title: Zef

text: The concept of "zef" originated in the 1960s and 1970s as a derogatory term to refer to working class whites, including residents of caravan parks. It is a shortening of the name of the Ford Zephyr motorcar that was popular worldwide from the 1950s to the 1970s. In South Africa, these cars were often customized with enhanced engines, tires and wheels. Frikkie Lombard, editor of the "Woordeboek van die Afrikaanse Taal", has explained zef as "something which is usually considered to be common, but nowadays has credibility." The term also appears in Werner Herzog's memoir "Of Walking in Ice" of 1978.


title: Zef

text: The music group Die Antwoord self-identifies as "zef" in style. In a 2010 interview, Ninja of Die Antwoord responded to the controversy arising from his claim that zef represented South Africa. Critics suggested it might rather just represent (Afrikaans) "white" South Africa. He commented that "racism is somewhat obsolete and a thing of the past for South Africans." In the same interview, Ninja describes that zef is a style of music and a style of subculture, comparing it to hip-hop in its role in society. In a featurette for Die Antwoord's role in the film "Chappie", Ninja states that zef means "that you literally don't care what anyone else thinks of you; like, you represent yourself in your music, in how you dress, in how you think, how you speak."


title: Zef

text: In 2013, a "satirical blog" originally titled "Zef Kinners" briefly became a viral success in South Africa (and then faced legal claims) after it was started as a student school project, posting photos of people the blog considered to exemplify zef. The blog's creator commented, "Jack Parow and Die Antwoord are not zef. That's the safe version of zef. Zef has a dirty face."


title: Zef

text: Authors Ross Truscott and Maria Brock have perceived the "rise of zef culture" to be an expression of "Afrikaner self-parody" growing out of a sense of "national melancholia" in post-apartheid South Africa. They note similarities to earlier touchstones of South African culture such as the anti-apartheid Voëlvry Movement, the satirical magazine "Bitterkomix", and the alternative rock band Fokofpolisiekar. Similarly, playwright/academic Anton Krueger has posited that the "embrace of the vulgarity embodied by Zef" is in part an "outlet" for a post-apartheid "sense of shame".


title: Zef

text: Other performers who have been identified as exponents of zef include Voëlvry leader Koos Kombuis, comic performers Corné and Twakkie (Louw Venter and Rob van Vuuren) of "The Most Amazing Show", and the comedy group Zef Sketse, known for their 2006 TV series "Kompleks".


title: So Not Worth It

text: So Not Worth It () is a South Korean streaming television series starring Park Se-wan, Shin Hyeon-seung, Choi Young-jae, Minnie and Han Hyun-min. It is Netflix's first Korean sitcom, which premiered on June 18, 2021.


title: So Not Worth It

text: The series revolves around a group of students with different multicultural backgrounds residing at a college dormitory in Seoul.


title: So Not Worth It

text: The series is directed by Kim Jung-sik, who previously worked on several hit Korean sitcoms like "High Kick!" (2006–07), "" (2011-12) and "Potato Star 2013QR3" (2013), and Kwon Ik-joon of "Three Men, Three Girls" and "Nonstop" (2000–06), which teamed up for the birth of a global K-sitcom. Screenwriters Seo Eun-jung and Baek Ji-hyun previously worked on the first three seasons of hit sitcom "Nonstop" (2000–06).


title: So Not Worth It

text: An online live press conference for the series was held on June 16, 2021. Park Se-wan, Shin Hyun-seung, Choi Young-jae, Han Hyun-min, Joakim Sorensen, Carson Allen, Terris Brown, director Kwon Ik-joon, and director Kim Jung-sik attended the event. Minnie, who was unable to join the interview, talked about her character through a recorded video.


title: So Not Worth It

text: "So Not Worth It" took second place in Thailand and top 10 in Saudi Arabia. The series lead the revival of the Korean sitcom that has almost disappeared from Korea after 10 years through OTT service.


title: So Not Worth It

text: "Decider"'s Joel Keller compared the series to the NBC sequel "", stating that "It reminds us of "Saved By The Bell: The College Years", except with everyone speaking Korean." Keller described the series "that could fit among Netflix's American multi-cams" as not suitable as a "family sitcom, due to language and themes," but "it's brightly-lit, the jokes go at a sitcom's pace, and there's even a laugh-track." After watching the series, and praising the Korean skills of all the non-Korean actors, the crew at "Decider" recommended viewers to stream the show.


title: So Not Worth It

text: Bryan Tan writing for "Yahoo! News" praised the chemistry between the actors, and the performance of all of the foreign cast members "speaking native and seamlessly fluent Korean." He wrote, "It's definitely unique in the sense that it features such a diverse cast from all over the world". Tan concluded the review, "while the plot seemed to meander off here and there, the sitcom gives off a vibrant and comfortable feel akin to the American sitcom "Friends"" and recommended, if viewers are "looking for good fun and easy laughs, "So Not Worth It" is very much worth a watch".


title: So Not Worth It

text: In his review for "ReadySteadyCut", Daniel Hart found the laugh track unnecessary — ""So Not Worth It" is not a laugh-out-loud experience, but it does tickle the soul. There's so much chaos and ridiculousness between these young characters that the only option is to enjoy the ride." Hart called the series, "incredibly engaging and flavorsome", labelled the cast as "brilliant; you can tell they had a wonderful time presenting a vibrant yet sometimes dysfunctional community," and applaud the writers who "completely nailed the importance of a vibrant community". He pointed that the series "signifies the growing wealth of K-drama and its impact on the original slate for streaming services. There's such a loyal community, and with these one-day hitters on Netflix, I hope that it brings in more audiences. Nostalgically, older audiences will feel armored by a series like this, while the young will find it oddly relatable."


title: So Not Worth It

text: Greg Wheeler of "The Review Geek", rating the series 5.5 out of 10, opined that "So Not Worth It" is a "real mixed bag of quality" throughout 12 episodes and called it "Disney Channel silliness with a couple of well-timed comedic quips". Wheeler wrote, "With heavy exposition, an episodic format and one annoying laugh track throughout, "So Not Worth It" is going to be divisive." He concluded by saying that ""So Not Worth It" doesn't quite ring true to its name but perhaps should have been called "it's not quite worth it"."


title: So Not Worth It

text: In an interview, director Kwon Ik-joon mentioned that the production of a second season was dependent on the first season's popularity. He commented, "While chatting with Minnie in Thailand, I thought, 'I think it would be fun to go to a foreigner's house'. It would be fun to draw a story about going on a vacation to a country where a foreign friend lives."


title: Reggie Yates

text: Reginald (Reggie) Yates (born 31 May 1983) is a British writer and director with a career spanning three decades on screen as an actor, television presenter and radio DJ. Yates played Leo Jones in "Doctor Who" and has worked at the BBC in radio and television–presenting various shows for BBC Radio 1 for a decade as well as hosting the BBC One singing show "The Voice UK", hosting the first two series with Holly Willoughby.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates co-presented the prime-time BBC One game show "Prized Apart," alongside Emma Willis, The ITV2 reality show "Release the Hounds" from 2013 until 2017 and was also the presenter of the BBC Three documentary series "Reggie Yates' Extreme Russia," "Extreme South Africa" and "Extreme UK" as well as featuring as lead voice actor "for BBC animation Rastamouse."


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates' parents, Felicia Asante and Reginald "Jojo" Yates, were both born in Ghana; however, his paternal grandfather Harry was the son of an English accountant, George Yates, who worked in the gold mining industry. Harry Yates' mother Dorothy was also a member of Ghana's Euro-African community: her father was a British colonial administrator, Augustus George Lloyd, while her mother Sarah was an ethnic Fante, who worked as a farmer and trader in Dixcove, Ghana.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates grew up in North London, and attended Central Foundation Boys' School in Cowper Street, Islington.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates made his first television appearance in "Desmond's" at the age of eight. He also appeared in "Disney Club", as Robbie. In 1998, Yates appeared as a guest presenter on "Diggit" on CITV also under the name Robbie. In 2002, he played Carl Fenton in the popular children's series "Grange Hill". From 2002 to 2004, he presented the Sunday morning programme "Smile", and then went on to present "Top of the Pops" with former "Smile" co-host Fearne Cotton before the final episode broadcast on BBC Two on 30 July 2006. He also created and starred in the series "The Crust" and presented "Dance Factory" and his own radio show on BBC Radio 1.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2005, Yates appeared in the BBC singing contest "Comic Relief Does Fame Academy" in aid of Comic Relief, finishing in fourth place. On the show, his songs included "Boombastic", "You're The First, The Last, My Everything", "It Ain't Over Til It's Over", "U Can't Touch This" and "This Old Heart of Mine (Is Weak for You)". He also sang a duet, "It Takes Two", with Edith Bowman, the eventual winner of the show. He dyed his hair red for his performance of "Dancing on the Ceiling".


title: Reggie Yates

text: On 10 March 2006, Yates appeared on "Stars in Fast Cars" and won his heat to get into the final, beating Elton Welsby and Ben Fogle in the last round.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates presented "Mighty Truck of Stuff" and "Only in America" with Fearne Cotton on CBBC as well as a programme on BBC Radio 1. They presented a breakfast show on Saturday and Sunday mornings, taking over from JK and Joel. They played from 7:00 a.m. to 10:00 am. The duo then went on to present "The Radio 1 Chart Show" starting on 14 October 2007 until Sunday 20 September 2009. Cotton left following her promotion to weekday mornings on Radio 1 from 10:00 a.m. to 12:45 pm, leaving Yates to present on his own. In addition to the chart show, Yates also presented a request show on Saturday afternoons, known as "The Radio 1 Request Show", where listeners could send in a text or phone in to request a song. In April 2012, it was announced that Yates would finish the request show and continue with only "The Official Chart". He announced in November 2012 that he would leave BBC Radio 1, and his last show aired on 23 December that year.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2006 Yates appeared on a Reality TV Special of "The Weakest Link" and was voted off in the fourth round.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2007, Yates appeared in the third series of revived science-fiction series "Doctor Who" as Leo Jones, brother of the Tenth Doctor's companion Martha.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates also presented series 1 of "Escape from Scorpion Island" with co-presenter Caroline Flack on BBC 1 between 3 and 21 September 2007.


title: Reggie Yates

text: He also appeared on Dizzee Rascal's 2007 single "Flex" music video as one of the judges in a parody TV show called "Flex Factor".


