title: Rocky (1981 film)

text: Years later, Rocky (Sanjay Dutt) has grown up without knowing who his biological mother is. Rocky's lifestyle is carefree until he falls in love with Renuka (Tina Munim). It is then that he learns that he is really Rakesh and that his mother is still alive, and his father did not die accidentally but was murdered. Rocky sets out to avenge his father's death. He gets help from a rape survivor (Reena Roy). But he doesn't know that his days, along with those of his near and dear ones, may also be numbered.


title: Rocky (1981 film)

text: The music for the film is composed by R. D. Burman and the lyrics are written by Anand Bakshi where the songs continue to be popular even today. "Kya Yehi Pyar Hai" was inspired by R.D. Burman's Bengali number "Eki Bhalobasha" & also Amit Kumar song separately "Jeona Jeona" also composed by R.D.Burman. "Aa Dekhe Zara", "Hum Tumse Mile" and "Kya Yahi Pyar Hai" emerged as hits. It has a Telugu version of Rocky (1987).


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: Faith is the second and final studio album by American rapper Pop Smoke. It was posthumously released on July 16, 2021, by Victor Victor Worldwide and Republic Records. The deluxe edition of the album that includes four additional tracks was released on what would have been Pop Smoke's 22nd birthday, July 20, 2021. On July 30, six additional tracks were added, including the late rapper's 2020 single, "Dior". The album's guest appearances includes from Kanye West, Pusha T, Rick Ross, 42 Dugg, 21 Savage, Takeoff, Lil Tjay, Swae Lee, Pharrell, Kid Cudi, and Quavo, among others. "Faith" is a drill, trap, and hip hop record with elements of pop-trap, gospel, and pop.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Faith" received generally mixed reviews from music critics. Some criticized the production and considered the album unfinished. Others criticized the number of features and called it a cash grab. A total of four singles were released throughout 2021. "Mr. Jones" featuring American rapper Future was released as the lead single the same day as the album. It peaked at number 71 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 70 on the "Billboard" Global 200. "Demeanor" featuring English singer Dua Lipa was released to rhythmic contemporary and contemporary hit radio formats in the United States on July 20, 2021, as "Faith" second single. It peaked at number 86 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 14 on the UK Singles Chart. "Woo Baby" featuring American singer Chris Brown was also sent to American rhythmic contemporary radio as the album's third single on July 22, 2021. The song peaked at number 64 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number four on the "Billboard" airplay Rhythmic chart.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Entertainment Weekly", "HipHopDX", and Yardbarker placed "Faith" on their lists of worst albums of 2021, while Capital Xtra placed the album on their best albums of 2021 list. Despite it getting mixed reviews, the album was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 and giving the late rapper his second US number-one hit. Pop Smoke became the first artist in history to have his first two albums posthumously debut at number one on the "Billboard" 200. The album also peaked at number one on the US "Billboard" Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and Canadian Albums Chart. It reached the top-10 of 17 other regions, including the United Kingdom, Australia, and Ireland.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: After American rapper Pop Smoke was shot and killed at the age of 20 during a home invasion, fellow American rapper 50 Cent decided to help finish the late rapper's album "Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon" by serving as executive producer. After the album was released on July 3, 2020, it was a commercial success, debuting at number one on the US "Billboard" 200, and spawning four US "Billboard" Hot 100 top 20 singles "For the Night", "What You Know Bout Love", "The Woo", and "Mood Swings". The album helped Pop Smoke win Top "Billboard" 200 Album and Top Rap Album at the 2021 "Billboard" Music Awards.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: On May 1, 2021, American producer Rico Beats hinted at the release of another posthumous Pop Smoke album. The producer posted a mirror selfie and added, "I see and hear everything kept it cool tho no worries pay back around the corner Pop smoke new album loading". After Rico Beats indicated the release of Pop Smoke's second album, 50 Cent told radio personality Kris Kaylin in an interview that he was unsure if he would be involved and executive produce it. On June 4, Haitian-American record executive Steven Victor announced that there would be a second posthumous project released. Rico Beats announced that "Faith" was "95% loading the fuck up" and also confirmed that he would be one of the producers on the album through a post on Instagram on June 15.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Faith" is a drill, trap, and hip hop record, with the songs containing elements of pop-trap, gospel, and pop. The album opens up with the gospel-influenced spoken word and soul intro "Good News". The intro features Pop Smoke's mother speaking over the instrumentals of her son's 2019 single "Welcome to the Party" while explaining the reasoning behind the album's title and explains Pop Smoke had a natural drive, a drive to materialize greatness and to show his listeners that they, too, can achieve greatness. In the following track "More Time", Pop Smoke raps about being a confident man on the streets while trying to honor his mother's wishes. It consists of reverberating keys added by American composer Nicholas Britell. "Tell the Vision" featuring Kanye West and Pusha T is a drill track that uses a synth-pop production and features the use of drill drums, lurching synths, choral flourishes, and interspersed spoken testimonials. In the song, West raps the intro while it features a sample of Power 105.1 host Angie Martinez delivering an ode to Pop Smoke. Pop Smoke raps about his early life in Brooklyn, New York, and the struggles he faced at the time, while Pusha T disses Canadian musician Drake and hints on releasing an album soon. "Manslaughter" featuring Rick Ross and The-Dream is an R&B, hip-hop, and pop track that features strings and downbeat percussion. The rappers discuss how they would go to great lengths to defend their loved ones. Pop Smoke sings of being willing to commit a crime if someone upsets him or his family. The song initially had a different beat and featured Dread Woo and Dafi Woo, however Victor explained that they couldn't clear the sample.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Bout a Million" featuring 21 Savage and 42 Dugg is a chamber folk, ambient, and drill track with braggadocio, a lead guitar, and 808's. It's lyrics are about the three rappers flexing their expensive jewels and lifestyles, and their upbringing and experiences throughout different places in the United States. "Brush Em" featuring Rah Swish is a drill track that uses percussion. Pop Smoke and Rah Swish both rap about their dangerous tendencies and about the streets of Brooklyn. "Top Shotta" with The Neptunes, featuring Pusha T, Travi, and Beam is a dancehall-inspired drill track that utilizes a tropical beat and caribbean-style steel drums. The track was originally supposed to feature American rapper Eli Fross. "30" featuring Bizzy Banks is a drill song with interplay between the two rappers. It is followed by drill track "Beat the Speaker", in which Pop Smoke raps about the death of Kenneka Jenkins. "Coupe" has the use of looping 808's, while the lyrics discuss the themes of celebrity excess. Pop Smoke raps "Don't run in my crib, I'll put guns to your head" before a brief pause in the music to emphasize the line's profundity. Robin Murray from "Clash" stated that "Coupe" and "Beat the Speaker" are "freestyle[s] carved out into individual track[s]". "What's Crackin" featuring Takeoff is a trap song that uses bells in the background. "Genius" featuring Lil Tjay and Swae Lee is a drill song. "HotNewHipHop" author Aron A. expressed that "[Lil] Tjay and Swae Lee's contributions electrify through smooth vocal performances". "Mr. Jones" featuring Future sees both rappers rap about their lavish lifestyles and pursuit for self-gratification. "Woo Baby Interlude" is sung A cappella and was originally called "Tiger". According to Antoine-Samuel Mauffette Alavo of "Exclaim!", the song is "raw and uncut". "Woo Baby" featuring Chris Brown is an R&B and trap song. The song uses an uncredited sample of American singer-songwriter Ne-Yo's 2005 number one hit single "So Sick".


