title: Kristiansand

text: The labour movement had important pioneers in the city, and Leon Trotsky spent about a year of his exile in the archipelago offshore from Kristiansand. Arnulf Øverland took him from Randesund to Ny-Hellesund in Søgne in 1936. In the interwar period Kristiansand was a centre for intellectuals, especially after the architect Thilo Schoder settled there in 1932.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand was attacked by German naval forces and the Luftwaffe during the Operation Weserübung on 9 April 1940. The naval forces met fierce resistance from Norwegian coastal artillery at Odderøya. Bombs and grenades also hit the downtown and the 70 meter high church tower of the Kristiansand Cathedral was hit by accident. The third attack attempt on the city succeeded because a signal flag was confused with a French national flag and the misunderstanding was not discovered until it was too late. The city was occupied by a force of 800 men.


title: Kristiansand

text: Post-war construction included further development of the Lund section, and in the 1960s and 1970s Vågsbygd to the west was developed into a section with 20,000 inhabitants. In the 1980s, industry and business in the city declined, in part because of the 1986 fire at the Hotel Caledonien. But beginning in the second half of the 1990s, business increased in momentum with the development of enterprises for marine and offshore equipment, security technology and drilling.


title: Kristiansand

text: The older municipal archives for Kristiansand (and the former municipalities) are currently held at the Inter-Municipal Archives in Vest-Agder (IKAVA). This includes documents concerning, for example, local councils, chairmanships, poor boards, school boards and archives including among other things personal documents in the form of client records, tax records, and also school records.


title: Kristiansand

text: On 1 January 2020, the three neighbouring municipalities of Kristiansand, Songdalen, and Søgne were merged to form one large municipality called "Kristiansand".


title: Kristiansand

text: The arms of Kristiansand were granted on 8 December 1909 and are based on the oldest seal of the city, dating from 1643. In 1643 King Christian IV granted the young town the right to use a seal with the Norwegian lion and the royal crown. The crown indicates that the city was founded by the king. The other major element in the arms is a tree. As the species of tree is not specified, there are several known versions with differently shaped trees. A second seal, from 1658, shows a tree with leaves and what look like pine cones. On the base of the crown are the letters R. F. P., standing for "Regna Firma Pietas", "Piety strengthens the realm"; this was Christian IV's motto. Around the seal of the city is its motto, "Cavsa Triumphat Tandem Bona", "A good cause prevails in the end".


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand is strategically located on the Skagerrak, and until the opening of the Kiel Canal between the North Sea and the Baltic was very important militarily and geopolitically. This meant that for centuries it served as a military stronghold, first as Harald Fairhair's royal residence, then as a Danish-Norwegian fortress, and later as a garrison town. Kristiansand is a gateway to and from the continent, with ferry service to Denmark and a terminus of the railway line along the southern edge of South Norway.Geologically, this part of Agder is part of the Swedo-Norwegian Base Mountain Shield, the southwestern section of the Baltic Shield, and consists of two main geological formations of Proterozoic rocks that were formed in the Gothic and later Swedo-Norwegian orogenies, with significant metamorphism during the latter. There is a substrate of 1,600–1,450 million-year-old slate, quartzite, marble and amphibolite with some hornblende gneiss, and overlaid on this acidic surface structures of both granite and granodiorite (in general 1,250–1,000 million years old, in some places 1,550–1,480 million years old). The "Bamblefelt" geological area starts to the east of the municipality and extends to Grenland.


title: Kristiansand

text: The last Swedo-Norwegian formations are evident in large formations of granite. There are also incidences of gabbro and diorite, less commonly eclogite. The Caledonian orogeny did not affect this area. Faults run southwest–northeast. In ancient times there was a volcano off Flekkeroy, which left deposits of volcanic rock just north of central Kristiansand, on the site of the estate of , now occupied by the Hospital of Southern Norway.


title: Kristiansand

text: Near the city, there are deep woods. In Baneheia and at the former coastal artillery fortress on Odderøya, there are lighted ski trails and walking paths specially prepared for wheelchair users.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand has a temperate oceanic climate (Köppen: "Cfb") in the 1991-2020 period. The coastal parts of the Skagerrak coast, which includes Kristiansand, is the sunniest part of Norway. Snow generally occurs in late December and in January and February; it may be heavy (the snow record at Kjevik airport is ) but rarely stays long on the coast; see Climate of Norway. Due to warming in the more recent decades, snow often melts after a few days.


title: Kristiansand

text: In the summer most locals go to the Fiskebrygga, the archipelago opposite the city, and Hamresanden Beach, which is located about 10 minutes from the city centre near Kjevik airport. People from Denmark, Sweden, Germany, the UK and other European countries also visit this beach in the summer during their travels.


title: Kristiansand

text: The all-time high at Kristiansand airport was recorded August 1975. The all-time low at the airport was recorded January 1982. The temperature seldom reaches , but most days in July reaches or more. The warmest month ever was July 1901 with mean at an earlier weather station ("Kristiansand S - Eg"). The warmest month at the airport was July 2018 with 24-hr average and average daily high . July 2018 was also the sunniest month on record with 422 sunhours, and the year 2018 recorded 2126 sunhours - despite December recording just 1 sunhr as cloudiest month on record in Kristiansand. The cloudiest July recorded 156 sunhours (2007). Kristiansand has the national record for the sunniest February (153 sunhrs in 1986), sunniest April (323 hrs in 2021), sunniest August (343 hrs in 1995) and sunniest September (241 hrs in 1959).


title: Kristiansand

text: The wettest month on record was October 1976 with 560 mm precipitation, and the driest was April 1974 with no precipitation at all.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand is partitioned into 18 parts and 217 subparts. Kristiansand is also divided into 5 boroughs.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kvadraturen is the city center of Kristiansand. The area belonged to the farms and Grim, and was a sandy plain covered with forest, and was called Sanden or Grimsmoen. Settlements were before the city was founded focused on loading and dumps at Lund, along Otra or Torridalselven and along Topdalsfjorden by Odderøya and Flekkeroy port.


title: Kristiansand

text: Christian IV's town plan outlined the city center with 56 rectangular squares with five long blocks and eight cross streets. It was the squares along the Otra and east and west harbor, which was built first.


title: Kristiansand

text: Today Kvadraturen is a part of Kvadraturen/, which has (as of 1 January 2005) 5510 inhabitants. The area Posebyen in Kvadraturen is Northern Europe's longest continuous wooden buildings.


title: Kristiansand

text: In the parts are among others Kristiansand Cathedral, Kristiansand City Hall, Wergeland Park, and the terminal for ferries to Hirtshals and Kristiansand Station is located in the parts western corner.


title: Kristiansand

text: Vågsbygd has considerable industry, who has survived major changes. The largest employer is all the same Elkem Solar producing super clean Silicon for solar cells, which are located in premises that Elkem previous Ferrosilicon factory Fiskå Verk. On Andøya it established a significant and advanced mechanical industry which produces offshore and marine cranes and other marine equipment in Andøya Industrial Park. Amfi Vågsbygd is a major shopping center in Vågsbygd. Outside of Andøya in Vågsbygd is Bredalsholmen Shipyard and Preservation Centre, a Centre for protection of vessels at the former Bredalsholmen yard. Bredalsholmen Shipyard and Preservation Centre is a national hub for maintenance of museum ships and cherish worthy coastal culture, and a drydock with considerable capacity.


title: Kristiansand

text: Lund is the second largest borough in Kristiansand with a population of 9,000 inhabitants in 2012. 14 June 1921 was the first 2.75 km of Lund transferred to Kristiansand and 1 January 1965 was also the rest of Lund part of Kristiansand in the municipal amalgamation. In Lund, there are traces of humans dating back to the early Iron Age, the Viking Age until the early Middle Ages various locations. There has been a settlement here since the Stone Age. During the Viking Age there was a great man's farm here. A Runestone at Oddernes church provides a connection to this farm. A large field with burial mounds formerly existed south and west of the church, and may also be associated with this farm. In 1492 robbers from the sea came and attacked Lund. This is mentioned in two letters located in the National Archives. The letters describe the attack that took place with a lot of violence against both women and men and that on both sides suffered casualties. No one know who the robbers were, but their centurion was named Per Syvertsen. The name suggests that he and his crew came from Norway or Denmark.


title: Kristiansand

text: Indre and Ytre Randesund is located between Kvåsefjorden in Høvåg and the Topdalsfjord in Oddernes. Several small islands are situated alongside the cost of Randesund, among them Randøya and Herøya, both popular with summer tourists. The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the island, Randøen (now known as Randøya). The first part of the name is rand (Old Norse: rǫnd) which means "boundary" or "edge" and the last part of the name is sund which means "strait". The name was previously spelled Randøsund.


title: Kristiansand

text: Tveit is a village and a former municipality in Vest-Agder county. It is located in the present-day municipality of Kristiansand. Tveit is home to Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik. Tveit is located along the lower part of the Tovdalselva river, known as Topdalselva from the border with Aust-Agder. The population of Tveit is approximately 2,900 (2014).


title: Kristiansand

text: Søgne was a former municipality, located west of Kristiansand. The municipality was merged into a large municipality with the former municipality of Songdalen and the city of Kristiansand on January 1, 2020.


title: Kristiansand

text: Songdalen was a former municipality, located northwest of Kristiansand. The municipality was merged into a large municipality with the former municipality of Søgne and the city of Kristiansand on January 1, 2020.


title: Kristiansand

text: All municipalities in Norway, including Kristiansand, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elects a mayor. Kristiansand has no local parliamentary government, but is managed by the municipal council and an executive committee. The mayor is the spokesman for the city, head of the council and leader of the executive committee. In Kristiansand the mayor has represented the center-right parties since the late 1940s. The municipality falls under the Kristiansand District Court and the Agder Court of Appeal.


title: Kristiansand

text: The municipal council of Kristiansand is made up of 71 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown of the council is as follows:


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand Cathedral is the largest church in Kristiansand. It is located in Kvadraturen with the town hall and Wergelandsparken. The church was built in 1885 and have the capacity of 1500 people. The church is the seat of the Bishop of Agder and Telemark in the Church of Norway. Grim Church was built in 1969 and has a capacity of 750 people. Vågsbygd Church is the church of Vågsbygd, it is located in the centrum of Vågsbygd and was built in 1967 and has a capacity of 650. Lund Church was built in 1987 and has a capacity of 600 people. Søm Church was built in 2004 and has a capacity of 600. The church was Kristiansand municipality 1000 year building and is the largest church in Oddernes. The windows of Søm Church was designed by Kjell Nupen.


title: Kristiansand

text: There are also churches located at Flekkerøy, Hellemyr, Hånes, Justvik, Oddemarka (Oddernes), Randesund, Strai (Torridal), Tveit and Voie. There are chapeaus all over the city. Christianity are strongest in Flekkerøy and Søm, even though Southern Norway is called the Norwegian Bible belt, Christianity doesn't play a big part in the rest of the city.


title: Kristiansand

text: There is a Catholic church in Kvadraturen, St. Ansgar's Church. At Slettheia, there is a Latter-day Saint church and at Tinnheia, there is an Orthodox church.


title: Kristiansand

text: The Church of Norway has twelve parishes ("sokn") within the municipality of Kristiansand. It is part of the Kristiansand arch-deanery in the Diocese of Agder og Telemark.


title: Kristiansand

text: There is a Buddhist centre in Vågsbygd with Ternevig. There is also a Buddhist meditation centre located in the neighbouring municipality Songdalen.


title: Kristiansand

text: Christianssands Bryggeri is a producer of beer and soft drinks with a long history in the city. The brewery was established in 1859, and all products are made with spring water from the company's own spring, called "Christian IVs kilde" (Christian IV's spring).


title: Kristiansand

text: Hennig-Olsen is an ice cream factory with headquarters and manufacturing facilities in Kristiansand. The factory opened in 1960, but the Hennig-Olsen family has produced ice cream in Kristiansand since 1924, when Sven Hennig-Olsen started doing so in the back of his tobacco kiosk.


title: Kristiansand

text: Glencore Nikkelverk (nickel factory) was founded in 1910 as Kristiansand Nikkelraffineringsverk A/S. The company is owned by the Anglo-Swiss company Glencore and has about 500 employees.


title: Kristiansand

text: The Korsvik industrial area on the east side of the Kristiansandsfjord is home to companies working on drilling technology, cranes, winches and other equipment for the worldwide petroleum industry, among them National Oilwell Varco and Aker MH.


title: Kristiansand

text: Elkem, owned by China National Bluestar since 2011, operated a refining plant for ferrosilicon and microsilica at Fiskå in Vågsbygd for many years and was replaced in the beginning of the 20th century by Elkem Solar which produces polycrystalline silicon for wafers used in the solar cell industry. It has about 225 employees.


title: Kristiansand

text: Sørlandschips is a Norwegian produced crisps brand. The potatoes often come from Denmark. Sørlandschips owned by Scandza AS and is one of Norway's most popular potato chip brands today. It has a variety of tastes and spices.


title: Kristiansand

text: Dampbageriet is a large bakery chain based in Vest-Agder, it was established in Kristiansand in 1862 and has 4 stores in Kristiansand.


title: Kristiansand

text: Sparebanken Sør is a savings bank serving Vest-Agder, Aust-Agder and Telemark. It was established in 1824 when Christiansand Sparebank opened up, it was one of the first in Norway.


title: Kristiansand

text: Hennig-Olsen Iskremfabrikk is a major Norwegian ice-cream company based and started up in Kristiansand. The factory is located in Hannevika.


title: Kristiansand

text: As a relatively large shipping town, Kristiansand was a profitable location for shipbuilders Kristiansands Mekaniske Verksted and P. Høivolds Mekaniske Verksted. At one time, shipping companies were the backbone of the local economy, but not many survive. The Rasmussen Group, previously a shipping firm, is now an investment company. Kristiansand continues to have major shipbuilding and repair facilities that support Norway's North Sea oil industry. The static inverter plant of the HVDC Cross-Skagerrak is located near Kristiansand.


title: Kristiansand

text: Sørlandsparken (The Southern Norway Park) is an industrial shopping park outside of Kristiansand city in the municipality. The park is also 17 kilometers from Lillesand. The park has an area of and over 5,000 workplaces.


title: Kristiansand

text: The main part of the industrial park is in Kristiansand, including the mall Sørlandssenteret with 195 stores and Kristiansand Zoo, it is the largest mall and zoo in Norway. The racetrack of Southern Norway is also located in Kristiansand while IKEA is located technically in Lillesand municipality.


title: Kristiansand

text: E18 goes past Sørlandsparken before continuing to downtown Kristiansand. Buses are available 6-8 times in the hours all day.


title: Kristiansand

text: The Kristiansand Symphony Orchestra, Chamber Orchestra and Wind Ensemble merged in 2003. The orchestra now performs at the Kilden Performing Arts Centre, which opened in January 2012. This is also the new home of Agder Theatre, founded in 1991.


title: Kristiansand

text: Sørlandets Art Museum is in the centre of Kristiansand, in the former buildings of the cathedral school. It was established in 1995 building on the former collection of Christiansands billedgalleri, and is the second-largest regional art museum in Norway. It includes both fine art and crafts and runs an extensive programme of activities that includes exhibitions of the permanent collection, temporary exhibitions of contemporary art, and touring exhibitions to schools and child-care facilities.


title: Kristiansand

text: Christianssands Kunstforening, now renamed Kristiansand Kunsthall, is one of the oldest and largest art associations in Norway, founded in 1881, and has approximately of exhibition space for contemporary art in central Kristiansand. The association began assembling a permanent collection in 1902; this is now housed in Sørlandets Art Museum.


title: Kristiansand

text: Cultiva, a local foundation, was established to ensure a portion of the profits made from selling shares in Agder Energy Ltd have lasting benefits to the community, focusing on art, culture, creativity and building competence; it supported projects in Kristiansand until the financial crisis forced cut-backs in 2011. In addition the Norwegian Directorate for Cultural Heritage endowed a cultural free port, Porto Rico, as one of the pilot projects of its "value creation project" in the 2000s.


title: Kristiansand

text: In 2007 Kristiansand was awarded the designation Norges kulturkommune (Norway's culture municipality), a distinction awarded every other year by the Norwegian Culture Forum.


title: Kristiansand

text: Fiskebrygga is a former fish landing on either side of the Gravane Canal, which separates the city centre from Odderøya; it was refurbished in the 1990s and now has wood-fronted buildings housing restaurants and shops including a fish market. It is very popular in summer, when the canal is also heavily used by boats.


title: Kristiansand

text: The island of Odderøya is a former fortress and quarantine station, now used for recreation and excursion purposes. At times there are also concerts and festivals on the island.


title: Kristiansand

text: The municipality millennium is Tresse - Retranchement, the city party space in front of Christiansholm Fortress, bottom Festningsgata the Baltic sea. The millennium was celebrated here include a large sign. A small sign to mark the Millennium for the future are made, but per. 2011 not installed in anticipation of the festival grounds shall be given a facelift. It should also dug a channel within the fortress, so this again is left on an island. These projects are waiting for political consideration and funding. Tusenårstreet were planted on the lawn between the festival grounds and playground/ice rink in Tresse.


title: Kristiansand

text: The city's best known football team, IK Start, moved in 2007 to a new home stadium, Sør Arena. The city is also home to other football teams, including Flekkerøy IL, FK Vigør, IK Våg, and FK Donn.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand is also known for its handball teams (Kristiansands IF and Vipers Kristiansand), ice hockey (Kristiansand Ishockeyklubb), basketball (Kristiansand Pirates) and volleyball (Grim VBK) clubs and has a baseball team (Kristiansand Suns).


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand is a summer , attracting many visitors in particular to its zoo, Kristiansand Zoo and Amusement Park, just east of the city. This is the second most visited attraction in Norway, after Holmenkollen, and had 925,000 visitors in 2012. Its animals, most of which are housed in natural habitats, include wolves, tigers, lions and the lynx. The zoo is open 365 days a year, while the amusement park is open during the summer season only.


title: Kristiansand

text: The Quart festival was an annual music festival that took place in Kristiansand over five days in early July. There were large stages on Odderøya and smaller venues around the city. Founded in 1991 as Qvadradurmusivalen, the festival changed its name to the more catchy Quart Festival the following year. It included internationally known performers and was also known for booking acts that later became internationally known. For several years it was the largest music festival in Norway, but beginning in summer 2007 it was challenged by the Hovefestivalen on Tromøya, Arendal, and some Oslo-based festivals. In early June 2008 the organization declared bankruptcy; the festival returned in 2009 under the name Quart, but again went bankrupt.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand is home to many other festivals as well, running throughout the year. Protestfestival, held in September, was launched in 2000 and aims to address apathy and indifference in politics, and includes debates, concerts and lectures combined with performance art and documentaries. Protestfestival claims to attract anarchists, communists, hippies as well as conservative Christians and capitalists and to encourage communication among these radically different groups. Others include Southern Discomfort, also in September, the Bragdøya Blues Festival in June, the Dark Season Festival in October, and Cultural Night and the International Children's Film Festival in April.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand has three police stations. The one in the city center, the main one for Southern Norway, Agder Police District. While on less serious crimes only covers some these parts of Kristiansand, Kvadraturen, Grim and Lund. Vågsbygd police station covers the Vågsbygd district while Randesund police station covers Randesund, Søm, Hånes and Tveit.


title: Kristiansand

text: Most crim-cases reported in Kristiansand takes place on Kvadraturen. In south of Markens gate with Tollbodgata and Dronningens gate which host stores that are open 24 hours as well as many nightclubs. In 2014 it was most reported cases there in the entire city.


title: Kristiansand

text: There were over 56 cases reported in this area and 123 on Kvadraturen in 2013, a decrease from 150 cases in 2012 reported on Kvadraturen. In the Vågsbygd police district it was reported that there were over 50 cases, going down 27% since 2012. At Randesund police station it was 61 cases reported, so had gone down 9% from 2012 to 2013. Outside of Kvadraturen, Vågsbygd and Randesund there were 110 cases reported in the municipality, mostly from Grim.