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates co-hosted the MOBO Awards 2009 with Keri Hilson at the SECC, Glasgow. He has also presented live coverage of the Glastonbury, Reading and T in the Park music festivals for BBC Three, and interviewed stars such as Estelle and 50 Cent for MTV specials.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates appeared in a special "Family Guy" episode on BBC Three, counting down the top 20 characters of the show as part of a special "Family Guy" weekend.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2011, Yates voiced the main character, Rastamouse, in the CBeebies television show "Rastamouse". In March 2011, he appeared with Lenny Henry, Angela Rippon and Samantha Womack in the BBC fundraising documentary for Comic Relief called "Rich, Famous and in the Slums", where the four celebrities were sent to Kibera in Kenya, Africa's largest slum. In October 2011, Yates starred in Arjun Rose's UK slasher "Demons Never Die" as Officer Mason.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2012, as part of BBC Three's Criminal Britain Season, Yates explored the culture of fear, anger and violence that drives the dangerous world of teen gangs. The show, "Reggie Yates: Teen Gangs", involved Yates speaking to current and former gang members to find out why and how teens get into gangs. He also investigated ways in which gang members can escape the life of violence and anger.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2012 and 2013, Yates hosted the BBC One singing show "The Voice UK", hosting the first two series with Holly Willoughby. They were replaced by Emma Willis and Marvin Humes in 2013.


title: Reggie Yates

text: 2013 saw Yates travel to South Africa to shoot a series about extreme communities entitled "Reggie Yates: Extreme South Africa", which aired in Spring 2014 on BBC Three. It was successful enough for Yates to return with "Reggie Yates' Extreme Russia" in April 2015 for BBC Three.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates is also a writer and director. In 2013, his first short film "Patriarch" aired on Channel 4 as part of their "Random Acts" season and he has just completed his second short called "Date Night" starring Daniel Kaluuya and Tony Way which won 'Best UK Short Film' at the London Independent Film Festival.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates hosted the ITV2 programme "Release the Hounds" from 2013 until 2017. He was replaced by Matt Edmondson in 2017.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates, along with Emma Willis presented the Saturday-night game show "Prized Apart" on BBC One in 2015. The show was axed shortly after.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2016, Yates was awarded Best Presenter for his critically acclaimed series Extreme Russia at the Royal Television Society Awards and Best Multi-channel Programme at the Broadcast Awards.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Continuing his documentarian journey, in 2016 Yates's BBC Three series The Insider saw the presenter spend time behind bars in Texas and join Unit 27 of the 56th Infantry Battalion in Acapulco to live the life of an ordinary soldier fighting on the front line of the brutal war against the country's powerful and violent drug cartels.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2018, Yates was the themed category judge for Koestler Trust's "I'm Still Here" at the Southbank Centre, London, an exhibition of art works by prisoners, detainees and ex-offenders. The theme was 'connections'. Yates has also been listed in the "Powerlist", as one of the most influential people in the UK from African/African-Caribbean descent, most recently making the 2019, 2020 and 2021 editions.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2020, Yates' television film "Make Me Famous" premiered on BBC Three. The film stars an ensemble cast including Tom Brittney, Amanda Abbington, Tilly Keeper, Aiysha Hart, Nina Sosanya and Emma Rigby.


title: Reggie Yates

text: Yates released his debut feature film "Pirates" in 2021. This BBC Film/BFI coming-of-age comedy is a love letter to the UK Garage scene and a time capsule for 90’s London. Recently acquired by Netflix UK, Pirates is now streaming and officially selected at South By South West Film Festival.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2017, the BBC was forced to apologise for a Yates (and independent production company, Sundog Pictures) piece on Australia's indigenous communities called "Hidden Australia: Black in the Outback", filmed in Wilcannia, New South Wales. The aboriginal people Yates interviewed and filmed for the documentary said they were misled by Yates and the production crew. They accused Yates of portraying them in a negative light when Yates had promised them the story would be fair.


title: Reggie Yates

text: In November 2017, Yates stated on a podcast: "The thing that makes it great about this new generation of artists is that they ain't signing to majors. They're independent, they're not managed by some random fat Jewish guy from north west London, they're managed by their brethren". His remarks were condemned by the Community Security Trust's Dave Rich who said: "Even worse than any offence is the message Yates gives his audience by reinforcing an anti-Semitic stereotype". Yates was "hugely apologetic" for his comment. Following his comments, he stood down from presenting the 2017 festive special editions of "Top of the Pops".


title: Reggie Yates

text: In 2019, when filming for his MTV television series "Reggie Yates vs The World" in Derry, Northern Ireland, it was claimed that tensions on the street were stoked by dissident Republicans "for the benefit of the film crew", resulting in a riot during which Lyra McKee was murdered. "Detective Superintendent Jason Murphy of the Police Service of Northern Ireland said that those claims were untrue, as did MTV."


title: Chicken tikka

text: Chicken tikka is a chicken dish originating in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era. The dish is popular in India, Bangladesh and Pakistan. It is traditionally small pieces of boneless chicken baked using skewers on a brazier called angeethi or over charcoal after marinating in Indian spices and dahi (yogurt)—essentially a boneless version of tandoori chicken. The word "tikka" (Tike in Turkish, and Tikə in Azerbaijani) is a Persian word, meaning "bits" or "pieces". It is also a chicken dish served in Punjabi cuisine. The Kashmiri version of the dish, however, is grilled over red-hot coals, and does not always contain boneless pieces. The pieces are brushed with "ghee" (clarified butter) at intervals to increase its flavour, while being continuously fanned. It is typically eaten with green coriander and tamarind chutney served with onion rings and lemon, or used in preparing a chicken "tikka masala".


title: Chicken tikka

text: A chicken "tikka" sizzler is a dish where chicken "tikka" is served on a heated plate with onions. The dish is also popular in Afghanistan, though the Afghan variant (like many other Persian, Turkish, and Arab dishes) is less spicy compared to the variants in the Indian subcontinent and uses beef and lamb in addition to chicken.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh, DFC (15 April 1919 – 16 September 2017) was a senior air officer of the Indian Air Force. He served as the 3rd Chief of the Air Staff from 1964 to 1969, leading the Air Force through the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. He was the first and only officer of the Indian Air Force (IAF) to be promoted to five-star rank as Marshal of the Indian Air Force, equal to the army rank of Field Marshal.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh attended the Royal Air Force College Cranwell at the age of 19 and graduated in 1939. He joined the No. 1 Squadron IAF and served in the North-West Frontier Province. In World War II, he commanded this squadron during the Arakan Campaign and was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross. In 1945, he attended the RAF Staff College, Bracknell. After the Partition of India in 1947, he led the first fly-past of Royal Indian Air Force (RIAF) aircraft over the Red Fort in Delhi. He then commanded Air Force Station, Ambala at the rank of Group Captain. In 1950, after completing the staff course at Joint Service Defence College, Latimer, Buckinghamshire, he was promoted to the rank of Air Commodore and took over the Operational Command. He commanded the Operational Command in two stints. In 1958, the post was upgraded to Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief at the rank of Air Vice Marshal.


title: Arjan Singh

text: After attending the Imperial Defence College in 1960, he served as the Air Officer in charge of Administration at Air Headquarters. In 1963, he took over as the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff and then as the Vice Chief of the Air Staff. Singh assumed office as the Chief of the Air Staff, on 1 August 1964. For his distinguished service in commanding the IAF during the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965, he was awarded the Padma Vibhushan and in 1966 became the first IAF officer to be promoted to Air Chief Marshal.


title: Arjan Singh

text: After retiring from the IAF, Singh served as a diplomat, politician and advisor to the Government of India. He served as India's Ambassador to Switzerland, the Holy See and Liechtenstein from 1971 to 1974 and as the High Commissioner of India to Kenya from 1974 to 1977. He then served as the Lieutenant Governor of Delhi from 1989 to 1990. In January 2002, the rank of Marshal of the Indian Air Force was conferred on Singh, the first and only officer of the IAF to receive the honour.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh was born on 15 April 1919 in Lyallpur (now Faisalabad), a town in the erstwhile Punjab Province of British India (in present-day Pakistan), into a Punjabi Jat Sikh family of Aulakh clan. Men from the family had joined the armed forces, in keeping with community traditions, and Singh was the fourth generation of his family to join the British Indian armed forces.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh's father was a Lance Daffadar in the Hodson's Horse at the time of his birth, and retired as a full Risaldar in the Cavalry, serving for a time as ADC to a Division Commander. His grandfather Risaldar Major Hukam Singh served in the Guides Cavalry between 1883 and 1917, and great-grandfather, Naib Risaldar Sultana Singh, was among the first two generations of the Guides Cavalry enlisted in 1854; he was martyred during the Afghan campaign of 1879. Thus, after three generations of men serving in the lower and middle ranks of the army, Singh was to become the first member of his family to become a commissioned officer.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh was educated at Montgomery, British India (now Sahiwal, Pakistan) and was a well-known sportsman. Singh then attended the Government College Lahore. He was the Captain of the College swimming team and set four Punjab and four University records in swimming. He also won the All-India One-mile swimming event in 1938. Singh entered the RAF College Cranwell in 1938. At the College, he was the Vice Captain of the swimming, athletic and hockey teams.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh was commissioned as a Pilot Officer in December 1939, after topping the Empire Pilot training course among his batch of Indian Cadets. He joined No. 1 Squadron which was then stationed at Air Force Station Kohat in the North-West Frontier Province (NWFP) and flew Westland Wapiti biplanes. The Squadron was conducting operations against the tribal forces in NWFP, in which he participated. While flying with the squadron in NWFP, Singh's Hawker Audax was shot down by the Pathans. He crashed in a dry stream in the midst of a fight between British troops and the Pathans. He was not hurt and within two weeks he was flying again in the same area. According to Singh, fighting in the NWFP prepared the squadron for the fight against the Japanese. He then was transferred to the newly-formed No. 2 Squadron for a brief period. He was transferred back to No. 1 Squadron in the rank of Flying Officer. By this time, the squadron had been re-equipped with Hawker Hurricane aircraft.


title: Arjan Singh

text: In 1943, Singh was promoted to acting Squadron Leader and became the Commanding Officer of No. 1 Squadron.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Frustrated with watch and ward duty, Singh wanted to be in the thick of action. He met the Commander-in-Chief, India, General (later Field Marshal) Claude Auchinleck during his visit to Kohat in the North-West Frontier Province and requested him to send the squadron to fight the Japanese. The squadron was then inducted into the war and moved to Imphal in early 1944.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh led No. 1 Squadron into combat during the Arakan Campaign in 1944. He was awarded the Distinguished Flying Cross (DFC) in June 1944. He was presented with the DFC by Lord Mountbatten, the Supreme Allied Commander, South East Asia Command at Imphal. Singh later said about the award, "“For a young man to get such a medal in front of his own squadron is a great satisfaction. I was a part of the squadron, and they were my part.""