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Demeanor" featuring Dua Lipa is a electropop and disco-pop song that uses a bassline, rhythm guitar, drums, funky groove and bounce, woozy vibes, and rhythmic verses. It contains a spliced-in verse from an unreleased Pop Smoke track called "Face2Face". In the song, Pop Smoke sings about how women enjoy the way he acts and being intoxicated. The late artist then raps about suffering through poverty. Lipa gets her own verse as she sings: "You can't say Pop without Smoke", referring to Pop Smoke's line "You cannot say Pop and forget the Smoke" in his 2019 song "Gatti" with JackBoys and Travis Scott. "Spoiled" featuring Pharrell is a pop, funk and R&B song with keyboard melodies. Its lyrics discuss women as being spoiled. "8-Ball" featuring Kid Cudi is a Latin and drone-influenced blues and Middle Eastern track that features a guitar and elastic bassline. Both Pop Smoke and Kid Cudi rap about luck, loss and love. Udit Mahalingan of "The Line of Best Fit" stated that "Back Door" featuring Quavo and Kodak Black is about a "piece of maternal advice into a meditation on the urban New York experience". "Faith" closes with the lofi hip hop and trap song "Merci Beaucoup", which stands for "thank you very much" in French. It makes use of a UK drill-style bassline and sonic undertones. Pop Smoke raps about attacking his enemies, taking their jewelry, and women wanting to be with him. It then transitions to a spoken word outro, in which Pop Smoke stands on his accomplishments and predicts more, emphasizing his loyalty to his goal. "Rolling Stone" author Milan Kordestani opined that Pop Smoke is "clearly speaking to his target audience" during "Merci Beaucoup". Kordestani recognized that Pop Smoke was "referencing his marketing strategy at the same time". The author concludes that when Pop Smoke writes his lyrics, he isn't thinking about the 'masses'; instead, he is thinking about the people in his hometown of Brooklyn, New York. He's aiming for an audience that will want to hear his distinct lyrics and voice.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: The first new track on the deluxe edition of "Faith" is "Questions". Pop Smoke sings about being emotional and vulnerable. The track interpolates 50 Cent's 2003 number one hit single "21 Questions". "Run Down" featuring OnPointLikeOP and G Herbo has Pop Smoke rap about hunting down his enemies while G Herbo pays tribute to the late rapper. Alexander Cole for "HotNewHipHop" stated that "Money Man" featuring Killa has "high-flying production all while Pop Smoke and Killa bring some hungry energy to the mix". "Defiant" and "Rumble" include further contributions from Dread Woo, Travi, and Tay Floss, respectively. "Don't Know Em" featuring Rah Swish sees Pop Smoke raps the lyrics: "'Man, I'm fuckin' gone nigga, Yo Rah, we outta here nigga, it is (Ayo, pull up we at the spot gang), I can barely walk nigga (Like stand the fuck up nigga, 'cause I got you, look)." "Mr. Jones" featuring Anuel AA is a remixed version of the original track. "Double It" featuring Fetty Luciano is an uptempo song, in which, according to Karen Civil, Pop Smoke "lays the intro as Fetty [Luciano] floats all over the solid production". "Bad Boys" features Pop Smoke's brother Obasi Jackson. Last year, Jackson previewed the original verse for Pop Smoke's 2020 hit single "Dior". He would later flip the original verse and place it on "Bad Boys". Pop Smoke delivers his verse for the beginning of the track, before his brother raps for the rest of the song. The deluxe version of "Faith" closes with "Dior", a drill and hip hop song with lyrics about flirting with women and buying the latest designer clothes.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: On July 13, 2021, Pop Smoke's team unveiled the album cover, which is a close-up of Pop Smoke in a black-and-white photo, with the word "Faith" tattooed above his left eyebrow. The cover art was originally taken by photographer Flixz, who snapped photos of Pop Smoke at a nightclub. The late rapper wore a collared unbuttoned Dior shirt with a set of chains in the original photo.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: On June 23, 2021, Victor announced the album's release date of July 16, 2021. A trailer video for "Faith", which features Pop Smoke's career highlights and a motivational short speech from him, was also released. A 30-second promotional single, "Outro", was released on July 4, 2021. In the promotional single, Pop Smoke talks about following your dreams and not giving up. Initially, it was assumed that the album would be self-titled after "Pop Smoke" was the title of the album on Apple Music during its pre-order as a placeholder. Victor announced on July 11 that the album would be titled "Faith". The following day, the cover art was revealed along with a promotional video. On July 10, posters started going up in New York City and Los Angeles in support of the album. According to reports, the ads had QR codes in them that could be accessed through Snapchat. With the app open, a video sample of the late rapper's new song would begin to play. Pop Smoke is seen rapping to an unreleased track on stage and in the studio in black-and-white video footage. The track list was released on July 14, in what was considered an "unusual" way; it was revealed through an interactive website that allowed fans to scratch virtual lottery tickets to reveal the track titles. On July 20, 2021, a deluxe version of "Faith", which features four additional tracks, was released on what would have been Pop Smoke's 22nd birthday. On July 30, 2021, six additional tracks were added, including "Dior".


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Mr. Jones" was released as the lead single the same day as the album. The song debuted and peaked at number 71 on the US "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 70 on the "Billboard" Global 200. A music video for the song was released on the same day. The visual features stock and archival footage of Pop Smoke at the Mr. Jones nightclub in Miami, Florida, while showing Future hanging out with a plethora of women. On July 20, 2021, "Demeanor" was sent to American rhythmic contemporary and contemporary hit radio as the album's second single. The song also impacted contemporary hit radio in Italy on July 23, 2021. It debuted and peaked at number 86 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 62 on the "Billboard" Global 200. After it was released as a single, the song peaked within the top 30 of the "Billboard" airplay Rhythmic and Mainstream Top 40 charts. In the United Kingdom, "Demeanor" debuted and peaked at number 14, making it the highest new entry on the chart dated July 25, 2021. A music video for the song was released on Pop Smoke's YouTube channel on July 29, 2021, and was directed by Australian-American director Nabil Elderkin. In the visual, Pop Smoke is a ghost and is seen on a medieval tableau that comes to life and depicts different versions of him, as well as white doves flying around in the painting. Lipa wears a vintage corset-style lace-trimmed ballgown from Jean Paul Gaultier's Spring 1998 couture collection, which was inspired by Marie Antoinette and the Age of Enlightenment, as she does different activities and dances throughout the visual. "Woo Baby" was also sent to American rhythmic contemporary radio as "Faith" third single on July 22, 2021. The song debuted and peaked at number 64 on the "Billboard" Hot 100 and number 49 on the "Billboard" Global 200. "Woo Baby" peaked at number four on the "Billboard" airplay Rhythmic chart, giving Pop Smoke his fifth top-10 hit on the chart. "Bad Boys" was released as the album's fourth and final single on July 30, 2021.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: A music video for "Coupe" was released on July 21, 2021. The video was directed by JLShotThat. The visual takes place in Pop Smoke's hometown of Canarsie, Brooklyn and was primarily filmed at a basketball court in the late rapper's neighborhood. The visual sees a group of people celebrating Pop Smoke's birthday and legacy, while riding cars and bikes through the streets.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Faith" was met with mixed reviews from music critics, most of whom criticized the number of features on the album. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from professional publications, the album received an average score of 53, based on nine reviews, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Aggregator AnyDecentMusic? gave it 5.6 out of 10 based on their assessment of the critical consensus.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: Anthony Malone of "HipHopDX" saw that the album is "compiled from unfinished verses, reference tracks and soulless guest spots", and stated it is not a "Pop Smoke album – it's a symbol of greed curated for the streaming era". "Rolling Stone"s Mosi Reeves wrote, ""Faith" consists of audio files recombined by producers and record executives into something coherent, listenable, and at times even enjoyable, but not quite dazzling. Maybe it's not an Anthony Bourdain doc constructed with artificial intelligence, but it still feels a bit weird". In a lukewarm review, Alavo said, "Despite poor production choices and lazy song structures, Pop Smoke's energy and solo spurts of brilliance won't allow for this stale posthumous release to tarnish his legacy". David Crone for AllMusic felt that "Faith" subdues Pop Smoke, believing he "is no longer the thunderous cloud descending on his anthems; rather, he feels almost entirely an afterthought". Crone opined "with friends and collaborators surgically removed, "Faith" is littered with jarring voices, avaricious creative decisions, and a fundamental sidelining of its visionary figurehead". Mr. Wavvy for "Cult MTL" gave the album 4.5 out of 10, saying it is "clear that many of the tracks were works in progress, with guest verses slapped on to 'complete' the songs".


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: Kyann-Sian Williams of "NME" felt the album is "oversaturated with unnecessary features" and is an "obvious money grab". She continues, saying that it "feels more disingenuous" than "Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon". Writing for "Pitchfork", Alphonse Pierre commented "Faith" is made up of "unfinished records, demos, and reference tracks that were sliced together and completed with features only selected to juice streaming numbers". He claims that Pop Smoke's team "leeched" money from his legacy and that the "most offensively bad [tracks] on "Faith" are the ones that have no shame in hiding their financial intentions". Keith Nelson Jr. of Mic asserted that Pop Smoke sounds "like a guest on his own album", characterizing it was "made more from the thoughts of the living trying to keep the dead alive". According to Noor Lobad of "L'Officiel", the album boasts "repetitive hooks and exorbitant number of features", and mentions it "inadvertently turn[s] the rapper's booming voice into a muddled echo on his own album".


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: In a more positive review, "Billboard" Jason Lipshutz felt impressed with "Faith", believing it was "made with the same type of thoughtfulness and precision" as "Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon". Mahalingan praised the album, saying that "unlike the majority of [posthumous releases], "Faith" speaks to Pop Smoke's perpetuity in hip-hop's current context, serving as less of a lament of what could have been and more as a memorial for what was and still is". Murray also enjoyed the album, saying, ""Faith" succeeds by offering not only an elegiac portrait of Pop Smoke, but also a vision of what he could have become". A.D. Amorosi, writing for "Variety", mentions that "despite being fully Frankenstein-ed from volumes of verses the rapper left behind, [the album] never feels limp or stitched together". He states the album "advanced and even bettered what the trap-and-drill-focused production team did on ["Shoot for the Stars, Aim for the Moon"]. Craig Jenkins for "Vulture" felt the album was "joyous, celebratory, and snide". He mentions it "refuses to let its somber circumstances weigh it down". Writing for The Ringer, Micah Peters opined "Faith" is like "Travis Scott's fashionably oversized Dior shirt—clean and nicely framed, competently executed, expensive, a little ridiculous. It exists and it's cool enough, but maybe we could've done just as well without it". Andrew Sacher of "BrooklynVegan" saw that "sometimes "Faith" feels like a genuinely touching tribute to Pop Smoke, but not always". He continues, saying it "didn't need to be 20 songs long and overstuffed with superstars, but considering Pop [Smoke's] recorded material is already finite, the good moments shouldn't be taken for granted".


