title: Kadamba dynasty

text: One of their earliest inscriptions, the Talagunda inscription of crown prince Santivarma (c.450) gives what may be the most possible cause for the emergence of the Kadamba kingdom. It states that Mayurasharma was a native of Talagunda, (in present-day Shimoga district of Karnataka state) and his family got its name from the Kadamba tree that grew near his home. The inscription narrates how Mayurasharma proceeded to Kanchi in c.345 along with his guru and grandfather Veerasharma to pursue his Vedic studies at a "Ghatika" ("school"). There, owing to some misunderstanding between him and a Pallava guard or at an "Ashvasanstha" ("horse sacrifice"), a quarrel arose in which Mayurasharma was humiliated. Enraged, the Brahmin discontinued his studies, left Kanchi swearing vengeance on the Pallavas and took to arms. He collected a faithful group of followers, routed the Pallava armies and "Antarapalas" (frontier guards) and firmly rooted himself in the dense forests of the modern Srisailam (Sriparvata) region. After a prolonged period of low intensity warfare against the Pallavas and other smaller kings such as the Brihad-Banas of Kolar region, he was able to levy tributes from the Banas and other kingdoms and finally proclaimed independence. According to Indologist Lorenz Franz Kielhorn who deciphered the Talagunda inscription, unable to contain Mayurasharma the Pallavas under king Skandavarman had to accept his sovereignty between the Arabian Sea (known as "Amara" or "Amarawa") to "Premara" or "Prehara" which could be interpreted as either ancient Malwa in central India or the Tungabhadra or Malaprabha region in central Karnataka. According to the historian and epigraphist M. H. Krishna Iyengar a fragmentary inscription of Mayurasharma at Chandravalli which pertains to a water reservoir contained the names of Abhiras and Punnatas, two contemporary kingdoms who ruled as the northern and southern neighbors of Mayurasharma's Kadamba kingdom. The Talagunda inscription also confirms Mayurasharma was the progenitor of the kingdom. The inscription gives a graphic description of the happenings after the Kanchi incident:


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Thus, according to Ramesh, in an act of righteous indignation was born the first native kingdom of Karnataka, and the Pallava King Skandavarman condescended to recognize the growing might of the Kadambas south of the Malaprabha river as a sovereign power. Majumdar however feels even an inscription as important as the Talagunda pillar inscription leaves many a detail unanswered. Scholars such as Moraes and Sastri opine that Mayurasharma may have availed himself of the confusion in the south that was created by the invasion of Samudragupta who in his Allahabad inscription claims to have defeated Pallava King Vishnugopa of Kanchi. Taking advantage of the weakening of the Pallava power, Mayurasharma appears to have succeeded in establishing a new kingdom. According to epigraphist M.H. Krishna, Mayurasharma further subdued minor rulers such as the Traikutas, the Abhiras, the Pariyathrakas, the Shakasthanas, the Maukharis, the Punnatas and the Sendrakas. The fact that Mayurasharma had to travel to distant Kanchi for Vedic studies gives an indication that Vedic lore was quite rudimentary in the Banavasi region at that time. The Gudnapur inscription which was discovered by epigraphist B.R. Gopal states that Mauryasharma, whose grandfather and preceptor was Veerasharma and his father was Bandhushena, developed the character of a Kshatriya (warrior caste). Sen feels the successor of Mayurasharma, Kangavarma changed his surname from "Sharma" to "Varma".


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Mayurasharma was succeeded by his son Kangavarma in c. 365. He had to fight the Vakataka might to protect his kingdom (also known as Kuntala country). According to Jouveau-Dubreuil he was defeated by the King Prithvisena but managed to maintain his freedom. Majumdar feels Kangavarma battled with King Vidyasena of the Basin branch of the Vakataka kingdom with no permanent results. His son Bhageerath who came to power in c.390 is said to have retrieved his fathers losses. According to Kamath, the Talagunda inscription describes Bhageerath as the sole "lord of the Kadamba land" and the "great Sagara" ("lit", "great Ocean") himself indicating he may have retrieved their losses against the Vakatakas. But contemporary though Vakataka inscriptions do not confirm this. His son Raghu died fighting the Pallavas in c. 435 though some inscriptions claim he secured the kingdom for his family. He was succeeded by his younger brother Kakusthavarma in c.435. Kakusthavarma was the most powerful ruler of the dynasty. According to Sastri and Moraes, under the rule of Kakusthavarma, the kingdom reached its pinnacle of success and the Talagunda record calls him the "ornament of the family". The Halasi and Halmidi inscriptions also hold him in high esteem.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: From the Talagunda inscription it is known that he maintained marital relations with even such powerful ruling families as the imperial Guptas of the northern India. One of his daughters was married to King Madhava of the Ganga dynasty. According to the Desai one of his daughters was married to Kumara Gupta's son Skanda Gupta (of the Gupta dynasty), and from Balaghat inscription of Vakataka king Prithvisena we know another daughter called Ajitabhattarika was married to the Vakataka prince Narendrasena. He maintained similar relations with the Bhatari vassal and the Alupas of South Canara. According to Desai and Panchamukhi evidence from Sanskrit literature indicates that during this time the notable Sanskrit poet Kalidasa visited the Kadamba court. Moraes and Sen feel the visit happened during the reign of Bhageerath. According to Sen, Kalidasa was sent by Chandragupta II Virakmaditya to conclude a marriage alliance with the Kadambas.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: His successor Santivarma (c. 455) was known for his personal charm and beauty. According to an inscription he wore three crowns ("pattatraya") to display his prosperity, thus "attracting the attention of his enemies", the Pallavas. When the Pallava threat loomed, He divided his kingdom in c.455 and let his younger brother Krishnavarma rule over the southern portion and deal with the Pallavas. The branch is called the Triparvata branch and ruled from either Devagiri in the modern Dharwad district or Halebidu. Majumdar considers Krishnavarma's rule as somewhat obscure due to lack of his inscriptions though the records issued by his sons credit him with efficient administration and an "ashvamedha" (horse sacrifice). It is known that he possibly lost his life in battle with the Pallavas. According to the Hebbatta record his successor and son Vishnuvarma had to accept the suzerainty of the Pallavas despite showing initial allegiance to his uncle Santivarma ruling from Banavasi whom he described in an earlier record as "lord of the entire Karnata country". In c.485, his son Simhavarma came to power but maintained a low profile relationship with Banavasi. In the northern part of the kingdom (the Banavasi branch), Santivarma's brother Shiva Mandhatri ruled from c. 460 for more than a decade. In c. 475 Santivarma's son Mrigeshavarma came to the throne and faced the Pallavas and Gangas with considerable success. The Halasi plates describes him the "destroyer of the eminent family of the Gangas" and the "destructive fire" ("pralayaanala") to the Pallavas. His queen Prabhavati of the Kekaya family bore him a son called Ravivarma. Mrigeshavarma was known to be a scholar and an expert in riding horses and elephants.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: After Kakusthavarma only Ravivarma (c. 485) was able to build the kingdom back to its original might during a long rule lasting up to c. 519. Numerous inscriptions from his rule, starting from fifth up to the thirty-fifth regnal years give a vivid picture of his successes which was marked by a series of clashes within the family, and also against the Pallavas and the Gangas. He is credited with a victory against the Vakatakas as well. Historian D. C. Sircar interprets Ravivarma's Davanagere record dated c. 519 (king's last regnal year) and claims that the king's suzerainty extended over the whole of South India as far as the Narmada river in the north and that the people of these lands sought his protection. Ravivarma donated land to a Buddhist Sangha (temple) in his 34th regnal year in c. 519 to the south of the Asandi Bund ("Setu") which showed his tolerance and encouragement of all faiths and religions. A Mahadeva temple constructed during his rule finds mention in a Greek writing of the period. According to the Gudnapur inscription, lesser rulers such as the Punnatas, the Alupas, the Kongalvas and the Pandyas of Uchangi were dealt with successfully. The crux of the kingdom essentially consisted of significant areas of the deccan including large parts of modern Karnataka. King Ravivarma of the Banavasi branch killed king Vishnuvarma of the Triparvata branch according to Moraes and successfully dealt with a rebelling successors of Shiva Mandhatri at Ucchangi. The Pallava king Chandadanda (another name for Pallava king Santivarman) also met the same fate according to Sathianathaier. Ravivarma left two of his brothers, Bhanuvarma and Shivaratha to govern from Halasi and Ucchangi.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: After Ravivarma's death, he was succeeded by his peaceful son Harivarma in c. 519 according to the Sangolli inscription. According to the Bannahalli plates, Harivarma was killed by a resurgent Krishnavarma II (son of Simhavarma) of the Triparvata branch around c.530 when he raided Banavasi, thus uniting the two branches of the kingdom. Around c.540 the Chalukyas who were vassals of the Kadambas and governed from Badami conquered the entire kingdom. The Kadambas thereafter became vassals of the Badami Chalukyas. In later centuries, the family fragmented into numerous minor branches and ruled from Goa, Halasi, Hangal, Vainad, Belur, Bankapura, Bandalike, Chandavar and Jayantipura (in Odisha). That the Kadambas of Banavasi were a prosperous kingdom is attested to by the famous Aihole inscription of the Chalukyas which describes Banavasi in these terms:


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: The Kadamba kings, like their predecessors the Satavahanas, called themselves "Dharmamaharajas" ("lit", "Virtuous kings") and followed them closely in their administrative procedures. The kings were well read and some were even scholars and men of letters. Inscriptions describe the founding king Mayurasharma as "Vedangavaidya Sharada" ("master of the Vedas"), Vishnuvarma was known for his proficiency in grammar and logic, and Simhavarma was called "skilled in the art of learning".


