title: Andy Barclay

text: Andy is indirectly mentioned by Chucky during his "what's so great about being human anyway" speech by referencing his numerous victims and enemies.


title: Andy Barclay

text: Six months after Chucky attacked Nica, the adult Andy gets a package delivered, and brings it inside. Before opening it, he receives a phone call from his mother, Karen. As Andy talks about his birthday dinner at Karen's place, Chucky cuts his way out of the box. Ready to kill, Chucky turns around, only to see Andy pointing a shotgun directly at his face. When Chucky shockingly says Andy, Andy says to play with this to Chucky, and before Chucky can explain where Andy has been since Child's Play 3, Andy fires his shotgun through Chucky's head.


title: Andy Barclay

text: After the events of "Curse of Chucky", Andy now keeps Chucky's severed head to torture in retribution for his crimes. Tapes later reveal that Andy had tried to prove Nica Pierce's innocence by showing Chucky to her psychiatrist Dr. Foley, but it was dismissed as special effects. Learning that Chucky had managed to transfer his soul into multiple Good Guy dolls, Andy sends a Good Guy that he had shaved to the asylum and drives there. When he is unable to get in due to visiting hours being over, he commits himself by punching the security guard, being locked in a cell. When a Chucky doll he previously maimed arrives at his cell to kill him, Andy restrains the doll and rips a gun out of the doll's stomach. Andy shoots the short-haired Chucky three times and stomps its head in, killing it instantly. When Nica, now possessed by Chucky's soul, arrives at his cell, Andy attempts to shoot her but his gun jams. Chucky/Nica then locks Andy inside of his cell and escapes, but it is later implied that Andy had escaped the hospital to find and track down the remaining Chucky dolls with his foster sister Kyle after he sent her to his cabin to torture the still alive Chucky head from the first seven films.


title: Andy Barclay

text: After the events of the film "Cult of Chucky", in the premiere of "Chucky" the series, Andy calls Jake after he posts online finding a Good Guy Doll and he's selling it. Andy tells Jake if the doll's name is Chucky he is possessed and to check to see if he has batteries to believe him. Andy asks who is there implying someone is at his location and the phone goes dead.


title: Andy Barclay

text: In the sixth episode of the series, Andy and his foster sister, Kyle, are seen hunting down the remaining possessed Chucky dolls. After entering a family's home, Chucky reveals himself to Andy while holding a knife to a child's throat, Andy shoots Chucky in the head with his pistol and then continues to shoot him with Kyle by his side and he is finally dead.


title: Andy Barclay

text: Later in the same episode, Andy is contacted by Jake Wheeler and Devon Evans in hopes of help with defeating Chucky. Andy and Kyle pick up the phone, and ask Jake for his location and how many people he has told about the murderous doll.


title: Andy Barclay

text: In the seventh episode of the series, Andy had left his foster sister Kyle behind at a gas station for her own good and at the end of the episode, Andy rings the doorbell of Junior Wheeler's house with Chucky and his protege Junior (who just got through murdering his father) looking on from the window.


title: Andy Barclay

text: The season finale picks up directly after the ending of episode 7, with Junior letting Andy inside the house. Andy asks for Jake, under the guise of being a collector of Good Guy dolls whom Jake was going to sell Chucky to. After asking Junior if he knows where his father or Chucky could be (as he slyly investigates the house), Junior lies, claiming that his father must've left and took the doll with him. Seemingly convinced, Andy leaves the house. Later in the episode, Andy arrives at Charles Lee Ray's old house and rescues Devon, who had been held hostage by Chucky/Nica the previous night. Devon quickly warns Andy that Tiffany had rigged a bomb to go off at the front door as a death trap if anyone opens it and Andy takes caution. Kyle arrives at the house, calling out Andy's name. Chucky decides to use the generic Good Guy Doll voice to sound like a child crying for help in order to lure Kyle to the front door and trick her into opening it. Andy attempts to warn Kyle about the bomb but it appears to be too late, as the bomb destroys the house and presumably takes the lives of Andy, Devon, and Kyle. However, Andy is ultimately revealed to have survived the explosion, along with Devon, who'd originally believed Andy to be dead after he managed to escape. Andy had hidden out in the delivery truck carrying the boxes of Good Guy dolls (which Chucky had possessed at the end of episode 7) at the town's benefit screening of "Frankenstein". Andy knocks out the truck's driver, and takes the wheel. Before he drives off to apparently destroy the dolls, he shares a brief glance with Jake, Devon, and Lexy (who are standing outside of the theater after defeating the Chuckys inside), and gives them a thumbs up and a silent nod. As he makes his exit, he flips off an upset Tiffany and leaves Hackensack. The doll version of Tiffany suddenly appears and holds Andy at gunpoint and tells him to drive the truck to the airport so the Good Guy dolls can still be shipped out, however Andy foils this plan by driving the truck off a cliff.


title: Andy Barclay

text: He is not seen again until season 2, episode 5, where Lexy and Devon discover a cabin on the outskirts of the Incarnate Lord School while on a search for the source of the Chuckys in the school. In this cabin, they discover Andy, revealed to have survived the crash, held captive alongside Dr. Mixter and being tortured by The Colonel, a bald-headed Chucky that had also survived the crash. Lexy and Devon free Andy, and he returns to the school. He kills The Colonel but is disturbed to see another Chucky doll, named Good Chucky, who had seemingly undergone a redemption at the hands of Jake and Devon; Andy's suspicions are proven accurate when Chucky takes over Good Chucky's psyche and kills Lexy's roommate, Nadine. Andy reunites with Kyle, who had faked her death, and he assists the school's headmaster, Father Bryce, with performing an exorcism on Good Chucky to send Chucky to Hell. After Nica Pierce performs a voodoo ritual to transfer Chucky Prime - the Chucky who had possessed her over a year earlier - into Good Chucky's body, Dr. Mixter and Chucky Prime flee. Andy chases them down and kills Chucky Prime, but Dr. Mixter escapes. Andy and Kyle, now finally considering themselves free from Chucky, leave the school to an optimistic future.


title: Andy Barclay

text: Alex Vincent's performance as Andy has been praised for being "one of the best child performances in a horror movie" and for being able to create an "emotional connection" with the audience. From his first scene in the movie to his sobbing in the hospital room he is able to bring out emotions that seem far too real. The article went on to say:


title: Andy Barclay

text: Dustin Putman stated in a review that he was "always convincing as an endangered... son faced with an unthinkable terror." Another article went as far as to say Vincent's portrayal "was what made that series as much as Brad Dourif doing the voice of Chucky."


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry III (28 October 1016 – 5 October 1056), called the Black or the Pious, was Holy Roman Emperor from 1046 until his death in 1056. A member of the Salian dynasty, he was the eldest son of Conrad II and Gisela of Swabia.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry was raised by his father, who made him Duke of Bavaria in 1026, appointed him co-ruler in 1028 and bestowed him with the duchy of Swabia and the Kingdom of Burgundy ten years later in 1038. The emperor's death the following year ended a remarkably smooth and harmonious transition process towards Henry's sovereign rule, that was rather uncharacteristic for the Ottonian and Salian monarchs. Henry succeeded Conrad II as Duke of Carinthia and King of Italy and continued to pursue his father's political course on the basis of "virtus et probitas" (courage and honesty), which led to an unprecedented sacral exaltation of the kingship. In 1046 Henry ended the papal schism, was crowned Emperor by Pope Clement II, freed the Vatican from dependence on the Roman nobility and laid the foundation for its empire-wide authority. In the duchies, Henry enforced the sovereign royal right of disposition, thereby ensuring tighter control. In Lorraine, this led to years of conflict from which he emerged victorious. Another sphere of defiance formed in southern Germany from 1052 to 1055. Henry III died aged only 39. Modern historians, however, identify the final years of his reign as the beginning of a crisis in the Salian monarchy.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Born on 28 October 1016, or 1017, Henry was the son of Conrad of Worms and Gisela of Swabia. Conrad was a Franconian aristocrat who held domains along the river Rhine when his son was born. He was related to the imperial Ottonian dynasty through his great-grandmother, Liutgard—a daughter of the Holy Roman Emperor, Otto I. Conrad may have fathered a son before his marriage to Gisela, because a royal charter referred to his sons in 1024, but its reliability is dubious. Henry was always mentioned as his father's sole son in charters issued after February 1028. Gisela, who was descended from Charlemagne, had a strong claim both to Swabia and to Burgundy. Conrad was Gisela's third husband and she had given birth to three sons and possibly a daughter during her previous two marriages. Conrad was illiterate, but Gisela was solicitous to their son's education and Henry learnt to read.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: The last Ottonian monarch, Henry II, died on 13 July 1024. The German aristocrats who assembled at Kamba to elect his successor proclaimed Conrad of Worms king on 4 September. Conrad's opponent formed a coalition that included his stepson, Ernest II, Duke of Swabia. They took up arms against the King in the second half of 1025, but he forced most of them into submission before the end of the year. Ernest asked his mother Gisela to mediate a reconciliation and she convinced the eight-year-old Henry also to intervene on Ernest's behalf in early 1026. Ernest had to promise to provide military assistance to Conrad to achieve a pardon.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Conrad designated Henry as his heir in Augsburg in February 1027. A year later, before departing for his first Italian campaign, Conrad charged Bruno, Bishop of Augsburg, with Henry's guardianship. Historian Stefan Weinfurter states that Bruno, who was Emperor Henry II's brother, was "particularly well-suited to impart regal concepts and imperial traditions" to his ward. Bruno accompanied Henry to Rome where they attended Conrad's imperial coronation on Easter 1027.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Emperor Conrad II was determined to strengthen royal authority in Germany. Ignoring the claim of Emeric, the son of King Stephen I of Hungary, to Bavaria, Conrad persuaded the Bavarian aristocrats to acknowledge Henry as their duke in Regensburg on 24 July 1027. Henry's appointment to the duchy was unprecedented—Bavaria had never been ruled by a ten-year-old duke. In autumn 1027, the Emperor sent Bishop Werner of Strasbourg to Constantinople to win a bride from the Byzantine imperial family for Henry, but Werner's sudden death put an end to the negotiations with Emperor Constantine VIII.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: At Conrad's initiative, the "clergy and the people" elected Henry his co-ruler and Pilgrim, Archbishop of Cologne, crowned Henry king in Aachen on Easter 1028. Henry was thereafter named the ""hope of the empire"" on his father's seals in accordance with Byzantine customs. Conrad sent another embassy to Constantinople. Constantine VIII's successor, Emperor Romanos III Argyros, proposed the hand of one of his sisters to Henry, but Conrad's envoy, Count Manegold of Donauwörth, refused the offer since she was already married.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Bishop Bruno of Augsburg died on 6 April 1029 and Conrad appointed Egilbert, Bishop of Freising, as Henry's new tutor. Bavaria made raids into Hungary and provoked a Hungarian counter-attack. Conrad assembled Bavarian, Lorrainian and Bohemian troops and invaded Hungary in June 1030. Insufficient supplies forced him to return and the Hungarians attacked and beat his army at Vienna. Conrad left Bavaria, assigning the task to deal with the Hungarians to the twelve-year-old Henry. Egilbert of Freising started negotiations with Stephen I of Hungary on Henry's behalf. Egilbert agreed to cede lands along the frontier to the Hungarians in return for the release of their prisoners. Henry accepted the terms and signed the peace treaty during a meeting with Stephen I in Hungary in early 1031.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Egilbert's mentorship lasted until Henry's accolade in late June or early July in 1033. Egilbert received generous grants for his services on 19 July.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Upon Rudolph III of Burgundy's death Conrad II claimed the title to the Burgundian succession and marched his army to Burgundy during the winter of 1032/1033. In two large-scale military summer campaigns in 1033 and 1034, Conrad defeated his rival Odo II, Count of Blois. On 1 August 1034, Conrad II officially incorporated the Kingdom of Burgundy into the Holy Roman Empire at a ceremony held in the Cathedral of Geneva.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry and Gunhilda of Denmark, the daughter of Emma of Normandy and Canute the Great, King of Denmark, England and Norway, were engaged on 18 May 1035. On the same occasion Conrad declared war on the Liutizi, a pagan Slavic tribe and deposed his brother-in-law, Adalbero, Duke of Carinthia. Conrad entrusted Canute with Southern Jutland upon their children's marriage, which took place in Nijmegen during the 1036 feast of Pentecost.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1038, Henry was called to aid his father in Italy. On their return trip along the Adriatic coast Gunhilda died from an epidemic that apparently had also caused the death of Herman IV of Swabia near Naples. In 1039, Emperor Conrad II also died, and Henry succeeded him as king and "imperator in spe".


