program. He was a part-time member of the faculty at the George Washington University School of Public Health.


title: Tom Perez

text: In 2002, Perez ran for the county council of Montgomery County, Maryland from its 5th district, which covers Silver Spring, Kensington, Takoma Park, and Wheaton. His main challenge was the Democratic primary, where he faced Sally Sternbach, the head of the Silver Spring Citizens Advisory Board and the Greater Silver Spring Chamber of Commerce. He defeated Sternbach with the support of the AFL–CIO and other labor groups. He faced Republican Dennis E. Walsh in the general election and won with 76% of the vote, becoming the first Hispanic council member.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez was on the council from 2002 to 2006. During that time, he served on the committees for Health and Human Services, and Transportation and the Environment. He also served as council president from 2004 to 2005. With council member Mike Subin, Perez pushed for legislation on predatory lending. The law allowed the county's Commission on Human Rights to investigate and prosecute loan brokers and third-party lenders engaging in predatory lending, raised the cap on compensation for victims, and required the commission to release an annual report on discriminatory and subprime lending in the county.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez opposed the privatization of the non-profit health insurer CareFirst, a non-stock holding, independent licensee of the Blue Cross and Blue Shield Association that provided coverage in Maryland, Delaware, Washington, D.C., and Virginia. He lobbied for support on the county council and in the Maryland General Assembly against the sale of CareFirst to Wellpoint (now Anthem). He led the council to a unanimous vote against the acquisition, leading to the rejection of the merger by Maryland's Commissioner of Insurance.


title: Tom Perez

text: In 2004, Perez, and fellow council member Marilyn Praisner introduced an initiative to provide affordable prescription drugs for county employees and retirees, setting up a voluntary program to import high-quality, lower priced prescription drugs from suppliers in Canada approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). The initiative was overwhelmingly passed by the council, though Montgomery County was denied a waiver by the FDA through the Medicare Prescription Drug, Improvement, and Modernization Act, leading to a lawsuit by Montgomery County against Health and Human Services Secretary Michael Leavitt, where the U.S. District Court for Maryland granted the FDA the right to dismiss.


title: Tom Perez

text: After speculation arose that 20-year incumbent Attorney General of Maryland J. Joseph Curran, Jr. would announce his retirement in 2006, Perez was seen as a top contender to replace Curran. On May 23, 2006, after Curran announced he would not run for re-election, Perez launched his candidacy, in a three-city tour with former Maryland Attorney General and United States Attorney Stephen H. Sachs. Perez was backed by labor groups such as Maryland's State Teachers Association and the Service Employees International Union.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez's main challengers were Montgomery County State's Attorney Doug Gansler and Stuart O. Simms, a Baltimore lawyer who had served as Secretary of the Maryland Department of Public Safety and Correctional Services. Gansler, who got an early start in campaign contributions, raised over $1.4 million, compared to Perez's $200,000.


title: Tom Perez

text: During the campaign, questions were raised over whether Perez was permitted to run under Maryland's State Constitution, due to a requirement that candidates for attorney general must have at least 10 years of previous experience practicing law in Maryland; It wasn't until 2001 that Perez had become a member of the Maryland State Bar Association. The lawsuit was filed by Stephen N. Abrams, a member of the Montgomery County Board of Education and the 2006 Republican candidate for Comptroller of Maryland.


title: Tom Perez

text: Abrams argued that it was "absolutely wrong to say that Perez met the 10-year requirement", after he was cleared by the Maryland State Board of Elections, and received legal advice from Attorney General Curran, who opined that Perez's time as a federal prosecutor in Maryland seemingly met the requirement. The lawsuit, which was brought before the Anne Arundel County Circuit Court, was rejected by that court two months before the primary. Abrams appealed, bringing the case before the Maryland Court of Appeals, Maryland's highest court. The Court of Appeals rejected Perez's bid for attorney general. Perez then shifted his resources to support Martin O'Malley in his successful 2006 campaign for Governor of Maryland.


title: Tom Perez

text: In January 2007, newly elected Governor Martin O'Malley selected Perez to run the Maryland Department of Labor, Licensing and Regulation.