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: This wisdom and knowledge from the ancient Hindu texts called (the "Smritis") provided guidance in governance. Mores identified several important positions in the government: the prime minister ("Pradhana"), steward of household ("Manevergade"), secretary of council ("Tantrapala" or "Sabhakarya Sachiva"), scholarly elders ("Vidyavriddhas"), physician ("Deshamatya"), private secretary ("Rahasyadhikritha"), chief secretary ("Sarvakaryakarta"), chief justice ("Dharmadhyaksha") above whom was the king himself, other officials ("Bhojaka" and "Ayukta"), revenue officers ("Rajjukas") and the writers and scribes ("Lekhakas"). The Gavundas formed the elite land owners who were the intermediaries between the king and the farmers collecting taxes, maintaining revenue records and providing military support to the royal family. The army consisted of officers such as "Jagadala", "Dandanayaka" and "Senapathi". The organization was based on the strategy called "Chaurangabala". Guerrilla warfare was not unknown and may have been used often to gain tactical advantage.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: A crown prince ("Yuvaraja") from the royal family often helped the king in central administration at the royal capital. Some governed in the far off provinces. This experience not only provided future security and know-how for the king to be, but also kept administration controls within trusted family members. This is seen in the case of kings Shantivarma, Kakusthavarma and Krishnavarma. King Kakusthavarma had appointed his son Krishnavarma as viceroy of Triparvatha region. King Ravivarma's brothers Bhanu and Shivaratha governed over Halasi and Uchangi provinces respectively. Some regions continued to be under hereditary ruling families such as the Alupas, the Sendrakas, the Kekeyas and the Bhataris. While Banavasi was the nerve center of power, Halasi, Triparvata and Uchangi were important regional capitals. The kingdom was divided into provinces ("Mandalas" or "Desha"). Under a province was a district ("Vishayas"), nine of which have been identified by Panchamukhi. Under a district was a Taluk ("Mahagramas") comprising numerous villages under which were the villages in groups of ten ("Dashagrama"). The smallest unit was the village ("Grama") which appears to have enjoyed particular freedoms under the authority of headman ("Gramika").


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Apart from the various divisions and sub-divisions of the kingdom, there was a concept of urban settlement. The fifth-century Birur copper plate inscription of king Vishnuvarma describes Banavasi as "the ornament of "Karnata desa", adorned with eighteen "mandapikas"" (toll collection centers) indicating it was a major trade center at that time. Numerous inscriptions make reference to the rulers at Banavasi as "excellent lords of the city" ("puravaresvara"). Excavations have revealed that Banavasi was a settlement even during the Satavahana period. By the fifth century, it was a fortified settlement and the Kadamba capital ("Kataka"). A later inscriptions of c.692 of the Chalukyas refer to Banavasi and its corporate body ("Nagara") as a witness to the granting of a village to a Brahmin by the monarch. A reference to the mercantile class ("Setti") further indicates the commercial importance of Banavasi.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: One sixth of land produce was collected as tax. Other taxes mentioned in inscriptions were the levy on land ("Perjunka"), social security tax paid to the royal family ("Vaddaravula"), sales tax ("Bilkoda"), land tax ("Kirukula"), betel tax ("Pannaya") and professional taxes on traders such as oilmen, barbers and carpenters. Inscriptions mention many more taxes such as internal taxes ("Kara" and "anthakara"), tax on eleemosynary holdings ("panaga"), presents to kings ("Utkota") and cash payments ("Hiranya"). The capital Banavasi had eighteen custom houses ("mandapika") that levied taxes on incoming goods. In recognition of military or protective service provided by deceased warriors, the state made social service grants ("Kalnad" or "Balgacu") that supported their family. In addition to erecting a hero stone which usually included an inscription extolling the virtues of the hero, the grant would be in the form of land. Such land grant could be as small as a plot, as large as several villages, or even a large geographical unit depending on the heroes status.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Inscriptions and literature are the main source of information about the economy and the factors that influenced it. According to Adiga, from studies conducted by historians and epigraphists such as Krishna, Kalburgi, Kittel, Rice, B.R. Gopal and Settar, it is clear the kingdom depended on revenues from both agricultural and pastoral elements. Numerous inscriptions, mainly from the modern Shimoga, Bijapur, Belgaum, Dharwad and Uttara Kannada regions (the ancient divisions of Belvola-300, Puligere-300, Banavasi-12,000) mention cattle raids, cowherds and shepherds. The numerous hero stones to those who fought in cattle raids was an indication of not only lawlessness but also of the importance of herding. The mention of the terms "gosai" (female "goyiti"), "gosasa", "gosasi" and "gosahasra" in the adjective, the imposition of taxes on milk and milk products, the existence of large cattle herds and the gifting of a thousand cows as a mark of the donors affluence ("gosahasram pradarum") indicate cow herding was an important part of the economy. There are records that mention the shepherd settlements ("kuripatti"), cowherd settlements ("turpatti") and numerous references to small hamlets ("palli").


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Mixed farming, a combination of grazing and cultivation, mostly controlled by the wealthy Gavunda peasantry (today's Gowdas), seems to be the thing to do, for both the quantum of grain produced and number of cattle head determined opulence. There are several records that mention the donation of both gracing and cultivable land in units of "kolagas" or "khandugas" to either those who fought cattle thieves or to their families. A nomadic way of life is not prevalent in most communities, with the exception of hill tribes called Bedas. A semi-nomadic community, according to Durrett, they frequently depended on cattle thieving from outlying farms and the abduction of women. The Bedas subsisted by selling to merchants stolen cattle and such produce from the forest as meat, sandalwood and timber, and crops from disorganized agriculture.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: From inscriptions three types of land are evident; wet or cultivable land ("nansey", "bede", "gadde" or "nir mannu") usually used to cultivate paddy (called "akki gadde","akki galdege" or "bhatta mannu") or a tall stout grain yielding grass called "sejje"; dry land ("punsey", rarely mentioned) and garden land ("totta"). A sixth-century grant refers to garden land that grew sugarcane ("iksu"). Other crops that were also cultivated were barley ("yava"), areca nut ("kramuka"), fallow millet ("joladakey"), wheat ("godhuma"), pulses ("radaka"), flowers were mostly for temple use and such lands called "pundota", fruits such as plantains ("kadali") and coconuts are also mentioned.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Village ("palli") descriptions in lithic and copper plate records, such as the Hiresakuna 6th-century copper plates from Soraba, included its natural (or man made) bounding landmarks, layout of agricultural fields, repairs to existing and newly constructed water tanks, irrigation channels and streams, soil type and the crops grown. Repairs to tanks and construction of new ones was a preoccupation of elite, from kings to the "Mahajanas", who claimed partial land ownership or a percentage of produce irrigated from the tank or both. Taxes were levied on newly irrigated lands, an indication the rulers actively encourage the conversion of dry land to cultivable wet land. An important distinction is made between types of landholdings: "Brahmadeya" (individual) and "non-Brahmadeya" (collective) and this is seen in inscriptions as early as the third-fourth century in South India. Records such as the Shikaripura Taluk inscription indicate occasionally women were village headmen and counselors, and held land ("gavundi").


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Functioning purely on the excess produce of the rural hinterland were the urban centers, the cities and towns ("mahanagara", "pura", and "Polal") that often find mention in Kannada classics such as "Vaddaradhane" (c. 900) and "Pampa Bharata" (c. 940). References to townships with specialized classes of people such as the diamond and cloth merchants and their shops, merchant guilds (corporate bodies), important temples of worship and religious hubs, palaces of the royalty, vassals and merchants ("setti"), fortifications, courtesan streets, and grain merchants and their markets are a clear indication that these urban entities were the centers of administrative, religious and economic activity.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: The end of the Satavahana rule in the third century coincided with the advent of two religious phenomena in the Deccan and South India: the spread of Hinduism, Jainism and Buddhism. This was a direct result of the Gupta dynasties ardent patronage to Hinduism in northern India and their aversion to other religions. According to Sastri, till about the fifth century, South India witnessed a harmonious growth of these religions and the sects related to them without hindrance.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Appeasement of local deities and local practices which included offerings of sacrifices often went alongside popular Vedic gods such as Muruga, Shiva, Vishnu and Krishna. However, from the seventh century onward, the growing popularity of Jainism and Buddhism became a cause for concern to the Hindu saints who saw the growth of these new faiths as heretic to mainstream Hinduism. This new found Hindu resurgence, especially in Tamil country, was characterized by public debates and enthusiastic rebuttals by itinerant saints. Their main purpose was to energize and revive Hindu Bhakti among the masses and bring back followers of sects considered primitive, such as the Kalamukhas, Kapalikas and Pasupatas, into mainstream Hinduism.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: The Kadambas were followers of Hinduism as evidenced by their inscriptions. The situation was the same with their immediate neighbors, the Gangas and the Pallavas. According to Adiga, their patronage to Brahmins well versed in the Vedas is all too evident. Inscriptions narrate various land grants to Brahmins that specify their lineage ("gotra") as well as Vedic specialization. According to Sircar, the early rulers called themselves "Brahmanya" or "Parama-brahmanya", an indication of their propensity toward Vaishnavism (a branch of Hinduism). The founding king Mayurasharma was, according to the Talagunda inscription, a Brahmin by birth though his successors may have assumed the surname"Varma" to indicate their change to Kshatriya (warrior) status. An inscription of Vishnuvarma describes him as the "protector of the excellent Brahmana faith". His father Krishnavarma-I performed the Vedic "ashvamedha" ("Horse sacrifice"). There are numerous records that record grants made to Brahmins. According to Sircar, some fifth and sixth century inscriptions have an invocation of "Hari-Hara-Hiranyagarbha" and "Hara-Narayana Brahman" (Hari and Hara are another name of the Hindu gods Vishnu and Shiva).


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: The Talagunda inscription starts with an invocation of the Hindu god Shiva while the Halmidi and Banavasi inscriptions start with an invocation of the god Vishnu. Madhukeshvara (a form of Shiva) was their family deity and numerous donations were made to the notable Madhukeshvara temple in Banavasi. Inscriptions mention various Shaiva sects (worshipers of the god Shiva) such as Goravas, Kapalikas, Pasupatas and Kalamukhas. Famous residential schools of learning existed in Balligavi and Talagunda. Vedic education was imparted in places of learning called "Agrahara" and "Ghatika". However, they were tolerant to other faiths. The Kadamba kings appear to have encouraged Jainism as well. Some records of King Mrigeshavarma indicate describe donations to Jain temples and that King Ravivarma held a Jain scholar in high esteem. Names of such noted Jain preceptors as Pujyapada, Niravadya Pandita and Kumaradatta find mention in their inscriptions. Jainas occupied commanding posts of importance in their armies. According to Adiga, image worship, which was originally prohibited, was now popularized among the common man and the monks. This helped raise funds for the construction of Jain temples ("Chaitya"). Installation of images of Jain monks ("Jaina") in temples and a steady move toward ritualistic worship among the laymen undermined the concept of "quest for salvation" and the ascetic vigor of the religion.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Grants were made to Buddhist centers as well. According to Kamath, the royal capital Banavasi had long been a place of Buddhist learning. In the seventh century, the Chinese embassy Xuanzang described Banavasi as a place of one hundred "Sangharamas" where ten thousand scholars of both the Mahayana and Hinayana Buddhism lived. However, according to Ray, while there is evidence to prove that certain pre-Kadamba royal families, such as the Mauryas and Chutus may have patronized Buddhism, there is not much to say regarding the ruling Kadamba family, vast majority of whose inscriptions are Brahminical grants. In fact, according to Ray, the traces of Buddhist stupa sites that have been discovered in Banavasi are located outside the town.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: The caste system was prevalent in the organized Hindu society with the Brahmins and the Kshatriyas at the top. This had a deep impact on such socially important events as marriage. Even Jainism and Buddhism which initially found popularity by avoiding social hierarchy began to develop the trappings of a caste-based society. This particular feature was, according to Singh, a unique feature of Jainism in what is modern-day Karnataka during the early medieval period. Both the sects of Jainism, the Digambara and the Svetambara followed a strict qualification process for persons worthy of initiation. Jinasena's classic "Adipurana" counts purity of ancestry, physical health and soundness of mind as the main attributes that made a person worthy of such initiation. Both Jinasena and Ravisena (author of "Padmapurana") discuss the existence of a "varna" (distinction or caste) based society and the responsibilities of each "varna".