title: Kristiansand

text: , there were over 350 cases reported for all of Kristiansand. Of these, 34% were committed by minors on Kvadraturen. Most cases on Kvadraturen are narcotics, violence and nonprofit crimes; the majority being shop lifting. Six of the violent crime cases were against police and most violent acts were performed with knives.


title: Kristiansand

text: In crime performed by people under 18, there were most reported 16-year-old boys in 2013. Although adding the numbers of boys and girls together, the largest number of crime for the age was 14. It is simultaneously more that reports a mixed sex image where girls show an equal activity as boys. Some Instead there are also girls who are leading the way. Several executives tells increased used of bullying, intimidation and violence among girls. It looks including out that girls make greater use of social media such behavior. Some also report increased cannabis use among girls. The figures from the police show that nearly one in three young people who commit crimes have minority backgrounds. Of the 163 youths who embarked offense first half is 47 immigrants or Norwegian-born to immigrant parents. This represents 29% of the total number. The decline in the number of young offenders apply primarily the oldest group from 15 to 17 years. Kristiansand has several 14-year-olds than 17-year-olds who commit offenses. Girls make up more current through increased use of threats and violence.


title: Kristiansand

text: Contact from Voiebyen, Vågsbygd, Grim, Søm and Lund expressed concern about boys who challenge them with their behavior by breaking rules, commit vandalism, threaten classmates and try out various drugs. One of the schools have also been several incidents of violence against teachers and classmates. It is composed issues related to several of these students and they have various reasons major challenges in adapting to school requirements and expectations. Several executives from schools stated that they experience an increase in the number of pupils, both boys and girls, who are struggling mentally. They mention students with depression, social anxiety, eating disorder, self-mutilation and sleep problems. This worries them and they fear that some of these students, as a result of their poor mental health, are more vulnerable to make choices that can lead them into the environment with drugs and crime. To meet these challenges and provide these young people needed and customized follow-up, it is crucial to have a holistic focus and a good interdepartmental and interdisciplinary collaboration.


title: Kristiansand

text: Sørlandet Sykehus HF is a hospital group in Southern Norway, they have three hospitals in Flekkefjord, Arendal and the main one on Eg in Kristiansand. It is only a 6 minutes drive from the city centrum Kvadraturen. The headquarter of Sørlandet Sykehus HF is also located in Kristiansand. The hospital has departments in Vågsbygd and Oddernes.


title: Kristiansand

text: Eg hospital is an asylum/psychiatric hospital next to Sørlandet hospital. It was opened in 1881 by dr. Axel H. Lindboe, this became Norway's third insane asylum.


title: Kristiansand

text: St. Josef hospital was a catholic hospital located at Kvadraturen, it was opened in 1885 and driven by his sisters. The hospital closed down in 1967.


title: Kristiansand

text: There are 11 retirement homes in Kristiansand and most of them are located on Kvadraturen. One rehabilitation center, ca 15 fitness centers, 20 dentist offices, 10 medical centers and around 25 pharmacies.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand is an important transport and communications node, connected to continental Europe by air and sea.


title: Kristiansand

text: From the city centre, the ferry harbour has routes to Hirtshals (Denmark) operated by both Color Line and Fjord Line. Color Line operates their MS "Superspeed 1", which entered into service in 2008 and spends approximately 3 hours and 15 minutes on the crossing. The route operates year-round with two crossings each way in one day. Fjord Line operates HSC "Fjord Cat", which is a high-speed catamaran covering the route in around 2 hours and 15 minutes. The ship was built between 1997 and 1998, and has sailed under several different operators on many different routes. It only operates during the high season in the summer.


title: Kristiansand

text: A new catamaran built by Australian shipbuilding company Austal will enter service at the start of summer 2020 and replace "Fjord Cat". The new ship should double the capacity, while retaining the same travel duration of 2 hours and 15 minutes. Fjord Line also aims for the new ship to address complaints with seaworthiness and stability from its predecessor.


title: Kristiansand

text: On 7 April 2022, a direct cruise-ferry service began with Eemshaven, Netherlands, operated by startup company Holland Norway Lines.


title: Kristiansand

text: European Road 18 is the largest highway in Kristiansand. It starts after E39 goes to Denmark before the city bridge on Kvadraturen. E18 continues out Kristiansand municipality and through Arendal, Oslo and ends in Stockholm. European Road 39 starts in Trondheim and has it course through Western Norway before following the coastal municipalities in Vest-Agder. When E39 comes to Kristiansand, it goes to the harbor and continues through Denmark. Norwegian National Road 9 is a road starting in Kristiansand, through Grim and then through Vennesla municipality before leaving Vest-Agder. The national road ends in Telemark at Haukeli, and is the most important road connection for Setesdalen and the surrounding regions.


title: Kristiansand

text: Norwegian National Road 41 starts in Hånes. It is the road out to Kristiansand Airport, Kjevik, it continues to Birkenes and ends in Kviteseid, Telemark. County road 401 is the old E18 before it got upgraded. It starts on Søm and ends in Lillesand, it goes via Høvåg. County road 452 is the old road to Vennesla city centrum. It starts on Lund, then goes through Justvik and Ålefjær before Vennesla municipality. County road 456 is the main road in Vågsbygd and afterwards ending in Søgne. County road 457 takes up from 456 in Voiebyen and ends at Flekkerøy. County road 471 is the largest road in downtown Kristiansand. It ends at Lund and goes besides the university.


title: Kristiansand

text: Buses in the city and surrounding region are operated by Boreal Buss AS, who won the tender from Agder Kollektivtrafikk in 2018 to operate routes for seven years, with an option to extend the period by three years. Previously, Nettbuss Sør (South) operated buses in the region for eight years from 2010 to 2018. All regional bus lines goes through three stops in Kvadraturen. Some bus lines goes vice versa from the west coast to the east coast of the city.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand Bus Terminal or Kristiansand Rutebilstasjon is the main bus terminal for the city, and also acts as a hub for express-buses connecting to Oslo, Stavanger and Haukeli. It is located by the train station Kristiansand S. The bus terminal has local, regional and long-distance bus routes. A new bus terminal was constructed in 2019, replacing the old and outdated building from 1960. The old terminal will be demolished and replaced by a small park and green-space.


title: Kristiansand

text: The local city buses in Kristiansand has their main stop in Kvadraturen with city terminals in the streets Henrik Wergelands gate (eastbond or end for westbound) and Tollbodgata (westbound or end for eastbound), both streets crosses Markens gate. City bus lines 01, A1 starts in Kvadraturen and goes by UiA and Rona. M1, M2, M3, 12, goes by Vågsbygd centrum. 17, 18 joins M1, M2, M3 and 12 for Hannevika. 40, 42, 50 and 45, 46 goes only Hannevika. Line 40, 42, 45, 46 and 50 stops in Kristiansand Bus Terminal expect in the rush hours, while M1, M2, M3, 12, 17 and 18 continues to Henrik Wergelands gate, UiA, Rona, then their destinations. Line 13, 15, 19, 32 and 30 comes north for Kvadraturen and goes by Grim torv. Line 22, 23 only goes by UiA. Line 31 goes Line 35, 36 and 37 goes by Ve, Rona, UiA, Tollbodgata and ends in Kristiansand Bus Terminal. There are also local buses in some of the boroughs like Vågsbygd: Line 51, 52 and 55 goes from neighbourhoods in the borough to Vågsbygd centrum collaborating with M1 or M2 at selective times. Line 57 goes from east to west on the main road in Flekkerøy. Line 58 goes locally in Randesund to Rona.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand Station opened in 1895 and is located in the city centre, close to the ferry terminal. It is owned by Norwegian National Rail Administration. The Sørlandet Line goes through small towns in Vest-Agder and Aust-Agder counties. Express trains go east to Oslo S. Regional lines goes to Stavanger.


title: Kristiansand

text: The local airport, Kjevik, is located east of the city centre and has routes to European and Norwegian cities. A new one-storey parking garage was constructed in 2019.


title: Kristiansand

text: The University of Agder was established in 2007, based on Agder College, which had been founded in 1994 by the amalgamation of six previous institutions: Kristiansand Teacher Training College, Agder District College, Kristiansand College of Nursing, Arendal College of Nursing, Agder Engineering and District College (Grimstad) and Agder Conservatory of Music. The university has about 10,000 students, of whom 7,500 are in Kristiansand and the remaining 2,500 in Grimstad. In Kristiansand it is housed on a campus on the former parade ground of Gimlemoen in the Lund section. The university offers a wide range of studies at all levels, organised into five faculties: Humanities and Education, Engineering and Science, Health and Sport, Economics and Social Sciences, and Fine Arts. Gimlemoen is also the site of Sørlandet kunnskapspark, a research park built with funds from sources including the Cultiva foundation that houses a number of companies with a degree of professional affiliation with the university, such as Agderforskning, a social science research institute that is part of the publishing company Cappelen Damm.


title: Kristiansand

text: Noroff University College was established in 2012 and is a private university offering specialised degrees two in Interactive media (Games or Animation) and Applied Data Science and in Digital Forensics. The University College builds on Noroff's existing vocational school which originally opened in 1987. In addition to the Kristiansand Campus Noroff has facilities in Oslo, Bergen and Stavanger. Noroff has considerable experience in offering online courses and all of the degree courses offered at the University College are available online.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand was a garrison and cathedral town from 1664; Kristiansand Cathedral School was founded in 1684 and a Latin school in 1734. There are currently four public senior secondary schools: Kristiansand Cathedral School Gimle, Vågsbygd High School, Kvadraturen skolesenter and Tangen High School


title: Kristiansand

text: Private senior secondary schools include Sonans utdanning (education). The private school Sørlandets Maritime Senior Secondary School is also based in Kristiansand. This school offers two courses of study, Technology and Industrial Production and maritime subjects. It is a boarding school; students live and undergo training aboard the training ship MS Sjøkurs, a steamer that previously operated on the Hurtigruten.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand is also host to an International School on Kongsgård Alle in Lund. The School opened in January 2008 to provide an international education through English to students from grade 1 to grade 10. This IB authorised school moved into a brand new purpose built building in Summer 2014, to house the expanding school which now has over 100 students.