title: Tom Perez

text: In that role, Perez led efforts to target Maryland companies who were engaging in workplace fraud, imposing new restrictions on the employee misclassification as independent contractors. He helped with the implementation of H.R. 1590, the Workplace Fraud Act of 2009, imposing penalties for employers who falsely classified their employees as independent contractors, actions involving tax evasion by the employers as well as the denial of worker protections and health insurance benefits to employees. In May 2009, Governor O'Malley signed the act into law, with Perez saying that the act would "ensure that employers who attempt to cheat the system, their workers and their competitors, will pay a steep price for their actions".


title: Tom Perez

text: In 2004, then-Governor Robert Ehrlich vetoed an attempt to implement a living wage law in Maryland. Perez helped lead the reintroduction of a similar bill in 2007. After the bill passed and was signed by Governor O'Malley, Perez announced new provisions for out-of-state contractors and subcontractors doing business in Maryland, subjecting them to the same standards as in-state businesses.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez was a top adviser to O'Malley on Maryland's healthcare workforce shortage. Perez helped develop a plan relieving the chronic shortage of nurses in Maryland, allowing immigrants who have nursing qualifications in their home countries to have their certifications count towards becoming a registered nurse in the state.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez served as co-chair of the Maryland Workforce Creation and Adult Education Transition Council, alongside Maryland State Superintendent of Schools Nancy S. Grasmick, after Governor O'Malley moved the Maryland Adult Education and Literacy Services Program, the adult correctional education, and the GED Testing Office from the Department of Education to the Department of Labor. The council oversaw the extensive transition process, while commissioning a report on proposals to revamp the state adult education system and identifying inefficiencies in the state correctional education budget. Though the shift of the programs to the DLLR was proposed to allow the state to save money and create a more unified workforce system, the decision was criticized by adult education providers in the state and was seen as a political move by O'Malley to undermine control of the agency by Superintendent Grasmick.


title: Tom Perez

text: During his first term as governor, O'Malley pushed proposals to expand gambling in Maryland, with Perez spearheading the legalization of slot machines in the state. The legislation was a central part of a plan to raise revenue to close Maryland's budget deficit (keeping revenue from crossing state lines), though Perez was criticized by many in his own party who saw the measure as a regressive way to raise revenue. Perez commissioned a report led by the DLLR arguing that the legalization of slots would be necessary to preserve Maryland's horse racing and breeding industries, with new revenue helping to address the issues of public education and school construction. The plan was approved in a state referendum by voters in the 2008 election, allowing 15,000 new slot machines in the state.


title: Tom Perez

text: On March 31, 2009, President Barack Obama nominated Perez to be Assistant Attorney General for the Civil Rights Division of the United States Department of Justice. The Senate Judiciary Committee held a hearing on Perez's nomination on April 29, 2009, and on June 4, 2009, the committee voted 17–2 to send Perez's nomination to the full Senate. Perez's nomination then did not move forward for several months, amid questions by Republican senators about his record on immigration matters and a controversy over the Obama Justice Department's dismissal of a voter intimidation case against the militant New Black Panther Party. Senator Patrick Leahy (D-VT) characterized the opposition as foot-dragging and "posturing for narrow special interests". On October 6, 2009, the full United States Senate confirmed Perez in a bipartisan 72–22 vote. Only two Senators spoke out against the nomination: Tom Coburn (R-OK) and David Vitter (R-LA).


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez revamped Justice Department efforts in pursuing federal settlements and consent agreements under the Americans With Disabilities Act. One of Perez's main focuses was on the discrimination of individuals with HIV/AIDS, saying that it is "critical that we continue to work to eradicate discriminatory and stigmatizing treatment towards individuals with HIV based on unfounded fears and stereotypes".