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Entertainment Weekly" called "Faith" one of the worst albums of 2021. Alex Suskind remarked that the "late drill star deserved better than this cobbled together LP overstuffed with questionable features (Dua Lipa, anyone?) and bad production". The staff of "HipHopDX" condemned the album, mentioning it has "recycled lyrics, forced guest spots and seemed to stray further from what endeared the King of Brooklyn drill to fans in the first place". They opined that even though "the smoke will never clear, it's time to let Pop Smoke's legacy rest". Evan Sawdey for Yardbarker placed "Faith" at number 19 on his "The Most Disappointing Albums of 2021" list, saying it "feels like a violation of his legacy". He commented that the late rapper "has very little time on his own album, pushed aside for the many guests to jump onto verse fragments [he] left behind". Sawdey concludes by saying "Faith" is a "prime example of how not to honor a fallen artist. Disappointing on every front". On Capital Xtra's list of "The Top 20 Best Albums of 2021", "Faith" was placed at number 18. Cat Warner stated the album helped keep Pop Smoke's legacy alive, and "doing so perfectly".


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Faith" debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 chart, earning 88,000 album-equivalent units that consisted of 113.34 million on-demand streams, 4,000 pure album sales, and 1,000 track-equivalent albums. This gave the late artist his second number one album, and third top-10 hit overall in the United States. Pop Smoke became the first artist in history to have his first two albums posthumously debut at the top of the "Billboard" 200. "Faith" also topped the US "Billboard" Top R&B/Hip-Hop Albums and Canadian Albums Chart.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: "Faith" debuted at number three on the UK Albums Chart, giving Pop Smoke his second top-10 hit in the United Kingdom. In Australia, the album debuted at number four, giving the late rapper his second top-10 hit in the country. The album further peaked within the top-10 of record charts in Austria, both the Belgium Flanders and Wallonia charts, Denmark, the Netherlands, Finland, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Lithuania, New Zealand, Norway, Sweden, and Switzerland.


title: Faith (Pop Smoke album)

text: Upon release, "Faith" received mixed responses from Pop Smoke's fans. Some people praised the album and said it paid tribute to Pop Smoke, while others criticized the album and wanted the late rapper to rest in peace.


title: Benben

text: Benben was the mound that arose from the primordial waters Nu upon which the creator deity Atum settled. The Benben stone (also known as a pyramidion) is the top stone of the pyramid. It is also related to the obelisk.


title: Benben

text: In the Pyramid Texts, e.g. Utterances 587 and 600, Atum himself is at times referred to as "mound". It was said to have turned into a small pyramid, located in Heliopolis (Egyptian: "Annu" or "Iunu"), within which Atum was said to dwell. Other cities developed their own myths of the primeval mound. At Memphis, the god Tatenen, an earth god and the origin of "all things in the shape of food and viands, divine offers, all good things", was the personification of the primeval mound.


title: Benben

text: The Benben stone, named after the mound, was a sacred stone in the temple of Ra at Heliopolis (Egyptian: "Annu" or "Iunu"). It was the location on which the first rays of the sun fell. It is thought to have been the prototype for later obelisks and the capstones of the great pyramids were based on its design. The capstone or the tip of the pyramid is also called a pyramidion. In ancient Egypt, these were probably gilded so they shone in sunlight.


title: Benben

text: Many Benben stones, often carved with images and inscriptions, are found in museums around the world.


title: Benben

text: The bird deity Bennu, which was probably the inspiration for the phoenix, was venerated at Heliopolis, where it was said to be living on the Benben stone or on the holy willow tree.


title: Benben

text: According to Barry Kemp, the connection between the benben, the phoenix, and the sun may well have been based on alliteration: the rising, "weben", of the sun sending its rays towards the benben, on which the bennu bird lives. Utterance 600, § 1652 of the Pyramid Texts speaks of Atum as "you rose up, as the benben, in the Mansion of the Bennu in Heliopolis".


title: Benben

text: From the earliest times, the portrayal of Benben was stylized in two ways; the first was as a pointed, pyramidal form, which was probably the model for pyramids and obelisks. The other form was round-topped; this was probably the origin of Benben as a free standing votive object and an object of veneration.


title: Benben

text: During the Fifth Dynasty, the portrayal of benben was formalized as a squat obelisk. Later, during the Middle Kingdom, this became a long, thin obelisk.


title: Benben

text: In the Amarna Period tomb of Panehesy, the benben is seen as a large, round-topped stela standing on a raised platform.


title: The Limelight

text: The Limelight was the name of a chain of nightclubs owned and operated by Peter Gatien. It had locations in New York City, Chicago, Atlanta, London and Hallandale.


title: The Limelight

text: During the 1980s, club culture had died down because of the AIDS epidemic and there were more regulations put into place in order to stop the spread. The music scene began to shift and the rockstar lifestyle had started to die down; bands like The Ramones and Blondie slowly sunk into plastic commercialization. The artistic era also declined with the death of Andy Warhol. However, in the 90s, after more information was known about HIV/AIDS, people started to return to a club state of mind. In 1989, MDMA otherwise known as ecstasy, became a popular drug amongst the club scene. It produced the same effects as LSD, enhancing sensory perceptions which tuned up the rave disco sounds and experience. After the implementation of Rudolph Giuliani as the new mayor of NYC, the police cracked down on everything in order to fix the city's problems like prostitution, drug dealing, etc.


title: The Limelight

text: Peter Gatien opened the first Limelight nightclub in Hallandale, Florida, in the 1970s. Following a devastating fire in the late 1970s, Gatien chose Atlanta for his next incarnation of the club. The Atlanta Limelight opened in February 1980. It was housed in a strip mall at the former site of the Harlequin Dinner Theatre.


title: The Limelight

text: The Limelight in Atlanta was a high-profile Euro-style night club designed and built in partnership with a certain Guy Larente from Montreal, Quebec who helped in the build of the Limelight series. The Limelight in Atlanta hosted many notables and celebrities over the years. A single photo taken in June 1981 skyrocketed the focus on the club, when celebrity photographer Guy D'Alema captured an image of Anita Bryant dancing the night away with evangelist Russ McGraw (known in gay communities as an activist). Several hundred newspapers and magazines ran the photo with the headline “Anita Upset Over Disco Photo”. Peter Gatien relished the publicity. The club hosted many "Interview Magazine" events which brought names like Andy Warhol, Grace Jones, Debbie Harry, Burt Reynolds, Ali MacGraw, and Village People's Randy Jones, among others to the club. Other celebrity sightings included Tom Cruise, Liza Minnelli, Michael Jackson, Pia Zadora, Shannon Tweed, Gene Simmons, Rick Springfield and Mamie Van Doren, to name but a few. The club also served as a location for Hal Ashby's film "The Slugger's Wife" (1985), which starred Rebecca De Mornay.


title: The Limelight

text: In 1983, when Gatien relocated to New York to open another Limelight club, his brother Maurice managed the Atlanta club. Maurice reportedly had less talent for running a nightclub than Gatien. "Peter was the brains behind the operation," according to house photographer and publicist Guy D'Alema. "Maurice ... didn't want to spend a dime and didn't have a creative bone in his body." The Atlanta club was located next to a 24-hour Kroger grocery store, which became known widely as "Disco Kroger."


title: The Limelight

text: In July 2010, several former Limelight employees – including Randy Easterling, Jim Redford, Noel Aguirre, and Aron Siegel – along with a few of their regular customer dancers – including Jonathan Spanier and Bret Roberts – produced "One More Night at the Limelight", a 30th Anniversary Party, at The Buckhead Theatre, formerly The Roxy Theatre. Due to the party's success and great attendance, combined with the untimely death of one of its organizers (Spanier), the remaining team produced another party, "Limelight Revisited: Déjà vu Discotheque", on August 6, 2011, at Center Stage Atlanta in midtown Atlanta.


title: The Limelight

text: The Limelight in Chicago was housed in the former home of the Chicago Historical Society; the building itself is a historic structure. It was opened in 1985, and became Excalibur nightclub in 1989. The steps to the entrance led to a hallway lined with museum cases which housed carnival like models dancing and generally moving about. There were several levels to the club. The main dance floor had a stage for the DJ. There were several private rooms that often played host to a bevy of celebrities both in music and in sports. The alternative music scene was critical at the Limelight as it played late into the 5 a.m. hour in Chicago on Saturday nights.


title: The Limelight

text: From 1985, the Limelight in London was located in a former Welsh Presbyterian church on Shaftesbury Avenue, just off Cambridge Circus, which dates from the 1890s. The London club's decline in popularity led to the club being sold as a going concern, eventually being taken over in 2003 by Australian pub chain The Walkabout, which converted it into a sports bar. In 2013 the Walkabout eventually ceased trading and the premises is empty and awaiting conversion to a new performing arts use by the charity Stone Nest.