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Majumdar notes that the Buddhist and Jain literature of the period accounts for the four "varna" by placing the Kshatriya above the Brahmin. While the Brahminical literature points to a tradition that permitted a Brahmin man to marry a woman of Kshatriya caste, a Brahmin woman was not allowed to marry a non-Brahmin man. Just the contrary seems to be the case with Buddhist and Jain literature which deema the marriage of a Brahmin man to Kshatriya woman as unacceptable but that of a Kshatriya man to a Brahmin woman as acceptable. Thus a caste system was in play with all the three main religions of the times. However, Majumdar does point out the highly assimilate nature of the Hindu society where all the early invaders into India, such as the Kushans, the Greeks, the Sakas and the Parthians were all absorbed into the Hindu society without a trace of their earlier practices.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: A unique feature of medieval Indian society was the commemoration of the deceased hero by the erection of memorial stones ("hero stone"). These stones, the inscriptions and relief sculptures on them were meant to deify the fallen hero. According to Upendra Singh, The largest concentration of such stones, numbering about 2650 and dated to between the fifth and thirteenth centuries, are found in the modern Karnataka region of India. While most were dedicated to men, a few interesting ones are dedicated to women and pets. The Siddhenahalli, the Kembalu and the Shikaripura hero stones extol the qualities of women who lost their lives fighting cattle rustlers or enemies. The Gollarahatti and the Atakur inscription are in memory of a dog that died fighting wild boar, and the Tambur inscription of a Kadamba king of the Goa branch describes his death from sorrow of losing his pet parrot to a cat, and the Kuppatur stone was in memory of a bonded servant who was given the honorific "slayer of the enemy" ("ripu-mari") for bravely fighting and killing a man-eater Tiger with his club before succumbing to his injuries.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: According to Altekar, the practice of "sati" appears to have been adopted well after the Vedic period, because there was no sanction for the practice in the funeral hymns of the Rig Veda. According to him, even in the Atharva Veda, there is only a passing reference of widow being required to lie by the side of her husband's corpse on the funeral pyre, then alight from it before it was lit, for the chanting of hymns to commence that blessed her with future wealth and children. This was an indication that window remarriage was in vogue. Altekar points out that even the authors of the "Dharmasutras" (400 BCE – c. 100)and the "Smritis" (c.100-c.300), such as Manu and Yagnavalkya, do not make any mention of any ritual resembling "sati" in their description of the duties of women and widows in society, but rather prescribed the path of worldly renunciation as worthy. It is from about c. 400 that the practice of "sati" begins to appear in the literature of Vatsyayana, Bhasa ("Dutagatotkacha" and "Urubhanga"), Kalidasa ("Kumarasambhava") and Shudraka ("Mirchchhakatika"), with a real case in c. 510 when deceased general Goparaja's wife immolated herself on her husband's pyre. Then around 606, the mother of King Harshavardhana decided to predecease her terminally ill husband.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: This however did not find immediate support with noted poets such as Bana (c.625) and other tantra writers who considered "sati" inhuman and immoral. However around c. 700, the tide began to turn in northern India, especially in Kashmir, but found a later stronghold in Rajasthan. The belief in "sati" began to appeal, especially to the warrior classes, and the theory that performing "sati" cleansed the deceased husband of earthly sins and assured the couple a place in heaven caught on. Occasionally concubines, mothers, sisters, sisters-in-law and even ministers, servants and nurses joined in the act. This took its time to reach the Deccan (Kadamba territory) and the deep south (Tamil country) where the earliest cases, voluntary as they were, are seen by about c.1000. What was once a Kshatriya only practice came to be adopted by the Brahmins and even some Jains from around c. 1000. In the modern Karnataka region (Kadamba territory), there are only eleven cases between c.1000-c.1400 and forty-one cases between c.1400 – c.1600, mostly in the warrior communities indicating an overall lack of appeal.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Physical education was very popular with men. The book "Agnipurana" encouraged men to avoid calisthenics with either partially digested food in their body or on a full stomach. Bathing with cold water after exercises was considered unhealthy. Medieval sculptures depict youth in physical combat training, doing gymnastics such as lifting the weight of the body with both hands, and doing muscular exercises such as bending a crowbar. The terms "malla" and "jatti" occur often in literature indicating wrestling was a popular sport with the royalty and the commoners. Wrestlers of both genders existed, the woman fighters meant purely for the entertainment to a male audience. Several kings had titles such as "ahavamalla" ("warrior-wrestler"), "tribhuvanamalla" ("wrestler of the three worlds"). The book "Akhyanakamanikosa" refers to two types of combative sports, the "mushtiyuddha" ("fist-fight") and "mallayuddha" (or "mallakalaga", "wrestling fight"). Wrestlers were distinguished based on their body weight, age, skill, proficiency and stamina. Those who exemplified themselves were recognized and maintained on specific diets.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Much of the information we get about activities such as archery and hunting is from classics such as the "Agni Purana" (post 7th century) and others. The "Agni Purana" says "one who has made the vision of both of his mental and physical eyes steady can conquer even the god of death". An archers proficiency, which depended as much on his footwork as on his fingers and keen eyesight, was proven if he could hit bullseye by just looking down at the target's reflection ("Chhaya-Lakshya" in "Adipurana" of c. 941, or "Matsya-vedha" in "Manasollasa" of c. 1129). Additional information is available in medieval sculptures which depict various archery scenes including one where a lady is taking aim from a chariot. Hunting was a favorite pass time of royalty in forest preserves. It served as entertainment, physical exercise and a test of endurance ("mrigiyavinoda" and "mrigiyavilasa"). The medieval sculptors spared no effort in depicting hunting scenes. The "Manasollasa" describes twenty one types of hunt including ambushing deer at waterholes with the hunting party dressed in green and concealed in the hollows of trees. It mentions a special breed of hunting dogs chosen from places such as the modern Jalandhar, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Vidarbha which were preferred for their stamina in chasing and cornering the prey. According to the "Vikramankadevacharita" queens and courtesans accompanied the king on horseback.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: According to Kamath, the Kadambas are the originators of the Karnataka architecture. According to Moraes their architectural style had a few things in common with the Pallava style. Kamath points out that their "Vimana" style (sanctum with its superstructure) is a Kadamba invention. A good example of this construction is seen in the Shankaradeva temple at Kadarolli in the modern Belgaum district. The structures themselves were simplistic with a square "garbhagriha" (sanctum) with an attached larger hall called "mantapa". The superstructure ("Shikhara") over the sanctum is pyramidal with horizontal non-decorative stepped stages tipped at the a pinnacle with a "Kalasha" (or "Stupika").