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry inaugurated his reign with a tour through his domains. In the Low Countries he received homage of Gothelo I, Duke of Upper and Lower Lorraine, and in Cologne, he was joined by Herman II, Archbishop of Cologne, who accompanied him and his mother to Saxony, where he established the town of Goslar as a future imperial residence. Heading an army he entered Thuringia where he met Eckard II, Margrave of Meissen, whose advice and counsel he sought with regard to the recent successes of Duke Bretislav I of Bohemia in Poland.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In Bohemia only a delegation that offered hostages appeased Henry and he disbanded his army and continued his tour. He visited Bavaria, when, upon his departure, King Peter Orseolo of Hungary sent raiding parties into Swabia. At Ulm, Henry convened a diet and received acknowledgement from the present Italian princes.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry returned to Ingelheim where he was recognized by a Burgundian embassy and by Aribert, Archbishop of Milan, whom he had supported against his father. Henry's consensus with Aribert was an attempt to solve the old interior imperial conflict with Conrad. When Adalbero I of Eppenstein was deposed by Conrad, Henry also inherited the Duchy of Carinthia, by which he became triple-duke (Bavaria, Swabia and Carinthia) on top of being triple-king of Germany, Burgundy and Italy.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry led his first military campaign as sovereign in 1040 into Bohemia, where Bretislav I intended to establish a separate archbishopric. After having attended the reform sessions of a number of monasteries, Henry summoned his army at Stablo. In July he joined with contingents at Goslar and deployed his entire army at Regensburg. He set out on 13 August and was soon ambushed in the passes of the Bohemian Forest and forced to retreat with heavy losses at the Battle at Brůdek. Only after the release of a large number of Bohemian hostages, including Bretislav's son, did Henry procure the release of his prisoners. Upon conclusion of the peace, Henry retreated hastily. On his return to Germany, he appointed Suidger—the future Pope Clement II—as bishop of Bamberg.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1040, Peter of Hungary was overthrown by Samuel Aba and fled to Germany, where Henry welcomed him despite their former enmity. Bretislav was now deprived of his former ally, upon which Henry prepared another campaign into Bohemia. On 15 August, almost exactly one year after his last expedition he set out once more, was victorious and signed a peace treaty with Bretislav at Regensburg.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry spent Christmas 1041 at Strasbourg, and received emissaries from the Duchy of Burgundy, where he travelled during the new year to settle administrative and judicial matters. On the road near Basel he learnt of Hungarian raids into Bavaria and bestowed the duchy to a certain Henry VII, a relative of the last independent duke. At Cologne, Henry summoned the royal princes, who unanimously declared war on Hungary. After he had sent a wedding delegation to Agnes of Poitou he set out in September 1042 and successfully subdued the western territories of Hungary. Aba fled to his eastern estates, as Henry installed a cousin as steward, who was, however, quickly removed after the emperor had left.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: After Christmas at his chosen imperial residence, Goslar, he received foreign guests. Duke Bretislav appeared in person, a Kievan marriage embassy was dismissed and the ambassadors of Casimir I of Poland were rejected as the duke did not show up in person. Henry left for the French border near Ivois, in order to meet King Henry I of France, most likely to discuss the impending marriage to the princess of Aquitaine. Henry next returned to Hungary and forced Aba to recognize the Danubian territories, a former donation of Stephen I of Hungary, "pro causa amicitiae" (for friendship's sake). These territories had been ceded to Hungary after Conrad II's defeat of 1030. This border remained in place between Hungary and Austria until 1920.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Gisela, Henry's mother, died in March 1043. She was solemnly buried in Speyer. The king appeared barefoot, in tears, and penitent robe at the funeral, his arms crossed, threw himself on the ground in front of the crowd and moved everyone to tears. With Henry's emulation of Christian humble self-denial, he intended prove his ability to hold pious kingship. Historians have referred since to the period of the ""Christomimetic royalty"". Henry promoted Speyer far more than his father Conrad. Shortly before leaving for Italy, he endowed the church with a magnificently illustrated gospel book, called the "Codex Aureus Escorialensis", also known as the Speyer Gospel. The Dome of Speyer was gradually extended during the following years and a large burial sector was created for future rulers and royal continuity.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In October 1043, Henry, displaying deep personal piety, announced from the pulpit of the Konstanz Minster that the Peace and Truce of God be respected all over his realms on that very day. This day was to be remembered as the ""Day of Indulgence"" or ""Day of Pardon"". He, Henry, granted universal indulgence and pardon while in turn promised himself to forgive all injuries suffered, pains endured and to refrain from all acts of vengeance and he encouraged all his imperial subjects to do likewise.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1043 Henry married Agnes of Poitou, the daughter of Duke William V of Aquitaine and Agnes of Burgundy. She resided at the court of her stepfather, Geoffrey Martel, Count of Anjou. The association with this boisterous vassal of the king of France and her consanguinity with Henry (both were descendants of Henry the Fowler) stirred up some consternation among many clerics, who opposed their union. The marriage, however, took place anyway and Agnes was crowned queen at Mainz.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry spent the winter at Utrecht, where he again announced an indulgence. In April 1044, Gothelo, Duke of Lower and Upper Lorraine died. Henry opposed the political particularism of the dukes. In order to diminish their power he appointed the younger son Gothelo II as duke of the Lower duchy instead of Godfrey, Gothelo I's eldest son who had already been installed as duke of Upper Lorraine. Henry claimed that Gothelo I's deathbed wish was to bequeath both sons with a share of the estate. Godfrey, who had been a faithful servant of Henry, eventually rose in rebellion. Henry attempted to reconcile the brothers at Nijmegen but failed. However, Henry considered the ducal fief to be a royal office and insisted on his prerogative when he appointed dignitaries at his discretion.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: On 6 July 1044 Henry, accompanied by Peter Orseolo, entered Hungary at the head of a moderately sized force, which engaged Samuel Aba's sizeable army. Discord among the Magyar forces prevented cohesive manoeuvres and their troops quickly dispersed upon Henry's onslaught. At Székesfehérvár Peter regained his fief as King of Hungary. Aba was eventually captured by Peter and beheaded. Henry implemented regular Imperial administration in Hungary.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Upon his return from the Hungarian expedition, Godfrey of Upper Lorraine established new alliances, including with Henry of France, who might support him in a likely future insurrection. The emperor reacted promptly and summoned Godfrey to Aachen. He was convicted and lost the duchy of Upper Lorraine and his fief of the county of Verdun. Godfrey fled and took up arms in revolt. Henry wintered at Speyer and prepared for the Lorraine campaign of 1045.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In early 1045, Henry entered Lorraine at the head of an army, and besieged and conquered Godfrey's castle of Böckelheim (near Kreuznach). After he had taken a number of castles, lack of supplies forced him to leave. He garrisoned the ducal castles and cities to prevent any incursions by Godfrey and left for Burgundy. Godfrey had stirred up rebellions in Burgundy by creating conflicts between the imperialist faction and the domestic royal faction, which supported an independent Burgundy. Louis, Count of Montbéliard, challenged and defeated Reginald I, Count of Burgundy. When Henry arrived, Reginald and Gerold, Count of Geneva, paid homage and Burgundy was subsequently incorporated into the empire.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry settled political issues with the Lombard magnates at Augsburg. In Goslar he invested Otto with the duchy of Swabia, the count palatine, Henry I with the Duchy of Lorraine and Baldwin with the Margraviate of Antwerp. During the preparations of the jaunt to Hungary where Henry had intended to spend Pentecost with King Peter, a wooden floor collapsed in a residence where Bruno, Bishop of Würzburg was killed. In Hungary, Peter presented Henry with the "Golden Lance" and pledged an oath of fealty among his nobles. The crown of Hungary was bestowed on Peter in perpetuity and the kingdoms of Germany and Hungary were at peace. In July, Godfrey surrendered and was imprisoned at Giebichenstein.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry fell ill at Tribur in October, so Henry of Bavaria and Otto of Swabia chose Otto's nephew and successor as count palatine, Henry I of Lorraine as Henry III's successor. However, Henry III recovered, but remained without an heir. In early 1046, Henry's old advisor, Eckard of Meissen, died, leaving Meissen to Henry. He bestowed it on William, count of Orlamünde.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry then moved to Lower Lorraine, where Gothelo II had just died and Dirk IV of Holland had seized Flushing. Henry personally led a campaign against Count Dirk and recovered Flushing. He gave it to Bernold, Bishop of Utrecht, and returned to Aachen to celebrate Pentecost and to decide on the fate of Lorraine. Henry restored Godfrey, but transferred the county of Verdun to the bishop of the city, which angered the duke. Henry bestowed the lower duchy to Frederick, Duke of Lower Lorraine and appointed Adalbert, archbishop of Bremen.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: The right of a German court to try an Italian bishop was considered very controversial. The problem culminated in the Investiture Controversy that overshadowed the reigns of Henry's son and grandson. Henry moved on to Saxony and held imperial courts at Quedlinburg, Merseburg (in June) and Meissen, where he appointed his daughter Beatrice abbess and ended the strife between Siemomysł, Duke of Pomerania and Casimir of Poland.