title: The Limelight

text: The club in New York City, situated on Sixth Avenue at West 20th Street, was the most significant and infamous of all the Limelight locations. It opened in November 1983 and was designed by Ari Bahat. The site is a former Episcopal Church of the Holy Communion. The church was a Gothic Revival brownstone building which was built in 1844-1845 and designed by architect Richard Upjohn. In the early 1970s, when the parish merged with two others, the church was deconsecrated and sold to Odyssey House, a drug rehabilitation program. Amidst financial hardship, Odyssey House sold it to Gatien in 1982.He was deeply interested in art and architecture, so he thought the church would be perfect as a club. Spending close to five million dollars on renovation, the ceilings stretched four stories over the main dance floor, there were five staircases from the main chamber to numerous lounges that hosted a different crowd in each room, cloves, VIP rooms, and the chapel area where experimental parties would be thrown to test out the popularity of such event. The New York Limelight originally started as a disco and rock club. In the 1990s, it became a prominent place to hear techno, goth, and industrial music. The club was attractive to the people of NYC because it was inclusive; goths, drag queens, rockers, leather boys, and socialites could all be seen partying with each other in one night. There were approximately fifteen thousand people showing up to the Limelight per night. During this time, Peter Gatien was named the Club King.


title: The Limelight

text: In October of 1995, the club was raided by NYPD, but they were only able to make three small arrests of marijuana dealers because Gatien had been tipped off. The Limelight was temporarily locked up for a week after Gatien paid a thirty thousand dollar fine and posted a one hundred sixty thousand dollar bond. In 1996, club kid and party promoter Michael Alig was arrested and later convicted for the killing and dismemberment of Angel Melendez, a fellow member of the Club Kids and a drug dealer who frequented the club. The Limelight was closed by the police, and subsequently reopened several times during the 1990s. In 1998, Gatien was put on trial for selling drugs within his chain of clubs. However, his lawyer Ben Brafman claimed that the eighty page affidavit used to arrest Gatien contained no proof that directly linked him to drug distribution at the clubs. He also argued that is was "selective prosecution" due to the fact that Gatien ran such a huge operation, he could not be held individually/personally responsible for isolated pockets of drug dealing.


title: The Limelight

text: Assistant U.S. Attorney, Eric Friendberg, called the Limelight "a drug supermarket" where "massive amounts" of ecstasy as well as cocaine, special k, and rohypnol were used as "promotional tools to lure patrons to the club." In the end, the government agreed on not accusing Gatien of personally selling drugs or profitting from the dealers operating in his clubs. They argued that he allowed drug dealers into his venues to advertise and increase popularity, therefore pleading him not guilty.


title: The Limelight

text: In September 2003, it reopened under the name "Avalon"; however, it closed its doors permanently in 2007. Since May 2010, the building has been in use as the Limelight Marketplace, but in 2014 it was converted into an outlet of the David Barton Gym chain. On December 21, 2016, this location as well as all four other David Barton Gym locations in NYC abruptly closed their door for business. In June 2017, it reopened as Limelight Fitness.


title: The Limelight

text: In April 2011, Rakontur released "Limelight" at the Tribeca Film Festival. The documentary's world rights were bought by Magnolia Pictures. The documentary, which highlights the club's history during the Gatien era, was produced by Gatien's daughter, Jen, and directed by Billy Corben.


title: Austin Metro

text: The Metro is a supermini car, later a city car that was produced by British Leyland (BL) and, later, the Rover Group from 1980 to 1998. It was launched in 1980 as the Austin mini Metro. It was intended to complement and eventually replace the Mini, and was developed under the codename LC8. The Metro was named by "What Car?" magazine as 'Car of The Year' in 1983 as an MG, and again as the Rover Metro in 1991.


title: Austin Metro

text: During its 18-year lifespan, the Metro wore many names: Austin Metro, MG Metro and Rover Metro. It was rebadged as the Rover 100 series in December 1994. There were also van versions known as the Morris Metro and later, Metrovan.


title: Austin Metro

text: At the time of its launch, the Metro was sold under the Austin brand. From 1982, MG versions became available. During 1987, the car lost the Austin name, and was sold simply as the Metro. From 1990 until its withdrawal in 1998, the Metro was sold only as a Rover.


title: Austin Metro

text: Although the R3 generation Rover 200 (introduced in 1995 and smaller than previous 200 models) had originally been designed as a replacement for the Metro, it was not marketed as such after its launch. The Rover 100 finally ceased production in 1998, being outlived (by three years) by the original Mini that it was meant to replace. 2,078,218 Metros of all types were built.


title: Austin Metro

text: Plans for a replacement for the Mini had been afoot within BL since the early 1970s, but none of the concepts conceived got beyond the initial design stages, largely due to a shortage of funds at British Leyland, and its eventual bankruptcy and government bail-out in 1975. The modern supermini market had evolved during the 1970s, with earlier mini-cars like the Mini and Hillman Imp being followed by mostly larger cars with the "hatchback" bodystyle – beginning with the Fiat 127 in 1971 and Renault 5 in 1972, with the next five years seeing the arrival of similar cars including the Ford Fiesta and Volkswagen Polo, as well as the Vauxhall Chevette from General Motors (also built in West Germany as the Opel Kadett) which was also available as a saloon and estate as well as a hatchback. These cars gained a decent sized market share in Britain and most other European markets.


title: Austin Metro

text: On 8 October 1980, BL introduced the "Austin Mini Metro". The roots of the Metro lay in an earlier project denoted as "ADO88" (Amalgamated Drawing Office, 88-inch wheelbase), which was intended to be a direct replacement for the Mini. However, poor reception to the ADO88 design at customer clinics and the increasing dominance of superminis in the ADO88's intended market segment, forced a major change in the project's focus. In late 1977, ADO88 was given an eleventh hour redesign, to make it both larger and less utilitarian in appearance and more upmarket in nature, becoming BL's first supermini, rather than an economy car. The revised project was given the new designator LC8 (Leyland Cars Number 8), and the definitive Metro design would ultimately emerge under the leadership of BL's chief stylists David Bache and Harris Mann. LC8 would replace the more upmarket, lower-volume versions of the Mini and the lower-spec, smaller-engined variants of the Austin Allegro (which would be fully replaced in the early 1980s by project LC10, which became Austin Maestro). The ADO88 project had experimented with new engines and suspension systems, but with limited time and budgets, LC8 would reuse much of the Mini's engineering (the A-Series engine with front-wheel drive via a sump-mounted four-speed transmission, and front and rear running gear carried in steel subframes separate from the unitary bodyshell) and borrow the Hydragas suspension system developed for the Allegro. However while much was shared conceptually with older BL models, LC8 would see these design elements heavily re-engineered and modernised. For instance the A-Series drivetrain was extensively updated with new materials and tooling to become the A-Plus while the new car would feature 12-inch wheels and all LC8s would have servo-assisted four-piston front disc brakes with fully split hydraulic systems, as opposed to the standard Mini which at the time still had 10-inch wheels and all-round drum brakes. These new drivetrains, wheels, brakes and many other featured developed for the LC8 would be introduced to the Mini in the near future, updating the 30-year old design at minimal extra cost and providing highly desirable economies of scale given the anticipated sales volumes of the new car. This would make it cost effective for the more basic versions of the Mini to remain in production as an entry-level model for BL, in place of the position originally intended for ADO88 while allowing LC8 to compete head-on with the existing superminis.


title: Austin Metro

text: Following the Ryder Report, which prioritized the ADO88/LC8 project, Longbridge would be expanded in 1978 with a £200m robotised body assembly line (known as the "New West Works") to enable it to produce the new model which it was hoped would sell 100,000 or more units a year in Britain alone; production of the smaller Mini and larger Allegro was also pruned back to enable the plant to produce as many units of the Metro as possible, with the Allegro finally being axed in 1982 to make way for the Maestro.


title: Austin Metro

text: The hatchback body shell was one of the most spacious of its time and this was a significant factor in its popularity. The space efficient interior was also lauded for the novel 60/40 split rear seat which was standard on higher specification models. The original Mk.1 Metros also featured David Bache's signature "symmetric" dashboard design (also used on the Range Rover and the Rover SD1), where the main dashboard moulding consists of a shelf, onto which the instrument binnacle is simply mounted on the left or the right hand side – this arrangement saves the tooling cost of two separate dashboard mouldings for right and left-hand drive. Initially, the Metro was sold as a three-door hatchback only (as were most of its competitors), with a choice of 998cc (1.0 litre) or 1275cc (1.3-litre) petrol engines. The 1.0 and 1.0L cars and the future van had recessed headlamps with indicators and sidelights in the bumper, whereas the 1.0HLE, 1.3S, and 1.3HLS had each headlight and indicator together as one flush fitting unit.