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: The beginnings of Kadamba architecture can be traced to the fourth century based on evidence in the Talagunda pillar inscription of c. 450. The inscription makes mention of a Mahadeva temple of the Sthanagundur "Agrahara" which Adiga identifies with the protected monument, the Praneshvara temple at Talagunda. The Praneshvara temple bares inscriptions of Queen Prabhavati (of King Mrigeshavarma) from the late fifth century and of their son King Ravivarma. From these inscriptions, Adiga concludes the temple existed in the late fourth century. Further, according to Adiga, the pillar inscription supports the claim that the earliest structure existed there as early as the third century and was under the patronage of the Chutu Satakarnis of Banavasi.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Most of their extant constructions are seen in Halasi and surrounding areas with the oldest one ascribed to King Mrigeshavarma. Other notable temples in Halasi include the Hattikesavara temple with perforated screens by the doors, the Kallesvara temple with octagonal pillars, the Bhuvaraha Narasimha temple and the Ramesvara temple which shows a "Sukhanasa" projection (small tower) over the vestibule ("Ardhamantapa") that connects the sanctum to the hall. All temples at Halasi have pillars with decorative capitals. The Kadamba style of tower was popular several centuries later and are seen in the Lakshmi Devi Temple at Doddagaddavalli (built by the Hoysalas in the 12th century) and the Hemakuta group of temples in Hampi built in the 14th century. In addition to temples, according to the art historian K.V. Soudara Rajan, the Kadambas created three rock-cut Vedic cave temples cut out of laterite at Arvalem in Goa. Like their temples, the caves too have an "Ardhamantapa" ("half mantapa") with plain pillars and a sanctum which contain images of Surya (the sun god), Shiva and Skanda.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: In later centuries, Kadamba architecture was influenced by the ornate architectural style of their overlords, the Kalyani Chalukyas (Later Chalukyas). The best representations of this style are seen in the Mahadeva temple at Tambdi Surla in modern Goa built with an open "mantapa" in the late 12th-13th century by the Kadambas of Goa; the single shrined ("ekakuta") Tarakeshvara temple (modeled after the Mahadeva Temple, Itagi) built prior to c.1180 with an open "mantapa" (and an ornate domical ceiling), a closed "mantapa", a linked gateway and a Nandi "mantapa" (hall with the sculpture of the Nandi the bull); the Madhukeshwara temple at Banavasi which shows several Later Chalukyas style additions over a pre-existing Early Chalukya surroundings; and the 12th century, three shrined ("Trikutachala") Kadambeshvara temple with open and closed "mantapa" at Rattihalli.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: According to the epigraphist D. C. Sircar, inscriptions have played a vital role in the re-construction of history of literature in India as well as the political history of the kingdoms during the early centuries of the first millennium. Some inscriptions mention names of noted contemporary and earlier poets (Aihole inscription of Ravikirti which mentions the Sanskrit poets Kalidasa and Bharavi). The development of versification and the "Kavya" style ("epic") of poetry appears first in inscriptions before making their appearance in literature. Further some "Kavya" poets were the authors of inscriptions too (Trivikramabhatta composed the Bagumra copper plates and the Sanskrit classic "Nalachampu"). In the early centuries of the first millennium, inscriptions in the Deccan were predominantly in the Prakrit language. Then came a slow change with records appearing in bilingual Sanskrit-Prakrit languages around the middle of the fourth century, where the genealogy information is in Sanskrit while the functional portion was in Prakrit. From around the fifth century, Prakrit fell out of use entirely and was replaced by the Dravidian languages. In the Kannada speaking regions in particular, the trend was to inscribe in Sanskrit entirely or in Sanskrit-Kannada.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: The credit of the development of Kannada as a language of inscriptions between the fourth and sixth centuries goes to the Kadambas, the Gangas and the Badami Chalukyas. Among the early ones are the Halmidi stone inscription and the Tagare copper plates which are ascribed to the Kadambas. While the main content of the inscriptions were in Sanskrit, the boundary specifications of the land grant were in Kannada. In subsequent two centuries, not only do inscriptions become more numerous and longer in size, these inscriptions show a significant increase in the usage of Kannada, though the invocatory, the implicatory and the panegyric verses are in Sanskrit. Settar points out that there are inscriptions where the implicatory verses have been translated verbatim into Kannada also. In fact Kannada composed in verse meters start making their appearance in inscriptions even before being committed to literature.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Inscriptions in Sanskrit and Kannada are the main sources of the Kadamba history. The Talagunda, Gudnapur, Birur, Shimoga, Muttur, Hebbatta, Chandravalli, Halasi and Halmidi inscription are some of the important inscriptions that throw light on this ancient ruling family of Karnataka. Inscriptions of the Kadambas in Sanskrit and Kannada ascribed to Kadamba branches have been published by epigraphists Sircar, Desai, Gai and Rao of the Archaeological Survey of India. The Kadambas minted coins, some of which have Kannada legends which provide additional numismatic evidence of their history. The Kadambas (along with their contemporary Ganga dynasty of Talakad) were the first rulers to use Kannada as an additional official administrative language, as evidenced by the Halmidi inscription of c. 450. The historian Kamath claims Kannada was the common language of the region during this time. While most of their inscriptions are in Sanskrit, three important Kannada inscriptions from the rule of the early Kadambas of Banavasi have been discovered.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: Recent reports claim that the discovery of a 5th-century Kadamba copper coin in Banavasi with Kannada script inscription "Srimanaragi" indicating that a mint may have existed in Banavsi that produced coins with Kannada legends at that time. The discovery of the Talagunda Lion balustrade inscription at the Praneshvara temple during excavations in 2013, and its publication by the ASI in 2016, has shed more light on the politics of language during the early Kadamba era. The bilingual inscription dated to 370 CE written in Sanskrit and Kannada is now thought to be the oldest inscription in the Kannada language.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: "Kadambotsava" ("The festival of Kadamba") is a festival that is celebrated every year by the Government of Karnataka in honor of this kingdom. The creation of the first native Kannada kingdom is celebrated by a popular Kannada film, "Mayura" starring Raj Kumar. It is based on a popular novel written in 1933 with the same name by Devudu Narasimha Sastri. On 31 May 2005 Defence minister of India Pranab Mukherjee commissioned India's most advanced and first dedicated military naval base named INS Kadamba in Karwar.


title: Kadamba dynasty

text: The Indian state government of Goa owned bus service is named after the Kadambas Dynasty and is known as Kadamba Transport Corporation (KTCL).The royal lion emblem of the Kadambas is used a logo on its buses. The lion emblem logo became an integral part of KTCL since its inception in 1980 when the corporation was set up to provide better public transport service.


title: Yishuv

text: Yishuv (, literally "settlement"), Ha-Yishuv (, "the Yishuv"), or Ha-Yishuv Ha-Ivri (, "the Hebrew Yishuv"), is the body of Jewish residents in the Land of Israel (corresponding to the southern part of Ottoman Syria until 1918, OETA South 1917–1920, and Mandatory Palestine 1920–1948) prior to the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948. The term came into use in the 1880s, when there were about 25,000 Jews living across the Land of Israel and continued to be used until 1948, by which time there were some 630,000 Jews there. The term is still in use to denote the pre-1948 Jewish residents in the Land of Israel.


title: Yishuv

text: A distinction is sometimes drawn between the Old Yishuv and the New Yishuv. The Old Yishuv refers to all the Jews living in the Land of Israel before the first Zionist immigration wave ("aliyah") of 1882, and to their descendants who kept the old, non-Zionist way of life until 1948. The Old Yishuv residents were religious Jews, living mainly in Jerusalem, Safed, Tiberias, and Hebron. There were smaller communities in Jaffa, Haifa, Peki'in, Acre, Nablus, Shfaram, and until 1779 also in Gaza. In the final centuries before modern Zionism, a large part of the Old Yishuv spent their time studying the Torah and lived off charity (halukka), donated by Jews in the Diaspora.


title: Yishuv

text: The term New Yishuv refers to those who adopted a new approach, based on economic independence and various national ideologies, rather than strictly religious reasons for settling in the "Holy Land". The precursors already began building homes outside the Old City walls of Jerusalem in the 1860s, followed soon after by the founders of the moshava of Petah Tikva, and fully getting in swing with the First Aliyah of 1882, followed by the founding of neighbourhoods and villages until the establishment of the State of Israel in 1948.


title: Yishuv

text: The Old Yishuv were the Jewish communities of southern Ottoman Syria in the Ottoman Empire, up to the onset of Zionist aliyah and the consolidation of the New Yishuv by the end of World War I in 1918 and the establishment of the British Mandate for Palestine. The Old Yishuv had continuously resided in or had come to "Eretz Yisrael" (Land of Israel) in the earlier centuries and were largely ultra-Orthodox Jews dependent on external donations (Halukka) for living, as opposed to the later Zionist aliyah and the New Yishuv, who was more socialist-leaning and secular, emphasizing labor and self-sufficiency.


title: Yishuv

text: The Old Yishuv developed after a period of severe decline in Jewish communities of the Southern Levant during the early Middle Ages, and was composed of three clusters. The oldest group consisted of the Ladino-speaking Sephardic Jewish communities in Galilee and the Judeo-Arabic speaking Musta'arabi Jews who settled in Eretz Yisrael in the Ottoman and late Mamluk period. A second group was composed of Ashkenazi and Hassidic Jews who had emigrated from Europe in the 18th and early 19th centuries. A third wave was constituted by Yishuv members who arrived in the late 19th century. The Old Yishuv was thus generally divided into two independent communities – the Sephardi Jews (including Musta'arabim), mainly constituting the remains of Jewish communities of Galilee and the Four Holy Cities of Judaism, which had flourished in the 16th and 17th centuries; and the Ashkenazi Jews, whose immigration from Europe was primarily since the 18th century.


title: Yishuv

text: The "Old Yishuv" term was coined by members of the 'New Yishuv' in the late 19th century to distinguish themselves from the economically dependent and generally earlier Jewish communities, who mainly resided in the four holy cities, and unlike the New Yishuv, had not embraced land ownership and agriculture. Apart from the Old Yishuv centres in the four holy cities of Judaism, namely Jerusalem, Hebron, Tiberias and Safed, smaller communities also existed in Jaffa, Haifa, Peki'in, Acre, Nablus and Shfaram. Petah Tikva, although established in 1878 by the Old Yishuv, nevertheless was also supported by the arriving Zionists. Rishon LeZion, the first settlement founded by the Hovevei Zion in 1882, could be considered the true beginning of the "New Yishuv".


title: Yishuv

text: The Ottoman government was not supportive of the new settlers from the First and Second Aliyah, as the Ottoman government officially restricted Jewish immigration. The Yishuv relied on money from abroad to support their settlements.


title: Yishuv

text: In 1908 the Zionist Organization founded the Palestine Office, under Arthur Ruppin, for land acquisition, agricultural settlement and training, and later for urban expansion. The first Hebrew high schools were opened in Palestine as well as the Technion, the first institution for higher learning. Hashomer, a Zionist self-defence group, was created to protect the Jewish settlements. Labor organizations were created along with health and cultural services, all later coordinated by the Jewish National Council. By 1914, the old Yishuv was a minority and the new Yishuv began to express itself and its Zionist goals.


title: Yishuv

text: The Zionist movement tried to find work for the new immigrants who arrived in the Second Aliyah. However, most were middle class and were not physically fit or knowledgeable in agricultural work. The Jewish plantation owners had previously hired Arab workers who accepted low wages and were very familiar with agriculture. The leaders of the Zionist movement insisted that plantation owners (those who arrived in the First Aliyah) only hire Jewish workers and grant higher wages. The conquest of labor was a major Zionist goal. However, this caused some turmoil in the Yishuv for there were those who felt that they were discriminating against the Arabs just as they had been discriminated against in Russia. The Arabs became bitter from the discrimination despite the small number of Arabs that were affected by this.


title: Yishuv

text: The First Aliyah was the very beginning of the creation of the New Yishuv. More than 25,000 Jews immigrated to Palestine. The immigrants were inspired by the notion of creating a national home for Jews. Most of the Jewish immigrants came from Russia, escaping the pogroms, while some arrived from Yemen. Many of the immigrants were affiliated with Hovevei Zion. Hovevei Tzion purchased land from Arabs and other Ottoman subjects and created various settlements such as Yesud HaMa'ala, Rosh Pinna, Gedera, Rishon LeZion, Nes Tziona and Rechovot. These agricultural settlements were supported by philanthropists from abroad, chiefly Edmond James de Rothschild. and Alphonse James de Rothschild.


title: Yishuv

text: Eliezer Ben-Yehuda also immigrated during the first Aliyah. Ben-Yehuda took it upon himself to revive the Hebrew language, and along with Nissim Bechar started a school for teaching Hebrew, later on founding the first Hebrew newspaper.


title: Yishuv

text: During the Second Aliyah, between 1903 and 1914, there were 35,000 new immigrants, primarily from Russia.


title: Yishuv

text: During World War I, the conditions for the Jews in the Ottoman Empire worsened. All those Jews who were of an enemy nationality were exiled and others were drafted into the Ottoman army. Many of those exiled fled to Egypt and the United States. Those who remained in the Ottoman ruled Palestine faced hard economic times. There was disagreement whether to support the British or the Turks. A clandestine group, Nili, was established to pass information to the British in the hope of defeating the Ottomans and ending their rule over Palestine. The purpose and members of the Nili were discovered. All involved were executed by the Ottomans except its founder, Aaron Aaronsohn, who escaped to Egypt. During World War I, the Jewish population in Palestine diminished by a third due to deportations, immigration, economic trouble and disease. During World War I, there were two British battalions of Jews, called the Zion Mule Corps, who were to fight on the front of Palestine. They helped in the British capture of Ottoman Syria (including Palestine), leading to the Turkish surrender. The members of the Zion Mule Corps later made up the Yishuv's defence groups that would fight against the British.