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez oversaw the division responsible for the implementation, and training of local enforcement in response to the passage of the Matthew Shepard and James Byrd, Jr. Hate Crimes Prevention Act; including overseeing the first hate-crime conviction under the law, in the racially motivated murder of James Craig Anderson. Perez endorsed the Employment Non-Discrimination Act in 2009, citing it one of his "top priorities", and at his first testimony after being confirmed as Assistant Attorney General, he said, "That LGBT individuals not being currently protected against discrimination in the workplace is perhaps one of the most gaping holes in our nation's civil rights laws."


title: Tom Perez

text: In 2009, the Civil Rights Division under Perez's tenure filed suit against a Herkimer County, New York school for "alleged violations of the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution and Title IX of the Education Amendments of 1972". The plaintiff, a 14-year-old high school student from Mohawk, New York, who "dyes his hair, and wears make-up and nail polish", was reportedly subjected to verbal sex-based harassment and was "threatened, intimidated, and physically assaulted based on his non-masculine expression".


title: Tom Perez

text: In J.L. v Mohawk Central School District, the settlement required the school district to begin "training staff in appropriate ways to address harassment", to "review its policies and procedures governing harassment" and "report to the New York Civil Liberties Union (which previously represented the student in the lawsuit), as well as the Department of Justice, on these efforts as well as its ongoing response". This was the first time since the Clinton administration that Title IX was applied to gender identity discrimination.


title: Tom Perez

text: The Civil Rights Division reached a settlement with the Anoka-Hennepin School District in the Minneapolis–Saint Paul metropolitan area, after the district school board voted to repeal its policy prohibiting teachers from mentioning homosexuality in the classroom. Students who brought the lawsuit accused the district of creating a "hostile, anti-gay environment" and not doing enough to protect LGBT students. Perez praised the school board's decision, saying that the settlement is a "comprehensive blueprint for sustainable reform that will enhance the district's policies, training and other efforts to ensure that every student is free from sex-based harassment".


title: Tom Perez

text: After a "comprehensive investigation" by the Civil Rights Division of a juvenile facility in Lauderdale County, Mississippi, Perez's division found multiple violations of due process and Miranda rights of African-American and disabled students at Meridian, Mississippi, schools by the Lauderdale County Youth Court, the Meridian Police Department and the Mississippi Division of Youth Services. The investigation described local and state authorities of running a "school-to-prison pipeline", by incarcerating students for minor school disciplinary infractions, such as violating school dress-code guidelines.


title: Tom Perez

text: The Justice Department determined that a pattern existed of Mississippi authorities' failing to assess probable cause that unlawful offenses against the students had been committed, and that students were held in jail without the benefit of a hearing, a lawyer or Miranda rights; with Perez claiming that "the systematic disregard for children's basic constitutional rights by agencies with a duty to protect and serve these children betrays the public trust".


title: Tom Perez

text: After the shooting death of Florida teenager Trayvon Martin, by George Zimmerman in Sanford, Florida, in 2012, Perez was brought in by Representative Alcee Hastings and Sanford Mayor Jeff Triplet to investigate the police department's handling of the case. A full-scale investigation was later launched by the Civil Rights Division, where Perez led an inquiry on the shooting investigation. After a thorough investigation was promised by Attorney General Eric Holder, Perez went to Florida, meeting with U.S. Attorney Robert O'Neil, family members of Trayvon Martin, and local officials to investigate whether the shooting was a racially motivated hate crime. The Justice Department launched a probe into Sanford police chief Bill Lee, who was fired two months after the beginning of the investigation.


title: Tom Perez

text: After homeless Native American woodcarver John T. Williams was fatally shot by the Seattle Police Department in 2010, Perez led an eight-month investigation into the use of excessive force by the SPD. After the end of the Division's investigation, along with Jenny Durkan, the U.S. Attorney for the District of Western Washington, Perez released a report citing "constitutional violations regarding the use of force that result from structural problems, as well as serious concerns about biased policing" by the SPD. A settlement was later reached between the Civil Rights Division and the city of Seattle requiring the city to create a Community Police Commission, have the SPD under the supervision of an independent, court-appointed monitor, and encouraging police officers to de-escalate nonviolent confrontations by decreasing their use of force.


title: Tom Perez

text: In June 2008, the Civil Rights Division opened an investigation into the Maricopa County Sheriff's Office (MCSO) and Sheriff Joe Arpaio, following allegations that the MCSO was engaged in a pattern of practice of unlawful conduct.