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry summoned the senior princes of the empire and departed to Italy. His ally, Aribert of Milan, had recently died and the Milanese citizens had chosen Guido to succeed him. In Rome, the three popes Benedict IX, Sylvester III and Gregory VI contested the pontifical honours.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Benedict was a Tusculan who had previously renounced the throne, Sylvester a Crescentian, and Gregory was a reformer (simoniac). Henry marched to Verona and Pavia, where he held court and dispensed justice. He moved on to Sutri and held a second court on 20 December 1046 where he deposed all three papal candidates. In Rome he held a synod, declared all Roman priests unfit for office and as Adalbert of Bremen refused the honour, Henry appointed Suidger of Bamberg, who was acclaimed by the people and clergy. He adopted the name Clement II.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: On Christmas Day 1046, Clement was consecrated, and Henry and Agnes crowned emperor and empress. The Roman citizenry awarded Henry the "Golden Chain of the Patriciate" and elevated him to "patricius". Henry visited Frascati, the capital of the counts of Tusculum and seized all castles of the Crescentii family. Joined by the pope, he ventured to southern Italy and reverted most of his father's policies.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: At Capua, Henry was received by Prince Guaimar IV of Salerno and Capua. However, Henry returned Capua to the twice-deprived Prince Pandulf IV, a highly unpopular choice. Guaimar had been acclaimed as Duke of Apulia and Calabria by the Norman mercenaries under William Iron Arm and his brother Drogo of Hauteville.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In return, Guaimar had recognized the conquests of the Normans and invested William as his vassal with the comital title. Henry made Drogo, William's successor in Apulia, a direct vassal of the imperial crown. He did likewise to Ranulf Drengot, the count of Aversa, who had been a vassal of Guaimar as Prince of Capua. Thus, Guaimar was deprived of his greatest vassals, his principality split in two, and his greatest enemy reinstated. These decisions made Henry unpopular among the Lombards, and Benevento, although a papal vassal, would not approve of him. The Italian circuit was completed when he arrived at Verona in May 1047.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Upon his return to Germany, Henry assigned the offices that had been left vacant. He transferred his last personal duchy, Carinthia, to Welf, made his Italian chancellor Hunfried Bishop of Ravenna, appointed to several other sees, installing Guido in Piacenza, his chaplain Theodoric in Verdun, the provost Herman of Speyer in Strasbourg and his German chancellor Theodoric in Constance. The important Lorrainian bishoprics of Metz and Trier received, respectively, Adalbero and Eberhard, a chaplain.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry was at Metz in July 1047 when Godfrey once again rose in rebellion. Godfrey was now allied with Baldwin of Flanders, his son (the margrave of Antwerp), Dirk of Holland, and Herman, Count of Hainaut. Henry gathered an army and went north, where he gave Adalbert of Bremen Godfrey's former lands and oversaw the trial by combat of Thietmar, the brother of Bernard II, Duke of Saxony, accused of plotting to kill the king. Bernard, an enemy of Adalbert, was now clearly on Henry's bad side. Henry made peace with the new king of Hungary, Andrew I, and moved into the Netherlands. At Flushing, he was defeated by Dirk. The Hollanders sacked Charlemagne's palace at Nijmegen and burnt Verdun. Godfrey then performed a public penance and assisted in the reconstruction of Verdun.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: The rebels besieged Liège, which was stoutly defended by Bishop Wazo. Henry gave Upper Lorraine to one Adalbert and left. The pope had died in the meantime and Henry chose Poppo of Brixen to succeed him, who adopted the name Damasus II. Henry gave Bavaria to one Cuno and, at Ulm in January 1048, Swabia to Otto of Schweinfurt, called "the White". Henry met Henry of France again, probably at Ivois in October and at Christmas, envoys from Rome came to seek a new pope, Damasus having died. Henry's most enduring papal selection was Bruno of Toul, who took office as Leo IX, under whom the Church would be divided between East and West. Henry's final appointment of this long spate was a successor to Adalbert in Lorraine. For this, he appointed Gerard of Chatenoy, a relative of Adalbert and Henry himself.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: 1049 proved to be a successful year. Dirk of Holland was defeated and killed. Adalbert of Bremen managed a peace with Bernard of Saxony and negotiated a treaty with the missionary monarch Sweyn II of Denmark. With the assistance of Sweyn and Edward the Confessor of England, whose enemies Baldwin had harboured, Baldwin of Flanders was harassed by sea and unable to escape the onslaught of the imperial army. At Cologne, the pope excommunicated Godfrey and Baldwin. The former abandoned his allies and was imprisoned by the emperor again. Baldwin also gave in under Henry's pressure. Finally, the war had ended in the Low Countries and Lorraine.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1051, Henry undertook a third Hungarian campaign but suffered a major defeat. His troops fled the battlefield over a range of hills still called "Vértes" ("Armoured") because discarded armour has been found there for centuries. In Lower Lorraine, Lambert, Count of Louvain; and Richildis, widow of Herman of Mons and new bride of Baldwin of Antwerp, caused trouble. Godfrey was released and given Lower Lorraine, to safeguard the unstable peace attained two years before.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1052, Henry undertook a fourth campaign against Hungary, and besieged Pressburg without success, as the Hungarians sank his supply ships on the Danube river. Henry was unable to continue his campaign and in fact never tried again. Henry did send a Swabian army to assist Leo in Italy, but he recalled it quickly. At Christmas 1052, Cuno of Bavaria was summoned to Merseburg and deposed by a small council of princes for his conflict with Gebhard III, Bishop of Regensburg. Cuno revolted.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: On 26 June 1053, at Tribur, the young Henry, born 11 November 1050, was elected king of Germany. Andrew of Hungary almost made peace, but Cuno convinced him otherwise. Henry appointed his young son duke of Bavaria and went to deal with the ongoing insurrection. Henry sent another army to assist Leo in the Mezzogiorno against the Normans he himself had confirmed in their conquests as his vassal. Leo, without assistance from Guaimar (distanced from Henry since 1047), was defeated at the Battle of Civitate on 18 June 1053 by Humphrey, Count of Apulia; Robert Guiscard, his younger brother; and Prince Richard I of Capua. The Swabians were cut to pieces.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1054, Henry traveled north to deal with the bellicose Casimir of Poland. He transferred Silesia from Bretislav to Casimir. Bretislaus nevertheless remained loyal to the end. Henry turned westwards and crowned his young son at Aachen on 17 July and then marched into Flanders, as the two Baldwins had rebelled again. John of Arras, who had seized Cambrai before, had been forced out by Baldwin of Flanders and so turned to the Emperor. In return for inducing Liutpert, Bishop of Cambrai, to give John the castle, John would lead Henry through Flanders. The Flemish campaign was a success, but Liutpert could not be convinced.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Bretislav, who had regained Silesia in a short war, died in 1054. The margrave of Austria, Adalbert, however, successfully resisted the depredations of Cuno and the raids of the king of Hungary. Henry could thus direct his attention elsewhere than rebellions for once. He returned to Goslar, the city where his son had been born and which he had raised to imperial and ecclesiastic grandeur with his palace and church reforms. He passed Christmas there and appointed Gebhard of Eichstedt as the next holder of the Petrine see, with the name Victor II. He was the last of Henry's four German popes.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: In 1055, Henry turned south, to Italy again, for Boniface III of Tuscany, ever an imperial ally, had died, and his widow, Beatrice of Bar, had married Godfrey of Lorraine (1054). First, however, he gave his old hostage, Spitignev, the son of Bretislaus, to the Bohemians as duke. Spitignev did homage and Bohemia remained securely, loyally, and happily within the Imperial fold. By Easter, Henry had arrived in Mantua. He held several courts, one at Roncaglia—where, a century later (1158), Frederick Barbarossa held a far more important diet—and sent out his "missi dominici" to establish order. Godfrey, ostensibly the reason for the visit, was not well received by the people and returned to Flanders. Henry met the pope at Florence and arrested Beatrice, for marrying a traitor, and her daughter Matilda, later to be such an enemy of Henry's son. The young Frederick of Tuscany, son of Beatrice, refused to come to Florence and died within days.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry returned and at Christmas 1055 he arranged the subsequent marriage of his successor. In Zürich, the heir to the throne, Henry IV, was engaged to Bertha of Turin of the House of Savoy.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Henry entered a Germany in turmoil. A staunch ally against Cuno in Bavaria, Gebhard of Regensburg, was implicated in a plot against the king along with Cuno and Welf of Carinthia. Sources diverge here: some claim only that the retainers of the princes plotted the undoing of the king. Whatever the case, it all came to naught, and Cuno died of plague, with Welf soon following him to the grave. Baldwin of Flanders and Godfrey were at it again, besieging Antwerp, and they were defeated again. Henry's reign was clearly changing in character: old foes were dead or dying and old friends as well.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: Herman of Cologne died. Henry appointed his confessor, Anno, as Herman's successor. Henry of France, so long eyeing Lorraine greedily, met for a third time with the emperor at Ivois in May 1056. The French king, not renowned for his tactical or strategic prowess, but admirable for his personal valour on the field, had a heated debate with the German king and challenged him to single combat. Henry fled at night from this meeting. Once in Germany again, Godfrey made his final peace, and Henry went to the northeast to deal with a Slav uprising after the death of William of Meissen. He fell ill on the way and took to bed. He freed Beatrice and Matilda and had those with him swear allegiance to the young Henry, whom he commended the pope, present.