title: Kristiansand

text: Fædrelandsvennen is the main news paper in Kristiansand and the Kristiansand Region. The paper has around 116 000 readers every day and was founded in 1875. From 2006, the newspaper went from broadsheet to tabloid. Fædrelandsvennen was located at Rådhusgata with Wergelandsparken (A park named after Henrik Wergeland) until 02.27.192 when someone blew up the building and it burned down to the ground. Nobody lost their lives in the incident. The newspaper relocated to Fiskåtangen in Vågsbygd where it located until 2015 when it moved back downtown to Henrik Wergelands gate. Fædrelandsvennen have ownership in many Southern Norway based newspapers, TV-Channels radio stations and other companies.


title: Kristiansand

text: Kristiansand Avis (Kristiansand Newspaper) is a free newspaper paid by ads, and is delivered to all households in the region except Lillesand, Birkenes and Iveland. The newspaper is focused on staying closed to the local people. It comes out each Thursday and had 45 000 readers in 2014.


title: Kristiansand

text: NRK Sørlandet has their main office in Kristiansand. It is the district office for the national broadcasting channel NRK. NRK Sørlandet covers Aust-Agder and Vest-Agder County. They produce 6 hours of radio and one and a half hour of television, in addition to their own website for news for Southern Norway.


title: Anuradhapura

text: Anuradhapura (; ) is a major city located in north central plain of Sri Lanka. It is the capital city of North Central Province, Sri Lanka and the capital of Anuradhapura District. The city lies north of the current capital of Colombo in the North Central Province, on the banks of the historic Malvathu River. The city is now a World Heritage Site famous for its well-preserved ruins of the ancient Sinhalese civilization.


title: Anuradhapura

text: While Mahavamsa place the founding of the city in 437 , the site has been inhabited for much longer, making it a major human settlement on the island for almost three millennia and one of the oldest continuously occupied cities in Asia. It is the cradle of the Hydraulic Sinhalese civilization, Theravada Buddhism, and the longest-serving ancient capital of Sri Lanka that has survived for 1500 years. Moreover, It was the first capital of the Sinhalese kingdom of Rajarata, following the kingdoms of Tambapanni and Upatissa Nuwara. Anuradhapura was also the center of Theravada Buddhism for many centuries and has been a major Buddhist pilgrimage site with ruins of many ancient Buddhist temples, including the famous Mahāvihāra and the Jaya Sri Maha Bodhi, the oldest still-living, documented, planted tree in the world and that is believed to have originally been a branch of the sacred fig tree at Bodh Gaya (Bihar, India), under which Gautama Buddha attained Enlightenment. These vast network of ancient temples and monasteries now cover over 40 sq km of area of the city today.


title: Anuradhapura

text: The city was mostly destroyed and largely deserted after 993 , with the Cholar invasion from South India. Although several attempts were made by later Sinhalese kings to return the capital to Anuradhapura, it was not re-established as a major population center of the island until the British colonial era in the 19th century . The revival of the current city began in earnest in the 1870s. The contemporary city, much of which was moved during the mid-20th century to preserve the site of the ancient capital, is a major road junction of northern Sri Lanka and lies along a railway line. The city is the headquarters of Sri Lanka’s archaeological survey, and tourism is a significant factor in its economy.


title: Anuradhapura

text: According to historical records such as Mahavamsa, the origin of the name Anuradhapura is traced to the minister named 'Anuradha' in the court of Prince Vijaya (543–505 ), the first Sinhalese king of the island. According to the legends related to Vijaya, his minister named 'Anuradha' established the settlement that later became Anuradhapura. However, the finding of earlier settlements in the citadel area of the old city dating back to until 10 century would doubt this claim.


title: Anuradhapura

text: The name 'Anuradhapura' means the 'city of Anuradha' (Anuradha+pura), where "pura" stand for 'city' in Sanskrit, Pali, and Sinhala. However, before Anuradhapura was considered a city, it was called the 'Anuradhagrama,' meaning the 'village of Anuradha' (Anuradha+grama). This older name was also mentioned in the work of ancient Greek and Roman scholars such as Strabo and Claudius Ptolemy. In Ptolemy's world map from 2 century , the place was named 'Anourogrammoi.' Thus, It is believed that the expansion of this earlier smaller settlement called Anuradhagrama into a city during the reign of Sinhalese king Pandukabhaya (474–367 ) in 437 caused the change of the name to Anuradhapura.


title: Anuradhapura

text: Anuradhapura is the best representation of the beginnings of pre-modern urbanization in Sri Lanka. The development of the initial settlement at the site of the city can be attributed to the second global cycle of historical evolution with the generalized diffusion of iron technology in the Old World through the first millennium , culminating in the emergence of many historical civilizations. The history of Anuradhapura then extends from its traditional founding in the recorded history in the fourth century and its subsequent laying-out by Devanampiya Tissa (250–210 ) to its abandonment by the last of the Anuradhapura kings at the end of the tenth century , its brief reoccupation in the eleventh century and the restoration of some of its major monuments, in the third quarter of the twelfth century.


title: Anuradhapura

text: Even though, historical chronicle "Mahāvaṃsa" (5th century ) place founding of the city in the 5th century BC, the archaeological data from the excavation of the citadel area of the old city puts the date of the human settlement as far back as the 10th century BC. According to these excavations, protohistoric Iron Age of the city spans from 900 - 600 , with the appearance of iron technology, pottery, the horse, domestic cattle and paddy cultivation. In the time period 700 -600 the settlement in Anuradhapura had grown over an area of at least 50 ha. Irrigable and fertile land surround the city, strategically situated with major ports northwest and northeast of the island. The city also benefited from dense jungle surroundings, providing a natural defense from invaders.


title: Anuradhapura

text: Details of city's development in this early historic period, spanning from 500 to 250 can be found in Sinhalese Chronicles. According to these records, King Pandukabhaya formally planned the city with gates and quarters for traders. The city at the time covered an area of one square kilometer, making it one of the largest cities on the continent at the time.The city was largely deserted after the invasion by the Chola Tamil Hindu king Rajaraja 1 in 993 and his son Rajendra 1 in 1014 . According to Culavamsa (6th century -18th century ), Anuradhapura was "utterly destroyed in every way by the Chola army. Still, the place was continuously inhabited after this event as indicated by records of visitors to the island such as Robert Knox and others. Thus, the city was the longest-serving Sinhalese capital of Sri Lanka from the 5th century BCE (437 ) until the 11th century (1017 flourishing for around 1,500 years.


title: Anuradhapura

text: Anuradhapura was a major intellectual center for early Theravada Buddhism, home to revered Buddhist philosophers including Buddhaghosa.


title: Anuradhapura

text: During the reign of Dhatusena (455-473) a redaction of the Theravada Buddhist canon took place while at the same time 18 new vihara (temple complexes) were built and a statue erected for Mahinda, the Indian prince-monk who introduced Buddhism to the island.


title: Anuradhapura

text: During the late Anuradhapura period, the royal family and nobility of Sri Lanka strongly supported Buddhism. As such, they frequently commissioned works of art and donated these items to Buddhist temples. In return, the temple and local Buddhist community supported the king's rule. Artworks featuring depictions of Avalokitesvara, the Bodhisattva of Mercy and Compassion, became increasingly popular.


title: Anuradhapura

text: The area was sparsely inhabited for many centuries, but the local population remained aware of the ruins. In Robert Knox's 1681 "An Historical Relation of the Island Ceylon", he wrote: "At this City of Anurodgburro is a Watch kept, beyond which are no more people that yield obedience to the King of Candy". In 1821, John Davy wrote that: "Anooradapoora, so long the capital of Ceylon, is now a small mean village, in the midst of a desert. A large tank, numerous stone pillars, two or three immense tumuli, (probably old dagobahs,) are its principal remains. It is still considered a sacred spot; and is a place of pilgrimage."


title: Anuradhapura

text: Anuradhapura became the center of administration of the North Central Province and with the building of the "Northern Railway line", Anuradhapura became an important railway town with the opening of the Anuradhapura railway station in 1904. The Government of Ceylon tasked Oliver Weerasinghe to develop the Anuradhapura Preservation Plan in 1949, aimed at establishing a new planned town east of the existing Anuradhapura town, thereby establishing the Sacred city of Anuradhapura, with the aim of preserving the ancient city. The "New Town" had many of the government offices and law courts moved into it. The Anuradhapura Preservation Board was established with this aim.


title: Anuradhapura

text: He was arguably the best known of all government agents of his time. His stature ensured that the voice of Anuradhapura was heard at the highest levels in Colombo. Apart from being Government Agent, he was Chairman of the Anuradhapura Preservation Board. This was the time when the city of Anuradhapura was in a period of historic transition. The new town of Anuradhapura was being built, and the residents of the old were being transferred to the new town. It was a time of some tension and of excitement. He managed this process of change with courage and remarkable political skills. While in Anuradhapura, he unveiled a memorial for H. R. Freeman, a popular British Government Agent who later was elected by the people of the district to represent them in the 1st State Council of Ceylon. Coming events cast their shadows before. A striking feature of Wijeyeratne's Anuradhapura days was his great ability to see the bigger picture and focus on the key issues, and delegate responsibilities to his staff officers. He was never one to be enmeshed in detail. He also set up the Sacred City of Anuradhapura shifted the urban city to the newly created Anuradhapura town and is responsible for the establishment of Anuradhapura Airport.


title: Anuradhapura

text: The Northern railway line connects Anuradhapura with Colombo, Jaffna, and Kankesanthurai. Anuradhapura railway station is the city's rail gateway, with major services, such as the Yal Devi, Uttara Devi stopping there.


title: Anuradhapura

text: There are a number of bus routes passing through Anuradhapura from Colombo to the northern province. Some of them are 04, 15, 57, 87 etc.