title: Yishuv

text: World War I ended, along with the Ottoman Empire. Britain gained control of Palestine through the Sykes–Picot Agreement, which partitioned Ottoman Syria into French-ruled Syria and Lebanon and British-controlled Palestine and Transjordan. There was a hope that British control would allow the creation of a Jewish national homeland as promised in the Balfour Declaration. The British Mandate was formalized in 1922 based on the Balfour Declaration. The British were supposed to help the Jews build a national home and promote the creation of self-governing institutions. The mandate provided for an agency in which the Jews could represent Jewish interests and promote Jewish immigration. It was called the Jewish Agency for Palestine, and was only created ten years later, serving as the de facto government of the Yishuv.


title: Yishuv

text: Along with a Jewish agency there was to be a general self-governing institution created in Palestine including Jews and Arabs. The Yishuv feared such an institution due to the Arab majority, but none was created in the end due to the Arabs' refusal to cooperate with the Jews or British. The optimism that existed in the beginning of the British mandate soon diminished due to continued hardships in the Yishuv. Most of the European funds that supported the Jewish settlements before World War I ended. The Arabs, opposed to the Balfour Declaration and the Mandate, instigated riots against the Jews. The British limited immigration through yearly quotas; only those who received "certificates" could make Aliyah.


title: Yishuv

text: Many women who immigrated to Israel came out of national Zionist motives who wanted the same rights as men and wanted to rebuild their land. In 1919 the first nationwide women's party in the New Yishuv (the Union of Hebrew Women for Equal Rights in Eretz Israel) was created, and Rosa Welt-Straus, who had immigrated there that year, was appointed its leader, as which she continued until her death. The constituent assembly was voted upon in 1920 and 14 women were elected out of the three hundred and fourteen delegates. As well as the increase in the number of women filling public positions, the rate of women participating in the labor force increased steadily during the British mandate period in the Yishuv. With that being said, the employment opportunities at the beginning of the mandate period were very low and women were mainly limited to typical female occupations because the only other option would be to work in construction, which only pioneer women committed to as part of their feminist-nationalist outlook because those roles were considered inappropriate for women. Women were consistently more unemployed when compared to their male counterparts, regardless of cyclical fluctuations. The wages for working women were constantly lower than the wages of their male counterparts, and throughout the Yishuv period, the average wage for women were 50 to 70 percent of male's wage.


title: Yishuv

text: Not only were non-religious women fighting for equality, but so were religious women. Female religious Zionists were faced with double the amount of barriers of non-religious female Zionists because they were rejected from religious society because of their gender and they were rejected from secular society because of their religiosity In 1926 the haredim, who preferred not to face the possibility of a plebiscite, left the yishuv's Assembly of Representatives, and that year an official declaration was made (ratified by the mandate government in 1927) confirming "equal rights to women in all aspects of life in the yishuv – civil, political, and economic." In 1935, the establishment of the national organization of religious pioneer women emerged. Its main goal was to improve the material status and spiritual welfare of the religious women workers and gain admittance to the Ha-Po'el ha-Mizrachi. This organization grew from eight-hundred members in 1935 to six-thousand members in 1948. Women gained rights with the establishment of the religious kibbutz movement by participating in Torah studies with men and by taking part in the co-ed activities that the Kibbutz offered.


title: Yishuv

text: There were Arab riots throughout 1920–21 in opposition to the Balfour Declaration. The Arabs tried to show the British the instability of Palestine and that a Jewish homeland was ungovernable. Riots increased in 1929 after the fourth Aliyah – 133 Jews were killed by Arab mobs during the 1929 riots. The Arabs claimed that Jewish immigration and land purchases were displacing them and taking their jobs away. These riots were also instigated by false rumours that the Jews were planning on building a synagogue near the Western Wall. These riots led to the evacuation of Hebron's indigenous – largely non-Zionist – Jewish population.


title: Yishuv

text: The British responded to the Arab riots with the White Paper of 1939. It was based on the Hope Simpson Report, which stated that Palestine after economic development could support only 20,000 more immigrant families without infringing on the Arab population's placement and employment. It therefore attempted to curtail immigration to Palestine. Upon Jewish criticism of this policy, it was clarified that immigration would not be stopped entirely but would be restricted by quotas.


title: Yishuv

text: There were many Jewish immigrants that arrived throughout the 1930s in the fifth Aliyah, despite the immigration quotas. Many who came were fleeing persecution in Eastern Europe. Those that came from Nazi Germany were able to come because of the Haavara Agreement. This allowed Jews to escape from Germany to Palestine in return for paying a ransom to the Reich. By then, the Yishuv had a population of about 400,000.


title: Yishuv

text: The increasing numbers of Jewish immigrants and land purchases, unchallenged by the British Mandate, angered and radicalized many Arabs. In April 1936, Arabs attacked a Jewish bus, leading to a series of incidents that escalated into a major Arab rebellion. The British were caught by surprise and were unable to prevent the deaths of thousands of Arabs and hundreds of Jews in the revolt. The Haganah protected the Yishuv's settlements while the Irgun, a more radical group, attacked Arab settlements. A coalition of recently formed Arab political parties formed the Arab Higher Committee (AHC). It declared a national strike in support of three basic demands: cessation of Jewish immigration, an end to all further land sales to the Jews, and the establishment of an Arab national government. The Arabs threatened that if the British didn't comply with their demands then they would join the adversaries of the British. This concerned the British for World War II was just beginning and they knew they would need Middle Eastern oil.


title: Yishuv

text: The British worked with their Arab allies to bring a halt to the AHC riots. The Peel Commission reported, in July 1937, that the British obligations to the Arabs and Zionists were irreconcilable and the mandate unworkable. It suggested the partition of Palestine into Arab and Jewish states, with the British mandate governing over Nazareth, Bethlehem, and Jerusalem along with a corridor from Jerusalem to the coast. The Jews accepted the general principle of a partition while the Arabs refused any partition plan. The British government sent a technical team called the Woodhead Commission to detail the plan. The Woodhead Commission considered three different plans, one of which was based on the Peel plan. Reporting in 1938, the Commission rejected the Peel plan primarily on the grounds that it could not be implemented without a massive forced transfer of Arabs (an option that the British government had already ruled out). With dissent from some of its members, the Commission instead recommended a plan that would leave the Galilee under British mandate, but emphasised serious problems with it that included a lack of financial self-sufficiency of the proposed Arab State. The British Government accompanied the publication of the Woodhead Report by a statement of policy rejecting partition as impracticable due to "political, administrative and financial difficulties".


title: Yishuv

text: The Arab Revolt broke out again in the autumn of 1937. The British ended the revolt using harsh measures, deporting many Palestinian Arab leaders and shutting down the AHC. In the Yishuv, the Arab Revolt reinforced the already firm belief in the need for a strong Jewish defence network. Finally, the Arab agricultural boycott that began in 1936 forced the Jewish economy into even greater self-sufficiency. The Haganah during this period changed from being a small clandestine militia to a large military force. The British security forces at this time cooperated with the Haganah to respond to the Arabs.


title: Yishuv

text: In 1938 Captain Orde Wingate created the Special Night Squads (SNS) that were composed mostly of Haganah members. SNS used the element of surprise in night raids to protect the Jewish settlements and attack the Arabs.


title: Yishuv

text: The British suppressed the Arab revolt and published the White Paper of 1939. It allowed for a total of only 75,000 Jews to enter Palestine over a five-year period. During this time the Yishuv entered a period of relative peace with the Arabs.


title: Yishuv

text: The Yishuv wanted to help their fellow Jews, who were being murdered by the Nazis in Europe. Many Jews from Europe were prevented from fleeing to Mandatory Palestine by strict immigration quotas established by the white papers. The Jewish Agency organized illegal immigration from 1939 through 1942 with the help of the Haganah. Those who arrived illegally to Israel during this time were part of the Aliyah Bet. This was a dangerous operation, for these illegal immigrants arrived by boat and had to be careful not to be caught by the British or Nazis. Many of these ships sank or were caught, such as the "Patria", "Struma" and . Compared with the number of attempts, few ships actually arrived successfully to Mandatory Palestine, but tens of thousands of Jews were saved by the illegal immigration.


title: Yishuv

text: The Yishuv also wanted to help on the front lines in Europe to try to save Jews from the Nazi atrocities. In 1942 the Jewish agency turned to the British to offer their assistance by sending Jewish volunteers to Europe as emissaries of the Yishuv to organize local resistance and rescue operations among the Jewish communities. The British accepted the proposal but on a much smaller scale than the Jewish agency had hoped. They only took Jewish parachutists who were recent immigrants from certain targeted countries that they wanted to infiltrate. The British Special Forces and military intelligence both consented to the volunteers' dual role as British agents and Jewish emissaries. 110 Yishuv members were trained; however only 32 were deployed. Many of them succeeded in helping the POWs and uprisings in the Jewish communities, while others were caught.


title: Yishuv

text: There were two periods during the war when the Yishuv faced a direct threat from Nazi forces. The first occurred following Germany's conquest of France in 1940, since the pro-Nazi Vichy regime controlled the northern Levant, from which an invasion of Palestine could take place. However, in 1941 British forces successfully fought Vichy forces for control of Syria and Lebanon, thus removing the threat of invasion from the north, at least as long as German armies in Eastern Europe could be held back by the Red Army and thus unable to easily advance towards the Near East from the north. In 1942 however, as Erwin Rommel's Afrika Korps swept across North Africa with the intent of capturing the Suez Canal, the likelihood of a German invasion from the south became a real possibility, causing great anxiety in the Yishuv and prompting plans to be drawn for its defense. Knowing that Nazi control of Palestine meant certain annihilation of the Yishuv, a debate raged among Yishuv leadership whether, in the event Nazi occupation was to take place, the inhabitants of the Yishuv should evacuate together with British forces eastwards towards British possessions in Iraq and India or undertake a Masada-like last stand in Palestine, likely doing so in a fortified zone to be hastily constructed around the Carmel Mountains. This military operation was officially named Palestine Final Fortress. Fortunately for the Yishuv, the advance of German forces eastwards in Egypt was halted during the Second Battle of El Alamein, thus lifting the threat of invasion from the south. The anxious time leading to the Nazi loss at El Alamein became known as the 200 days of dread.