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh relinquished command of No. 1 Squadron in December 1944, handing over to Squadron Leader Ramaswamy Rajaram, who led the squadron for the rest of the Burma Campaign.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh almost faced a court-martial in February 1945 when he tried to raise the morale of a trainee pilot (later rumoured to be the future Air Chief Marshal Dilbagh Singh) by conducting a low level air pass over a house in Kerala. In his defence, he insisted that such tricks were needed for every cadet to be a fighter pilot. Later that year, he commanded the Indian Air Force Exhibition Flight. In February 1945, Singh was promoted to the rank of Wing Commander and in August, he was selected to attend the Staff course at the RAF Staff College, Bracknell in the United Kingdom. On his return, he commanded the Air Force Station Kohat and Air Force Station Risalpur.


title: Arjan Singh

text: As part of the celebrations for Independence Day on 15 August 1947, Singh, by then an acting Group Captain, led the first fly-past of RIAF aircraft over the Red Fort in Delhi. Singh then assumed command of the frontline Airbase Air Force Station, Ambala. He led the airbase during the Partition of India. Singh subsequently moved to Air Headquarters in 1948 and tenanted the appointment of Director of Training. In 1949, Singh attended the Joint Service Defence College at Latimer, Buckinghamshire in the United Kingdom.


title: Arjan Singh

text: On his return to India, in December 1950, Singh was promoted to acting Air Commodore and assumed command of the No. 1 Operational Command (later rechristened Western Air Command). In late 1952, Singh moved to the Air Headquarters and was appointed Air Officer-in-Charge Personnel and Organisation. This appointment was later upgraded to Air Vice Marshal and then to Air Marshal, and is now termed Air Officer-in-charge Personnel (AOP). He simultaneously held the appointment of Air Officer Commanding Air Force Station New Delhi. Singh served in this appointment for three years, until December 1955.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Promoted to substantive Air Commodore, Singh again served as the AOC Operational Command, for the second time. In 1956, Singh led a squadron of Toofani jet fighters to Burma on a goodwill mission. Singh also served as the Chef de Mission of the Indian Contingent for the 1956 Summer Olympics held at Melbourne, Australia.


title: Arjan Singh

text: In May 1958, Singh was promoted to the rank of Air Vice Marshal and continued as the head of the Operational Command. The appointment was upgraded to Air Officer Commanding-in-Chief (AOC-in-C) Operational Command. He led the Operational Command until November 1959, handing over command to Air Vice Marshal Erlic Pinto. Singh has the distinction of being the longest serving head of the Operational Command. He led the Command for a total of six years in two stints - December 1950 to December 1952 and December 1955 to November 1959.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh was selected to attend the Imperial Defence College and proceeded to United Kingdom in early 1960. After completing the year-long course, he returned to India and assumed charge as the Air Officer in Charge Administration at Air Headquarters. He tenanted this appointment through the Sino-Indian War. By the end of the war, Singh took over as the Deputy Chief of the Air Staff (DCAS), and in August 1963, he took over as the Vice Chief of the Air Staff (VCAS). As the VCAS, Singh was the overall commander of the joint air exercises ""Shiksha"" with the United States Air Force (USAF), Royal Air Force (RAF) and the Royal Australian Air Force (RAAF) which was held in India.


title: Arjan Singh

text: In May 1964, the Government of India decided to appoint Singh as the Chief of the Air Staff (CAS), succeeding Air Marshal Aspy Engineer, DFC. On 1 August 1964, Singh was promoted to the rank of Air Marshal and took over as the 6th Chief of the Air Staff. When appointed as Chief of the Air Staff of the Indian Air Force, he was around 45 years old.


title: Arjan Singh

text: In August 1965, as part of Operation Gibraltar, Pakistan attempted to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against Indian rule. This was followed by a full-scale war between India and Pakistan in the Western theatre. In September, Pakistan launched Operation Grand Slam in which an armoured thrust targeted the Akhnoor and Chhamb regions in Jammu. The Indian Air Force responded to an urgent call for air strikes against the Pakistani Army. Singh was summoned into the Defence Minister Y B Chavan's office with a request for air support. With a characteristic nonchalance, he replied ""in an hour."" True to his word, the armoured thrust was hit in an hour by the IAF. Although the IAF suffered some losses early on, it bounced back and scored strategic victories during the conflict


title: Arjan Singh

text: The war ended with a ceasefire being declared by both nations on 23 September. Singh led the IAF during the war showing unparalleled leadership and remained cool and inspirational throughout.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh was awarded India's second-highest civilian award, the Padma Vibhushan for his leadership during the war. On 15 January 1966, in recognition of the contribution of the IAF, the post of the CAS was upgraded to the rank of Air Chief Marshal. Singh became the first Officer to hold the rank of Air Chief Marshal.


title: Arjan Singh

text: On 7 June 1966, with the retirement of General Jayanto Nath Chaudhuri, Singh took over as the Chairman of the Chiefs of Staff Committee, a post he held until he retired. In 1967, in a rare honour to a non-British Service Chief, Singh was invited to receive the salute as the reviewing officer of the passing out parade at his alma mater, the RAF College Cranwell.


title: Arjan Singh

text: After heading the IAF for almost five years, the second-longest term as Chief of the Air Staff in history, Singh retired in July 1969, at the age of 50.


title: Arjan Singh

text: In 1971, after his retirement, Singh was appointed India's Ambassador to Switzerland, the Holy See and Liechtenstein. He presented his credentials to the President of the Swiss Confederation, Rudolf Gnägi on 2 April 1971.


title: Arjan Singh

text: After a three year stint at Bern, Singh then took over as the High Commissioner of India to Kenya in 1974. Singh spent three years heading the High Commission of India at Nairobi, till 1977. Subsequently, he served as a member of the National Commission for Minorities from 1978 to 1981.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh also served as the Chairman of the Indian Institute of Technology Delhi from 1980 to 1983 and was a Director of the Grindlays Bank from 1981 to 1988.


title: Arjan Singh

text: On 12 December 1989, Singh was appointed Lieutenant Governor of Delhi by the President of India. He served in the position for a year, till December 1990.


title: Arjan Singh

text: On 25 January 2002, the Government of India announced that the rank of Marshal of the Indian Air Force was to be conferred on Air Chief Marshal Arjan Singh, DFC, with effect from 26 January 2002, in recognition of the most valuable services to the Air Force and the Nation. The rank is the highest in the Indian Air Force. It is equivalent to Field Marshal and is held for life. The President of India, K. R. Narayanan conferred the Five-star rank on Marshal of the Indian Air Force Arjan Singh and handed the Marshal's baton in a ceremony at the Rashtrapati Bhavan on 23 April 2002.


title: Arjan Singh

text: In 1948, Singh married Teji Singh, a lady of his own community and similar family background, in a match arranged by their families. They were married for 63 years before her death in April 2011. In 1949, their first daughter Amrita was born. Three years later, her brother Arvind Singh was born and the Singhs' youngest child Asha followed another three years later. Teji Singh was the maternal aunt of actress Mandira Bedi.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh's health declined in his final years, and he frequently made references to growing old and the passing away of many of his friends. In July 2015, then aged 96 and using a wheelchair due to a temporary indisposition, he was among the many dignitaries to lay a wreath at the base of the coffin carrying the mortal remains of former President A.P.J. Abdul Kalam at Palam Airport. He paid his last respects to President Kalam at Palam Airport on 28 July. He remained active even at 98, continuing to take tea and to play golf twice a week at the Delhi Golf Club.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh suffered a cardiac arrest at his New Delhi residence in the early morning of 16 September 2017 and was rushed to the Army Hospital, Research and Referral, in New Delhi, where his condition was stated to be critical. He died at 7:47 p.m. (IST) that evening. After his passing, his body was returned to his home at 7A Kautilya Marg in New Delhi, where numerous visitors and dignitaries offered their respects, including President Ram Nath Kovind, Prime Minister Narendra Modi, Defence Minister Nirmala Seetaraman and the three service chiefs of the Indian Armed Forces. Accorded a state funeral by the Indian government, he was cremated at Brar Square in New Delhi on 18 September with full military honours, including a military flypast by IAF fighter jets and helicopters. The National Flag flew at half-mast in Delhi.


title: Arjan Singh

text: Singh was the first officer to have kept his flying rank until he became CAS. He had flown over 60 different types of aircraft from Pre-WWII era biplanes to Folland Gnats and de Havilland Vampires. He also had flown in transports like the Lockheed L-1049 Super Constellation. Singh remained active and worked for the welfare of air force veterans, contributing twenty million rupees from his personal wealth to set up a trust to this end. He was considered a father figure of the service.


title: Arjan Singh

text: The Air Force Sports Control Board organises an annual "Marshal Arjan Singh Memorial All India Hockey Tournament". The IAF celebrated the birth centenary of the Marshal in April 2019. Events over a period of one year were planned across the country. The celebrations started with a seminar at Air Headquarters titled "Air Power in the 2040s: Impact of Technology", as a tribute to his vision of the Air Force.


title: Arjan Singh

text: The then Chief of the Air Staff Air Chief Marshal Birender Singh Dhanoa also unveiled a bust of the Marshal at Air Headquarters.


title: Arjan Singh

text: On 14 April 2016, at an event to mark the Marshal's 97th birthday, the then Chief of Air Staff Air Chief Marshal Arup Raha announced that the Indian Air Force base at Panagarh in West Bengal was being renamed to Air Force Station Arjan Singh in honor of the Marshal's service. The airbase was constructed in 1944 by the United States Air Force in the China Burma India Theater during World War II, the same theatre that Singh served in during the war.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: The Dino 206 GT, 246 GT and 246 GTS are V6 mid-engined sports cars produced by Ferrari and sold under the Dino marque between 1967 and 1974.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: The Dino 246 was the first automobile manufactured by Ferrari in high numbers. It is lauded by many for its intrinsic driving qualities and groundbreaking design. In 2004, "Sports Car International" placed the car at number six on its list of Top Sports Cars of the 1970s. "Motor Trend Classic" placed the 206/246 at number seven in their list of the 10 "Greatest Ferraris of all time".