title: Anuradhapura

text: Anuradhapura is a central city in Sri Lanka. It is directly connected by road to a large number of major cities and towns on the island. By road, it is connected to Vavuniya, Dambulla, Matale, Puttalam, Trincomalee, Jaffna, Kurunegala and Kandy.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: As the first shooter game in the "Final Fantasy" series, the game's staff had various problems during development, and producer Yoshinori Kitase found the experience challenging. The team added role-playing elements in order to make the game more entertaining for traditional fans of the main series. When "Dirge of Cerberus" was released outside Japan, several aspects of the gameplay were modified in order to make it more appealing. In 2008, Square republished the game in Japan with the updates made for the Western versions. It has received a mixed critical reaction.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: "Dirge of Cerberus" is an action role-playing third-person shooter. Battles occur in real-time, with the HUD displaying information such as Vincent's hit points and magic points, the currently selected item and quantity thereof, and a cross-hair to aid in targeting enemies. The action is viewed from an over-the-shoulder perspective similar to "Resident Evil 4", although players can switch to a first-person perspective if they wish. Defeating enemies yields EXP, and at the end of each stage, the player can either use that EXP to level up, increasing Vincent's stats, or convert it to Gil (the in-game currency), which can then be used to purchase items and equipment upgrades.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: Unlike "Final Fantasy VII", where a character could equip three types of equipment (weapon, armor, and accessory), Vincent's equipment consists solely of his weapon, which can contribute to his armor rating and enhance his stats through customization. Vincent has three basic gun frames available to him; a three-barrel handgun called Cerberus, a rifle called Hydra, and a machine gun called Griffon. There are also several different barrels available throughout the game; short, regular, and long, with longer barrels allowing easier long-range targeting, but reducing Vincent's movement speed due to their weight. Accessories, which can be attached to the weapons, include a sniper scope, charms that can increase Vincent's defense and decrease the weight of the gun (among other things), and materia, which enables magic shots with special properties that use up Vincent's magic points. Ammunition capacity can also be increased through upgrades.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: Vincent's Limit Breaks return from the original "Final Fantasy VII". Two forms are available in "Dirge of Cerberus". The first is Galian Beast, in which Vincent transforms into a large creature with enhanced speed and strength that last for 30 seconds. The second is Chaos, Vincent's most powerful form, which is only available in the final stages of the game and is not optional.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: "Dirge of Cerberus" centers on Vincent Valentine, who is the main playable character, although Cait Sith is also playable for a single level. The game's main antagonists are the members of an organization named Deepground, who are planning to use a creature known as Omega to destroy all life on the Planet. Their highest-ranking members are known as the Tsviets, and their leader is Weiss the Immaculate. The second highest-ranking member is Weiss' brother, Nero the Sable, who leads Deepground in the field. Other members of the Tsviets include Rosso the Crimson, Shelke the Transparent and Azul the Cerulean.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: The online mode of the game, which is only available in the Japanese version, also introduces a group called the Restrictors, the former leaders of Deepground before Weiss took over. The Restrictors' leader had implanted microchips into the brainstems of all Deepground soldiers so as to ensure they never turn against the group. However, Weiss was able to overcome this control method, and the Tsviets wrenched control from the Restrictors. Although Weiss was successful in overthrowing the Restrictors, the leader of the Restrictors was able to implant a virus into Weiss' bloodstream.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: The game begins during the climax of "Final Fantasy VII". As Vincent and Yuffie Kisaragi help to evacuate Midgar, which is about to be destroyed by Sephiroth's Meteor spell, Vincent finds the body of Professor Hojo slumped at the controls of the Sister Ray cannon. After a flash of lightning, Hojo's body seems to disappear, and before Vincent can investigate, the cannon explodes, forcing Vincent to escape with Yuffie.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: Three years later, Vincent is in the town of Kalm when it is attacked by a group of mysterious soldiers. Vincent, with the help of his former comrade, Reeve Tuesti of the World Regenesis Organization (WRO), an organization dedicated to helping the planet recover from the events of "Final Fantasy VII", fights the soldiers and forces them to retreat, but not before many of the citizens of the town have been captured, and many more killed.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: Reeve explains to Vincent that the soldiers were members of Deepground, a military organization created as part of a covert Shinra operation to create genetically enhanced super soldiers. Vincent soon learns that he is one of Deepground's primary targets, as he is unknowingly in possession of "Protomateria", a substance which he uses to control the "Chaos" gene hidden inside him. Deepground claims they need the Protomateria to control "Omega". According to ancient tablets discovered some years previously, Chaos and Omega have an unknown but important relationship, with Chaos described as "Omega's squire to the lofty heavens." The Chaos gene was injected into Vincent over thirty years previously by the scientist Lucrecia Crescent, Hojo's research assistant, with whom Vincent was in love.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: In an effort to find answers, Vincent goes to the town of Nibelheim where Lucrecia studied Omega and Chaos. Whilst at Lucrecia's research lab, Vincent is ambushed by Rosso the Crimson, who steals the Protomateria but is prevented from killing Vincent by the arrival of Yuffie. As they return to the WRO headquarters, they find that Deepground has launched an assault on the base. However, Deepground member Shelke the Transparent has been captured by the WRO, and reveals that she is synaptically interconnected to Lucrecia's memories, thus allowing the WRO to complete Lucrecia's research on Omega. Shelke's sister, Shalua Rui, a high-ranking scientist in the WRO, soon discovers that Omega is a WEAPON, which activates when the Planet senses that it is in mortal danger (like the WEAPONs it activated in the original "Final Fantasy VII"). Omega's function is to absorb the Lifestream from the Planet and then move to another planet, leaving the inhabitants behind to die. Deepground plans to slaughter a huge number of people at once so as to 'trick' the planet into activating Omega prematurely.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: Vincent and the WRO launch a full-scale assault on Deepground's headquarters in Midgar. While Reeve's team battles the Deepground soldiers and attempt to destroy the Mako reactors which serve as a means to revive Omega, Vincent heads to Deepground's centre of operations to confront Weiss. He is surprised to find Weiss slumped in his chair, dead. However, as Omega begins to manifest itself, Weiss seems to revive, and confronts Vincent. It is revealed that Weiss is possessed by Hojo; before Hojo was killed in the Mako Cannon three years earlier, he uploaded his consciousness into the Worldwide Network, then took possession of Weiss's body while he was online attempting to find a cure for the virus with which the Restrictors had infected him. Hojo/Weiss and Vincent battle to a standstill. However Nero, who had been defeated earlier by Vincent, emerges from the Lifestream and destroys Hojo. Nero then merges with Weiss in order to help him fuse with Omega, just as Vincent is fused with Chaos.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: While the WRO continues to fight the remnants of Deepground, Vincent transforms into Chaos in a desperate attempt to defeat Omega Weiss. Shelke dives inside Omega to find Lucrecia's Protomateria, and upon finding it, she gives it to Vincent, also telling him that his survival made Lucrecia happy. Vincent then takes control of Chaos and battles Omega. Omega sprouts wings and tries to ascend from the planet, but Vincent manages to destroy it, disappearing in the process. A week later, he is seen visiting Lucrecia's crystalline tomb in the Crystal Cave. He states that both Chaos and Omega have returned to the Planet, and he thanks Lucrecia for being the reason he survived. He is then found by Shelke outside the cave, and she tells him that everyone else is waiting for him.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: In the secret ending of the game, "G", a legendary warrior with unexplained connections to Deepground, awakes beneath the ruins of Midgar. He finds Weiss's body and picks it up. He tells the dead Weiss, "It is not yet time for slumber. We still have much work to do... My brother." He then sprouts a large black wing and flies into the night carrying Weiss with him. The "Crisis Core Ultimania", however, explains that "G" (Genesis) has returned from his three-year slumber to protect the Planet.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: When "" began development, the Square Enix staff agreed that one title from "Compilation of Final Fantasy VII" was not enough to cover the entire world, and so "", "Dirge of Cerberus" and "" were conceived so as to embrace more aspects. With no official word from Square on the genre of the game, many publications and gamers speculated that it would be an action game similar to the "Devil May Cry" series. In 2004, however, character designer Tetsuya Nomura denied this, and stated that the genre would surprise gamers. Producer Yoshinori Kitase decided the title to be a shooting game based on his love for first-person shooters and the challenge provided for the developers that would eventually improve their skills. He said that role-playing elements were added as the design work on pure action games was less appealing to developers. Monolith Soft assisted on development.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: Vincent was chosen as the game's protagonist due to the scope for expanding his backstory, which was left very vague in "Final Fantasy VII". The fact that his main weapon was a gun also worked into the team's desire to create a more action-oriented game. Prior to the solidification of the "Compilation of Final Fantasy VII", the development team originally considered using other gunfighter characters from the "Final Fantasy" series, such as "Final Fantasy VII"s Barret Wallace, "Final Fantasy VIII"s Irvine Kinneas or "Final Fantasy X-2"s Yuna. However, after the release of "Before Crisis" and "Advent Children", and with the expansion of the "Final Fantasy VII" mythos, they settled on Vincent.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: The main character designer for the game, Tetsuya Nomura, had also worked on both "Final Fantasy VII" and "Final Fantasy VII: Advent Children". The Tsviets were designed with the idea of creating a sense of balance for the warriors with which players would already be familiar; primarily Vincent, Cloud Strife and Sephiroth. Nomura initially had doubts when designing Shelke's ordinary clothes for the end of the game, but he felt it was important for her to appear out of uniform so as to indicate she was truly free from Deepground. The character of G was based on the Japanese singer and actor Gackt, who wrote and performed the two theme songs of the game, and voiced G in the Japanese-language version of the game. Hideki Imaizumi, the producer of "Crisis Core", liked the mysterious role of G so much, he decided to expand his character in that game. The character of Lucrecia Crescent, who features briefly in an optional quest in the original game, was redesigned so as to give her a similar appearance to her son, Sephiroth, based on portraits from guidebooks and in fan-art. Reeve Tuesti was also redesigned, as he only appears briefly in the original game as himself rather than through Cait Sith.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: "Dirge of Cerberus" was first announced in September 2004, and was scheduled for release in Japan in 2005. The game's official site went online in April 2005. In May, Nomura stated that several snippets from the game would be revealed during that year's E3. However, no demo was shown at E3, as the staff were still trying to fix some issues with the controls in the game. In September, the beta test program was postponed indefinitely. Listed as 60% complete, the company stated if the beta test started with the game's current state, they would not be able to fully utilize the beta testers.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: The North American and European releases of "Dirge of Cerberus" received a major overhaul as the developers were not completely satisfied with the final Japanese version of the game. They also wanted to make the game more single-player oriented, and as such, they removed Online Multiplayer support, primarily due to the lack of popularity of PlayOnline outside Japan, and lack of PS2 HDD support in the U.S. Missions from the Multiplayer Mode were reworked into unlockable secret missions in the English-language versions of the game, although none of the additional storyline presented in the Japanese Multiplayer Mode featured in the English versions. The Easy Mode, which was originally featured in the Japanese version to assist gamers not overly familiar with shooter games, was also removed. On September 11, 2008, the English-language version was released in Japan as , as part of Square's Ultimate Hits lineup.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: The soundtrack for the game was composed by Masashi Hamauzu. Japanese singer and actor Gackt wrote and performed the two theme songs, "Longing" and "Redemption". For the game's ending theme, "Redemption", the staff originally planned for it to be a ballad, but Gackt decided to make it a rock song instead. Upon hearing Gackt's ideas, the staff were pleased with the direction in which he had gone. The CD soundtrack, "Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII Original Soundtrack", was released on February 15, 2006 in Japan. Consisting of two CDs, the soundtrack spanned 53 tracks. A limited edition of the soundtrack includes a "Cerberus Complete Case" deluxe box designed to hold the soundtrack along with the "Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII" PS2 game and the limited edition of Gackt's single for the game, "Redemption". This single was released on January 25, 2006. A limited edition was also released featuring two "Redemption" video clips; Gackt's promotional music video, and an alternate video using clips from the game.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: A supplemental soundtrack was released through the Japanese iTunes service and the Square-Enix Music Download page on August 22, 2006. Titled "Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII Multiplayer Mode Original Sound Collections", this album consists of 27 tracks, including several songs from the single player game which were not included in the official soundtrack, as well as all of the original music composed for the multiplayer mode, and two new songs composed by Ryo Yamazaki for the North American release of the game.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: "Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII" shipped 392,000 units in its first week. On August 31, 2008, Square Enix announced that 460,000 units were sold in North America and 270,000 units in Europe. As of November 2008, over 513,000 copies of the game have been sold in Japan alone. In July 2006, "Dirge of Cerberus" was in Sony's Gold category of top-selling video games (the Gold category includes games which have sold anything from 500,000 units to 1 million).