title: Austin Metro

text: The name was chosen through a ballot of BL employees. They were offered a choice of three names, Match, Maestro or Metro. Once the result was announced, the manufacturer of trains and buses, Metro Cammell, objected to the use of the Metro name by BL. The issue was resolved by BL promising to advertise the car only as the "Mini Metro", although after a while the Mini Metro name disappeared. There were also van versions, introduced in late 1982, known as the Morris Metro. From late 1985, after the Morris name had been discontinued, it was sold as the Austin Metro 310, and after the Austin badge was also dropped it became simply the Metrovan 310.


title: Austin Metro

text: A two-door saloon model was included in the Metro's development which would have been similar in concept to the Vauxhall Chevette saloon as well as the Volkswagen Polo-based Derby. However, by the time production of the Metro began, it was decided not to include a saloon version, this niche being filled by the Mini remaining in production, and only a few of the Metro's competitors were available as a saloon.


title: Austin Metro

text: One of the consequences was that there was enormous public interest in the car from well before its launch. The company chose to stage the launch presentations for dealers and major company car buyers on board a cruise ship, the MS Vistafjord. This launch event took place over a three-week period in September 1980 sailing between West Gladstone Dock in Liverpool and the Isle of Man, where guests could drive the car, so long as sea conditions allowed them to land by tender as there was no dock facility for the ship. The news broke in the national newspapers a full year ahead of the public launch with "The Sun", among others, carrying the story. It was finally revealed to the public on the press day of the British Motor Show with the British Prime Minister, Margaret Thatcher, in attendance.


title: Austin Metro

text: The Metro quickly proved popular with buyers, a 19-year-old Lady Diana Spencer buying one of the early examples, and was regularly seen in it being hounded by the paparazzi just before her marriage to Prince Charles in July 1981. Even then, during the early part of its production life, it was the best selling mini-car in the UK, before being eclipsed by the updated Ford Fiesta in 1984. Its clever interior design made it spacious considering its dimensions, and Hydragas suspension gave surprisingly good ride and handling. Its updated A+ series 1.0 and 1.3-litre OHV engines hardly represented the cutting edge in performance, but they were strong on economy.


title: Austin Metro

text: In its best year, 1983, more than 130,000 Metros were sold in Britain, only the Ford Escort and Sierra outsold it. This was despite the arrival of a host of new superminis on the British market that year – the Ford Fiesta received a major facelift, and four all-new superminis (the Vauxhall Nova, Fiat Uno, Nissan Micra and Peugeot 205) went on sale in Britain between April and September.


title: Austin Metro

text: A major TV advertising campaign was created by the London agency, Leo Burnett which came up with the headline "a British car to beat the world". The advert also featured the similar-sized Fiat 127, Renault 5, Volkswagen Polo and Datsun Cherry as "foreign invaders" and the voiceover spoke of the Metro's ability to "send the foreigners back where they came from". Following the launch of the Austin Maestro in 1983, less of British Leyland's advertising was focused on the Metro. The Maestro initially sold very well, but within five years sales were declining sharply, although it remained in production until 1994.


title: Austin Metro

text: During 1981, British Leyland confirmed that the Metro range would soon be expanded with more luxurious and high performance versions. The Metro range was expanded in May 1982 to include the luxury Vanden Plas trim level on the Austins and higher performance MG Badged versions; the MG Metro marked a quick comeback for the marque previously used on sports cars until the Abingdon plant making the MG B closed in 1980. The Metro Vanden Plas featured higher levels of luxury and equipment, while the slightly more powerful MG Metro 1.3 sold as a sports model (0–60 mph in 10.9 seconds, top speed 103 mph). The Vanden Plas variant received the same MG engine from 1984 onwards (with the exception of the VP Automatic, which retained the 1275 cc unit). The luxury fittings marking out the Metro Vanden Plas took the form of a radio-cassette player, electric front windows, an improved instrument panel with tachometer, and a variety of optional extras such as trip computer, leather trim, remote boot release, and front fog lamps.


title: Austin Metro

text: The changes between the MG engine (taken directly from the Mini Cooper) and the standard 1275 included a modified cylinder head, with larger valves and improved porting, altered cam profile and larger carburettor leading to a 20% increase in BHP to 72 bhp. At the October 1982 Birmingham Motor Show the MG Metro Turbo variant was first shown. With a quoted bhp of 93, 0–60 mph in 9.9 seconds, and top speed of this car had few direct competitors at the time, although the growing demand for "hot hatches" meant that it soon had a host of competitors including the Ford Fiesta XR2, Peugeot 205 GTI and Renault 5 GT Turbo. This model had a few addition modifications bolted on over the normally aspirated MG model to give an additional 21 bhp. Aside from the turbocharger and exhaust system itself, and what was (at the time) a relatively sophisticated boost delivery and control system, the MG Turbo variant incorporated stiffer suspension (purportedly with engineering input from Lotus), and an uprated crankshaft of nitrided steel and sodium-cooled exhaust valves.


title: Austin Metro

text: Both MG variants were given a "sporty" interior with red seat belts, red carpets and a sports-style steering wheel. Early Turbo models also benefitted from a boost pressure gauge - in pre-84 models this was an in-dash LED gauge, relocating to an LCD gauge mounted in an overhead console for early mkII facelift models (with the boost gauge subsequently being deleted from production in post-85 models). The Turbo also received alloy wheels, wheel arch extensions and front spoiler, and prominent "Turbo" branding. While it retained rear drums, the front disc brakes were changed to ventilated discs, with ventilated front disks being standardised and adopted by all variants from mkII onwards. Later MG variants were emblazoned with MG branding both inside and out, which only served to fuel claims of badge engineering from some of the more steadfast MG enthusiasts. Others believed that this sentiment was unfounded, particularly in the case of the Turbo variant, due to the undeniably increased performance and handling when compared to the non-MG models. From 1983, the MG badge also found its way onto higher performance versions of the Maestro, and shortly afterwards it was adopted for higher-performance versions of the Montego.


title: Austin Metro

text: A facelift in October 1984 saw revised styling modifications to the Metro's front end including much needed colour-coding such as body coloured bumpers on MG versions, wider suspension subframes, along with a new dashboard design featuring the switches and instruments matching that of the Maestro and Montego. The new dashboard was constructed from fewer but larger plastic mouldings, making it easier to assemble and reducing the potential for rattles and other fitting issues. A major part of the facelift was the introduction of a five-door Metro: This provided another strong selling point for the Metro in the 1980s, since not only did it already boast a spacious and practical cabin for its size, but some of its slightly larger competitors, such as the Ford Fiesta and Volkswagen Polo, did not offer the option of five doors at the time. From 1989, just before the Metro was replaced, three-door versions were given a raised fuel filler, this also coincided with the cars being able to run on unleaded petrol due to hardened exhaust valve seats, three years before EEC regulations made it compulsory for all new cars to have a catalytic converter or fuel injection.


title: Austin Metro

text: A rear spoiler reduced drag coefficient to increase the Metro's already good fuel economy, and the hydraulic clutch (often berated as the cause of the Metro's particularly harsh gearchange) was replaced by a self-adjusting cable-operated mechanism. The lack of a five-speed gearbox would become a major drawback as time went on; the BMC sump-mounted gearbox was never developed to accommodate an extra gear ratio, which was a severe handicap against the opposition – by the mid-1980s the Ford Fiesta, Peugeot 205, Fiat Uno and Opel Corsa/Vauxhall Nova were all available with a five-speed gearbox on larger-engine models.


title: Austin Metro

text: The Austin Metro was a huge seller in Britain, with more than 1 million being sold over a 10-year production run. The MK3 Ford Escort (1980–1986) was the only single model to outsell it in Britain throughout the 1980s, and by December 1989 only the MK3 Ford Escort was a more common model on British roads. However, the first three generations of Ford Fiesta combined outnumbered it by this stage.


title: Austin Metro

text: October 2010 marked the 30th anniversary of the launch of the Metro, by now a very rare sight on Britain's roads.


title: Austin Metro

text: All Metros were powered by the 4-cylinder A-Series engine, in 0.85-, 1.0- and 1.3-litre options. Outputs varied depending on year and trim level, with a low-compression 1.0-litre option available on lower-specification models suitable for 2-star petrol, an 0.85-litre option available in some South American countries; no other market existed for this engine size.


title: Austin Metro

text: At the end of 1987, the Austin marque was shelved. The Austin badge was removed from the cars, which continued to be manufactured with no marque badge, just a model name badge. Rover management never allowed Rover badges on the Montego or the Maestro in their home market, although they were sometimes referred to as "Rovers" in the press and elsewhere. They wore badges that were the same shape as the Rover longship badge, but which did not say "Rover". By this stage, Rover was in the final stages of developing the new Rover 200 Series and Rover 400 Series models in conjunction with Honda, and it was also working on a replacement for the Metro.


title: Austin Metro

text: During the 1980s, the media had published photographs of the "Austin AR6" concept car, which would have been a completely new design, but towards the end of the decade Rover decided to restyle and reengineer the existing Metro design instead.