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: The production Dino 206 GT was designed by Aldo Brovarone and Leonardo Fioravanti at Pininfarina and built by Scaglietti. It had the soft edges and curving lines typical of earlier Italian cars, unlike its angular successor, the 308 GT4. It was named after Enzo Ferrari's late son Alfredo who was affectionately known as Dino to his family.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: The 206 GT used a transverse-mounted 2.0 litre all-aluminium, 65-degree V6 engine with dual overhead camshafts and a 9:1 compression ratio, making at the 8,000 rpm redline. Torque was at 6,500 rpm. The crankshaft featured four main bearings. Induction was via three Weber 40 DCN/4 2-barrel carburetors. The 206 GT was the first car sold by Ferrari which used an electronic ignition, a Dinoplex C capacitive discharge ignition system that was developed by Magneti Marelli for the high revving Dino V6 engine. It was also the first Ferrari product to have a direct rack-and-pinion steering.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: The 206 GT frame featured a light-weight, aluminium body, full independent suspension, and all round disc brakes. It had a wheelbase and a top speed of .


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: The same engine was used in the Fiat Dino Coupe and Spider, produced during the same period. The conversion of the Dino 206 SP/S twin-cam racing engine for road-going use in the Dino (and the two Fiat models) was entrusted by Fiat to Aurelio Lampredi, to whom Ferrari owed so many great engines. Lampredi, interviewed in the early 1980s (he died in 1989 at the age of 71), noted that, "Things didn't work out exactly as Ferrari had foreseen."


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: Fiat quoted DIN for the Fiat Dino and Coupé, and in 1967 Ferrari - presenting the first prototype of the Dino 206 GT - claimed . This, however, was not the case. Both engines were made by Fiat workers in Turin on the same production line, without any discrimination as to their destination, and all were identical.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: Later Fiat Dinos also used the 2.4L engine, although significantly fewer were produced with this engine.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: Calls for more power were answered with the "Dino" 65° V6 engine, DOHC, 2 valves per cylinder, 9.0:1 compression ratio, iron block with alloy heads. It produced at 7,600 rpm and at 5,500 rpm of torque, and was available as a fixed-top "GT" coupé or, after 1971, an open Spyder "GTS". A detuned American version had an exhaust air pump, and timing changes which resulted in . The GT had 3X2-barrel 40 DCNF/6 or 40 DCNF/7 Weber carburetors. For the 246 a new version of the Dinoplex ignition was deployed, the more compact Magneti Marelli AEC103A system.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: The 246 Dino GT weighed . The 246 Dino GTS weighed . The body was now mostly made of steel to save cost. The 246 Dino had a longer wheelbase than the 206, at . The height of the 246 was the same as the 206 at . The new car had a revised interior. Other differences were 2 rows of 7 vents on the slightly longer engine lid of the 246 instead of 6 and a fuel cap flap cover instead of the exposed one of the 206.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: Dino 246 production numbered 2,295 GT coupés and 1,274 GTS spyders, the latter being built after the Series III revision from 1972 to 1974 only, for a total production run of 3,569 cars. Three series of the Dino were built, with differences in wheels, windshield wiper coverage, and engine ventilation. The Series I cars (also known as L series), 357 of which were built until the summer of 1970, used the same center-bolt wheels and "clapping hands" windscreen wipers as did the 206. Series II cars (M series, built until July 1971 in 507 examples) received five-bolt Cromodora alloys and parallel moving wipers. The Series III cars (E series) had minor differences in gearing and fuel supply, and were built at a much higher rate as sales in the United States commenced with this version. 1,431 Series III GT coupés and 1,274 GTS removable top cars were built.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: The 246 had a claimed top speed of , although in July 1971 a road test by Britain's Motor magazine reported a top speed of , which compared favourably with the achieved by a recently tested (though by now replaced) Porsche 911S. With a acceleration time of 5.5 seconds the Dino narrowly outperformed the Porsche again, although the Porsche was narrowly the winner on fuel economy. The manufacturer's recommended UK retail price of £5,485 was higher than the £5,211 asked for the Porsche. For comparison, the much larger, four-passenger Citroën SM high-performance luxury coupe sold for £4,700.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: In a famous incident, a Dino 246 GTS was discovered in Los Angeles dig out by children in 1978, buried in a yard. The car was later revealed to be the victim of an elaborate insurance fraud perpetrated by the owner.


title: Dino 206 GT and 246 GT

text: There were some minor differences in trim for various markets, the most obvious being marker lights on US market Dinos. Group 4-style flared wheelarches were optional, as were seats from the 365 GTB/4 Daytona, the pair often ordered in conjunction with wide, sand-cast Campagnolo alloy wheels.


title: Ryan Hoyt

text: Ryan James Hoyt (born August 10, 1979) is a former associate of Jesse James Hollywood and was convicted of the murder of Nicholas Markowitz on August 9, 2000. He reportedly owed Hollywood money for drugs and was offered the opportunity to kill Markowitz as a way of erasing his debt.


title: Ryan Hoyt

text: During his trial, Hoyt took the stand and told the court he did not remember confessing to killing Markowitz. In November 2001, Hoyt was convicted of first-degree murder and was sentenced to death.


title: Ryan Hoyt

text: In the film "Alpha Dog", the character Elvis Schmidt was modeled after Hoyt. The role was played by actor Shawn Hatosy.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: Plus One is a 2019 American romantic comedy film, written, directed, and produced by Jeff Chan and Andrew Rhymer. Starring Maya Erskine, Jack Quaid, Beck Bennett, Rosalind Chao, Perrey Reeves, and Ed Begley Jr., the film follows two longtime single friends who agree to be each other's plus one at every wedding they're invited to.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: The film premiered at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 28, 2019, where it won the Narrative Audience Award, and was released on June 14, 2019 by RLJE Films. It received generally positive reviews from critics.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: Ben King and Alice Mori, close friends since college and now in their late twenties, attend a wedding where Alice, having recently broke up with her boyfriend Nate due to his infidelity, overindulges in alcohol and Ben helps take care of her. Ben is fixated on former classmate Jess Ramsey and hopes to establish a romantic relationship with her, but embarrasses himself when she rebuffs his attempt to kiss her because she is engaged. At the hotel, Ben and Alice both vent their frustrations of having to navigate wedding season alone, and decide to help one another by becoming each other's dates; with Alice also agreeing to help Ben meet women.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: Alice uses blunt approaches to introduce Ben to various single women at the weddings, one of which culminates in Ben having a one-night-stand. However, Ben remains fixated on finding the "perfect" relationship versus casual flings. Ben goes golfing with his dad, Chuck, and learns he has asked his much younger girlfriend Gina to marry him and asks Ben to be his best man. Citing Chuck's two previous failed marriages, Ben informs his dad to take some time to think about his decision.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: After another wedding, Ben and Alice are forced to share a hotel bed and Alice attempts to cuddle with Ben, making him uncomfortable. The pair attend a wedding for one of Ben's family members, and he and Alice nearly drunkenly kiss in the pool after a deep conversation. They miss the shuttle bus back to the hotel and are forced to walk, eventually cutting through a cemetery which Alice attempts to run through and she trips. As Ben helps her with the cut on her arm, they embrace and have sex. The pair awkwardly have breakfast the following day, and decide not to discuss the previous night. A number of weeks later, Ben and Alice travel to Hawaii for a destination wedding and once again embrace their mutual attraction for one another. The pair become romantically involved, and Ben also gains the approval of Alice's parents after helping to make her sister's wedding a success. Alice learns that Ben has been asked to be his dad's best man, and expresses concern as to why he didn't tell her or hasn't accepted. Ben expresses his frustrations with his dad, explaining he still feels resentment from his parents' divorce. Alice tells him that her parents remained together for her and her sister, despite clear displeasure for each other.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: As Ben and Alice prepare to attend another wedding, they get into an argument over Alice forgetting the wedding gift and her nonchalant attitude frustrates Ben. At the wedding, Ben tells her he doesn't see their relationship going any further and they break up. Ben attends the remainder of weddings alone, and makes a drunken fool of himself prompting his friend Matt to intervene. After some discussion, Ben realizes his mistake and shows up a wedding Alice previously invited him to, finding that she is back with Nate. He attempts to explain himself to Alice and professes his love, but she rebukes him.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: Later that night, Chuck calls Ben for a ride after taking acid during his bachelor party, and the pair reconcile with Ben finally agreeing to be his dad's best man. Ben returns home and finds Alice waiting for him. The couple profess their love and reconvene their relationship. At Chuck's wedding, Ben gives a heartfelt speech to his dad and his new stepmother Gina, while Alice joyously listens on in approval.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: In November 2017, it was announced Maya Erskine, Jack Quaid, Ed Begley Jr., Finn Wittrock, Rosalind Chao, Perrey Reeves, Beck Bennett and Jon Bass had joined the cast of the film, with Jeff Chan and Andrew Rhymer directing from a screenplay they wrote. Ben Stiller, Nicholas Weinstock and Jackie Cohn served as executive producers under their Red Hour Films banner. Stu Pollard and Harris McCabe from Lunacy Productions also executive produced. James Short and John Short with Inwood Road Films also served as executive producers.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: The film had its world premiere at the Tribeca Film Festival on April 28, 2019 and went on to win the Narrative Audience Award. Prior to, RLJE Films acquired distribution rights to the film. It was released in select theaters, VOD and Digital HD on June 14, 2019. It was released on Hulu on August 6, 2019.


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes, the film has an approval rating of based on reviews, with an average rating of . The website's critical consensus reads, ""Plus One" reinvigorates the rom-com with an entertaining outing elevated by well-matched leads and a story that embraces and transcends genre clichés." On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 65 out of 100 based on 18 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews".