title: Tom Perez

text: An expanded investigation leading into Perez's tenure over "discriminatory police practices and unconstitutional searches and seizures", led to a lawsuit by the Justice Department after Arpaio rejected the department's request for documents regarding the investigation; this was the first time that the federal government sued a local law enforcement agency concerning Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 since the 1970s.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez released a 22-page report on discriminatory and racial biases against Latinos by the MCSO and Arpaio. The report found that the MCSO mistreated and used racial slurs against Spanish-speaking inmates; Latino drivers were four to nine times more likely than non-Latino drivers to be stopped in identical non-criminal instances; 20% of stops and seizures, almost all of them involving Latinos, were legally unjustified, violating the Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution; and the MCSO and sheriff's deputies engaged in retaliation against individuals who participated in demonstrations against the office's policies regarding immigration. Arpaio was also found to have used racial and ethnic description, such as "individuals with dark skin" and "individuals speaking Spanish" as justification for immigration raids on businesses and homes, while overlooking criminal activity, as vindication for immigration raids led by the MCSO.


title: Tom Perez

text: In May 2012, after the end of a three-year investigation, Perez led his division in a lawsuit against Maricopa County, the MCSO and Arpaio, for violating Section 14141 of the Violent Crime Control and Law Enforcement Act of 1994 and Title VI of the Civil Rights Act. Arpaio called the suit a political move by the Obama administration, while Perez called the suit an "abuse-of-power case involving a sheriff and sheriff's office that disregarded the Constitution, ignored sound police practices, compromised public safety and did not hesitate to retaliate against his perceived critics".


title: Tom Perez

text: The Obama administration directed Perez and the Civil Rights Division in challenging South Carolina's 2011 voter ID law, over concerns that the law violated Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Perez successfully blocked the law from taking effect, after the Justice Department alleged that South Carolina had failed to prove that the law would not have a disproportionate effect on minority voters. In a letter to South Carolina's Deputy Assistant Attorney General, C. Havird Jones, Jr., Perez questioned whether 81,000 registered voters, all of whom were minorities who didn't have government-issued or military photo identification, would be able to exercise their right to vote, citing "significant racial disparities in the proposed photo identification requirement".


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez also oversaw the Obama administration's efforts in challenging a 2011 voter ID law signed by Texas Governor Rick Perry, the second voter ID law consequently found to have violated Section 5 of the Voting Rights Act. Addressing the Supreme Court case Crawford v. Marion County Election Board, where the court upheld the constitutionality of Indiana's photo ID requirement, Perez argued that "[Texas's] submission did not include evidence of significant in-person voter impersonation not already addressed by the state's existing laws". Perez also stressed data from the Texas Department of Public Safety that found that registered Hispanic voters were 46.5% to 120% less likely than non-Hispanic voters to have a government issued driver's license or state required photo ID.


title: Tom Perez

text: Rights that political leadership was not involved in the decision to dismiss three of the four defendants in the NBPP case. However, on March 12, 2013, the Department of Justice Inspector General released a report stating that Perez's testimony did not reflect the entire story, as AAG Perelli and DAAG Sam Hirsch were involved in consultations on the case. However, the Inspector General found that Perez did not know about these consultations at the time of his testimony, and therefore he did not intentionally mislead the commission. However, because of his role as a Department witness, the Inspector General believed that Perez should have inquired further on this issue before testifying.


title: Tom Perez

text: In the same report, the Inspector General found that the Civil Rights Division exhibited a clear priority in enforcing the motor-voter provisions of the NVRA over the list-maintenance provisions. However, the Inspector General did not find sufficient evidence to conclude that these differences in enforcement were for political reasons. In particular, they found that Perez sent letters about list-maintenance enforcement in December 2010, so as not to be viewed as interfering with the 2010 elections. However, this letter provided no guidance on how states were to enforce list-maintenance procedures, instead leaving it up to the states. Overall, the report stated that: "The conduct that we discovered and document in this report reflects a disappointing lack of professionalism by some Department employees over an extended period of time, during two administrations, and across various facets of the Voting Section's operations."