title: Henry III, Holy Roman Emperor

text: On 5 October, not yet forty, Henry died at Bodfeld, the imperial hunting lodge in the Harz mountains. His heart was transferred to Goslar and his body to Speyer, to rest next to his father's in the family vault of the cathedral of Speyer. Henry had been one of the most powerful of the Holy Roman Emperors. His authority as king in Burgundy, Germany and Italy was only rarely questioned, his power over the church was at the root of what the reformers he sponsored later fought against in his son, and his achievement in binding to the empire her tributaries was clear. Nevertheless, his reign is often pronounced a failure in that he apparently left problems far beyond the capacities of his successors to handle. The Investiture Controversy was largely the result of his church politics, though his popemaking gave the Roman diocese to the reform party. He united all the great duchies save Saxony to himself at one point or another but gave them all away. His most enduring and concrete monument may be the impressive palace ("kaiserpfalz") at Goslar.


title: Nutri-Score

text: The Nutri-Score, also known as the 5-Colour Nutrition label or 5-CNL, is a five-colour nutrition label and nutritional rating system, and an attempt to simplify the nutritional rating system demonstrating the overall nutritional value of food products. It assigns products a rating letter from A (best) to E (worst), with associated colors from green to red.


title: Nutri-Score

text: This system was selected by the French government in March 2017 to be displayed on food products after it was compared against several labels proposed by industry or retailers. The system relies on the computation of a nutrient profiling system derived from the United Kingdom Food Standards Agency nutrient profiling system (FSA score). It was created by Santé Publique France, the French public health agency, based on the work of Serge Hercberg from Sorbonne Paris North University. Other bodies involved in the development of the system included the Agency for Food, Environmental and Occupational Health and Safety (ANSES) and the High Council for Public Health (HCSP).


title: Nutri-Score

text: The system has been recommended by other European Union countries as well as the European Commission and the World Health Organization.


title: Nutri-Score

text: Due to the system's methodology, its implementation for general use is controversial in some EU countries.


title: Nutri-Score

text: The calculation process is based on a concept proposed in 2005 by Professor Mike Rayner and consists of three steps. In the first step, the nutritional score of the food product is assessed. The next step is the determination of Rayner's score, calculated in the same way for all food products, with the exception of cheese, vegetable and animal fats and oils, and drinks. The two scores are then used to classify the food product on the five-level Nutri-Score scale.


title: Nutri-Score

text: On the basis of its calculation algorithm, the system awards 0 to 10 points for energy value and ingredients that should be limited in the diet, i.e.: saturated fatty acids, sugar and salt; and 0 to 5 points for beneficial ingredients whose consumption should be promoted. These are: fiber, protein, fruits, vegetables, legumes, nuts, and rapeseed oil. To determine the value of the label of a given product, i.e. the letter A, B, C, D or E, the sum of points awarded for the beneficial ingredients must be subtracted from the sum of points awarded for the unwelcome ingredients. The product is classified in one of five value classes (A to E) based on the final score, which may vary from -15 to +40. The lower the score, the better the nutritional value of the product.


title: Nutri-Score

text: A Nutri-Score for a particular food item is given in one of five classification letters, with 'A' being a preferable score and 'E' being a detrimental score. The calculation of the score involves seven different parameters of nutrient information per 100g of food which are usually available on food packagings.


title: Nutri-Score

text: High content of fruits and vegetables, fibers, protein and healthy oils (rapeseed, walnut and olive oils, rule added in 2019) promote a preferable score, while high content of energy, sugar, saturated fatty acids, and sodium promote a detrimental score. In addition to the general calculation rules applied to most types of food, there are special rules for cheese, for “added fats” (fats that are meant as ingredients, such as vegetable oils or butter), and for beverages. For these categories, the score is calculated in a slightly different way. More specifically, in the classic calculation model, the protein content is taken into account or not - depending on the total score calculated for the negative ingredients. For cheese, the protein content is taken into account at all times, irrespective of the total detrimental score. As far as fats are concerned, the ratio of saturated fatty acids to total fat content is taken into account. The algorithm is indifferent to the degree of food processing or such ingredients as vitamins, bioactive substances (antioxidants etc.), fiber type, or food additives.


title: Nutri-Score

text: While Nutri-Score is not used with foods not covered by the mandatory nutrition declaration (listed in Annex V of EP and Council Regulation (EU) No 1169/2011), it is important to note that the system's methodology actually devalues those foods.


title: Nutri-Score

text: In 2022, the update report from the Scientific Committee of the Nutri-Score recommends the following changes for the algorithm:


title: Nutri-Score

text: The key assumption behind the system is that the Nutri-Score colour label is always displayed on the front of packaging. Its goal is to allow consumers to compare the overall nutritional value of food products from the same group (category), including food products from different manufacturers. The underlying intention was to help consumers quickly make an informed choice from among similarly packaged products by differentiating those that should be consumed in greater quantities from those that should be consumed in moderation (in smaller quantities or less often).


title: Nutri-Score

text: EU laws do not allow countries to unilaterally impose their own food labelling system, therefore they can only give recommendations.


title: Nutri-Score

text: Currently, the Nutri-Score system is applied on a voluntary basis in European Union countries such as:


title: Nutri-Score

text: The Nutri-Score system was adopted for voluntary use and first implemented in France in 2017. Its implementation is supervised by the French Agency for Public Health (Santé Publique France), a body reporting to the French Ministry of Health. In recent years, other countries have also decided to formally accept the system for voluntary use in their domestic markets: Belgium (2018), Switzerland (2019), Germany (2020), Luxembourg (2020) and the Netherlands (2021).


title: Nutri-Score

text: In Portugal, Slovenia and Austria, some food companies such as Nestlé, Auchan or Danone announced that they would use the Nutri-Score although it was not officially recommended by the authorities.


title: Nutri-Score

text: Opposition to Nutri-Score is coming from a coalition of countries including Italy, the Czech Republic, Cyprus, Greece, Hungary, Latvia, and Romania. The Italian government has proposed a competing food label system. Southern EU countries say Nutri-score puts the traditional Mediterranean diet at a disadvantage.


title: Nutri-Score

text: The score is also used by Open Food Facts to allow people to compare the nutritional value of products.


title: Nutri-Score

text: The EU administration works towards the introduction of a common and compulsory front-of-pack nutrition labelling system, and the Nutri-Score system is one of the analyzed solutions.


title: Nutri-Score

text: In their studies, the European Commission and the World Health Organisation point to the need for a transparent, simple and intuitive food labelling system. However, they do not specify which particular food labelling system they recommend. The European Commission believes that front-of-pack nutrition labelling systems can help consumers make informed dietary choices and it seems appropriate to introduce harmonised mandatory front-of-pack nutrition labelling at the EU level. By the end of 2022, the European Commission intends to launch EU-wide public consultation on an EU harmonised and mandatory front-of-pack nutrition labelling. Also WHO is not in a position to recommend any specific labelling scheme. WHO encourages countries and research institutions to further analyze information and collect data to better understand the impact of different front-of-pack labelling systems on consumer behaviour and dietary choices.


title: Nutri-Score

text: Due to the system's controversial methodology and calculation algorithm and incompatibility with the EU Farm to Fork Strategy, the need for a more comprehensive labelling system has been reported.


title: Nutri-Score

text: Prior to the adoption of Nutri-Score in France, a 10-week study was conducted in September 2016, covering 60 supermarkets in 4 French regions. The aim of the study was to compare the efficiency of: Nutri-Score, Nutrimark HSR, UK's Multiple Traffic Light (MTL), SENS, Nutri-Reperes. The algorithms used to calculate the Nutri-Score and SENS scores were validated by ANSES. The study confirmed that Nutri-Score product labelling is the most efficient in promoting healthy dietary choices, particularly among lower income consumers. In addition to the positive findings on the usefulness of Nutri-Score, evidence is also available to demonstrate the usefulness of other food labelling systems. In a large international study covering 12 countries from different parts of the world (a study group of over 12,000 consumers from Bulgaria, Canada, Denmark, France, Germany, Mexico, Singapore, Spain, the UK and the USA) looking at five different traffic light systems, the Multiple Traffic Lights (MTL) system received the highest score. The respondents were asked to rate randomly selected systems in terms of: likeability, trust, understandability, relevance, and obligatory use. Research on improvements in consumer dietary choices owed to the influence of different front-of-pack labelling systems has shown that the efficiency of the MTL and Nutri-Score is similar. Conversely, a study of Italian consumers (a group of 1000+ respondents) showed that none of the five labelling systems tested, including Nutri-Score, was significantly better at changing their food choices, though Nutri-Score led to the correct rankings more often than other systems.


title: Nutri-Score

text: Most food rating systems lack scientific support from studies in real supermarkets. One meta-analysis concluded that "findings on the efficacy of front-of-pack nutrition labels in ‘nudging’ consumers toward healthier food purchases remain mixed and inconclusive". In this meta-analysis Nutri-Score was not taken into account, because no real supermarket study existed. In December 2021 the only study of the efficacy of Nutri-Score in a supermarket was published. In this study the Nutri-Score was printed on electronic shelve labels and not on the products in a colour-code. The authors concluded that "the impact of ESL (Electronic Shelf-edge Labeling) on consumer purchases was mixed...Shelf labeling on its own is unlikely to significantly influence consumer behaviours." Thus far, no study of the application of the effect of the application of a full-coloured Nutri-Score on food labels in a whole supermarket assortment exists, so the efficacy of Nutri-Score in a realistic supermarket setting is unknown.


title: Nutri-Score

text: Researchers from Gottingen University found that the use of Nutri-Score could prevent products from appearing healthier than they really are.