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: Nick Schager of "Variety" praised Maya Erskine's performance and called the film one "genre fans won’t want to miss". Ben Kenigsberg of "The New York Times" said that "Every minute Erskine is not on a screen is a minute wasted", while Jon Frosch of "The Hollywood Reporter" called "Plus One" a "modest rom-com that coasts on charm and chemistry".


title: Plus One (2019 film)

text: Peter Bradshaw of "The Guardian" gave the film 2 out of 5 stars and suggested that "["Plus One" needs] bigger laughs and more of the big, ironic comedy that Erskine can clearly deliver". Wendy Ide of "The Observer" gave "Plus One" a 4 out of 5 rating, saying that the film is "a predictable odd-couple romance" which is "given extra zest by the fantastic on-screen chemistry of its leads".


title: Local H

text: Local H is an American rock band originally formed by guitarist and vocalist Scott Lucas, bassist Matt Garcia, drummer Joe Daniels, and lead guitarist John Sparkman in Zion, Illinois in 1990. The members all met in high school in 1987 and founded Local H three years later. They are known for their unorthodox two-piece setup.


title: Local H

text: After Sparkman's departure in 1991 and Garcia's departure in 1993, Local H signed a record contract with Island Records in 1994 as a duo, where they would go on to release three albums. They became best known for their radio hit "Bound for the Floor", a single from the 1996 album "As Good as Dead" which peaked at No. 5 on the US Alternative "Billboard" Chart. The album "As Good As Dead" was also certified gold. Daniels was replaced by Brian St. Clair in 1999, and the group released four albums and four EPs with St. Clair on drums. Brian St. Clair's last show with Local H was in 2013. In November 2013, Ryan Harding was announced as the new drummer, and the band have since released two albums, "Hey, Killer" in 2015 and "Lifers" in 2020.


title: Local H

text: According to the band's Twitter account in 2015, its name comes from combining two R.E.M. songs: "Oddfellows Local 151" and "Swan Swan H".


title: Local H

text: Local H formed as a result of a high school band that Scott Lucas and Matt Garcia were in called Rude Awakening, in 1987. In 1987, while attending high school in Zion, Scott Lucas and Joe Daniels began jamming together, along with Matt Garcia and John Sparkman. Local H was formed in 1990, performing their first show on April 20, 1990, at the University of Wisconsin in Whitewater. Sparkman left the band on April 4, 1991. Local H released "Drum", their first extended play, in 1991. Garcia left on January 26, 1993, and Lucas and Daniels began looking for a replacement bassist. They eventually decided to carry on as a duo with Lucas handling bass guitar frequencies after having a high school friend, Tobey Flescher, modify his guitar with an added bass pickup and second output. Local H played their first show as a true duo on September 3, 1993.


title: Local H

text: Local H recorded and released three studio albums through Island Records with the Lucas/Daniels lineup: "Ham Fisted" (1995), "As Good as Dead" (1996), and "Pack Up the Cats" (1998). With "As Good as Dead", the band found moderate commercial success with the single "Bound for the Floor" which rose to No. 5 on the US Alternative "Billboard" Chart and No. 10 on the US Hot Mainstream Rock "Billboard" Chart. The songs "Eddie Vedder" and "Fritz's Corner" additionally made Top 40 on the Alternative and Mainstream Rock Billboard Charts.


title: Local H

text: In July 1999, after a complicated year with their label, Daniels left the group. He was replaced by former Triple Fast Action drummer Brian St. Clair, who had previously worked as a drum tech for Cheap Trick. Lucas and St. Clair released the band's fourth album "Here Comes the Zoo" in 2002 under the Palm Pictures record label. "The No Fun EP" followed in 2003 and their fifth album, "Whatever Happened to P.J. Soles?", was released in April 2004 to favorable reviews.


title: Local H

text: In 2005, the band received a good deal of publicity after recording a cover of the Britney Spears single "Toxic." The track was the only studio recording featured on "Alive '05", a 2005 live album that constituted the sixth major release from the band.


title: Local H

text: In 2008 the band released their sixth studio album "Twelve Angry Months", a concept album in which each of the twelve songs represented a stage in a year long process of overcoming a failed relationship.


title: Local H

text: On April 5, 2011, the ICON release of the band's Island recordings became their first "best-of" compilation. In an April 22 interview with "The Delaware County Daily Times", Lucas commented, "It's kinda weird but kinda cool because it doesn’t cover our entire career, so I was like, 'Let's call it The Island Years.'"


title: Local H

text: In a June 28 guest appearance on the movie review podcast/website "CinemaJaw," Lucas claimed that the next album would be out before the upcoming 2012 elections—mainly because so much of the album's content deals with it directly—expecting it to be released by February 2012. In the same interview, Lucas also suggested that a working title for the album was "Hallelujah, I'm a Bum", named for a song from the Depression Era. On July 11, 2012, the band announced that their next studio effort, "Hallelujah! I'm a Bum", would be released on September 18. A full track listing was also published.


title: Local H

text: In May 2012, the band launched a tour of small clubs and bars in preparation for release of a new album. In September 2016, Local H announced a North American club tour supporting Helmet.


title: Local H

text: On August 21, 2013, it was announced that St. Clair would be leaving the band after a brief farewell tour, in order to focus on his tour management company, Tour Time Productions. The departure was described as amicable and a mutual decision between Lucas and St. Clair.


title: Local H

text: On November 4, 2013, Ryan Harding was announced as the new drummer. Previously, Harding had played with Sullen (Shanna Kiel from Sullen performed on "5th Ave. Crazy" from "Here Comes the Zoo" in 2001) and Short & Sweet, who had opened for Local H. Nobody else was auditioned or considered, and Harding's first show with the band was on November 8, 2013. On April 22, 2014 the band released a studio single of their cover of the Lorde song "Team". In early 2015, the duo created a Pledgemusic campaign in order to help fund the production of their new album, titled "Hey, Killer". The album was released on April 15, 2015 through G&P Records.


title: Local H

text: On March 29, 2016, Lucas announced on WKQX that the band would celebrate the 20th anniversary of "As Good As Dead" by playing shows where they perform the entire AGAD album with original drummer Joe Daniels in addition to other songs with Harding on drums.


title: Local H

text: In April 2017, Local H was announced as the winner of the 'Hit the Stage' contest, gaining the opportunity to open for Metallica on five dates of the WorldWired tour.


title: Local H

text: On January 1, 2018, the band announced a new live album from their 2017 European tour. The album, "Live in Europe", was released on February 6, 2018.


title: Local H

text: On January 6, 2019, the band performed as the halftime entertainment of the Chicago Bears vs. Philadelphia Eagles NFL Wildcard Playoff game.


title: Local H

text: In January 2020, the band premiered a new single entitled "Turn the Bow", as well as announced an upcoming studio album entitled "LIFERS," set to be released in April of the same year. The album was produced by veteran audio engineers Steve Albini and Andy Gerber, features members of Deer Tick and Naked Raygun, and was mixed by J. Robbins. On March 23, 2020, the band released the live video for their single "Hold That Thought." "LIFERS" was released on April 10, 2020.


title: Local H

text: Local H is known for their frequent and energetic live shows. The members of the band can usually be found at their own merchandise table after shows, signing autographs and selling band T-shirts.


title: Local H

text: Local H also has a reputation for creative ideas with regards to its live shows. In addition to playing a show in Chicago every New Year's Eve, the band has also participated in several unconventional concerts over the years, such as allowing one fan to select an album name from a hat, and then playing that album in its entirety. In 2005, Local H performed an "all request tour" in which a ballot containing a breakdown of most of the bands' songs organized into various categories, resembling a traditional sushi menu, was handed out to the audience upon admittance to the venue. Audiences were allowed to pick seven songs from the "menu" and the setlist for each show was derived from these ballots.


title: Local H

text: In 2003, the band auctioned off a live show to the winner of an eBay auction. The band subsequently performed this concert at Duke O'Briens, a pub in Crystal Lake, IL.


title: Local H

text: In July 2007, Local H played an early morning show at U.S. Cellular Field in Chicago at the conclusion of the Nike Rock 'N Run 5K race, where runners ended the race on the field. Tickets to this show were only available by spotting Scott Lucas in public and speaking the phrase "Attention all planets of the Solar Federation, we have assumed control" directly to him. Later that same year, Local H announced a contest in which fans could make videos of themselves covering Local H songs. The winner would then get to be the opening act for Local H's New Year's Eve show later that year. A band from New York called Kung-Fu Grip won the contest with their cover of a song from Local H's "No Fun" E.P.