title: Tom Perez

text: On March 18, 2013, President Barack Obama nominated Perez to be Secretary of Labor, succeeding outgoing Secretary Hilda Solis. Perez's nomination was criticized by Senators Chuck Grassley (R-IA) and Pat Roberts (R-KS), as well as the editorial board of the "Wall Street Journal", for his decision not to intervene in a whistleblower case against Saint Paul, Minnesota, in return for the city's dropping a case before the Supreme Court ("Magner v. Gallagher"), which could have undermined the disparate impact theory of discrimination. Senator Jeff Sessions (R-AL) opposed the nomination because of Perez's views on immigration and his association with CASA de Maryland, calling the nomination "an unfortunate and needlessly divisive nomination". Perez's nomination was supported by Senator Tom Harkin (D-IA), the Chairman of the U.S. Senate Committee on Health, Education, Labor, and Pensions, the committee that oversees the Department of Labor. His nomination was also supported by labor groups, such as the AFL-CIO and the United Farm Workers of America as well as the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People and the National Women's Law Center.


title: Tom Perez

text: Before holding a hearing on the nomination, Republican members of the United States House Committee on Oversight and Government Reform subpoenaed Perez's personal e-mails and released a 64-page report into Perez's actions in the St. Paul whistleblower case, saying that Perez "manipulated justice and ignored the rule of law".


title: Tom Perez

text: At his confirmation hearing on April 18, 2013, Perez was questioned about his role in "Magner v. Gallagher" and the NBPP case as well as the Obama administration's plan to raise the minimum wage from $7.25 to $9 an hour.


title: Tom Perez

text: The confirmation vote was delayed to May 8 to give Senate Democrats more time to review Perez's role in "Magner v. Gallagher", and then to May 16, at which time Perez's nomination cleared the committee on a party line vote of 12–10. Senate Majority Leader Harry Reid (D-NV) postponed a full Senate vote on the nomination until July.


title: Tom Perez

text: As Senate Democrats pushed in July 2013 to eliminate the filibuster for all executive-branch nominees, senators struck a deal for a Senate vote on Perez's nomination. On July 17, 2013, the Senate voted 60–40 for cloture on Perez's nomination, ending the filibuster. On July 18, 2013, the Senate voted 54–46 to confirm Perez as Secretary of Labor. It was the first Senate confirmation vote in history in which a cabinet member's confirmation received a party-line vote, something many press observers termed "historic".


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez began his tenure by holding several meetings seeking to implement the Fiduciary Rule. The Fiduciary Rule imposes a fiduciary level standard of care on retirement advisors forbidding them from receiving any commissions that create a conflict of interest.


title: Tom Perez

text: The rule was originally drafted in 2010 but had not been implemented after over 200 members of Congress sent letters urging the rule be withdrawn. Secretary Perez met with stakeholders during new rulemaking and then held a conference at the Center for American Progress, where he announced he was implementing the Fiduciary Rule on April 6, 2016. Congress passed legislation overturning the Fiduciary Rule, but it was vetoed by President Obama on June 9, 2016.


title: Tom Perez

text: In May 2016, following several days of negotiations, Verizon and striking labor union workers reached contract agreements at the Department of Labor headquarters in Washington D.C.


title: Tom Perez

text: Secretary Perez issued the Home Care Rule, requiring that home care workers for the elderly and/or people with disabilities receive minimum-wage and overtime compensation, effective January 1, 2015. In December 2014, U.S. District Judge Richard J. Leon vacated the rule, finding it arbitrary and capricious. In August 2015, Circuit Judge Sri Srinivasan, joined by Judges Thomas B. Griffith and Nina Pillard reversed, reinstating the rule. On June 27, 2016, the Supreme Court declined review.


title: Tom Perez

text: Perez regularly made 'house calls' or onsite trips to obtain personal feedback and listen to workers who shared stories of their experiences. The Department of Labor launched a Veterans employment website to assist veterans with locating and utilizing employment resources.