title: Nutri-Score

text: Some criticize that due to its methodological limitations, the system may promote highly processed foods of low nutritional value, while devaluing natural, organic and regional products. The system is not intended as a tool for comparing the nutritional value of products from different categories. If consumers are not aware of this, information placed on product packaging may be misinterpreted. Polish experts on nutrition and dietetics stated in a nationwide report that the system may mislead consumers, as it may promote ultra-processed products to the detriment of natural or low-processed foods. The system also does not guarantee that the consumer's choice of only products with the highest rating will allow him to compose a balanced diet - this was stated by 80% of the surveyed experts.


title: Nutri-Score

text: The Italian antitrust authority (AGCM, Autorita' Garante della Concorrenza e del Mercato) has reported opening five investigations related to the use of Nutri-Score labels on the front of packaging by GS, Carrefour Italia, Pescanova Italia, Valsoia, as well as by the French companies Regime Dukan, Diet Lab, the English company Weetabix and a German confectionery company.


title: Nutri-Score

text: The AGCM also opened proceedings against the French owner of a smartphone app called "Yuka". "Yuka" is intended to help users assess the nutritional value of products based on the Nutri-Score system. The app presents alternatives to D or E rated foods. AGCM's key concern is that in the absence of appropriate warnings, the Nutri-Score label and the scores and ratings presented in the app are misperceived as absolute health ratings for a given product, without addressing an individual's overall needs (diet and lifestyle), amount and frequency of consumption as part of a varied and balanced diet. Consequently, consumers may be more prone to associate health characteristics with products with a high Nutri-Score or Yuka rating, and thus to unreasonably attribute health effects to the choices made on that basis. Specifically, AGCM pointed out to the attribution of positive health properties to products labelled with the highest Nutri-Score.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: On 14 September 2020, a 19-year-old Dalit woman was gang-raped in Hathras district, Uttar Pradesh, India, by four upper caste men. She died two weeks later in a Delhi hospital.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: Initially, it was reported that one accused had tried to kill her, though later in her statement to the magistrate, the victim named four accused as having raped her. The victim's brother claimed that no arrests were made in the first 10 days after the incident took place. After her death, the victim was forcibly cremated by the police without the consent of her family, a claim denied by the police.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The case and its subsequent handling has received widespread media attention and condemnation from across the country, and was the subject of protests against the Yogi Adityanath government by activists and opposition.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The incident took place on 14 September 2020, when the victim, a 19-year-old Dalit woman went to a farm to collect cattle fodder. Four men Sandeep, Ramu, Lavkush and Ravi allegedly dragged her away by dupatta around her neck injuring her spinal cord in the process. The four upper caste men accused of rape belong to the Thakur caste. The violence left her paralyzed with a severe spinal cord injury. Her tongue was cut off. The perpetrators had tried to strangle the girl as she resisted their rape attempt. She ended up biting her tongue while being strangled. Her cries were heard by her mother, who came to the spot to find her lying down in the farm. She was at first taken to the Chand Pa police station, where the police rejected her claims and, according to the family, humiliated them. The police registered a complaint only on 20 September. The police were able to record the victim's statement on 22 September. In her three recorded statements she mentioned that "she was raped" and was strangled when she attempted to resist.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The victim was initially admitted to the Jawaharlal Nehru Medical College and Hospital in Aligarh on 14 September, with her spinal cord severely damaged. She was later moved to the Safdarjung Hospital in Delhi after her condition worsened. According to the police, the victim had been strangled with her dupatta. She died on 29 September 2020.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The mother of the victim said that Sandeep and Luvkush had been harassing her and the victim for months.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The autopsy registered the cause of death as "injury to the cervical spine by blunt-force trauma," and refers to "rape and strangulation" in the medical history.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The victim was cremated on the night at about 2:30 am on 29 September 2020 by Uttar Pradesh Police without the consent or knowledge of the victim's family. The brother of the victim alleged that it was done without the family's consent and that they were locked up in their house. He also alleged that petrol was used for cremation. However Prashant Kumar, ADG (law and order), said that the family's consent was obtained.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The forced cremation led the Allahabad High Court to take suo moto cognisance. The bench also asked the victim's family, the District Magistrate and the Superintendent of Police to appear before it. The bench added, "The incidents which took place after the death of the victim on 29.09.2020 leading up to her cremation, as alleged, have shocked our conscience".


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: When the news broke out initially through social media, Agra Police, Hathras District Magistrate, and UP's Information & Public Relations called it "fake news". Later, a senior UP Police officer claimed that no sperm was found in samples as per forensic report and that some people had "twisted" the incident to stir "caste-based tension." The officer also said that the forensic report revealed that the victim was not raped. However, critics have alleged this evidence is unreliable, citing guidelines that state swabs to test for sperm should only be taken if the assault might have occurred in the previous three days. After three to four days, swabs should be taken to test only for semen, not for sperm. Kumar also stated that the forensic report had found "no semen or semen excretion"; a retired officer quoted by the BBC criticized that "Police officers should not jump to conclusions. The presence or absence of semen by itself does not prove rape. We need a lot of other circumstantial and other evidence."


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The family alleged that they were faced pressure from the administration. A video emerged in which the Hathras District Magistrate is seen pressuring the family into changing their statement. He could be heard saying "Don’t ruin your credibility. These media people will leave in a couple of days. Half have already left, the rest will leave in 23 days. We are the ones standing with you. Now it depends on you if you want to keep changing your testimony..."


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: On 3 October, the state government suspended five police officers including the Superintendent of Police.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: "The Wire" and others reported that the Uttar Pradesh government employed Concept PR, a Mumbai public relations firm. The PR firm allegedly sent out press releases (on behalf of the government) stating that the Hathras teenager was not raped. The press releases also alluded to a conspiracy to push the state of Uttar Pradesh into caste turmoil.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: On 4 October, Yogi Adityanath recommended a CBI probe. The victim's family was not in favour of the CBI investigation and wanted a judicial probe to be conducted in the case. However, the CBI began its investigation on 10 October, amid nationwide outrage, after notification from central government.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The Uttar Pradesh government claimed a "deep rooted conspiracy" and an "international plot" to incite caste based riots in Hathras and defame the Yogi government. Nineteen FIRs have been filed by the Uttar Pradesh police in the aftermath of the alleged gang rape. The charges listed by police on the main FIR include inciting caste based divides, religious discrimination, doctoring electronic evidence, a conspiracy against the state and defamation. Yogi Adityanath had earlier asked his party workers to "expose those who want to incite caste and communal riots". UP Police detained 4 men, including a Delhi-based journalist Sidheeq Kappan under Unlawful Activities (Prevention) Act, for their alleged link to Popular Front of India PFI, on Mathura Toll Plaza, while on their way to the village. The administration alleged that the men were on their way to Hathras for inciting caste and communal violence.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: Hathras police have arrested the four accused — Sandeep, Ramu, Lavkush and Ravi — on charges of attempt to murder, gang rape and violations of the Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribe (Prevention of Atrocities) Act, 1989. One of the accused, Ravi, and his father had been arrested 1520 years ago for allegedly assaulting the victim's grandfather. The victim's brother claimed that no arrest was made in the first 10 days of the incident. SSP Vikrant Vir had transferred the SHO of Chandpa police station to police lines for failing to promptly act in the case. The State government, Yogi Adityanath and district administration announced a compensation of to the victim's family and a junior assistant job for a family member. Apart from this, the family will also be allotted a house in Hathras under State Urban Development Agency (SUDA) scheme.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The main accused, Sandeep Thakur, who is in jail along with the three others, has written a letter to the police in Hathras, claiming that he and the 20-year-old girl were "friends", who "apart from meeting, used to speak on the phone once in a while"; further claiming that her family was against their friendship, and they killed her. The UP police has claimed that call records show that the woman's family knew the main accused, Sandeep Thakur. As per the Call Detail Report released, around 100 phone calls were made from a phone number registered in the name of the girl's brother and the main accused Sandeep Thakur between October 2019 and March 2020.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: Former Congress president Rahul Gandhi and general secretary Priyanka Gandhi were accosted and detained by police in the state of Uttar Pradesh as they attempted to make their way to the village of the victim on foot after their vehicles had been stopped by officers on the motorway. BSP supremo and former CM Mayawati demanded resignation of Chief Minister Yogi stating him as an incapable to protecting Dalits in Uttar Pradesh, she further asserted that he should oversee newly built Ram Mandir, Ayodhya or join his Gorakhnath Math.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: According to some media reports, a group calling itself "Rashtriya Savarna Parishad" came out in support of the accused. The involvement of the police was also implicitly found in various media reports. Another media report stated that an outfit called 'National Sawarna Council' visited the Superintendent of Police and filed a memorandum alleging the family of the victim girl to be involved in implication of the innocent people. A day after the police forcibly cremated the body of the rape victim, Chandrashekhar Azad the president of Bhim Army (a Dalit-rights organisation based in Uttar Pradesh) was placed under house arrest for staging a protest against the government demanding justice for the victim.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: On 3 October 2020, Indian National Congress leaders Rahul Gandhi and Priyanka Gandhi Vadra visited the victim's family. This was dismissed by the BJP as a "political stunt".


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: On October 2, BJP IT cell head Amit Malviya tweeted a video of the 19-year-old victim, which showed her face, allegedly in contravention of Section 228A of the Indian Penal Code. Similarly, Tamil Nadu's BJP IT cell head CTR Nirmal Kumar posted a video of the 19-year-old Dalit woman with insensitive remark, that clearly revealed the identity of the woman, which is in violation of Supreme Court guidelines.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: On October 4, Rajveer Singh Pehelwan, an ex-MLA of the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP), held a rally in support of the accused. Hundreds of people attended the rally, including the family members of the four accused. The meeting was also attended by members of various right-wing outfits like the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS), Karni Sena and Bajrang Dal. These members were also part of various upper caste outfits including Kshatriya Mahasabha, Rashtriya Savarna Sangathan etc. On October 7, the Ex-BJP MLA and 100 others were booked by the UP Police for organizing the rally. According to a BJP leader, Ranjeet Srivastava, the accused are not guilty of a crime. He further questioned that, "Such girls are found dead in only some places. They will be found dead in sugarcane, corn and millet fields or in bushes, gutters or forests. Why are they never found dead in paddy or wheat fields?". The head of the National Commission for Women commented this was unfit statement for any political party leader. Another remark that drew fierce criticism came from BJP MLA, Surendra Nath Singh that ""Sanskar" should be instilled in girls to prevent incidents of rape".