title: Austin Metro

text: The new Rover Metro was finally launched in May 1990, being a heavily revised version of the original Metro and fitted with a new range of engines.


title: Austin Metro

text: The proven 998 cc and 1275 cc A-Series engines (the 1275cc unit was heavily modified and saw service in the classic Mini right up to the end of Mini production in October 2000) gave way to the all new, and advanced K series engine. This was available in the following versions 1.1 (1118 cc ) and 1.4 (1396 cc ) K-Series 8 valve engines and a 16 valve engine in the GTi (early variants are SPi while the later MPi version has 103 bhp) and the early GTa. All models used a joint Rover-Peugeot designed end-on gearboxes. In 1993, a 1.4 PSA TUD diesel from the Citroën AX / Peugeot 106 was launched – the first time the Metro had been available with a diesel engine. The Hydragas suspension was finally modified to accept front to rear interconnection in the way that Dr. Alex Moulton so desperately wanted to bring the car back up to standard in terms of handling and ride quality.


title: Austin Metro

text: A new bodyshell for the replacement car (the AR6 project) was designed, with styling influenced by Ital Design, that had some similarity to the acclaimed Giorgetto Giugiaro designed Fiat Punto launched in 1994 and the Peugeot 205 lower panels, with the blacked out pillars and 'floating roof' of the 1989 R8 Rover 200. But it was cancelled by chairman Graham Day, because British Aerospace (the then new owners) refused to fund it, and the disappointing sales of the Maestro and Montego had not produced expected profits to reinvest. A mockup could be seen at the Canley, Coventry design centre in the 1990s during open days. It appeared as a 'Scoop' photo on the front cover of CAR magazine in the mid-1980s. Project R6, as it became known would be a more modest update of the 1980 car – the basic bodyshell was retained, but was improved with the addition of new plastic front and rear bumpers, new front wings, new rear lights and bootlid, new front headlamps and bonnet. The interior was altered with a new rounded instrument binnacle and instruments, new steering wheel, new seats (from the successful Rover 200 series), new door casings and other detail improvements. General build quality, fit and finish was improved enormously from the old Metro and went on to win What Car? "Car of The Year" in 1991.


title: Austin Metro

text: In many export markets, including Italy and France, the Rover Metro was badged as the Rover 100 series, with the 1.1 known as the Rover 111 and the 1.4 called 114.


title: Austin Metro

text: Latterly this car has attracted an enthusiastic following including use as a low-cost entry to motor racing. The basic just-over- engine for the GTI can be boosted to over at the flywheel. For ultimate performance the 1.8 K-series engine, with standard cams or VVC (Variable Valve Control) system can be fitted (these engines are found in the MGF and Lotus Elise sports cars, as well as various Rovers and MGs).


title: Austin Metro

text: In December 1994 the revised R6 model appeared. In the United Kingdom, Rover finally scrapped the Metro nameplate, replacing it with a new name, Rover 100, which had been adopted on continental Europe on the Rover Metro's launch in 1990, due to the weakness of the Austin marque in Europe.


title: Austin Metro

text: The mechanics of the car remained much the same with 1.1 and 1.4 petrol engines and Hydragas suspension, but there was now the option of a Peugeot-sourced 1.5 diesel rather than the previous 1.4. The exterior was altered in an attempt to disguise the car's age, meet the increased cooling requirements of the Peugeot motor and offer a reduced-format Rover family grille. This was achieved through fitment of new front and rear bumpers, sill covers, rear boot handle and headlamps, bonnet and grille.


title: Austin Metro

text: A variety of bolder paint colours and the use of chrome trim helped give a more upmarket appearance. The interior trim was revised to give a greater impression of quality and luxury, but since the basic architecture had remained unchanged since the original 1980 car it was considered by many as being short on space and outdated in comparison to its most modern rivals (most of which had been replaced with all-new models since the launch of the Rover Metro, and in the cases of the Ford Fiesta and Vauxhall Nova/Corsa, replaced with all-new models twice) It was criticised by the press for its lack of equipment, with front electric windows only available on the range-topping 114 GSi. Rear electric windows were never an option on the 100. Neither were Anti-Lock Brakes, Power Steering or a rev-counter (except the GTa and later manual 114 GSi models) One saving grace for the 100 was the option of full leather trim, a rarity in a small car and coupled with the standard wood veneer dashboard inserts, a tinted glass sunroof and the optional wood veneer door cappings, the 114 GSi made for traditional luxury motoring; an image Rover was trying to retain. The only safety efforts came in the form of an optional drivers airbag, an alarm, a passive engine immobiliser, a removable radio keypad, central locking and side intrusion beams. Overall, the 100 series was considered a rather typical facelift of a car which had been a class leader on launch some years earlier, only to be overtaken by newer cars including the Renault Clio, Fiat Punto and Volkswagen Polo. It was launched only a year before a heavily revised Ford Fiesta.


title: Austin Metro

text: A 'warm' version of the 100 called the 114 GTa was available from launch. The main differences over the 114 SLi three-door – which has the same engine – were sports seats, red seatbelts, a rev-counter, sports suspension, a slightly higher top speed, faster acceleration, GSi alloy wheels and GTa badging. It was only available as a three-door.


title: Austin Metro

text: In 1997, the Rover 100 gave a poor performance in Euro NCAP crash tests (despite the improved safety features, including side impact bars in the doors and an optional driver's airbag, the 1970s design was showing its age) – it was at the time the only car tested to receive a one-star Adult Occupant Rating. Other small cars tested at the same time received 2 or 3 stars out of five. The passenger compartment was subjected to severe structural damage in the frontal-offset test and results showed a high risk of injury to all body regions for the driver. Meanwhile, the side impact test also showed high injury risks.


title: Austin Metro

text: The Rover 100's dismal safety showing was not its only problem by 1997. It was fast falling behind the best cars in its sector when it came to design, build quality, refinement and specification, although it remained strong in terms of fuel economy and affordability. Unlike the Ford Fiesta, Volkswagen Polo and Vauxhall Corsa, the Rover 100 could still provide sub-£7,000 motoring.


title: Austin Metro

text: Facing a complete collapse of sales, Rover withdrew the 100 from production – marking the end of nearly 18 years of production.


title: Austin Metro

text: There was no direct replacement for the Metro/100, although the 1995 Rover 200 had been developed inside Rover Cars to serve as a replacement for the 100 as well as the previous 200 model, which was slightly larger. The 100 and 200 were sold concurrently until 1998, when the 100 was withdrawn. When the Rover 200 was facelifted in late 1999 and rebadged as the Rover 25, Rover marketed this as a supermini reflecting the continued, steady, growth of all car classes. The plan was for both the 100 and the 25 to be on the market until the launch of the true replacement for the Metro in the shape of the MINI. However, BMW's sale of Rover put an end to those plans. BMW kept the MINI design and MG Rover's notional successor to the Metro was the Rover 25 and its MG ZR relative.


title: Austin Metro

text: The gap left by the Metro as a true Rover city car was not filled until late 2003, when the Rover CityRover was launched – it was a 1.4 engined city car built in India alongside the Tata Indica. This model was nowhere near as popular as the Metro or even the Rover 100, and was not included in the revived product range by Nanjing Automobile following MG Rover's bankruptcy in 2005.


title: Austin Metro

text: Created for the short-lived Group B rally category, the 4WD mid engined MG Metro 6R4 of 1984 (standing for 6-cylinder, Rally, 4-wheel-drive) was a world away from the best selling city car to which only bares superficial cosmetic resemblance to its ordinary counterpart. The competition car effectively only shared the name of the production Metro as it featured a mid-mounted engine with four-wheel drive transmission enclosed within a semi-monocoque seam-welded tubular chassis. The development of this vehicle had been entrusted to Williams Grand Prix Engineering.


title: Austin Metro

text: The resulting car was shown to the world in May 1985. It was powered by a David Wood designed bespoke 3-litre V6 powerplant which used some of the engine architecture of the Cosworth DFV. It featured twin overhead camshafts and four valves per cylinder. The engine was not turbocharged as the majority of its competitors were, which considered the Metro as "unique." The engine was mounted back to front in the car, with the forward end of the engine facing the hatchback and the gearbox attached conventionally behind it and, therefore, in the middle of the vehicle. The four-wheel-drive was permanently engaged, and drove separate prop shafts to the front and rear differentials. The rear differential was mounted on the side of the engine sump with one driveshaft running through the sump to the nearside rear wheel. Much of the outer bodywork was made of GRP, with the only exception being the roof panels (which were aluminium), the steel doors, and the remaining panels from the original Metro shell. The doors were, however, concealed by plastic airboxes. Indeed, models now on show generally have stickers demonstrating where it is safe to push from when moving the vehicle, so as not to damage the bodywork.