title: Yishuv

text: Despite the reports of Nazi atrocities and the desperation of Jews needing a safe haven the British kept the gates of Palestine almost closed to Jewish immigration. The Zionist leaders met at the Biltmore Hotel in New York in May 1942 and called for unrestricted Jewish immigration and the establishment of a Jewish commonwealth.


title: Yishuv

text: Hundreds of thousands of Holocaust survivors were being held in Displaced Persons Camp (DP Camps) aching to go to Mandatory Palestine. The British received much international pressure, specifically from U.S. president Harry Truman, to change their policy on immigration. Despite Britain's dependence on American economic aid, the British refused, claiming that they were experiencing too much resistance from the Arabs and Jews already in Palestine and feared what would happen if more were allowed to enter. The refusal to remove the white paper policy angered and radicalized the Yishuv. The Yishuv's militia groups set out to sabotage the British infrastructure in Palestine and continue in their illegal immigration efforts. In 1946, the British responded to the Yishuv's efforts and began a two-week search for Jews suspected of anti-British activities, arresting many of the Haganah's leaders. While the British were busy looking for the Haganah, the Irgun and Lehi carried out attacks on British forces. The most famous of their attacks was on the King David Hotel, the site of the British military command and the British Criminal Investigation Division. This location was chosen because a few weeks before a large quantity of documents was confiscated from the Haganah and brought there. Despite being warned by the Yishuv and told to evacuate the building the British officials decided not to cave in to the pressure. The Yishuv attacked anyway, resulting in 91 deaths, 28 of who were British and 17 who were Palestinian Jews.


title: Yishuv

text: By 1947 the British had 100,000 troops in Palestine trying to maintain order and protect themselves. The British mandate was a major expense to the Exchequer, forcing them to present the Palestine problem to the United Nations on May 15, 1947. The United Nations proposed a partition of the British Mandate for Palestine into 2 states—Arab and Jewish (UN Resolution 181). The Jews accepted it, while the Arabs stated that they would do everything in their power to prevent it.


title: Yishuv

text: The AHC, determined to prevent Resolution 181 from coming into effect, began to attack and besiege the Jews. The British sided with the Arabs in an attempt to prevent the Yishuv from arming themselves. Jerusalem was held under a siege with no access to weapons, food or water. The Provisional Government seemed helpless until it received a large shipment of arms from Czechoslovakia. The Haganah started fighting offensively from April through May. The Haganah mounted a full-scale military plan, Operation Nachson. After much fighting and the crucial construction of a new road from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, the siege of Jerusalem was broken, allowing supplies to be brought into the city.


title: Yishuv

text: This operation's success helped Harry S. Truman recognize that the Jews would be able to protect themselves. The United States decided therefore, it would support the establishment of a Jewish state. On May 14, 1948, the Jews proclaimed the independent state of Israel and the British withdrew from Palestine.


title: Yishuv

text: The 1920 Nabi Musa riots left four Arabs and five Jews killed, with 216 Jews and 23 Arabs wounded. The majority of the victims were members of the old Yishuv. About 300 Jews from the Old City were evacuated following the riots.


title: Yishuv

text: During the Jaffa riots in 1921, thousands of Jewish residents of Jaffa fled for Tel Aviv and were temporarily housed in tent camps on the beach. Tel Aviv, which had previously been lobbying for independent status, became a separate city due in part to the riots. However Tel Aviv was still dependent on Jaffa, which supplied it with food and services, and was the place of employment for most residents of the new city.


title: Yishuv

text: Following the 1929 Palestine riots, which left 133 Jews dead, the Jewish community members of Gaza and Hebron were ordered to evacuate by the British forces, in fear of their security.


title: Yishuv

text: During the Arab revolt of 1936–1939, the Jewish residents of Akko were ousted from the city by local Arab residents. The same fate was forced on the ancient Jewish community of Peki'in.


title: Yishuv

text: The Assembly of Representatives was the elected parliamentary assembly of the Jewish community in Mandatory Palestine. It was established on 19 April 1920, and functioned until 13 February 1949, the day before the first Knesset, elected on 25 January, was sworn in. The Assembly met once a year to elect the executive body, the Jewish National Council, which was responsible for education, local government, welfare, security and defense. It also voted on the budgets proposed by the Jewish National Council and the Rabbinical Council.


title: Yishuv

text: The most notable Jewish paramilitaries in the British Mandate of Palestine were the Haganah, the Irgun and Lehi. In October, 1945, during the Jewish insurgency in Mandatory Palestine, those organizations joined to form the Jewish Resistance Movement. It was established by the Jewish Agency and activated for some ten months, until August, 1946. The alliance coordinated acts of sabotage and attacks against British authorities.


title: Wanted (2016 Australian TV series)

text: Wanted is an Australian drama television series which premiered on the Seven Network in Australia on 9 February 2016. The first season consisted of six episodes. It was renewed for a six-episode second season, which premiered with a double-episode on 5 June 2017. The series was renewed for a third and final season which premiered on 15 October 2018.


title: Wanted (2016 Australian TV series)

text: Two women, Lola and Chelsea, are waiting at a suburban bus stop before midnight. A car crashes in front of them, and two masked men arrive and shoot the driver dead. Lola struggles with the masked attacker and the gun goes off, killing him. The other man is unmasked and he takes them both hostage. They escape but are caught up in a larger criminal conspiracy, and go on the run across Australia in a vehicle filled with cash. They are chased by criminals and corrupt police, being able to trust only each other. The end of season 1 seems to end with a resolution until Lola receives a disturbing call.


title: Wanted (2016 Australian TV series)

text: Season 2 finds the women in both Thailand and New Zealand as they try to save a kidnapped family member. Their bravery cost them their freedom, setting the stage for Season 3 which starts off with them being incarcerated. The women choose freedom through witness protection but trouble once again finds Lola where she decides to track down Chelsea, and the two go off on another run, while being relentlessly pursued by Detective Max Middleton. They come across a group of dangerous people involved in a human smuggling operation, choosing once again to risk their lives and freedom to be able help people begging for their help.


title: Wanted (2016 Australian TV series)

text: The series was first announced in August 2015 following an undisclosed funding amount from Screen Australia and investment of AU$27,768 from Screen Queensland. The series was filmed in various locations in Queensland. Shirley Barrett was initially named as director, but Peter Templeman and Jennifer Leacey were later named. The series is created by husband and wife Rebecca Gibney and Richard Bell, co-founders of R&R Productions which is the production company behind the series, along with Matchbox Pictures. The series will be distributed internationally by Universal Media Studios International.


title: Wanted (2016 Australian TV series)

text: Production began in September 2015 and wrapped in early December, totalling 10 weeks in 60 locations. In August 2016, it was confirmed that "Wanted" had been renewed for a second season of six episodes filmed in Australia, New Zealand, and Thailand.


title: Wanted (2016 Australian TV series)

text: The Seven Network released a 90-second promo in December 2015, advising the series would begin airing in February 2016. The premiere date was later confirmed as 9 February.


title: Wanted (2016 Australian TV series)

text: The first season averaged 1.24 million viewers and was the highest rated Australian drama series of 2016.


title: Tony Slattery

text: Tony Declan James Slattery (born 9 November 1959) is an English actor and comedian. He appeared on British television regularly from the mid-1980s, most notably as a regular on the Channel 4 improvisation show "Whose Line Is It Anyway?" His serious and comedic film work has included roles in "The Crying Game", "Peter's Friends" and "How to Get Ahead in Advertising".


title: Tony Slattery

text: Slattery was born in Stonebridge, north London, into a working-class background, the fifth and last child of Catholic Irish immigrants, Michael and Margaret Slattery.


title: Tony Slattery

text: In 2019 Slattery revealed that he had been repeatedly sexually abused by a priest at the age of eight, but had never told his parents; he believes the event contributed to his unstable character later in life. He was educated at Gunnersbury Boys' Grammar School in west London and won a scholarship to read Modern and Medieval Languages at Trinity Hall, Cambridge, specialising in French literature and Spanish poetry. Slattery held a black belt in judo and represented England internationally in the under-15s.


title: Tony Slattery

text: At the University of Cambridge, Slattery discovered a love of the theatre, taking delight in making people laugh. He met Stephen Fry, who invited him to join the Cambridge Footlights. Other members at that time included Hugh Laurie, Emma Thompson, Sandi Toksvig, Jan Ravens and Richard Vranch.


title: Tony Slattery

text: In 1981, Slattery, Fry, Laurie, Thompson and Toksvig won the inaugural Perrier Award for their revue "The Cellar Tapes". The following year, Slattery was made President of the Footlights. During his tenure, the touring annual revue was "Premises Premises".


title: Tony Slattery

text: Slattery first broke into television as a regular performer on Chris Tarrant's follow up to "O.T.T.", "Saturday Stayback" (1983), while also appearing for children in "Behind the Bike Sheds" and the Saturday-morning show "TX". By 1989 he was a regular on "Whose Line Is It Anyway?", starred in his own improvisational comedy series, "S&M", alongside Mike McShane, and appeared on other panel quizzes such as "Have I Got News for You". He was a regular on the TV version of the quiz show "Just a Minute" and was also on the radio version several times, including the live version held at the Edinburgh Festival.


title: Tony Slattery

text: As a dramatic actor he has appeared in "The Crying Game", "To Die For", "Peter's Friends" and "The Wedding Tackle".


title: Tony Slattery

text: At the end of the 1980s he became a film critic, presenting his own show on British television, "Saturday Night at the Movies". He also appeared in the ITV sitcom "That's Love" with Jimmy Mulville. Other TV appearances include "The Music Game" alongside Richard Vranch and as a regular guest with both Ruby Wax and Clive Anderson. In 1988, Slattery appeared in the BBC sci-fi comedy series "Red Dwarf", in the episode "Kryten" he played the voice of the main character on Kryten's favourite soap opera, "Androids", a parody of the Australian soap opera "Neighbours".


title: Tony Slattery

text: He has also been a regular guest with the Comedy Store Players, both at the Comedy Store in London and on tour.


title: Tony Slattery

text: Early in the 1990s he appeared on many TV shows to the extent that he was a target of satire. For example, the "Have I Got News for You" 1991 annual showed images of the game from around the world, and each local variant featured Slattery as a guest. "Spitting Image" showed a sketch in which an anthropomorphised BBC2 logo refused to have blue paint splattered on it and Slattery intervened for the sake of publicity. The satirical magazine "Private Eye" once published a memorable cartoon depicting his answering machine with the outgoing message "Yes, I'll do it!"