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: The United Nations in India expressed concerns over gender based violence. In the statement they mentioned that, "it is essential that authorities ensure the perpetrators are brought to justice speedily and families are empowered to seek timely justice, social support, counselling, healthcare and rehabilitation".


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: On 30 September, around 5000 sanitation workers in Agra, who belong to the Valmiki community, went on a strike to demand justice for the victim. Protestors in Jantar Mantar, New Delhi demanded the resignation of Uttar Pradesh Chief Minister Yogi Adityanath on 2 October. However, the protest in India Gate on 1 October was rejected under the Section 144 of CrPC. On 9 October 2020, various dalit organizations called a Bandh which halted normal life in Punjab. Bahujan Samaj Party workers organized protests against Yogi Adityanath in the different parts of country. Indian students, professors and scholars staged a protest in United Kingdom in memory of the victims. Protests were staged in the United States of America, particularly in Times Square, Headquarters of the United Nations, Michigan and Philadelphia, against the Indian government. B. R. Ambedkar followers in the parts of South America, North America, Middle East, Europe and Asia demanded justice for the victim.


title: 2020 Hathras gang rape and murder

text: On 19 December 2020, CBI filed a chargesheet in a special court in Hathras, invoking gangrape and murder charges along with charges under SC/ST Prevention of Atrocities Act, against the four accused. CBI also mentioned lapses on part of UP Police that include delay in recording the victim's statement in writing and her subsequent medical examination. The CBI reportedly found a record of a total of 115 calls exchanged between the victim and the accused from October 2019 to March 2020.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat (also written as Dalat, ; ), is the capital of Lâm Đồng Province and the largest city of the Central Highlands region in Vietnam. The city is located above sea level on the Langbian Plateau. Da Lat is one of the most popular tourist destinations in Vietnam.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat's specific sights are pine woods and twisting roads full of marigold (Vietnamese: "hoa dã quỳ") and mimosa blossom in the winter. The city's temperate weather stands in contrast to Vietnam's otherwise tropical climate. Mist covering the valleys almost year-round leads to its name "City of Eternal Spring".


title: Da Lat

text: Residents and tourists have said that Da Lat has all four seasons in one day: spring in the morning, summer at noon, autumn in the afternoon and winter at night, from the sunset to the sunrise.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat is also known as an area for scientific research in the fields of biotechnology and nuclear physics.


title: Da Lat

text: With its year-round cool weather, Da Lat supplies huge amounts of temperate agriculture products for all over Vietnam, for example: cabbage, cauliflower, artichoke, tea, wine, persimmon and coffee. Its flower industry produces three characteristic flowers: hydrangea (Vietnamese: "cẩm tú cầu"), Da Lat rose and golden everlasting (Vietnamese: "hoa bất tử"). The confectionery industry offers a wide range of "mứt", a kind of fruit preserve that closely resembles varenie, made from strawberry, mulberry, sweet potato and rose.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat is known regionally for avocado ice-cream, for bánh tráng nướng and for its large garment market, with a broad selection of cool-weather clothing.


title: Da Lat

text: According to some sources, the name is derived from the acronym of the Latin phrase 'Dat Aliis Laetitiam Aliis Temperiem' ("It Gives Pleasure to Some, Freshness to Others"), which the French colonial government used in their official emblem of Da Lat. In reality, however, the name is derived from the language of the local ethnic group Lạt and its original meaning is "Stream of the Lạt", and the above acronym is in fact a backcronym. got its name from Koho "daa" (“water”) + "Laac" (the indigenous people of Da Lat).


title: Da Lat

text: During the 1890s, explorers in the area (including the noted bacteriologist Alexandre Yersin, protégé of the renowned French chemist Louis Pasteur), which was then part of the French colony of Cochinchina, asked the French governor-general, Paul Doumer, to create a resort center in the highlands, and the governor agreed. The original intended site for the hill station was Dankia, but Étienne Tardif, a member of the road-building expedition of 1898–99, proposed the current site instead. In 1907, the first hotel was built. Urban planning was carried out by Ernest Hébrard.


title: Da Lat

text: The French endowed the city with villas and boulevards, and its Swiss charms remain today. Hébrard included the requisite health complex, golf course, parks, schools, and homes but no industry. The legacy of boarding schools where children from the whole of Indochina were taught by French priests, nuns, and expatriates still existed as late as 1969. In 1929, the Christian and Missionary Alliance established a school which later relocated to Bangkok, Thailand, due to the Vietnam War and has been located in Penang, Malaysia, since the 1970s. There were seminaries of Jesuits (such as Pius X Pontifical College) as well as other orders.


title: Da Lat

text: In the 1920s and 1930s, there were ideas of making Da Lat the 'summer capital', 'administrative capital', and 'federal capital' of French Indochina. During the World War II, Governor-general Jean Decoux (r. 1940–1945) supported this project.


title: Da Lat

text: The South Vietnamese National Military Academy graduated its first class of future leaders in 1950. There was also an aviation school at Cam Ly Airport.


title: Da Lat

text: In the mid-1950s, the Vietnamese Scout Association established their national training grounds at Da Lat.


title: Da Lat

text: The only major involvement Da Lat had during the Vietnam War was during the 1968 Tet Offensive. Fierce battles raged from January 31 to February 9, 1968. Most of the fighting took place between the South Vietnamese/American MP units stationed in Da Lat and the Việt Cộng (VC) forces. Defeats and victories alternated between the two during the sporadic-yet-intense battles.


title: Da Lat

text: South Vietnam eventually under communistic rule and was merged with the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, where the Socialist Republic of Vietnam was constructed and also experienced the Đổi Mới reforms along with the rest of the country.


title: Da Lat

text: During the communist era of Vietnam (the Socialist Republic of Vietnam), places like Da Lat as well as Hoi An and Da Nang were regularly regarded as amongst the most romantic tourist places in Vietnam. Da Lat has also become the hub of and biotechnology.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat is located above sea level on the Langbian Plateau in the southern parts of the Central Highlands (in Vietnamese: "Tây Nguyên").


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat is divided into 11 wards numbered from 1 to 11, and 4 communes: Tà Nung, Xuân Trường, Xuân Thọ and Trạm Hành.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat features a subtropical highland climate under the Köppen climate classification ("Cwb") and is mostly mild year round.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat's year-round temperate weather, standing in contrast to central & southern Vietnam's otherwise-tropical climate, has led it to be nicknamed the “City of Eternal Spring”. The average temperature is . The highest temperature ever in Da Lat was , and the lowest was . Mist covers the adjoining valleys almost year-round. Its temperate climate also makes it ideal for agriculture. Indeed, Da Lat is renowned for its orchids, roses, vegetables, and fruits. There are nascent wine-making and flower-growing industries in the region.


title: Da Lat

text: There are two separate seasons in Da Lat. The rainy season lasts from May to October, and the dry season lasts from November through April of the next year. The average annual precipitation is 1,750 mm.


title: Da Lat

text: The architecture of Da Lat is dominated by the style of the French colonial period. Da Lat Railway Station, built in 1938, was designed in the Art Deco architectural style by French architects Moncet and Reveron, although it incorporates the high, pointed roofs characteristic of the "Cao Nguyen" communal buildings of Vietnam's Central Highlands. The three gables represent an art deco version of Normandy's Trouville-Deauville Station. The station's unique design — with its roofs, arching ceiling, and coloured glass windows — earned it recognition as a national historical monument in 2001.


title: Da Lat

text: The Dominion of Mary Church and Convent, home to Roman Catholic nuns of the Mission of Charity, were built in 1938 with a similar pointed-roof style.


title: Da Lat

text: Of particular note is the unconventional architecture of the Hằng Nga guesthouse, popularly known as the “Crazy House”. Described as a “fairy tale house”, its overall design resembles a giant banyan tree, incorporating sculptured design elements representing natural forms such as animals, mushrooms, spider webs and caves. Its architecture, consisting of complex, organic, non-rectilinear shapes, has been described as expressionist. Its creator, Vietnamese architect Dang Viet Nga (also known as Hằng Nga), who holds a PhD in architecture from Moscow State University, has acknowledged the inspiration of Catalan Spanish architect Antoni Gaudí in the building's design. Visitors have variously drawn parallels between the guesthouse and the works of artists such as Salvador Dalí and Walt Disney. Since its opening in 1990, the building has gained recognition for its unique architecture, having been highlighted in numerous guidebooks and listed as one of the world's ten most “bizarre” buildings in the Chinese People's Daily. While superficially amusing, the compound is let down by the construction debris and household refuse behind the facades, and the lack of attention to safety issues.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat is also well known for a series of three Mansions of the Vietnamese Last Emperor. The First Mansion was built in 1940 by the French millionaire Robert Clément Bourgery and was bought by Emperor Bao Dai in 1949. It was used as a summer mansion for President Ngo Dinh Diem and following presidents of the Republic of Vietnam until 1975. The Second Mansion was built in 1933 as the summer mansion for the Governor of French Indochina Jean Decoux. Built in 1933–1938, the Third Mansion was the residence of Emperor Bao Dai and his family. The mansion has attributes typical European style since both its front and backyard have flower gardens. The Third Mansion is currently open for tourists who wish to have a look back in time when Queen Nam Phuong resided during her lifetime.


title: Da Lat

text: Da Lat is one of the famous tourist cities of Vietnam which was included in the list of Asia's most overlooked places by CNN in 2017.


title: Da Lat

text: Hoa Binh Area is in the center downtown of Da Lat and attracts numerous visitors. Some popular sites located in the Hoa Binh Area are Coi Xay Gio bakery, Lien Hoa bakery, Windmills coffeehouse and Tung coffeehouse. Coi Xay Gio was known as a perfect selfie spot thanks to its remarkable yellow wall, though in 2021 the wall was repainted to discourage selfies due to danger from road vehicles.


title: Beer style

text: Beer styles differentiate and categorise beers by colour, flavour, strength, ingredients, production method, recipe, history, or origin.