title: Austin Metro

text: The 6R4 appeared in two guises. There was a so-called "Clubman" model which was the road going version which developed in the region of , of which around 200 were made and sold to the public for £40,000 (the homologation version). A further 20 were taken and built to International specifications which had a recorded output of over


title: Austin Metro

text: At its launch in 1985, Rover announced that it would complete the necessary number of cars required for homologation by November of that year. This was undertaken at the group's large manufacturing facility at Longbridge. The car was to participate in the Lombard RAC rally in November 1985, and an example, driven by "works" driver Tony Pond, finished a highly respectable third, behind two Lancia Delta S4s.


title: Austin Metro

text: This good start was unfortunately not repeated, and although a 6R4 was entered in rallies at Monte Carlo, Sweden, Portugal and Corsica during the 1986 season, none of the Metros managed to complete a course. The majority of these problems were related to the V6 powerplant which suffered teething issues. Halfway during the 1986 season, Group B was banned (following a series of fatal crashes in which both competitors and spectators lost their lives). From that point on, the 6R4 was always going to be limited in front line competition, although they were run with limited success for the remainder of the year. A number passed into private hands and have proved formidable rally and rallycross cars. Despite the expiry of the 6R4's homologation the MSA still allow the cars to run in competition although engine sizes have been limited to 2800cc (single plenum engines) and 2500cc (multi-plenum engines).


title: Austin Metro

text: Austin Rover withdrew from the rallying scene at the end of the season, but in 1987 all the parts and engines were sold to Tom Walkinshaw Racing, whereupon the V6 engine reappeared in the Jaguar XJ220, this time with turbochargers added.


title: Austin Metro

text: The Metro remained one of Britain's most popular cars throughout its production life, even during its final year when it was among the oldest designs on sale in the country. During its early years, the Austin Metro was Britain's most popular small car; often outselling the Ford Fiesta. It was still one of Britain's best selling cars by the time it was replaced by the Rover 100 in late 1994, with almost 1,500,000 having been sold (an average of more than 100,000 per year). However, despite reasonable numbers being sold in France and Italy, overall sales in Europe were modest in comparison to established rivals such as the Fiesta (which typically sold 500,000 units per year across Europe), meaning that BL still could not realise the true economies of scale.


title: Austin Metro

text: Much debate among automotive historians has taken place over whether BL's decision to push the Metro's development programme ahead of the potentially more profitable Maestro/Montego models was justified. As a result of this, both those models did not arrive on the market until 1983/84, after having been in development since 1976 with a view of being launched around 1980. By the time of their launch, they were soon out of step both stylistically and from an engineering perspective when compared to the market-leading cars in their sectors.


title: Austin Metro

text: The Metro's popularity endured in spite of its failure to match the durability of its contemporary rivals, notably the Nissan Micra (K10) and VW Polo Mk.2. This is well illustrated by the findings of "Auto Express"'s 2006 survey which named the Metro as Britain's seventh-most scrapped car of the last thirty years. Just 21,468 versions of the original 1980–1990 Metro were still in working order at the time of the survey, despite around 1,000,000 being sold. Nearly seven years on, that figure has inevitably declined further, with the number remaining as of 2013 now down to less than 2,000.


title: Austin Metro

text: Many Metros (particularly the pre-1990 Austin models) have been scrapped as a result of the bodyshell's vulnerability to rust. Pre-1989 cars could not run on unleaded fuel either without expensive conversion of the cylinder head or the use of additives. When lead replacement petrol was withdrawn from sale in 1997 many owners simply scrapped the cars. Metros built before 1990 use the same engine and transmission package as the Mini, hence they have become popular donor cars for Mini restorations and Mini-based kit cars; and as a result, thousands of Metros were dismantled purely for their engines to keep Minis on the road. Many Metros were written off by joyriders, as the car's minimal security made it notoriously easy to steal.


title: Austin Metro

text: Including the post-1994 Rover 100 Series models, a total of just under 1,500,000 Metros were sold in the UK in less than twenty years, making it the seventh-most popular car ever sold there.


title: Austin Metro

text: Lady Diana Spencer (later Diana, Princess of Wales) owned a red W-registered Metro before her engagement to Prince Charles. This car is in the Museum of British Road Transport, Coventry.


title: David Mann (actor)

text: David Anthony Mann Sr. (born August 7, 1966) is an American actor and gospel singer who has starred in many Tyler Perry plays, including "I Can Do Bad All By Myself", "Madea's Family Reunion," "Madea's Class Reunion", "Meet the Browns", and "What's Done in the Dark". His character Mr. Brown is the father of Madea's daughter Cora (played by his real life wife, Tamela Mann). Mann also reprised his role as the character in the movies "Tyler Perry's Meet the Browns" and "Tyler Perry's Madea Goes to Jail".


title: David Mann (actor)

text: Mann was born in Fort Worth, Texas, USA. He has been married to Tamela Mann since 1988; they were both previous members of Kirk Franklin's vocal ensemble "The Family" before working with Tyler Perry. In 2018, he and Tamela recorded a romantic soul album together called "Us Against the World".


title: Alfajor

text: An alfajor or alajú (, plural "alfajores") is a traditional confection typically made of flour, honey, and nuts. It is found in Argentina, Peru, Chile, Bolivia, the Philippines, Southern Brazil, Southern France, Spain, and Uruguay. The archetypal "alfajor" entered Iberia during the period of al-Andalus. It is produced in the form of a small cylinder and is sold either individually or in boxes containing several pieces.


title: Alfajor

text: According to Spanish philologist and dialectologist Manuel Alvar López, "alfajor" is an Andalusian variant of the Castilian "alajú", derived from the Arabic word , "al-fakhir", meaning luxurious, and, contrary to some beliefs that it originated in the New World, was introduced to Latin America as "alfajor". The word had been introduced into Spanish dictionaries in the 14th century.


title: Alfajor

text: The publication of historical dictionaries of the Spanish language allows one to document both forms of the original "alajur", written as "alajú" and "alfajor". "Alajur" and multiple geographic variations are sweets made of a paste of almonds, nuts, breadcrumbs and honey. It is possible that "alfajor" and "alajú" were Arabisms introduced into the Spanish language in different places and times, and, supposing both came from the same etymology, from a linguistic point of view, "alajú" is probably an Arabism of Castillian Spanish, and so it is still alive in Cuenca, Toledo, Guadalajara and in "la Sierra de la peña de Francia"; meanwhile the variation "alfajor" is Andalusian and Murcian. In the Americas, the word "alfajor" was not known until the 19th century.


title: Alfajor

text: In 712, the Arab general Musa ibn Nusair arrived in Algeciras with an army of 18,000 soldiers to undertake the conquest of Medina Sidonia, Alcalá de Guadaira and Carmona. A similar sweet called "alaú" is found in the Arabic-Hispanic cookbook Kitab al-Tabikh, by an anonymous author. The Spanish grammarian Nebrija noted the word for the first time in his Latin-Spanish Dictionary (1495) as: "alfaxor" or "alaxur". In the 12th century, Raimundo Martin describes in his book "Vocabulista" another possible etymology of the Hispano-Arabic "fasur", meaning "nectar".


title: Alfajor

text: The regulations of the Andalusian Ministry of Agriculture allow the use of only pure honey, almonds, nuts, breadcrumbs, sugar, flour and spices, such as aniseed, sesame, cilantro, cloves and cinnamon. The Protected Geographical Indication "alfajores" are meant to be presented in a cylindrical shape, with a minimum weight of 30 grams each, and with a minimum size of about 7 cm in length and a diameter of 1.5 cm. Each of them will be protected with a wrapping paper, and the ends made an ornament in a spiral shape with a ribbon out of the same paper. Once individually wrapped, they may be packaged in wood or cardboard boxes, but never in plastic.


title: Alfajor

text: In Spain, there are a variety of different recipes for preparing "alfajores", but the most traditional contain flour, honey, almonds and several spices, such as cinnamon. "Alfajores" are most commonly sold around Christmas, but in Medina Sidonia, they are available year-round. The traditional Spanish "alfajor" has been produced in this town (where it is called an "alajú") since ancient times, and the recipe has been traditionally handed down from father to son.


title: Alfajor

text: "Alfajores" are still made by craftsmen in Medina Sidonia using natural ingredients that include honey, almonds, hazelnuts, sugar, flour, and breadcrumbs, and mixed with natural spices. The manufacturing process has been respected following a recipe found by Mariano Pardo de Figueroa in 1786. In Medina Sidonia, the annual production of approximately 45,000 kilograms is mostly consumed in the province of Cadiz, but they are also famous in Sevilla, Malaga and Huelva.


title: Alfajor

text: On 15 September 2004, protected geographical indication was ratified by the "Consejo de agricultura y pesca de la junta de Andalucía" and published in the "Official Journal of the European Union" as "Alfajor de Medina Sidonia" on 6 March 2007.


title: Alfajor

text: In the province of Cuenca, Spain, where the "alfajor" is called "alajú" it is made with almond, honey and figs, all wrapped in a wafer.


title: Alfajor

text: Medina Sidonia was the capital for the Arabic world of confection, where the "alfajor" has centuries of history with a recipe that has been transmitted from generation to generation. In this town, there is an account of Mariano Pardo de Figueroa, a gastronomist better known by his pseudonym Doctor Thebussem, who documented the history of this sweet, wherein he wrote that on 2 July 1487, Enrique de Guzmán, second count of Medina Sidonia, ordered the council and majors of the region to send to Malaga 50 cows, 50 oxen, 200 calves and provision of "alajú" from his city.