title: Local H

text: During the spring months of 2010, Local H embarked on their "6 Angry Records" Tour. Each show began with Scott holding a hat filled with slips of paper containing the band's album names. After interviewing members of the audience about which album they'd like to hear, one audience member would choose an album from the hat. The band would then play that album on the spot in its entirety, followed by an encore of other Local H favorites and covers.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu (, , lit. "Israel Our Home") is a secularist, nationalist right-wing political party in Israel. The party's base was originally secular Russian-speaking Israelis, although support from that demographic is in decline. The party describes itself as "a national movement with the clear vision to follow in the bold path of Zev Jabotinsky", the founder of Revisionist Zionism. It has primarily represented immigrants from the former Soviet Union, although it has attempted to expand its appeal to more established Israelis.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: It takes a hard line towards the peace process and the integration of Israeli Arabs. Its main platform includes a recognition of the two-state solution, the creation of a Palestinian state that would include an exchange of some largely Arab-inhabited parts of Israel for largely Jewish-inhabited parts of the West Bank. Yisrael Beiteinu maintains an anti-clerical mantle, supports drafting the ultra-Orthodox into the military, and encourages socio-economic opportunities for new immigrants, in conjunction with efforts to increase aliyah.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: The party won 15 seats in the 2009 election, its most to date, making it the third-largest party in the 18th Knesset. In the 2020 election the party won seven seats. Despite forming part of the Likud-led bloc in the Twentieth Knesset and even running on a joint slate with Likud for the Nineteenth Knesset, leader Avigdor Lieberman has been vocal in his opposition to Benjamin Netanyahu.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu has its origins in the Israel of the late 1990s, when former Director-General of the Prime Minister's Office, Avigdor Lieberman was greatly disappointed by his former boss Benjamin Netanyahu and his negotiation with the Palestinian Authority. Netanyahu signed the Wye River Memorandum, which featured the division of the city of Hebron. This move was viewed by many right-wing Israelis, including many of Lieberman's own Russian-speaking community, as a betrayal of their values by Netanyahu. At the time of the Wye River Memorandum, the Russian-speaking community in Israel was mainly represented by the center-right Yisrael BaAliyah, led by Natan Sharansky, who decided not to pull his party out of Netanyahu's coalition despite the division of Hebron, which further disappointed Lieberman and other right-wing Russian-speakers. This disappointment led to two Yisrael BaAliyah Knesset members, Michael Nudelman and Yuri Stern, breaking away from the party to form their own party Aliyah.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: For the 1999 legislative election, Lieberman, Nudelman and Stern formed Yisrael Beiteinu, a party whose goal was to represent the right wing of the Russian-speaking community in Israel. The new party won four seats. Due to Ehud Barak's victory in the 1999 election, the new party sat in the opposition in the new Knesset. On 1 February 2000, while sitting in the opposition, the party joined an alliance with the National Union, itself an alliance of mainly Religious Zionist right-wing parties led by Binyamin Elon, both parties remained fairly independent. The joint list joined Ariel Sharon's new unity government formed after the 2001 Israeli prime ministerial election. However, it attempted to quit the government just a few months later after Sharon's government gave another neighborhood of Hebron to the Palestinian authority. This move was delayed by Rehavam Ze'evi's assassination, but the joint list, now led by Lieberman, left the coalition in 2002 anyway.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: In the 2003 Knesset election the Lieberman-led joint list won seven seats, with his Yisrael Beiteinu being given four of them. The alliance joined Ariel Sharon's government, and Lieberman was made Minister of Transport; however, the party left the government on 6 June 2004 in response to the disengagement plan. On 1 February 2006, shortly before the election that year, the party split from National Union in order to run alone. The two parties believed that they would each increase their power if they ran alone, because Yisrael Beiteinu mainly targeted Israel's right-wing secular Russian-speaking community, while the National Union mainly targeted Israel's national-religious community.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: During the election campaign, Yisrael Beiteinu split from mainstream right-wing policy by offering a new peace plan based upon land and population transfers; this became known as the Lieberman plan. The party's new outlook on security was bolstered by a recent addition to the party, former Shin Bet deputy director Yisrael Hasson, who was notably not a member of the Russian-speaking community, and represented an attempt to reach out to new demographics. The 2006 election was a great success for Yisrael Beiteinu, which increased its power to 11 seats; the party joined Ehud Olmert's governing coalition in October 2006. The party entered a dispute with its coalition partner the Labor Party in January 2007, over Labor nominating Raleb Majadele for the position of Minister of Science and Technology, thereby making him Israel's first Muslim Arab minister. Lieberman condemned the nomination, and called for the resignation of the Labor Party's head Amir Peretz, accusing him of harming Israel's security by ceding to "internal rivalries" within the Labor Party, while Peretz accused Yisrael Beiteinu of being a racist party. Yisrael Beiteinu's member of Knesset (MK) Esterina Tartman referred to Peretz's decision as a "lethal blow to Zionism", adding that Majadale's presence in the cabinet would damage "Israel's character as a Jewish state" and that "We need to destroy this affliction from within ourselves. God-willing, God will come to our help." Tartman's comments were immediately condemned as racist by other MKs.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: In January 2008 the party left the government in protest against talks with the Palestinian National Authority, saying certain issues negotiated were not to be tolerated. Lieberman pulled out of the government and left his position as Minister of Strategic Affairs, and almost immediately afterward, Arutz Sheva reported that an investigation against Lieberman and his daughter that had been "ongoing for years, suddenly became active again once he left the government last week".


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: On 22 December 2008, Lieberman approved the party's list for the 2009 legislative election. In this election Yisrael Beiteinu continued to try and reach out to new demographics. As part of this attempt, the party added Orly Levy (daughter of former Likud MK David Levy, a figure highly respected by Israel's Mizrahi community) and Likud minister Uzi Landau to its list. Yisrael Beiteinu ran a highly controversial election campaign, featuring the slogans: "No citizenship without loyalty" and "Only Lieberman understands Arabic"; these slogans were considered racist by many Israelis. These moves were a great success for Yisraeli Beiteinu, and polling showed that it could win as many as 21 seats in the Knesset. In the end, the party won 15 seats in the Knesset, making it the third-largest after Kadima (28) and Likud (27); this was the party's best election result in its history. In March 2009, Yisrael Beiteinu joined Benjamin Netanyahu's coalition, and party leader Avigdor Lieberman became Deputy Prime Minister and Foreign Affairs Minister; the party also received four other ministerial portfolios, and one deputy minister post.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: On 25 October 2012, Lieberman and Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu announced that Yisrael Beiteinu and Likud would run together on a single ballot in Israel's 22 January 2013 general elections known as Likud Yisrael Beiteinu. "In view of the challenges we're facing, we need responsibility on a national level ... We're providing a true alternative, and an opportunity for the citizens to stabilize leadership and government", Lieberman said.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: The joint list was not very successful in the 2013 elections, as the combined seats of the two parties dropped from 42 to 31. Despite the fall in strength, the joint list was still able to lead Israel's new government, and Yisrael Beiteinu retained most of its strength by holding 13 seats in the joint list. Lieberman was reappointed as Netanyahu's foreign minister. The alliance was officially dissolved on 9 July 2014, and the two parties did not run together in the next elections. On 24 December, Yisrael Beiteinu was hit by a major corruption scandal, which greatly hurt the party's image in the public eye and its standing in the polls.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: The 2015 elections were a disaster for Yisrael Beiteinu, as the party plummeted to just 6 MKs, losing over half its strength in the Knesset. Many of the party's former Knesset Members, such as Faina Kirschenbaum were implicated in the corruption scandal that hit the party, and therefore Lieberman had to reshuffle his list and bring forth many new people, such as the journalist Sharon Gal. Despite supporting the formation of a government by Netanyahu, Lieberman chose to keep his party in the opposition, due to personal disputes with Netanyahu and ideological disputes with the ultra-Orthodox parties such as Shas and United Torah Judaism. On 26 May 2016, Yisrael Beiteinu joined Netanyahu's coalition, Lieberman himself was appointed as Minister of Defense . Orly Levy left the party over the entry into the coalition and sat as an independent Knesset Member until the next elections, where she went on to found the Gesher party.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: On 14 November 2018, Lieberman announced his resignation from the Israeli government, in protest to a new Gaza ceasefire. On 16 November 2018, Netanyahu stated that he would name himself the new Defense Minister. As a result of Lieberman's departure, Yisrael Beiteinu also quit Netanyahu's coalition government. Lieberman's resignation was completed on 18 November 2018. The narrow government that followed Yisrael Beiteinu's departure led to Netanyahu calling a new election.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: In the resulting 2019 elections, Yisrael Beiteinu ran a campaign focused on branding itself as a party for the "Secular Right", and focused on the issue of conscripting ultra-Orthodox Jews while simultaneously supporting aggressive security policy against Palestinian terrorism. During the election period, polling showed that Yisrael Beiteinu was at risk of falling below the electoral threshold required to enter the Knesset for the first time in its history, however, despite these polls, the party managed to get 5 seats in the new Knesset, giving it the ability to decide whether Netanyahu formed a right-wing government. The government formation in 2019 was somewhat of a repeat of the situation in the previous elections; Yisrael Beiteinu supported Netanyahu to form a government, but refused to join it, citing an ideological dispute with the ultra-Orthodox parties over the ultra-Orthodox draft law as the reason for remaining in the opposition. Lieberman's refusal to join Netanyahu's coalition led to new elections being called.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: On 15 June 2019, ahead of the September 2019 elections, Lieberman announced that Yisrael Beiteinu would only support a national-unity government composed of Likud and the centrist Blue and White and devoid of ultra-Orthodox parties. In an interview with Israel's Channel 13, Lieberman said: "We will aim for a government with Likud and with Kahol Lavan, and that will be an emergency government, a national-liberal government...We will do everything to limit the Haredim, so that they won't enter the government"


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Following the 2020 Israeli legislative election, Yisrael Beiteinu won 7 seats, losing 1. The party endorsed Benny Gantz for Prime Minister, before entering the opposition.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: In his campaign for the 2021 Israeli legislative election, he said he would be opposed to any coalition which included the ultra-Orthodox, as well as any led by Benjamin Netanyahu, and would even be willing to go along with left-wing Meretz. The party got 7 seats again, and joined the coalition with Lieberman as Finance Minister.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: The supreme body in the party is the party conference, which convenes every four years. The party members elect party office-holders including the members of the party arbitration panel, the permanent commission, the municipal commission, and the comptroller.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu runs for local elections under the name of the city that they run in, such as Petah Tikva Beiteinu ("Petah Tikva Our Home").