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: "Dirge of Cerberus" received similarly mixed reviews from critics. At GameRankings, the game holds a score of 60%. The combined score from Metacritic is 57 out of 100 based on 51 reviews. GameSpot stated that the game "does have a few interesting and even entertaining moments, but will ultimately leave action game fans and Final Fantasy fans feeling unfulfilled." Despite stating it is not "the best use of the "Final Fantasy VII" universe," "IGN" called it "a decent game with a strong story and occasionally-engaging rifle blasting." "1UP.com" criticized the enemies' artificial intelligence and weak scenarios, and labeling the story "boring." Reviewers from "Electronic Gaming Monthly" Shane Bettenhausen stated that he found all of the titles in the "Compilation of Final Fantasy VII" to be unappealing. Eurogamer found that "Dirge of Cerberus" was a "risky gamble" by Square Enix, as their first shooter, and he criticized the fact that most of the main characters in the game were either optional in "Final Fantasy VII" or had only small roles. "GameSpy" called its gameplay and plot "interesting", but found other aspects generic. "GameTrailers" praised the game's storyline, calling it "convoluted, but incredibly impressive in its scope." They also praised the changes Square had made to the Western versions but found the game to be very similar to "Devil May Cry", and felt that it didn't make good enough use of Vincent's abilities. While the CGI cutscenes and designs also received positive comments, the lack of variety in enemy types was criticized. "G4" game review show, "X-Play", responded negatively, citing poor level design, weak gameplay, too many cutscenes, and bad AI.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: was co-developed by Square Enix and Ideaworks3D, and published by Square Enix. Unveiled at the 2006 E3, the game was released on August 22, 2006 in North America and July 26, 2007 in Japan. Initially only available on Amp'd Mobile phones, the game was subsequently made available on Verizon's V Cast network. It was also unveiled as a flagship title for NTT DoCoMo's FOMA 903i handset at the 2006 Tokyo Game Show. The title initially contained only a single player mode, with a multiplayer function introduced at a later date. "Lost Episode" involves a 'missing' chapter of "Dirge of Cerberus" taking place between two events of the main game.


title: Dirge of Cerberus: Final Fantasy VII

text: IGN called it "passable", arguing that the graphics did not fit the mobile phone, causing a sense of imbalance.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SpaceX Starship development began in 2012, when Elon Musk, CEO of American aerospace company SpaceX, first publicly described a high-level plan to build a reusable rocket system with substantially greater capabilities than the Falcon 9 and the (then- planned) Falcon Heavy. The rocket evolved through many design and name changes. On July 25th 2019, the "Starhopper" prototype performed the first successful flight at SpaceX Starbase near Boca Chica, Texas. The SN15 prototype rocket was the first full size test spacecraft to take off and land successfully, in May 2021.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: As early as 2007, Musk stated a personal goal of eventually enabling human exploration and settlement of Mars. SpaceX began development of the Raptor rocket engine (the engine used in Starship) before 2014. From 2011 to 2014, Musk made various statements expressing his hope that SpaceX would send humans to Mars in the 2020s to 2030s.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In October 2012, Musk first publicly articulated a plan to build a fully reusable rocket system with substantially greater capabilities than the Falcon 9. The launch vehicle was described as part of the company's Mars system architecture, then known as Mars Colonial Transporter (MCT). The idea included reusable rocket engines, launch vehicles and space capsules to transport humans to Mars and return them to Earth. SpaceX CEO Gwynne Shotwell mentioned that the payload could reach 150–200 tons to low Earth orbit. The MCT vehicle was to be "an evolution of SpaceX's Falcon 9 booster ... much bigger [than Falcon 9]."


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In June 2013, Musk stated that he intended to defer SpaceX's IPO until after the "Mars Colonial Transporter is flying regularly."


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In February 2014, the principal payload for the MCT was announced to be a large interplanetary spacecraft, capable of carrying up to of passengers and cargo. According to SpaceX engine development head Tom Mueller, SpaceX could use nine Raptor engines on a single rocket, just as the Falcon 9 booster used nine Merlin engines. The rocket would be at least in diameter — nearly three times the diameter and over seven times the cross-sectional area of the Falcon 9 booster cores. It was expected to have up to three cores totaling at least 27 engines.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In 2016, Musk abandoned the Mars Colonial Transporter name, as the system would be able to "go well beyond Mars", in favor of Interplanetary Transport System (ITS). That year he unveiled details of the space mission architecture, launch vehicle, spacecraft, and Raptor engines. The first firing of a Raptor engine occurred on a test stand in September 2016.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In October 2016, Musk indicated that the initial prepreg carbon-fiber tank test article, built with no sealing liner, had performed well in cryogenic fluid testing. A pressure test at approximately 2/3 of the design burst pressure was completed in November 2016.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In July 2017, Musk indicated that the architecture had evolved since 2016 in order to support commercial transport via Earth-orbit and cislunar launches.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The ITS stack was composed of two stages. The first stage was to be a launch booster, while the second stages would be either an "Interplanetary Spaceship" for crewed transport or an "ITS tanker" for orbital refueling. Both stages were to be powered by Raptors.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The Raptor was a bipropellant liquid rocket engine in a full flow staged combustion cycle, with liquid methane fuel and liquid oxygen oxidizer. Both propellants would enter the combustion chamber in the gas phase. A bleed-off of the high-pressure gas would provide autogenous pressurization of the propellant tanks, eliminating the Falcon 9's problematic high-pressure helium pressurization system.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The overall launch vehicle height, (first and second stages), was . Both stages were to have been constructed of lightweight carbon fiber, including the deep-cryogenic propellant tanks, a major change from the Falcon 9's aluminum-lithium alloy tank and structure material. Both stages were to be fully reusable and land vertically. Gross liftoff mass was to be at a lift-off thrust of . ITS was to carry a payload to low Earth orbit of in expendable-mode and in reusable mode.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The ITS booster was a , , reusable first stage, to be powered by 42 sea-level rated engines each producing some of thrust. Total booster thrust would have been approximately at liftoff, several times the thrust of the Saturn V.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The engine configuration included 21 engines in an outer ring and 14 in an inner ring. The center cluster of seven engines was to be gimbaled for directional control, although some directional control was to be performed via differential thrust on the fixed engines. Thrust on each engine was aimed to vary between 20 and 100 percent of rated thrust.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The propellants would also power the reaction control thrusters, while in the gas phase. These thrusters would control booster orientation in space, as well as improve accuracy during landing.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The design goal was to achieve a separation velocity of approximately while retaining about 7% of the initial propellant to achieve a vertical landing at the launch pad.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The design called for grid fins to guide the booster during atmospheric reentry. The booster return flights were expected to encounter loads lower than the Falcon 9, principally because the ITS would have both a lower mass ratio and a lower density. The booster was to be designed for 20 "g" nominal loads, and possibly as high as 30–40 "g".