title: Tony Slattery

text: In 1990, he appeared as a contestant on "Cluedo", facing off against David Yip. From 1993 to 1994 he was the host of the game show "Trivial Pursuit".


title: Tony Slattery

text: In 1992 he appeared in the film "Carry On Columbus". In the same year he appeared in the series "Dead Ringer", filmed for the observation round in "The Krypton Factor". Also in 1992 Slattery appeared as a contestant on the Channel 4 show "GamesMaster", in which he said that he hated video games. He played the real-time arcade shooter "Who Shot Johnny Rock?", deliberately failing the challenge by shooting an innocent victim in the game.


title: Tony Slattery

text: Personal problems later overshadowed Slattery's career, leading to a reduced profile. Due to an extended period of illness, he undertook only occasional television work from the mid-1990s to the early 2000s. He reappeared in "Red Dwarf" in 1999 as the voice of a vending machine that threatens Arnold Rimmer in the final episode of the series' initial BBC2 run, "Only the Good...".


title: Tony Slattery

text: The year 2005 was a busy one for Slattery. He appeared in the TV film "Ahead of the Class" with Julie Walters, portrayed D.I. Alan Hayes in series 7 of "Bad Girls", and made a cameo appearance in ITV's "Life Begins" as a date for Maggie (played by Caroline Quentin). Also that year, Slattery won a celebrity edition of the game show "The Weakest Link", beating Vanessa Feltz in the final round. At the end of the show, he announced that he would donate his prize money to the Terrence Higgins Trust. In December of 2005, he joined the long-running drama "Coronation Street" as Eric Talford


title: Tony Slattery

text: In April 2006, Slattery appeared in "Grumpy Old Men" on BBC Two. In 2007, he played Tom O'Driscoll in the feature film "", and the Canon of Birkley in the "Robin Hood" episode "Show Me the Money". That year, Slattery also joined the ITV series "Kingdom" as a regular cast member, playing the eccentric Sidney Snell, to which he returned for a third series in 2009. In January 2010, he appeared with Phyllida Law on "Ready Steady Cook".


title: Tony Slattery

text: In March 2011, Slattery appeared in a reunion special of "Whose Line Is It Anyway?" along with David Walliams, Josie Lawrence, Clive Anderson, Humphrey Ker and Neil Mullarkey for the BBC Comic Relief show "24-Hour Panel People".


title: Tony Slattery

text: In May 2020 Slattery and partner Hutchinson were featured in an edition of the BBC "Horizon" series entitled "What's the Matter with Tony Slattery?", which examines a diagnosis of bipolar disorder with specialist Guy Goodwin. In the programme Slattery meets with consultant psychiatrist Ciaran Mulholland who suggests that Slattery continues to suffer from the effects of the trauma suffered in his childhood abuse. Goodwin concludes that Slattery should be judged to be on the bi-polar spectrum, but that his main challenge is his alcohol dependence. The programme ends positively with Slattery reducing his alcohol intake and being able to accept that he can take steps to improve his mental health.


title: Tony Slattery

text: In 1981 he teamed with Richard Vranch as a comedic duo calling themselves "Aftertaste". For a number of years they toured throughout Great Britain performing in small venues: theatres and clubs, most notably the Tunnel Club, King's Head Theatre in London and aboard the Thekla, then known as the "Old Profanity Showboat" in Bristol. Together they hosted the Channel 4 quiz "The Music Game" and over 100 episodes of "Cue the Music" on ITV.


title: Tony Slattery

text: Possessing a baritone voice, Slattery has appeared on London's West End stages in the musicals "Me and My Girl" and "Radio Times", as well as in the play "Neville's Island".


title: Tony Slattery

text: In 1994, Slattery became a founding patron of Leicester Comedy Festival alongside Norman Wisdom, appearing at the first festival in 1996 and again in 2020.


title: Tony Slattery

text: In May 2006 he was the first voice of the narrator in the 35th anniversary theatre production of Richard O'Brien's Rocky Horror Tribute Show, held at the Royal Court Theatre, just downstairs from the first ever showing of Rocky Horror.


title: Tony Slattery

text: On 20–22 and 24 July 2010, he appeared in Ki Longfellow-Stanshall and Vivian Stanshall's "Stinkfoot in Concert", once again performing aboard the "Thekla" still moored in Bristol docks.


title: Tony Slattery

text: In the mid-1990s, after leaving "Whose Line Is It Anyway?", Slattery suffered what he described as a "midlife crisis"; triggered by cocaine use and excessive drinking. Slattery says he does not remember how much he spent on cocaine but "would not be surprised" if media reports that he spent £4,000 per week on the drug were accurate.


title: Tony Slattery

text: In 1996 Slattery's crisis culminated with a six-month period as a recluse, during which he did not answer his door or telephone, "or open bills, or wash... I just sat." Eventually, one of his friends broke down the door of his flat and persuaded him to go to hospital. He was diagnosed with bipolar disorder. He discussed this period and his subsequent living with the disorder in a documentary made by Stephen Fry, "The Secret Life of the Manic Depressive", in 2006; Slattery claimed that he spent time living in a warehouse and "throwing [his] furniture into the Thames."


title: Tony Slattery

text: In May 1998 he was elected as Rector of the University of Dundee, however his poor attendance record with a single visit in a one-year period led to calls for his resignation from students. The official view was that it would not be worthwhile ousting him, because his term would end in February 2001.


title: Tony Slattery

text: He has said: "I'm happily described as gay," and has been in a relationship with the actor Mark Michael Hutchinson since 1986.


title: Tony Slattery

text: In March 2019 he held a Comedy Gala in Hoylake, Merseyside to raise money for a charity close to his heart, Bipolar UK. The night included sets from a variety of comedians.


title: W. C. Handy

text: William Christopher Handy (November 16, 1873 – March 28, 1958) was an American composer and musician who referred to himself as the Father of the Blues. Handy was one of the most influential songwriters in the United States. One of many musicians who played the distinctively American blues music, Handy did not create the blues genre but was the first to publish music in the blues form, thereby taking the blues from a regional music style (Delta blues) with a limited audience to a new level of popularity.


title: W. C. Handy

text: Handy was an educated musician who used elements of folk music in his compositions. He was scrupulous in documenting the sources of his works, which frequently combined stylistic influences from various performers.


title: W. C. Handy

text: Handy was born in Florence, Alabama, the son of Elizabeth Brewer and Charles Barnard Handy. His father was the pastor of a small church in Guntersville, a small town in northeast central Alabama. Handy wrote in his 1941 autobiography "Father of the Blues" that he was born in a log cabin built by his grandfather William Wise Handy, who became an African Methodist Episcopal minister after the Emancipation Proclamation. The log cabin of Handy's birth has been preserved near downtown Florence.


title: W. C. Handy

text: Handy's father believed that musical instruments were tools of the devil. Without his parents' permission, Handy bought his first guitar, which he had seen in a local shop window and secretly saved for by picking berries and nuts and making lye soap. Upon seeing the guitar, his father asked him, "What possessed you to bring a sinful thing like that into our Christian home?" and ordered him to "take it back where it came from", but he also arranged for his son to take organ lessons. The organ lessons did not last long, but Handy moved on to learn to play the cornet. He joined a local band as a teenager, but he kept this fact a secret from his parents. He purchased a cornet from a fellow band member and spent every free minute practicing it.


title: W. C. Handy

text: While growing up, he apprenticed in carpentry, shoemaking, and plastering. He was deeply religious. His musical style was influenced by the church music he sang and played in his youth and by the sounds of nature. He cited as inspiration the "whippoorwills, bats and hoot owls and their outlandish noises", Cypress Creek washing on the fringes of the woodland, and "the music of every songbird and all the symphonies of their unpremeditated art".


title: W. C. Handy

text: He worked on a "shovel brigade" at the McNabb furnace, where he learned to use his shovel to make music with the other workers to pass the time. The workers would beat their shovels against hard surfaces in complex rhythms that Handy said were "better to us than the music of a martial drum corps." Handy would later recall this improvisational spirit as being a formative experience for him, musically: "Southern Negroes sang about everything...They accompany themselves on anything from which they can extract a musical sound or rhythmical effect." He reflected, "In this way, and from these materials, they set the mood for what we now call Blues."


title: W. C. Handy

text: In September 1892, Handy traveled to Birmingham, Alabama, to take a teaching exam. He passed it easily and gained a teaching job at the Teachers Agriculture and Mechanical College (the current-day Alabama A&M University) in Normal, then an independent community near Huntsville. Learning that it paid poorly, he quit the position and found employment at a pipe works plant in nearby Bessemer.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In his time off from his job, he organized a small string orchestra and taught musicians how to read music. He later organized the Lauzetta Quartet. When the group read about the upcoming World's Fair in Chicago, they decided to attend. To pay their way, they performed odd jobs along the way. They arrived in Chicago and then learned that the World's Fair had been postponed for a year. Next they headed to St. Louis, Missouri, but found no work.


title: W. C. Handy

text: After the quartet disbanded, Handy went to Evansville, Indiana. He played the cornet in the Chicago World's Fair in 1893. In Evansville, he joined a successful band that performed throughout neighboring cities and states. His musical endeavors were varied: he sang first tenor in a minstrel show, worked as a band director, choral director, cornetist, and trumpeter. At the age of 23, he became the bandmaster of Mahara's Colored Minstrels.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In a three-year tour they traveled to Chicago, throughout Texas and Oklahoma to Tennessee, Georgia, and Florida, and on to Cuba, Mexico and Canada. Handy was paid a salary of $6 per week. Returning from Cuba the band traveled north through Alabama, where they stopped to perform in Huntsville. Weary of life on the road, he and his wife, Elizabeth, stayed with relatives in his nearby hometown of Florence.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In 1896, while performing at a barbecue in Henderson, Kentucky, Handy met Elizabeth Price. They married on July 19, 1896. She gave birth to Lucille, the first of their six children, on June 29, 1900, after they had settled in Florence.


title: W. C. Handy

text: Around that time, William Hooper Councill, the president of State Agricultural and Mechanical College for Negroes in Huntsville (which became Alabama A&M University), the same college Handy had refused to teach at in 1892 due to low pay, hired Handy to teach music. He became a faculty member in September 1900 and taught through much of 1902. He was disheartened to discover that the college emphasized teaching European music considered to be "classical". He felt he was underpaid and could make more money touring with a minstrel group.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In 1902, Handy traveled throughout Mississippi, listening to various styles of popular black music. The state was mostly rural and music was part of the culture, especially in cotton plantations in the Mississippi Delta. Musicians usually played guitar or banjo or, to a much lesser extent, piano. Handy's remarkable memory enabled him to recall and transcribe the music he heard in his travels.