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: In September 2019, Eli Avidar announced that the party intends to set up an LGBT caucus after the September 2019 Israeli legislative election.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu's platform begins with a description of its 10 main principles which it calls its "ten commandments":


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: One of the party's main policies is that of drawing the borders in such a way that areas with large Arab populations, such as the Triangle area and the Wadi Ara, both gained by Israel as part of the 1949 Armistice Agreements, would be transferred to Arab sovereignty. Known as the Lieberman Plan, such an arrangement would mean that the majority of Jews would live in Israel and the majority of Arabs would live in a future Palestinian state. In most cases, there is no physical population transfer or demolition of houses, but creating a new border where none existed before, according to demographics.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: United Nations General Assembly Resolution 55/153, written in 2001, explicitly states: "When part of the territory of a state is transferred by that state to another state, the successor state shall attribute its nationality to the persons concerned who have their habitual residence in the transferred territory and the predecessor state shall withdraw its nationality from such persons", and Lieberman claims that this means Israel can legally transfer territory and citizens as a means of peace and ultimate conflict resolution.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Avigdor Lieberman argues that the Arab residents see themselves not as Israelis, but as Palestinians, and should, therefore, be encouraged to join the Palestinian Authority. Lieberman has presented this proposal as part of a potential peace deal aimed at establishing two separate national entities, one for Jews in Israel and the other for Arabs in Palestine. However, he is known to have an affinity for, and is popular among, the Druze population (the only non-Jewish, Arabic-speaking male population to be fully drafted into the IDF), and has attracted a number of Druze voters, including some in the Golan Heights who voted for the party in protest. Druze candidate Hamad Amar was elected to the Knesset on the party's list in 2009.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu played a crucial role in passing a law that would fine bodies that receive state funding being spent in recognition of Nakba Day, and events that call for the end of Israel as a Jewish State.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu supports a hawkish security policy, emphasizing preemptive strikes against Hamas and other opponents of Israel. Yisrael Beiteinu's security policy, as laid out in the party's platform, is:


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu's platform states that the party opposes the separation of religion and state. Its platform says that in a country where religion and nationality are two parts of the same whole, religion and state cannot be separated. However, Yisrael Beiteinu's platform states that religion should be separated from political activity, the party believes that religion should not be a source of income and instead should be preserved as a source of "inspiration and belief" for every Jew. Despite the platform's statement that the party opposes separation of religion and state, the party is considered a force for secularism in Israel, and is strongly opposed to the religious policies of Israel's Ultra-Orthodox parties.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu favors a broadly economically liberal vision of the economy. Its platform opposes increasing taxes and supports a decrease in regulations and an increase in support to small businesses. Despite this broadly liberal view of the economy, the party supports an increase in spending for healthcare and its flagship economic policy is increasing the minimum pension given to pensioners to 70% of the minimum wage.


title: Yisrael Beiteinu

text: Yisrael Beiteinu's solution for Israel's housing crisis is cancelling the tax on the usage of pension funds of young couples who want to buy a home with the money.


title: Teri Weigel

text: Weigel was born in Fort Lauderdale, Florida and grew up in Deerfield Beach, Florida. She began modeling while in her teens, appearing in the Saks Fifth Avenue catalog among other venues.


title: Teri Weigel

text: Weigel appeared on the cover of the November 1985 issue of "Playboy", and was the Playboy Playmate for April 1986. She also appeared in a number of "Playboy" videos. She subsequently had several minor roles in mainstream film, including "Predator 2" and "Marked for Death", and made several appearances as "Jade" on "Married... with Children". She was the second Playmate to also appear in "Penthouse" magazine, after Ursula Buchfellner, November 1985. She worked for a time at the Bunny Ranch Nevada brothel until September 1998.


title: Teri Weigel

text: Weigel was in a car accident in August 1990, in which she suffered severe neck and back injuries that required five operations.


title: Teri Weigel

text: Unable to work for four months due to her injuries, she and her husband, Murrill Maglio, were forced to sell their home and move into an apartment. During production on a nude video that was one of Weigel's last projects for "Playboy", a co-worker suggested doing adult movies to earn money. Initially dismissive of the idea, Weigel eventually reconsidered. Weigel and Maglio spoke to their neighbors, Fred and Patti Lincoln, who produced adult films.


title: Teri Weigel

text: Her first film was "Inferno" in 1991, in which she costarred with Marc Wallice. According to Weigel and Maglio, they do not see Weigel's sexual intercourse with other men as a problem because of the security of their relationship. Maglio has had minor, non-sexual roles in some of her films. To enhance her career viability, Weigel underwent breast augmentation, enlarging her breasts to 36DD. After she became the first Playboy Playmate to cross over into porn, the publisher terminated its relationship with her, as Playmates who do porn are not allowed to represent the company. Weigel's new career also hurt her relationship with her family, as her parents stopped speaking to her by 1992.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The first evidence of horses in warfare dates from Eurasia between 4000 and 3000 BC. A Sumerian illustration of warfare from 2500 BC depicts some type of equine pulling wagons. By 1600 BC, improved harness and chariot designs made chariot warfare common throughout the Ancient Near East, and the earliest written training manual for war horses was a guide for training chariot horses written about 1350 BC. As formal cavalry tactics replaced the chariot, so did new training methods, and by 360 BC, the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon had written an extensive treatise on horsemanship. The effectiveness of horses in battle was also revolutionized by improvements in technology, such as the invention of the saddle, the stirrup, and the horse collar.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Many different types and sizes of horse were used in war, depending on the form of warfare. The type used varied with whether the horse was being ridden or driven, and whether they were being used for reconnaissance, cavalry charges, raiding, communication, or supply. Throughout history, mules and donkeys as well as horses played a crucial role in providing support to armies in the field.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Horses were well suited to the warfare tactics of the nomadic cultures from the steppes of Central Asia. Several cultures in East Asia made extensive use of cavalry and chariots. Muslim warriors relied upon light cavalry in their campaigns throughout Northern Africa, Asia, and Europe beginning in the 7th and 8th centuries AD. Europeans used several types of war horses in the Middle Ages, and the best-known heavy cavalry warrior of the period was the armoured knight. With the decline of the knight and rise of gunpowder in warfare, light cavalry again rose to prominence, used in both European warfare and in the conquest of the Americas. Battle cavalry developed to take on a multitude of roles in the late 18th century and early 19th century and was often crucial for victory in the Napoleonic Wars. In the Americas, the use of horses and development of mounted warfare tactics were learned by several tribes of indigenous people and in turn, highly mobile horse regiments were critical in the American Civil War.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Horse cavalry began to be phased out after World War I in favour of tank warfare, though a few horse cavalry units were still used into World War II, especially as scouts. By the end of World War II, horses were seldom seen in battle, but were still used extensively for the transport of troops and supplies. Today, formal battle-ready horse cavalry units have almost disappeared, though the United States Army Special Forces used horses in battle during the 2001 invasion of Afghanistan. Horses are still seen in use by organized armed fighters in developing countries. Many nations still maintain small units of mounted riders for patrol and reconnaissance, and military horse units are also used for ceremonial and educational purposes. Horses are also used for historical reenactment of battles, law enforcement, and in equestrian competitions derived from the riding and training skills once used by the military.


title: Horses in warfare

text: A fundamental principle of equine conformation is "form to function". Therefore, the type of horse used for various forms of warfare depended on the work performed, the weight a horse needed to carry or pull, and distance travelled. Weight affects speed and endurance, creating a trade-off: armour added protection, but added weight reduces maximum speed. Therefore, various cultures had different military needs. In some situations, one primary type of horse was favoured over all others. In other places, multiple types were needed; warriors would travel to battle riding a lighter horse of greater speed and endurance, and then switch to a heavier horse, with greater weight-carrying capacity, when wearing heavy armour in actual combat.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The average horse can carry up to approximately 30% of its body weight. While all horses can pull more weight than they can carry, the maximum weight that horses can pull varies widely, depending on the build of the horse, the type of vehicle, road conditions, and other factors. Horses harnessed to a wheeled vehicle on a paved road can pull as much as eight times their weight, but far less if pulling wheelless loads over unpaved terrain. Thus, horses that were driven varied in size and had to make a trade-off between speed and weight, just as did riding animals. Light horses could pull a small war chariot at speed. Heavy supply wagons, artillery, and support vehicles were pulled by heavier horses or a larger number of horses. The method by which a horse was hitched to a vehicle also mattered: horses could pull greater weight with a horse collar than they could with a breast collar, and even less with an ox yoke.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Light, oriental horses such as the ancestors of the modern Arabian, Barb, and Akhal-Teke were used for warfare that required speed, endurance and agility. Such horses ranged from about to just under , weighing approximately . To move quickly, riders had to use lightweight tack and carry relatively light weapons such as bows, light spears, javelins, or, later, rifles. This was the original horse used for early chariot warfare, raiding, and light cavalry.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Relatively light horses were used by many cultures, including the Ancient Egyptians, the Mongols, the Arabs, and the Native Americans. Throughout the Ancient Near East, small, light animals were used to pull chariots designed to carry no more than two passengers, a driver and a warrior. In the European Middle Ages, a lightweight war horse became known as the rouncey.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Medium-weight horses developed as early as the Iron Age with the needs of various civilizations to pull heavier loads, such as chariots capable of holding more than two people, and, as light cavalry evolved into heavy cavalry, to carry heavily armoured riders. The Scythians were among the earliest cultures to produce taller, heavier horses. Larger horses were also needed to pull supply wagons and, later on, artillery pieces. In Europe, horses were also used to a limited extent to maneuver cannons on the battlefield as part of dedicated horse artillery units. Medium-weight horses had the greatest range in size, from about but stocky, to as much as , weighing approximately . They generally were quite agile in combat, though they did not have the raw speed or endurance of a lighter horse. By the Middle Ages, larger horses in this class were sometimes called destriers. They may have resembled modern Baroque or heavy warmblood breeds. Later, horses similar to the modern warmblood often carried European cavalry.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Large, heavy horses, weighing from , the ancestors of today's draught horses, were used, particularly in Europe, from the Middle Ages onward. They pulled heavy loads like supply wagons and were disposed to remain calm in battle. Some historians believe they may have carried the heaviest-armoured knights of the Late Medieval Period, though others dispute this claim, indicating that the destrier, or knight's battle horse, was a medium-weight animal. It is also disputed whether the destrier class included draught animals or not. Breeds at the smaller end of the heavyweight category may have included the ancestors of the Percheron, agile for their size and physically able to manoeuvre in battle.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The British Army's 2nd Dragoons in 1813 had 340 ponies of and 55 ponies of ; the Lovat Scouts, formed in 1899, were mounted on Highland ponies; the British Army recruited 200 Dales ponies in World War II for use as pack and artillery animals; and the British Territorial Army experimented with the use of Dartmoor ponies as pack animals in 1935, finding them to be better than mules for the job.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Horses were not the only equids used to support human warfare. Donkeys have been used as pack animals from antiquity to the present. Mules were also commonly used, especially as pack animals and to pull wagons, but also occasionally for riding. Because mules are often both calmer and hardier than horses, they were particularly useful for strenuous support tasks, such as hauling supplies over difficult terrain. However, under gunfire, they were less cooperative than horses, so were generally not used to haul artillery on battlefields. The size of a mule and work to which it was put depended largely on the breeding of the mare that produced the mule. Mules could be lightweight, medium weight, or even, when produced from draught horse mares, of moderate heavy weight.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The oldest known manual on training horses for chariot warfare was written c. 1350 BC by the Hittite horsemaster, Kikkuli. An ancient manual on the subject of training riding horses, particularly for the Ancient Greek cavalry is "Hippike" ("On Horsemanship") written about 360 BC by the Greek cavalry officer Xenophon. and another early text was that of Kautilya, written about 323 BC.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Whether horses were trained to pull chariots, to be ridden as light or heavy cavalry, or to carry the armoured knight, much training was required to overcome the horse's natural instinct to flee from noise, the smell of blood, and the confusion of combat. They also learned to accept any sudden or unusual movements of humans while using a weapon or avoiding one. Horses used in close combat may have been taught, or at least permitted, to kick, strike, and even bite, thus becoming weapons themselves for the warriors they carried.