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In contrast to the landing approach used on SpaceX's mid-2010s reusable rocket first stages—either a large, flat concrete pad or downrange floating landing platform, the ITS booster was to designed to land on the launch mount itself, for immediate refueling and relaunch.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The ITS did not have a dedicated single-function second stage for achieving orbit. Instead, the second stage function of reaching orbit was a secondary role for a spacecraft capable of long-duration spaceflight.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The Interplanetary Spaceship was a large passenger-carrying spacecraft design proposed in September 2016. The ship would operate as a second-stage, and as an interplanetary transport vehicle for cargo and passengers. The Interplanetary Spaceship would be able to transport up to per trip to Mars following refueling in Earth orbit. The three sea-level Raptor engines would be used for maneuvering, descent, and landing, as well as an initial ascent from the Mars surface.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The ITS tanker was a second stage propellant tanker variant. It was designed to transport up to of propellants to low Earth orbit to refuel Interplanetary Spaceships. After refueling operations, it was to land and be prepared for another flight.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Both stages were to be designed to be fully reusable and were to land vertically, using Falcon 9-generation technologies.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Importantly, the "fully and rapidly reusable" aspect of the ITS design was the largest factor in the SpaceX analysis for reducing the cost of transporting mass to space. While the 2016-17 system under development relied on several cost-reducing elements, reusability alone was claimed to reduce that cost by approximately orders of magnitude over NASA's previous missions. Musk stated that this was over half of the orders of magnitude that he claimed was needed to enable a sustainable beyond-Earth settlement.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In September 2017, at the 68th annual meeting of the International Astronautical Congress, Musk announced a new launch vehicle called the Big Falcon Rocket (BFR). He said, "we are searching for the right name, but the code name, at least, is BFR." Its goal was to send two cargo missions to Mars in 2022, with the goal to "confirm water resources and identify hazards" while deploying "power, mining, and life support infrastructure" for future flights. This would be followed by four ships in 2024, two crewed BFR spaceships plus two cargo-only ships carrying equipment and supplies for a propellant plant.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The design balanced objectives such as payload mass, landing capabilities, and reliability. The initial design showed the ship with six Raptor engines (two sea-level, four vacuum) down from nine in the previous ITS design. The engine layout, reentry aerodynamic surface designs, and even the basic material of construction each changed thereafter.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: By September 2017, Raptors had been test-fired for a combined total of 20 minutes across 42 test cycles. The longest test was 100 seconds, limited by the size of the propellant tanks. The test engine operated at . The flight engine aimed for , on the way to in later iterations. In November 2017, Shotwell indicated that approximately half of all development work on BFR was focused on the engine.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SpaceX looked for manufacturing sites in California, Texas, Louisiana, and Florida. By September 2017, SpaceX had started building launch vehicle components: "The tooling for the main tanks has been ordered, the facility is being built, we will start construction of the first ship [in the second quarter of 2018.]"


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: By early 2018, the first carbon composite prototype ship was under construction, and SpaceX had begun building a new production facility at the Port of Los Angeles.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In March, SpaceX announced that it would manufacture its launch vehicle and spaceship at a new facility on Seaside Drive at the port. By May, approximately 40 SpaceX employees were working on the BFR. SpaceX planned to transport the launch vehicle by barge, through the Panama Canal, to Cape Canaveral for launch.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In August 2018, the US military publicly expressed interest in using BFR. The head of USAF Air Mobility Command was specifically interested in its ability to move up to of cargo anywhere in the world in under 30 minutes, for "less than the cost of a C-5".


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The upper stage, known as Big Falcon Ship (BFS), included a small delta wing at the rear end with split flaps for pitch and roll control. The delta wing and split flaps were said to expand the flight envelope to allow the ship to land in a variety of atmospheric densities (vacuum, thin, or heavy atmosphere) with a wide range of payloads. The BFS originally had six Raptor engines, with four vacuum and two sea-level. By late 2017, SpaceX added a third sea-level engine (totaling 7) to increase engine-out capability and allow greater payload landings.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Three BFS versions were described: BFS cargo, BFS tanker, and BFS crew. The cargo version would be used to reach Earth orbit as well as carry cargo to the Moon or Mars. After refueling in an elliptical Earth orbit, BFS could land on the Moon and return to Earth without another refueling.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Additionally, the BFR could theoretically carry passengers/cargo in Earth-to-Earth transport, delivering its payload anywhere within 90 minutes.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In 2018 Musk announced a planned 2023 lunar circumnavigation mission ("#dearMoon project)." He showed a redesigned BFR concept with three rear fins and two front canard fins, replacing the previous delta wing and split flaps. The revised design used seven Raptor engines and had two small actuating canard fins near the nose, and three large fins at the base, two of which would actuate, with all three serving as landing legs.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The two major parts were renamed to Starship (second stage) and Super Heavy (booster stage). In 2019, SpaceX began to refer to the Starship/Super Heavy combination as the SpaceX Starship system.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In January 2019, Musk announced a major design change: Starship and Super Heavy would be made from stainless steel instead of carbon fiber. His stated reason was that "stainless steel was "obviously cheap, it's obviously fast—but it's not obviously the lightest. But it is actually the lightest. If you look at the properties of a high-quality stainless steel, the thing that isn't obvious is that at cryogenic temperatures, the strength is boosted by 50 percent." The high melting point of 300-series steel would eliminate the need for a heat shield on Starship's space-facing side, while the much hotter Earth-facing side would be cooled by allowing fuel or water to bleed through micropores in a double-wall stainless steel skin, removing heat by evaporation.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In 2019, the design reverted to six Raptor engines, with three optimized for sea-level and three optimized for vacuum. Initial Super Heavy test flights would use fewer engines, perhaps approximately 20.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Later in 2019 Musk stated that Starship was expected to have empty mass of and be able to initially transport a payload of , growing to over time. Musk hinted at an expendable variant that could place 250,000 kg into low orbit.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The Raptor design was refined, higher thrust versions. The initial 37 engines were reduced to 31 in 2020. Musk stated that SpaceX would complete hundreds of cargo flights before carrying human passengers.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In February 2021 SpaceX completed raising in additional equity financing. In April, SpaceX publicly forecast that Earth to Earth passenger flights would be common within five years.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Atmospheric descent tests in 2020-2021 emboldened SpaceX to make Starship's body flaps narrower and lighter.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SpaceX prototypes are subjected to many tests before one is launched. Proof pressure tests come first. The tanks are filled with a liquid or gas to test their strength and safety factor. SpaceX tests some tanks beyond the specified limit, to find the point at which they burst. The engines were tested in later prototypes, while the vehicle remained tethered to the ground (static fire). After passing these tests vehicles launch, either flying within the atmosphere, or reaching orbit.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Construction on the initial steel test article—Starship Hopper, Hopper, Hoppy, or Starhopper"" began at Boca Chica in 2018. Starhopper had a single engine and was test flown to develop landing and low-altitude/low-velocity control algorithms.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: It passed tanking tests, wet dress rehearsals, and pre-burner tests. A storm blew over and damaged Starhopper's nose cone. SpaceX continued testing without one.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SpaceX began building two high-altitude prototypes simultaneously, Mk1 in Texas and Mk2 in Florida, using competing teams that shared progress, insights, and build techniques. These vehicles featured three Raptor methalox engines and were meant to reach an altitude . An Mk3 prototype began construction in late-2019.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: On 25 July, a "Starhopper" test flight reached approximately altitude, followed by a 27 August test that rose to and landed approximately from the launchpad, the Raptor's first use in flight.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Mk1 was in diameter and approximately tall, with an empty mass of . It was intended for testing flight and reentry profiles, in pursuit of a suborbital flight. When announced, it boasted three sea-level Raptors, two fins each at the front and back, and a nose cone containing cold-gas reaction control thrusters. all of which were removed thereafter.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: In December 2019, Musk redesignated Mk3 as Starship SN1 and predicted that minor design improvements would continue through SN20. In January 2020, SpaceX performed pressurization tests in Boca Chica. One test intentionally destroyed the tank by over-pressurizing it to . Another tank underwent at least two pressurization tests; the first failed at . After repairs the tank was cryogenic pressure tested (29 January), and ruptured at . The test was considered a success as 8.5 represented a safety factor of 1.4 times the operational pressure.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SpaceX began stacking SN1 in February 2020 after successful pressurization tests on propellant tank prototypes. SN1 was destroyed during a cryogenic pressurization test (28 February) due to a design flaw in the lower tank thrust structure.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN4 passed cryogenic pressure testing (26 April) and two static fires (5 and 7 May): one tested the main tanks, while the other tested the fuel header tank. After uninstalling the engine, a new cryogenic pressure test was conducted (19 May). A leak in the methane fuel piping ignited, causing significant damage to the rocket's base, destroying the control wiring. SN4 was destroyed (29 May), due to a failure with the Ground Support Equipment's quick-disconnect function.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: After a static fire test (30 July), SN5 completed a 150-meter flight (4 August) with engine SN27. SN6 completed a static fire (24 August) and a 150-meter hop test flight with engine SN29 (3 September).


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN8 was planned to be built out of 304L stainless steel, although some parts may have used 301 steel. In late October and November, SN8 survived four static fires. During the third test (12 November), debris from the pad caused the vehicle to lose pneumatics. Launch took place on 9 December. Launch, ascent, reorientation, and controlled descent were successful, but low pressure in the methane header tank kept the engines from producing enough thrust for the landing burn, destroying SN8 on impact.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: On 11 December, the stand beneath SN9 failed, causing the vehicle to tip and contact the walls inside the High Bay. SN9 then required a replacement forward flap. SN9 conducted 6 static fires in January 2021, including three separate static fires. Engines 44 and 46 had to be replaced. After struggling to gain FAA permission, SN9 conducted a flight test (2 February). Ascent, engine cutoffs, reorientation and controlled descent were stable, but one engine's oxygen pre-burner failed, sending SN9 crashing into the landing pad. The landing pad was then reinforced with an additional layer of concrete. After the SN9 failure, all three engines were used to perform the belly flop landing sequence. This offered a failsafe should one fail to ignite.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN10's first cryogenic proof test succeeded (8 February), followed by a static fire (23 February). After an engine swap came another static fire (25 February).