title: Beer style

text: The modern concept of beer styles is largely based on the work of writer Michael Jackson in his 1977 book "The World Guide To Beer". In 1989, Fred Eckhardt furthered Jackson's work publishing "The Essentials of Beer Style". Although the systematic study of beer styles is a modern phenomenon, the practice of distinguishing between different varieties of beer is ancient, dating to at least 2000 BC.


title: Beer style

text: What constitutes a beer style may involve provenance, local tradition, ingredients, aroma, appearance, flavour and mouthfeel. The flavour may include the degree of bitterness of a beer due to bittering agents such as hops, roasted barley, or herbs; and the sweetness from the sugar present in the beer.


title: Beer style

text: Many beer styles are classified as one of two main types, ales and lagers, though certain styles may not be easily sorted into either category. Beers classified as ales are typically made with yeasts that ferment at warmer temperatures, usually between , and form a layer of foam on the surface of the fermenting beer, thus they are called top-fermenting yeasts. Lagers utilize yeasts that ferment at considerably lower temperatures, around , and have the ability to process raffinose, a complex sugar created during fermentation. These yeasts collect at the bottom of the fermenting beer and are therefore referred to as bottom-fermenting yeasts. Lagers constitute the majority of beers in production today.


title: Beer style

text: Additional markers are applied across styles. The terms "imperial" or "double" are used interchangeably for a higher-alcohol version of a particular style. Originally applied to Imperial stouts, a high-alcohol style of stout brewed in England for export to Imperial Russia, the term imperial can now be applied to any style name to indicate a higher alcohol content. "Double", meaning the same thing, originated with the dubbel style of Trappist beers in the 19th century. Even higher alcohol-content beers can be labeled "triple" (from the Trappist tripel style) or even "quad". Lower-than-standard alcohol content is often indicated by the term "session". For example, while India pale ales often have alcohol content around 6-7% abv, a "session India pale ale" will often have alcohol content below 5%.


title: Beer style

text: Barrel-aged beer is aged in wood barrels; some brewers also apply the traditional technique of sour beer by adding additional cultures such as "Brettanomyces" or "Lactobacillus".


title: Beer style

text: Styles of beer go back at least to Mesopotamia. The Alulu Tablet, a Sumerian receipt for "best" ale written in Cuneiform found in Ur, suggests that even in 2050 BC there was a differentiation between at least two different types or qualities of ale. The work of Bedrich Hrozny on translating Assyrian merchants' tablets found in Hattusa, revealed that approximately 500 years later the Hittites had over 15 different types of beer.


title: Beer style

text: Documents reveal comments on different local brewing methods or ingredients. Pliny the Elder in his "Naturalis Historia" wrote about Celts brewing ale "in Gaul and Spain in a number of different ways, and under a number of different names; although the principle is the same." Anglo-Saxon laws reveal they identified three different ales, while the Normans mention "cervisae" (ale) and "plena cervisia" (full bodied ale) in the Domesday Book.


title: Beer style

text: By the 15th century brewers in Germany and the Low Countries were using hops to flavour and preserve their ale; this new style of ale was called beer. When this trend came to Britain and brewers of beer in Southwark, London, started to take sales away from the traditional brewers of unhopped ale, there were complaints and protests. Laws were passed favouring either beer or ale for a number of years, until hopped beer became the standard style throughout Europe. At the same time, brewers in Bavaria were storing beer in cool caves during the summer months in order to stop it spoiling. The beer became known as lager from the German word "lagern", meaning "to store".


title: Beer style

text: Although beers using naturally dried malt would have been pale-coloured, by the 17th century most malts in Europe would have been dried over a fire, resulting in a dark coloured beer. When coke started to be used for roasting malt in 1642, the resulting lighter coloured beers became very popular. By 1703 the term "pale ale" was starting to be used, though the beer it described was a lightly hopped ale, very different from more bitter modern versions.


title: Beer style

text: However, despite an awareness by commentators, law-makers, and brewers that there were different styles of beer, it was not until Michael Jackson's "World Guide To Beer" was published in 1977 that there was an attempt to group together and compare beers from around the world. Jackson's book had a particular influence in North America where the writer Fred Eckhardt was also starting to explore the nature of beer styles. The wine importing company Merchant du Vin switched to importing beers mentioned in Jackson's book. Small brewers started up, producing copies and interpretations of the beer styles Jackson described.


title: Beer style

text: While North America developed beer styles into a serious study with fixed parameters of bitterness, colour, aroma, yeast, ingredients and strength, other countries continued to mainly categorise beers loosely by strength and colour, with much overlapping of naming conventions.


title: Beer style

text: The visual characteristics that may be observed in a beer are colour, clarity, and nature of the head. Colour is usually imparted by the malts used, notably the adjunct malts added to darker beers, though other ingredients may contribute to the colour of some styles such as fruit beers. Colour intensity can be measured by systems such as EBC, SRM or Lovibond, but this information is rarely given to the public.


title: Beer style

text: Many beers are transparent, but some beers, such as hefeweizen, may be cloudy due to the presence of yeast making them translucent. A third variety is the opaque or near-opaque colour that exists with stouts, porters, schwarzbiers (black beer) and other deeply coloured styles. Thickness and retention of the head and the lace it can leave on the glass, are also factors in a beer's appearance.


title: Beer style

text: The aroma in a beer may be formed from the malt and other fermentables, the strength and type of hops, the alcohol, esters, and various other aromatic components that can be contributed by the yeast strain, and other elements that may derive from the water and the brewing process.


title: Beer style

text: The taste characteristics of a beer may come from the type and amount of malt used, flavours imparted by the yeast, and strength of bitterness. Bitterness can be measured on an International Bitterness Units scale, and in North America a number of brewers record the bitterness on this scale as IBUs.


title: Beer style

text: The feel of a beer in the mouth, both from thickness of the liquid and from carbonation, may also be considered as part of a beer's style. A more dextrinous beer feels thicker in the mouth. The level of carbonation (or nitrogen, in "smooth" beers) varies from one beer style to another. For some beers it may give the beer a thick and creamy feel, while for others it contributes a prickly sensation.


title: Beer style

text: The strength of beer is a general term for the amount of alcohol present. It can be quantified either indirectly by measurement of specific gravity, or more directly by other methods.


title: Beer style

text: Measurement of the specific gravity of the beer has been used to estimate the strength of beer by measuring its density. Several different scales have been used for the measurement of gravity, including the Plato, Baumé, Balling, and Brix scales, with the Plato scale being the most common modern measure.


title: Beer style

text: This approach relies on the fact that dissolved sugars and alcohol each affect the density of beer differently. Since sugars are converted to alcohol during the process of fermentation, gravity can be used to estimate the final alcohol. In beer brewing, a distinction is made between the "original gravity", the gravity of the wort before fermentation has begun, and the "final gravity" of the product when fermentation has completed. Since the concentration of sugars is directly proportional to the gravity, the original gravity gives a brewer an idea of the potential alcoholic strength of the final product. After fermentation, the differences between the final and original gravities indicates the amount of sugar converted into alcohol, allowing the concentration of alcoholic strength to be calculated.


title: Beer style

text: The original gravity of a beer was the basis for determining taxation in both the UK and Ireland from 1880 until the late 20th century, and a legacy of that system remains in the largely arbitrary division of bitter into "bitter", "best bitter", and "special bitter" substyles. In continental Europe, the density of a beer in degrees Plato is sometimes used by a brewery to distinguish a particular beer produced in a line. For example, Rochefort Brewery produces three beers, all dissimilar in colour, flavour, and aroma; and sells them as Rochefort 6, Rochefort 8, and Rochefort 10, the numbers referring to the original gravities of the beers. Westvleteren Brewery, meanwhile, produces three beers, and calls them Blonde, 8, and 12.


title: Beer style

text: Modern classification of the strength of alcoholic beverages for the purposes of taxation and regulation typically discriminates according to the percentage of alcohol by volume, generally abbreviated as abv. Additionally, although less common, some brewers throughout the world use also alcohol by weight (abw), particularly on low-point versions of popular domestic beer brands. At the relatively low alcohol concentrations of beer, the alcohol percentage by weight is roughly 4/5 of the abv (e.g., 3.2% abw is equivalent to 4.0% abv), but this becomes increasingly inaccurate as the alcohol concentration increases.


title: Beer style

text: Before the development of modern brewing practices and the complete understanding of the biochemistry of yeast, the final abv of a beer could not be precisely controlled, making its value inconsistent and therefore unsuitable as a determinant for taxation or regulation. Contemporarily, though, abv is often used to determine the duty on beer and cider, and sales of beer and cider above a certain abv is sometimes restricted or prohibited. For example, in Texas, beers below 4% abv cannot be sold as stout regardless of other stylistic considerations.


title: Beer style

text: A variety of yeasts are used in making beer, most of which are strains of either top-fermenting yeast or bottom-fermenting yeast. Different strains impart different flavour and aroma characteristics, and may vary in which complex sugars they can ferment and how high their alcohol tolerance is, both of which are factors in attenuation. Some beers use other microbes in addition to yeasts, such as "Lactobacillus" or "Brettanomyces". For example, the distinctive flavour and aroma of Belgian Abbey ales largely result from the yeast strains used to ferment the beer. There are a few modern styles, notably lambics, where spontaneous fermentation is used — that is, rather than being inoculated in a controlled fashion with a nurtured yeast, the unfermented wort is allowed to be colonised by microorganisms present in the environment.


title: Beer style

text: The specific grains used in a particular beer is called the "grain bill". While just about any grain can be used, most beers use barley malt as their primary source of fermentable sugars, and some beer styles mandate it be used exclusively, such as those German styles developed under Reinheitsgebot. Some beer styles can be considered varietals, in the same sense as wine, based on their malt bill.


title: Beer style

text: Kilned pale malts form the basis of most beer styles now in production, with styles that use other grains as a base distinguished by those grains (for example bock, which uses Munich malt as a base). The Rauchbier and Grätzer styles are distinguished by the use of smoked malt.


title: Beer style

text: Some styles use one or more other grains as a key ingredient in the style, such as wheat beer, rye beer, or oatmeal stout.


title: Beer style

text: The inclusion of some grains such as corn and rice is often viewed as making less of a flavour contribution and more of an added source of fermentable sugars. Rice in particular "is considered by many [craft] brewers what the nasty industrial brewers use to water down their beer".