title: Horses in warfare

text: In most cultures, a war horse used as a riding animal was trained to be controlled with limited use of reins, responding primarily to the rider's legs and weight. The horse became accustomed to any necessary tack and protective armour placed upon it, and learned to balance under a rider who would also be laden with weapons and armour. Developing the balance and agility of the horse was crucial. The origins of the discipline of dressage came from the need to train horses to be both obedient and manoeuvrable. The "Haute ecole" or "High School" movements of classical dressage taught today at the Spanish Riding School have their roots in manoeuvres designed for the battlefield. However, the "airs above the ground" were unlikely to have been used in actual combat, as most would have exposed the unprotected underbelly of the horse to the weapons of foot soldiers.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Horses used for chariot warfare were not only trained for combat conditions, but because many chariots were pulled by a team of two to four horses, they also had to learn to work together with other animals in close quarters under chaotic conditions.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Horses were probably ridden in prehistory before they were driven. However, evidence is scant, mostly simple images of human figures on horse-like animals drawn on rock or clay. The earliest tools used to control horses were bridles of various sorts, which were invented nearly as soon as the horse was domesticated. Evidence of bit wear appears on the teeth of horses excavated at the archaeology sites of the Botai culture in northern Kazakhstan, dated 3500–3000 BC.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The invention of the wheel was a major technological innovation that gave rise to chariot warfare. At first, equines, both horses and onagers, were hitched to wheeled carts by means of a yoke around their necks in a manner similar to that of oxen. However, such a design is incompatible with equine anatomy, limiting both the strength and mobility of the animal. By the time of the Hyksos invasions of Egypt, c. 1600 BC, horses were pulling chariots with an improved harness design that made use of a breastcollar and breeching, which allowed a horse to move faster and pull more weight.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Even after the chariot had become obsolete as a tool of war, there still was a need for technological innovations in pulling technologies; horses were needed to pull heavy loads of supplies and weapons. The invention of the horse collar in China during the 5th century AD (Northern and Southern dynasties) allowed horses to pull greater weight than they could when hitched to a vehicle with the ox yokes or breast collars used in earlier times. The horse collar arrived in Europe during the 9th century, and became widespread by the 12th century.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Two major innovations that revolutionised the effectiveness of mounted warriors in battle were the saddle and the stirrup. Riders quickly learned to pad their horse's backs to protect themselves from the horse's spine and withers, and fought on horseback for centuries with little more than a blanket or pad on the horse's back and a rudimentary bridle. To help distribute the rider's weight and protect the horse's back, some cultures created stuffed padding that resembles the panels of today's English saddle. Both the Scythians and Assyrians used pads with added felt attached with a surcingle or girth around the horse's barrel for increased security and comfort. Xenophon mentioned the use of a padded cloth on cavalry mounts as early as the 4th century BC.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The saddle with a solid framework, or "tree", provided a bearing surface to protect the horse from the weight of the rider, but was not widespread until the 2nd century AD. However, it made a critical difference, as horses could carry more weight when distributed across a solid saddle tree. A solid tree, the predecessor of today's Western saddle, also allowed a more built-up seat to give the rider greater security in the saddle. The Romans are credited with the invention of the solid-treed saddle.


title: Horses in warfare

text: An invention that made cavalry particularly effective was the stirrup. A toe loop that held the big toe was used in India possibly as early as 500 BC, and later a single stirrup was used as a mounting aid. The first set of paired stirrups appeared in China about 322 AD during the Jin dynasty. Following the invention of paired stirrups, which allowed a rider greater leverage with weapons, as well as both increased stability and mobility while mounted, nomadic groups such as the Mongols adopted this technology and developed a decisive military advantage. By the 7th century, due primarily to invaders from Central Asia, stirrup technology spread from Asia to Europe. The Avar invaders are viewed as primarily responsible for spreading the use of the stirrup into central Europe. However, while stirrups were known in Europe in the 8th century, pictorial and literary references to their use date only from the 9th century. Widespread use in Northern Europe, including England, is credited to the Vikings, who spread the stirrup in the 9th and 10th centuries to those areas.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The first archaeological evidence of horses used in warfare dates from between 4000 and 3000 BC in the steppes of Eurasia, in what today is Ukraine, Hungary, and Romania. Not long after domestication of the horse, people in these locations began to live together in large fortified towns for protection from the threat of horseback-riding raiders, who could attack and escape faster than people of more sedentary cultures could follow. Horse-mounted nomads of the steppe and current day Eastern Europe spread Indo-European Languages as they conquered other tribes and groups.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The use of horses in organised warfare was documented early in recorded history. One of the first depictions is the "war panel" of the Standard of Ur, in Sumer, dated c. 2500 BC, showing horses (or possibly onagers or mules) pulling a four-wheeled wagon.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Among the earliest evidence of chariot use are the burials of horse and chariot remains by the Andronovo (Sintashta-Petrovka) culture in modern Russia and Kazakhstan, dated to approximately 2000 BC. The oldest documentary evidence of what was probably chariot warfare in the Ancient Near East is the Old Hittite Anitta text, of the 18th century BC, which mentioned 40 teams of horses at the siege of Salatiwara. The Hittites became well known throughout the ancient world for their prowess with the chariot. Widespread use of the chariot in warfare across most of Eurasia coincides approximately with the development of the composite bow, known from c. 1600 BC. Further improvements in wheels and axles, as well as innovations in weaponry, soon resulted in chariots being driven in battle by Bronze Age societies from China to Egypt.


title: Horses in warfare

text: The Hyksos invaders brought the chariot to Ancient Egypt in the 16th century BC and the Egyptians adopted its use from that time forward. The oldest preserved text related to the handling of war horses in the ancient world is the Hittite manual of Kikkuli, which dates to about 1350 BC, and describes the conditioning of chariot horses.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Chariots existed in the Minoan civilization, as they were inventoried on storage lists from Knossos in Crete, dating to around 1450 BC. Chariots were also used in China as far back as the Shang dynasty (c. 1600–1050 BC), where they appear in burials. The high point of chariot use in China was in the Spring and Autumn period (770–476 BC), although they continued in use up until the 2nd century BC.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Descriptions of the tactical role of chariots in Ancient Greece and Rome are rare. The Iliad, possibly referring to Mycenaen practices used c. 1250 BC, describes the use of chariots for transporting warriors to and from battle, rather than for actual fighting. Later, Julius Caesar, invading Britain in 55 and 54 BC, noted British charioteers throwing javelins, then leaving their chariots to fight on foot.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Some of the earliest examples of horses being ridden in warfare were horse-mounted archers or javelin-throwers, dating to the reigns of the Assyrian rulers Ashurnasirpal II and Shalmaneser III. However, these riders sat far back on their horses, a precarious position for moving quickly, and the horses were held by a handler on the ground, keeping the archer free to use the bow. Thus, these archers were more a type of mounted infantry than true cavalry. The Assyrians developed cavalry in response to invasions by nomadic people from the north, such as the Cimmerians, who entered Asia Minor in the 8th century BC and took over parts of Urartu during the reign of Sargon II, approximately 721 BC. Mounted warriors such as the Scythians also had an influence on the region in the 7th century BC. By the reign of Ashurbanipal in 669 BC, the Assyrians had learned to sit forward on their horses in the classic riding position still seen today and could be said to be true light cavalry. The ancient Greeks used both light horse scouts and heavy cavalry, although not extensively, possibly due to the cost of keeping horses.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Heavy cavalry was believed to have been developed by the Ancient Persians, although others argue for the Sarmatians. By the time of Darius (558–486 BC), Persian military tactics required horses and riders that were completely armoured, and selectively bred a heavier, more muscled horse to carry the additional weight. The cataphract was a type of heavily armoured cavalry with distinct tactics, armour, and weaponry used from the time of the Persians up until the Middle Ages.


title: Horses in warfare

text: In Ancient Greece, Phillip of Macedon is credited with developing tactics allowing massed cavalry charges. The most famous Greek heavy cavalry units were the companion cavalry of Alexander the Great. The Chinese of the 4th century BC during the Warring States period (403–221 BC) began to use cavalry against rival states. To fight nomadic raiders from the north and west, the Chinese of the Han dynasty (202 BC – 220 AD) developed effective mounted units. Cavalry was not used extensively by the Romans during the Roman Republic period, but by the time of the Roman Empire, they made use of heavy cavalry. However, the backbone of the Roman army was the infantry.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Once gunpowder was invented, another major use of horses was as draught animals for heavy artillery, or cannon. In addition to field artillery, where horse-drawn guns were attended by gunners on foot, many armies had artillery batteries where each gunner was provided with a mount. Horse artillery units generally used lighter pieces, pulled by six horses. "9-pounders" were pulled by eight horses, and heavier artillery pieces needed a team of twelve. With the individual riding horses required for officers, surgeons and other support staff, as well as those pulling the artillery guns and supply wagons, an artillery battery of six guns could require 160 to 200 horses. Horse artillery usually came under the command of cavalry divisions, but in some battles, such as Waterloo, the horse artillery were used as a rapid response force, repulsing attacks and assisting the infantry. Agility was important; the ideal artillery horse was high, strongly built, but able to move quickly.


title: Horses in warfare

text: Relations between steppe nomads and the settled people in and around Central Asia were often marked by conflict. The nomadic lifestyle was well suited to warfare, and steppe cavalry became some of the most militarily potent forces in the world, only limited by nomads' frequent lack of internal unity. Periodically, strong leaders would organise several tribes into one force, creating an almost unstoppable power. These unified groups included the Huns, who invaded Europe, and under Attila, conducted campaigns in both eastern France and northern Italy, over 500 miles apart, within two successive campaign seasons. Other unified nomadic forces included the Wu Hu attacks on China, and the Mongol conquest of much of Eurasia.