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Two launch attempts were conducted on 3 March. The first attempt was automatically aborted after one engine produced too much thrust while throttling up. After a 3-hour delay to increase the tolerance, the second attempt landed without exploding. The test ended with a hard landing-at 10 m/s-most likely due to partial helium ingestion from the fuel header tank. Three landing legs were not locked in place, producing a slight lean after landing. Although the vehicle initially remained intact, the impact crushed the legs and part of the leg skirt. Eight minutes later the prototype exploded.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN11 accomplished a cryogenic proof test (12 March) that included a test of the Reaction Control System (RCS), followed by a static fire test (15 March). Immediately after ignition, the test was aborted. Another static fire attempt led to reports that one of the three engines had been removed for repairs. A replacement engine was installed and a third static fire was attempted (26 March ). A 10 km flight test was conducted in heavy fog (30 March). The test included engine cutoffs, flip maneuver, flap control and descent, along with a visible fire on engine 2 during the ascent. Just after the defective engine was re-ignited for the landing burn, SN11 lost telemetry at T+ 5:49 and disintegrated. SN12 through SN14 never launched.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN15 introduced improved avionics software, an updated aft skirt propellant architecture, and a new Raptor design and configuration. A Starlink antenna on the side of the vehicle was another new feature. SN15 underwent an ambient temperature pressure test (9 April), A cryogenic proof test (12 April), and a header tank cryogenic proof test (13 April). Then a static fire (26 April) and a header tank static fire (27 April) followed. A high-altitude flight test was conducted in overcast weather on 5 May, achieving a soft touchdown. A small fire near the base was controlled shortly after landing. After its engines were removed, it was retired on 31 May, the first Starship prototype to fly, land and be recovered. It took its place in the now called Rocket Garden. SN16 and SN17 were scrapped, and SN18 and SN19 were never completed.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN20 (Ship 20) now resides in the Rocket Garden, previously planned to be launched atop the Super Heavy booster. SN20's thermal protection system covers much of the vehicle.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN20 rolled out to the launch mount on 5 August 2021 and was the first to be stacked on a booster. It used Booster 4 for a fit test. FCC filings in May 2021 by SpaceX stated that the orbital flight would launch from Boca Chica. After separation, Starship would enter orbit and around 90 minutes later attempt a soft ocean landing around 100 km off the coast of Kauai.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Ship 21 was scrapped, Ship 22 moved out to the Rocket Garden in late February 2022. Ship 23 was scrapped and partially recycled in Ship 24 which was targeted for an orbital flight as of September 2022.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: As of December 2022, Ship 24 is planned to make an orbital test flight atop Booster 7. It was first spotted in November 2021, and made cryogenic proof tests on 2, 6, and 7 June 2022. Starship 24 then conducted spin prime tests on 18, 20, and 21 July 2022, with an additional one on 8 August 2022. It was static fired with two engines on 9 August 2022. On 8 September 2022, Ship 24 underwent a static fire test where all six of its engines; three sea level and three vacuum engines, endured an 8 second test. The test damaged/destroyed around 30 of its 25,000 ceramic tiles. The ship went through repairs and was subsequently stacked on top of Booster 7 in late October ahead of further testing. As of December 2022, Ship 24 is undergoing further work on Suborbital Pad B


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: BN1 was the first Super-Heavy Booster prototype, a pathfinder that was not intended for flight tests. Sections of the ~ tall test article were manufactured throughout the fall. Section stacking began in December 2020. BN1 was fully stacked inside the High Bay on 18 March. On 30 March 2021, BN1 was scrapped.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: BN3 (Booster 3) was used for ground tests. A cryogenic proof test was completed (13 July 2021). Booster 3 completed stacking in the High Bay (29 June 2021), and moved to the test pad without engines. Three engines were subsequently added.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: A static fire test was conducted 19 July 2021. BN3/Booster 3 was partially scrapped on 15 August 2021, while the LOX tank remained welded to the Test Stand. The LOX tank was taken off the Test Stand on the 13th January 2022.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Booster 4 first became visible on 3 July 2021. Musk ordered several hundred SpaceX employees at Hawthorne to relocate to Boca Chica to accelerate the development of SN20, BN4, and the Orbital Launch Platform in an attempt to put the Starship system on the pad by 5 August 2021. BN4 was fully stacked on 1 August, with a full complement of 29 engines installed on 2 August 2021. Grid fins were added to support atmospheric reentry testing, but notably, the grid fins on the Booster 4 test article did not fold down for launch.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN20 was stacked on top of Booster 4 on 6 August 2021 for a fitting test, making it the largest rocket ever. Booster 4 was then returned to the High Bay for secondary wiring. On 9 September 2021, Booster 4 came again to the launch site on top of the Orbital Launch mount.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: B4 completed its first cryogenic proof test (17 December 2021), and a pneumatic proof test (19 December 2021). It underwent another cryogenic proof test and a full-load cryogenic proof test. B4 and Ship 20 were then retired.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Parts for B5 were observed as early as 19 July 2021. Stacking for BN5 completed in November, although on 8 December 2021, B5 retired to stand alongside SN15 and SN16.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Parts for B7 were first spotted on 29 September 2021. B7 was placed on the orbital launch mount on 31 March 2022. After completing a cryogenic proof test on 4 April 2022, it was placed onto the new booster test stand on 8 April 2022. B7 completed another cryogenic test on 14 April 2022, but the downcomer suffered a failure and ruptured. On 18 April 2022, B7 returned to the production site for repairs. On 5 May 2022, B7 was again placed on the orbital launch mount. B7 then completed two cryogenic tests on 9 and 11 May 2022. It was then returned back to the production site and entered the new Mega Bay (also known as Wide Bay or High Bay 2), for repairs and additional equipment, upgraded grid fins and engines, and two more 'chines' or 'strakes' (triangular structures placed on the aft section to aid in aerodynamic control). B7 went through more testing (11 July 2022) where it experienced an anomaly during an attempted 33 engine spin prime test and a detonation occurred underneath the engines. The booster then rolled back to the Mega Bay. B7 was transported back to the orbital launch pad with 20 outer Raptor engines (August 4 to August 5 2022) and completed its first single engine static fire test (August 9 2022). B7 completed a 20-second static fire (August 11 2022), the longest static fire on a Starship prototype to date. Following a successful set of tests, it returned to the production site to receive the remaining 13 engines. B7 was lifted back onto the launch mount using the chopsticks catching and lifting system (23 August 2022). It underwent further testing including its 13 inner engines (26 August 2022). B7 completed a multi-engine static fire (31 August 2022). This was followed by multiple spin prime tests, and a seven-engine static fire on 19 September 2022. B7 again returned to the Mega Bay on 21 September 2022. After upgrades it was again lifted on the launch pad (8 October 2022). Ship 24 was then stacked on top B7 (12 October 2022) and was removed after completing multiple cryogenic load tests. B7 then completed a spin prime test of multiple engines, (12 November 2022) and afterwards a 14 engine static fire test, (14 November 2022) and finally an 11 engine static fire in an autogenous pressurization test (29 November 2022). As of 9 December 2022, B7 has rolled back to the Mega Bay presumably for further shielding in preparation for the orbital test flight, now expected NET January 2023.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: The first part of the booster, the engine thrust puck, was spotted on October 6, 2021. Other parts for B8 were observed on February 3 2022. The booster was fully stacked on July 8 2022. It travelled to the launch site on 19 September 2022.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Test Tank 1 (TT1) was a subscale test tank consisting of two forward bulkheads connected by a small barrel section. TT1 was used to test new materials and construction methods. On 10 January 2020, TT1 was filled with water and tested to failure as part of an ambient temperature test, reaching a pressure of .


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Liquid Oxygen Header Test Tank (LOX HTT) was similar to TT1, but was based on the LOX Header tank inside a nosecone section. On 24 January 2020, the tank underwent a pressurization test which lasted several hours. The following day it was tested to destruction.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: Test Tank 2 (TT2) was another subscale test tank similar to TT1. On 27 January 2020, TT2 underwent an ambient temperature pressure test where it reached a pressure of before a leak occurred. Two days later, it underwent a cryogenic proof test to destruction, bursting at .


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: EDOME is a test tank created to test flatter domes, possibly used on future Starship prototypes. It was moved to the launch site in July 2022, and back to the production site the next month, and never received testing. It was later moved from the production site to the new Masseys site on 22 September 2022, which conducts non-flight hardware testing. On 30 September 2022, it burst during a cryogenic pressure test to failure. After repairs, it was tested to destruction in late October 2022.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN2 was a half-size test tank used to test welding quality and thrust puck design. The thrust puck is found on the bottom of the vehicle where in later Starship tests up to three sea-level Raptor engines would be mounted. SN2 passed a pressure test on 8 March 2020.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN7 was a pathfinder test article for the switch to type 304L stainless steel. A cryogenic proof test was performed on 15 June 2020, achieving a pressure of before a leak occurred. During a pressurize to failure test on 23 June 2020, the tank burst at an unknown pressure.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN7.1 was the second 304L test tank, with the goal of reaching a higher failure pressure. The tank was repeatedly tested in September, and tested to destruction on 23 September. The bulkhead came apart at a pressure of in ullage and at base.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: SN7.2 was created to test thinner walls, and therefore, lower mass. It is believed to be constructed from 3 mm steel sheets rather than the 4 mm thickness of its predecessors. On 26 January 2021, SN7.2 passed a cryogenic proof test. On 4 February, during a pressurize to failure test, the tank developed a leak. On 15 March, SN7.2 was retired.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: B7.1 was first cryogenically proof tested on 28 June 2022, and tested again on 19 July 2022. During a suspected pressurize to failure test two days later, it received minor damage. After repairs, it underwent a fourth cryogenic proof test (27 July), a fifth (1 September), and a sixth five days later. It then rolled back to the production site (16 September). B7.1 left the production site (22 September) to head to the new Masseys site.


title: SpaceX Starship development

text: GSE 4.1 was first spotted in August 2021, and was the first GSE test tank built, made from parts of GSE 4. It underwent a cryogenic proof test (23 August) before it was rolled to Sanchez site. It was rolled back to the launch site in November 2021 and underwent an apparent cryogenic proof test to failure (18 January), where it burst at an unknown pressure.


title: Trevor Bryan

text: Trevor Cosmo Bryan Jr (born August 23, 1989) is an American professional boxer and former WBA (Regular) heavyweight Champion.


title: Trevor Bryan

text: He began boxing at the age of 11, and had a very promising but short amateur career. He is trained by Stacey McKinley, a former trainer of Mike Tyson and promoted by boxing promoter Don King.