title: Beer style

text: This is due in large part to the use of rice by large scale American breweries. While it is commonly held that these breweries introduced these grains to their formulas during war shortages, author Maureen Ogle states "The mythology is that these giant beer makers began adding rice and corn to their beer after World War II to water it down, but that's simply not true. The American brewing industry was built in the late 19th century by first-generation German American immigrants such as Adolphus Busch, Adolph Coors and Frederick Miller. Although these men, craft brewers themselves, initially re-created the full-bodied beers of their homeland, many Americans had not developed a taste for the malt-heavy style. They needed a domestic ingredient that would make the beers more effervescent, bubbly and lighter. Rice and corn did that – it was a desired flavor, not inexpensive filler."


title: Beer style

text: Throughout history, a wide variety of flavoring agents have been added to beer to impart complexity and bitterness to the final product. Historically, these spice adjuncts were known as gruit. Most modern beer is flavored with hops, the immature flowers of a specific species of hemp plant, to contribute bitterness, flavour and aroma to a beer. How much hop bitterness and aroma is appropriate varies between beer styles. There are many varieties of hops, some of which are associated with beers from specific regions. For example, Saaz hops are associated with Czech Pilsners; Hallertau and Tettnanger are two of the "noble" hop varieties one expects to find in German beers, and Kent Goldings are an English variety.


title: Beer style

text: Water is the main ingredient in beer, and, though water itself is flavourless, the chemical composition can have an influence on the finished taste; indeed, some brewers regard it as "the most important ingredient in beer". In particular, two styles of beer are especially noted for their water chemistry: pale ale, for which the process of Burtonisation is widespread; and Pilsner.


title: Beer style

text: Fruits and spices are key ingredients in some beer styles. While fruit beers and herb beers are often listed as style categories unto themselves, fruits and spices are sometimes used to contribute to the flavour and aroma profile of other styles. Vegetables have also been used in beers. Honey, molasses, candy sugar, or other fermentable sugars may be added to impart their distinct flavours to a beer. While not an ingredient per se, some brewers have experimented with ageing their beer in barrels previously used for bourbon or other distilled spirits, imparting the flavour of both the wood and the spirit to the beer.


title: Beer style

text: Alcoholic beverages made from the fermentation of sugars derived from non-grain sources are generally not called "beer," despite being produced by the same yeast-based biochemical reaction. Fermented honey is called "mead", fermented apple juice is called "cider", fermented pear juice is called "perry" (sometimes, "pear cider"), fermented plum juice is called "plum jerkum", and fermented grape juice is called "wine". Chinese "jiu" and Japanese "sake" are made using much the same process as beer with one additional step in the fermentation as well as using rice instead of primarily barley malt.


title: Beer style

text: Most beer styles fall into types roughly according to the time and temperature of the primary fermentation and the variety of yeast used during fermentation. As the terminology of brewing arose before the advent of the science of microbiology, "yeast" in this context may refer not only to fungi but to some bacteria, for example "Lactobacillus" in Berliner Weisse.


title: Beer style

text: Top-fermenting yeast typically ferments at higher temperatures , producing significant amounts of esters and other secondary flavours and aromas, often resembling those of apple, pear, pineapple, grass, hay, banana, plum or prune.


title: Beer style

text: Pale lagers are the most commonly consumed type of beer in the world. Lagers are of Central European origin, taking their name from the German "lagern" ("to store"), and normally use a bottom-fermenting yeast which begin fermenting at (the "fermentation phase"), and then stored at (the "lagering phase"). During the secondary stage, the lager clears and mellows. The cooler conditions also inhibit the natural production of esters and other byproducts, resulting in a "crisper" tasting beer.


title: Beer style

text: Modern methods of producing lager were pioneered by Gabriel Sedlmayr the Younger, who perfected dark brown lagers at the Spaten Brewery in Bavaria, and Anton Dreher, who began brewing a lager in Vienna, Austria, in 1840–1841. With modern improved fermentation control, most lager breweries use only short periods of cold storage, typically 1–3 weeks.


title: Beer style

text: Most of today's lager is based on the original Pilsner style, pioneered in 1842 in the town of Pilsen (Plzeň), in an area of the Austrian monarchy now located in the Czech Republic. The modern pale lager that developed from Pilsner is light in colour and high in forced carbonation, with an alcohol content of 3–6% by volume. The Pilsner Urquell or Heineken brands of beer are typical examples of pale lager, with the Pilsner Urquell brand having a hop presence more associated with the pilsner style. Principal styles of lager include pale lager, Bock, Dunkel, Helles, Oktoberfestbier / Märzen, Pilsner, Schwarzbier and Vienna lager.


title: Beer style

text: Beers of spontaneous fermentation use wild yeasts rather than cultivated ones. By the Middle Ages, brewers had learned to crop the yeast from one brew and use it in the next. Only in a few isolated regions were wild yeasts still used. The best-known region where spontaneous fermentation is still used is the Senne Valley in Belgium where lambic is produced.


title: Beer style

text: Hybrid or mixed style beers use modern techniques and materials instead of, or in addition to, traditional aspects of brewing. Although there is some variation among sources, mixed beers generally fall into the following categories:


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: The Mongol conquest of China was a series of major military efforts by the Mongol Empire to conquer various empires ruling over China. It spanned six decades in the 13th century and involved the defeat of the Jin dynasty, Western Liao, Western Xia, Tibet, the Dali Kingdom, the Southern Song, and the Eastern Xia. The Mongol Empire under Genghis Khan started the conquest with small-scale raids into Western Xia in 1205 and 1207.


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: By 1279, the Mongol ruler Kublai Khan had established the Yuan dynasty in China and crushed the last Song resistance, which marked the onset of all of China under Yuan rule. This was the first time in history that the whole of China was unified by non-Han people, and it marked the first time in history when Tibet was unified with the rest of China.


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: In the early 1200s, Temujin, soon to be Genghis Khan, began consolidating his power in Mongolia. Following the death of the Kerait leader Ong Khan to Temujin's emerging Mongol Empire in 1203, Kerait leader Nilqa Senggum led a small band of followers into Western Xia, also known as Xi-Xia. However, after his adherents took to plundering the locals, Nilqa Senggum was expelled from Western Xia territory.


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: Using his rival Nilga Senggum's temporary refuge in Western Xia as a pretext, Temujin launched a raid against the state in 1205 in the Edsin region. The Mongols plundered border settlements and one local Western Xia noble accepted Mongol supremacy. The next year, 1206, Temujin was formally proclaimed Genghis Khan, ruler of all the Mongols, marking the official start of the Mongol Empire. In 1207, Genghis led another raid into Western Xia, invading the Ordo region and sacking Wuhai, the main garrison along the Yellow River, before withdrawing in 1208.


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: In 1209, the Genghis undertook a larger campaign to secure the submission of Western Xia. After defeating a force led by Kao Liang-Hui outside Wuhai, Genghis captured the city and pushed up along the Yellow River, defeated several cities, and besieged the capital, Yinchuan, which held a well-fortified garrison of 150,000. The Mongols, at this point inexperienced at siege warfare, attempted to flood out the city by diverting the Yellow River, but the dike they built to accomplish this broke and flooded the Mongol camp. Nevertheless, Emperor Li Anquan, still threatened by the Mongols and receiving no relief from the Jin dynasty, surrendered to the Mongol and demonstrated his loyalty by giving a daughter, Chaka, in marriage to Genghis and paying a tribute of camels, falcons, and textiles.


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: After their defeat in 1210, Western Xia served as faithful vassals to the Mongol Empire for almost a decade, aiding the Mongols in their war against the Jin dynasty. In 1219, Genghis Khan launched his campaign against the Khwarazmian dynasty in Central Asia, and requested military aid from Western Xia. However, the emperor and his military commander Asha refused to take part in the campaign, stating that if Genghis had too few troops to attack Khwarazm, then he had no claim to supreme power. Infuriated, Genghis swore vengeance and left to invade Khwarazm, while Western Xia attempted alliances with the Jin and Song dynasties against the Mongols.


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: After defeating Khwarazm in 1221, Genghis prepared his armies to punish Western Xia for their betrayal, and in 1225 he attacked with a force of approximately 180,000. After taking Khara-Khoto, the Mongols began a steady advance southward. Asha, commander of the Western Xia troops, could not afford to meet the Mongols as it would involve an exhausting westward march from the capital Yinchuan through 500 kilometers of desert, and so the Mongols steadily advanced from city to city. Enraged by Western Xia's fierce resistance, Genghis engaged the countryside in annihilative warfare and ordered his generals to systematically destroy cities and garrisons as they went. Genghis divided his army and sent general Subutai to take care of the westernmost cities, while the main force under Genghis moved east into the heart of the Western Xia Empire and took Ganzhou, which was spared destruction upon its capture due to it being the hometown of Genghis's commander Chagaan.


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: In August 1226, Mongol troops approached Wuwei, the second-largest city of the Western Xia empire, which surrendered without resistance in order to escape destruction. In Autumn 1226, Genghis took Liangchow, crossed the Helan Shan desert, and in November lay siege to Lingwu, a mere 30 kilometers from Yinchuan. Here, in the Battle of Yellow River, the Mongols destroyed a force of 300,000 Western Xia that launched a counter-attack against them.


title: Mongol conquest of China

text: Genghis reached Yinchuan in 1227, laid siege to the city, and launched several offensives into Jin to prevent them from sending reinforcements to Western Xia, with one force reaching as a far as Kaifeng, the Jin capital. Yinchuan lay besieged for about six months, after which Genghis opened up peace negotiations while secretly planning to kill the emperor. During the peace negotiations, Genghis continued his military operations around the Liupan mountains near Guyuan, rejected an offer of peace from the Jin, and prepared to invade them near their border with the Song. However, in August 1227, Genghis died of a historically uncertain cause, and, in order not to jeopardize the ongoing campaign, his death was kept a secret. In September 1227, Emperor Mozhu surrendered to the Mongols and was promptly executed. The Mongols then mercilessly pillaged Yinchuan, slaughtered the city's population, plundered the imperial tombs west of the city, and completed the effective annihilation of the Western Xia state.