title: W. C. Handy

text: After a dispute with AAMC President Councill, Handy resigned his teaching position to return to the Mahara Minstrels and tour the Midwest and Pacific Northwest. In 1903, he became the director of a black band organized by the Knights of Pythias in Clarksdale, Mississippi. Handy and his family lived there for six years. During this time, he had several formative experiences that he later recalled as influential in his developing musical style. In 1903, while waiting for a train in Tutwiler, Mississippi in the Mississippi Delta, Handy overheard a black man playing a steel guitar using a knife as a slide.


title: W. C. Handy

text: About 1905, while playing a dance in Cleveland, Mississippi, Handy was given a note asking for "our native music". He played an old-time Southern melody but was asked if a local colored band could play a few numbers. Handy assented, and three young men with well-worn instruments began to play. Research by Elliott Hurwitt for the Mississippi Blues Trail identified the leader of the band in Cleveland as Prince McCoy. In his autobiography, Handy described the music they played:


title: W. C. Handy

text: They struck up one of those over and over strains that seem to have no beginning and certainly no ending at all. The strumming attained a disturbing monotony, but on and on it went, a kind of stuff associated with [sugar] cane rows and levee camps. Thump-thump-thump went their feet on the floor. It was not really annoying or unpleasant. Perhaps "haunting" is the better word.


title: W. C. Handy

text: Handy also took influence from the square dances held by Mississippi blacks, which typically had music in the G major key. In particular, he picked the same key for his 1914 hit, "Saint Louis Blues".


title: W. C. Handy

text: In 1909 Handy and his band moved to Memphis, Tennessee, where they played in clubs on Beale Street. "The Memphis Blues" was a campaign song written for Edward Crump, the successful Democratic Memphis mayoral candidate in the 1909 election and political boss. The other candidates also employed Black musicians for their campaigns. Handy later rewrote the tune and changed its name from "Mr. Crump" to "Memphis Blues." The 1912 publication of the sheet music of "The Memphis Blues" introduced his style of 12-bar blues; it was credited as the inspiration for the foxtrot by Vernon and Irene Castle, a New York dance team. Handy sold the rights to the song for $100. By 1914, when he was 40, he had established his musical style, his popularity had greatly increased, and he was a prolific composer.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In his autobiography, Handy described how he incorporated elements of black folk music into his musical style. The basic three-chord harmonic structure of blues music and the use of flat third and seventh chords in songs played in the major key all originated in vernacular music created for and by impoverished southern blacks. Those notes are now referred to in jazz and blues as blue notes. His customary three-line lyrical structure came from a song he heard Phil Jones perform. Finding the structure too repetitive, he adapted it: "Consequently I adopted the style of making a statement, repeating the statement in the second line, and then telling in the third line why the statement was made." He also made sure to leave gaps in the lyrics for the singer to provide improvisational filler, which was common in folk blues.


title: W. C. Handy

text: The one-step and other dances had been done to the tempo of Memphis Blues. ... When St Louis Blues was written the tango was in vogue. I tricked the dancers by arranging a tango introduction, breaking abruptly into a low-down blues. My eyes swept the floor anxiously, then suddenly I saw lightning strike. The dancers seemed electrified. Something within them came suddenly to life. An instinct that wanted so much to live, to fling its arms to spread joy, took them by the heels.


title: W. C. Handy

text: His published musical works were groundbreaking because of his race. In 1912, he met Harry Pace at the Solvent Savings Bank in Memphis. Pace was the valedictorian of his graduating class at Atlanta University and a student of W. E. B. Du Bois. By the time of their meeting, Pace had demonstrated a strong understanding of business. He earned his reputation by saving failing businesses. Handy liked him, and Pace later became the manager of Pace and Handy Sheet Music.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In 1916, American composer William Grant Still, early in his career, worked in Memphis for W.C. Handy's band. In 1918, Still joined the United States Navy to serve in World War I. After the war, he went to Harlem, where he continued to work for Handy.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In 1917, Handy and his publishing business moved to New York City, where he had offices in the Gaiety Theatre office building in Times Square. By the end of that year, his most successful songs had been published: "Memphis Blues", "Beale Street Blues", and "Saint Louis Blues". That year, the Original Dixieland Jazz Band, a white New Orleans jazz ensemble, had recorded the first jazz record, introducing the style to a wide segment of the American public. Handy had little fondness for jazz, but bands dove into his repertoire with enthusiasm, making many of these songs jazz standards.


title: W. C. Handy

text: Handy encouraged performers such as Al Bernard, a soft-spoken white man who nonetheless was a powerful blues singer. He sent Bernard to Thomas Edison to be recorded, which resulted in a series of successful recordings. Handy also published music written by other writers, such as Bernard's "Shake Rattle and Roll" and "Saxophone Blues", and "Pickaninny Rose" and "O Saroo", two black traditional tunes contributed by a pair of white women from Selma, Alabama. Publication of these hits, along with Handy's blues songs, gave his business a reputation as a publisher of black music.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In 1919, Handy signed a contract with Victor Talking Machine Company for a third recording of his unsuccessful 1915 song "Yellow Dog Blues". The resulting Joe Smith recording of the song was a strong seller, with orders numbering in the hundreds of thousands of copies.


title: W. C. Handy

text: Handy tried to interest black singers in his music but was unsuccessful; many musicians chose to play only the current hits, and did not want to take risks with new music. According to Handy, he had better luck with white bandleaders, who "were on the alert for novelties. They were therefore the ones most ready to introduce our numbers." Handy also had little success selling his songs to black women singers, but in 1920, Perry Bradford convinced Mamie Smith to record two non-blues songs ("That Thing Called Love" and "You Can't Keep a Good Man Down") that were published by Handy and accompanied by a white band. When Bradford's "Crazy Blues" became a hit as recorded by Smith, black blues singers became popular. Handy's business began to decrease because of the competition.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In 1920, Pace amicably dissolved his partnership with Handy, with whom he also collaborated as lyricist. Pace formed Pace Phonograph Company and Black Swan Records, and many of the employees went with him. Handy continued to operate the publishing company as a family-owned business. He published works of other black composers as well as his own, which included more than 150 sacred compositions and folk song arrangements and about 60 blues compositions. In the 1920s, he founded the Handy Record Company in New York City; while this label released no records, Handy organized recording sessions with it, and some of those recordings were eventually released on Paramount Records and Black Swan Records. So successful was "Saint Louis Blues" that, in 1929, he and director Dudley Murphy collaborated on a RCA motion picture of the same name, which was to be shown before the main attraction. Handy suggested blues singer Bessie Smith for the starring role because the song had made her popular. The movie was filmed in June and was shown in movie houses throughout the United States from 1929 to 1932.


title: W. C. Handy

text: The importance of Handy's work as a musician and musicologist crossed the boundaries of genre, coming to influence European composers such as Maurice Ravel, who was inspired during a stay in Paris of Handy and his orchestra for the composition of the famous sonata nr 2 for violin and piano known not by chance as the Blues sonata.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In 1926 Handy wrote "Blues: An Anthology—Complete Words and Music of 53 Great Songs". It is an early attempt to record, analyze, and describe the blues as an integral part of the South and the history of the United States. To celebrate the publication of the book and to honor Handy, Small's Paradise in Harlem hosted a party, "Handy Night", on Tuesday October 5, which contained the best of jazz and blues selections provided by Adelaide Hall, Lottie Gee, Maude White, and Chic Collins.


title: W. C. Handy

text: In a 1938 radio episode of Ripley's "Believe It or Not!" Handy was described as "the father of jazz as well as the blues." Fellow blues performer Jelly Roll Morton wrote an open letter to "Downbeat" magazine fuming that he had invented jazz.


title: W. C. Handy

text: After the publication of his autobiography, Handy published a book on African-American musicians, titled "Unsung Americans Sung" (1944). He wrote three other books: "Blues: An Anthology: Complete Words and Music of 53 Great Songs", "Book of Negro Spirituals", and "Negro Authors and Composers of the United States". He lived on Strivers' Row in Harlem. He became blind after an accidental fall from a subway platform in 1943.


title: W. C. Handy

text: From 1943 until his death, he lived in Yonkers. After the death of his first wife, he remarried in 1954 when he was 80. His bride was his secretary Irma Louise Logan, who he frequently said had become his eyes. In 1955, he had a stroke, and he began to use a wheelchair. More than 800 people attended his 84th birthday party at the Waldorf-Astoria Hotel.


title: W. C. Handy

text: On March 28, 1958, Handy died of bronchial pneumonia at Sydenham Hospital in New York City Over 25,000 people attended his funeral in Harlem's Abyssinian Baptist Church. Over 150,000 people gathered in the streets near the church to pay their respects. He was buried in Woodlawn Cemetery in the Bronx.


title: W. C. Handy

text: Handy's music does not always follow the classic 12-bar pattern, often having 8- or 16-bar bridges between 12-bar verses.


title: Chuck Norris facts

text: Chuck Norris facts are satirical factoids about American martial artist and actor Chuck Norris that have become an Internet phenomenon widespread in popular culture. These 'facts' are absurd hyperbolic claims about Norris's toughness, attitude, sophistication, and masculinity.


title: Chuck Norris facts

text: Chuck Norris facts have spread internationally, making translations and spawning localized versions about country-specific advertisements and other Internet phenomena. Some facts allude to his use of roundhouse kicks for seemingly any task, his large amount of body hair with specific regard to his beard, and his role in the action television series "Walker, Texas Ranger".


title: Chuck Norris facts

text: Chuck Norris facts originally appeared on the Internet in early 2005. Initially distributed in the Something Awful forums, the "facts" centered on Vin Diesel, in response to his film "The Pacifier". After a few months, forum members chose Chuck Norris to be the new subject. Conan O'Brien's Chuck Norris jokes on "Late Night with Conan O'Brien" (which generally center on "Walker, Texas Ranger") have been seen as an inspiration for the fad. The exaggerated style of these claims is similar to a recurring "Saturday Night Live" sketch called "Bill Brasky". Due to the popularity of this phenomenon, similar jokes have been created for various other celebrities, as well as fictional characters.


title: Chuck Norris facts

text: Norris responded to the Chuck Norris facts on his official website with a statement. Admitting some of the statements were indeed humorous, he said he tries not to take any of them seriously, and he hopes that such statements will interest people in real facts about him contained in his literary works.