title: Alfajor

text: The sweet sandwich cookie sold and largely consumed in France is the macaron. This typical Parisian confection is presented with a ganache, buttercream or jam filling sandwiched between two cookies, akin to a sandwich cookie. This meringue-based sweet should not be considered a counterpart of the Alfajor in France. Both sweet pastries are extremely similar in shape; nevertheless, the method and ingredients of the confection differ significantly. The alfajor is made with a biscuit base, whose dough, whether made of corn-starch or flour, is usually more compact and solid. Instead, the macaron is made with meringue, which can be Italian or French.


title: Alfajor

text: In Puerto Rico, they underwent creolization, lost their almond and gained ground cassava. They can take varying amounts of sugar and spices. It's possible that Puerto Rico's most common version of this dessert (South American version with dulce de leche) reached Puerto Rico from Venezuela, but the opposite is also possible. Depending on region some add cornstarch, citrus zest, ginger and honey, filled with chocolate, vanilla cream, dulce de leche, fruit paste, or coconut. The filling can be mixed with almonds, sesame seeds, coconut flakes, or sprinkles.


title: Alfajor

text: Traditional "alfajores" in Argentina, Peru, Uruguay and Venezuela consist of two round, sweet biscuits made of wheat flour or corn starch joined with dulce de leche (known as "manjar blanco" in Peru and as "arequipe" in Venezuela), and optionally coated with powdered sugar. More modern "industrial" varieties in Uruguay and Argentina, are coated with dark or white chocolate (many "alfajores" are sold in "black" and "white" versions), or simply covered with powdered sugar. These are also known as a "Chilean Oreo". One variation is called ""alfajor de nieve"" (snow alfajor) and has a white coating consisting of a mixture of egg whites and sugar. Most "alfajores" come packaged in aluminium foil. Alfajores are made in various diameters and are consumed as snacks.


title: Alfajor

text: Alfajores have been popular in Argentina and Uruguay since the mid-19th century. However, these differ from the Spanish alfajores in that they are made with two round cookies with different sweet fillings between them. The filling is usually dulce de leche, although there are a lot of variations. They can be covered with powder sugar (the traditional ones), glazed sugar (Santafesinos or "de nieve"), grated coconut or chocolate. Argentina is one of the world's largest consumer of alfajores, both in total numbers and in per capita calculations, actually consuming more than a billion alfajores a year, while being the most common snack for schoolchildren and adults.


title: Alfajor

text: Some of the best-known alfajor brands in South America are the Argentine "Jorgito", "Capitán del Espacio", "Guaymallen", "Suchard", "Havanna", "Cachafaz", "Juanote" and "Estancia El Rosario", the Uruguayan "Punta Ballena", "Sierra de Minas", "Alfajores Portezuelo", "Marley", and Peruvian "Casa del Alfajor".


title: Alfajor

text: Alfajores made their arrival to the Viceroyalty of Peru, the largest administrative district of the Spanish Empire in South America in the 16th century, and have been popular since, especially the artisanal types.


title: Alfajor

text: The Brazilian style of alfajor is commonly known as "bem-casado" (literally "well wed"), also filled with "doce de leite" and covered with thin sugar. There is also another candy known as "pão de mel" (meaning "honey bread" in Portuguese) that shares some features with alfajor, but more closely resembles a gingerbread. This variety is also coated with dark chocolate - like in Argentina and Uruguay - but has a cake-like texture on the inside and can be filled with doce de leite, chocolate and coconut cream.


title: Alfajor

text: Other varieties include different elements in the preparation of the biscuits, such as peanuts, and a variety of fillings, coatings, or even the addition of a third biscuit ("alfajor triple").


title: Alfajor

text: The "alfajor" has been manufactured and consumed since colonial times in the territories that today belong to Argentina.


title: Alfajor

text: Mass-production of alfajores traces back to the Atlantic coast of Argentina in the 1950s. Brands such as Havanna and Balcarce, and as many as 30 others, have been introduced into shops and supermarkets. Statistics of the year 2021 shows that inhabitants of Argentina consume 6 million alfajores per day. Supermarkets carry a wide variety of product, up to 34 different kinds. These include "triple alfajores", which are composed of three biscuits adhered to one another with dulce de leche and covered with chocolate.


title: Alfajor

text: Around 1851 in the district of Arocena (province of Santa Fe), Manuel Zampatti, known as Zapatin, began commercially manufacturing an existing variety of alfajor consisting of three baked cookies adhered with dulce de leche and coated with sugar. These came to be known as "alfajor santafesino". Colonel Néstor Fernández took it to the battle of Caseros, and was there when the army tasted it and it became so popular that General Justo José de Urquiza had alfajores taken to his San José de Entre Ríos farm with a weekly load of these alfajores. They are also manufactured in the provinces of Santiago del Estero and Tucumán, and the famous brand Havanna manufactures them in the city of Mar del Plata and in most of the tourist places of Argentina.


title: Alfajor

text: The Cordobes alfajor stands out among the regional varieties of Argentina; it is filled with jellies of fruits (generally of quince), one of the most well - known brands is Estancia El Rosario. Other outstanding variety is the alfajor from Santa Fe which has no less than three puff pastry covers adhered to one another with much dulce de leche and everything glazed (Industrial preparations can be differentiated because they are not coated in the lower part, since the coating is made in plates). In addition, In Santa Fe, it can be acquired the Rogel, of similar characteristics, but bigger (the size of a small cake) and the variety from Tucuman, which is known as a clarita and it is made up with two crunchy cookies as covers and filled with a jelly made up of sugar molasses. In Argentina, alfajores made up of cornflour are very consumed as well (covers made up of maize starch, filled with dulce de leche and grated coconut around the joining).


title: Alfajor

text: The cornflour alfajor is consumed during the whole year in the central areas of Chile; on the other hand, in the southern areas of Chile, it is consumed another variety of alfajor, generally for Patriotic festivities of September.


title: Alfajor

text: The alfajor is basically a sponge cake or cookies adhered with manjar (dulce de leche) and generally coated in meringue or marmalade and optionally with sprinkled icing sugar. Two types of alfajores are mainly outstanding in Chile:


title: Alfajor

text: According to Guinness World Records, the biggest "alfajor" in the world, measuring almost two meters in diameter and 80 centimeters in height and weighing 464 kilograms, was made on 11 December 2010 in Minas, Lavalleja Department, Uruguay. The giant "alfajor" was made to mark the celebration of Uruguay's first National Alfajor Festival. More than 30 people participated in the preparation of the record-breaking "alfajor".


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: The presidency of Abraham Lincoln began on March 4, 1861, when Abraham Lincoln was inaugurated as the 16th president of the United States, and ended upon his assassination and death on April 15, 1865, days into his second term. Lincoln was the first member of the recently established Republican Party elected to the presidency. Lincoln successfully presided over the Union victory in the American Civil War, which dominated his presidency and resulted in the end of slavery.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln took office following the 1860 presidential election, in which he won a plurality of the popular vote in a four-candidate field. Almost all of Lincoln's votes came from the Northern United States, as the Republicans held little appeal to voters in the Southern United States. A former Whig, Lincoln ran on a political platform opposed to the expansion of slavery in the territories. His election served as the immediate impetus for the outbreak of the Civil War. After being sworn in as president, Lincoln refused to accept any resolution that would result in Southern secession from the Union. The Civil War began weeks into Lincoln's presidency with the Confederate attack on Fort Sumter, a federal installation located within the boundaries of the Confederacy.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln was called on to handle both the political and military aspects of the Civil War, facing challenges in both spheres. As commander-in-chief, he ordered the suspension of the constitutionally-protected right to habeas corpus in the state of Maryland in order to suppress Confederate sympathizers. He also became the first president to institute a military draft. As the Union faced several early defeats in the Eastern Theater of the American Civil War, Lincoln cycled through numerous military commanders during the war, finally settling on General Ulysses S. Grant, who had led the Union to several victories in the Western Theater. Lincoln's 1863 Emancipation Proclamation recognized the legal freedom of the 3.5 million slaves then held in Confederate territory and established emancipation as a Union war goal. In 1865, Lincoln was instrumental in the passage of the Thirteenth Amendment, which made slavery unconstitutional. Lincoln also presided over the passage of important domestic legislation, including the first of the Homestead Acts, the Morrill Land-Grant Act of 1862, and the Pacific Railroad Act of 1862. He ran for re-election in 1864 on the National Union ticket, which was supported by War Democrats in addition to Republicans. Though Lincoln feared he might lose the contest, he defeated his former subordinate, General George B. McClellan of the Democratic Party, in a landslide. Months after the election, Grant would essentially end the war by defeating the Confederate army led by General Robert E. Lee. Lincoln's assassination in April 1865, five days after the surrender of Lee, left the final challenge of reconstructing the nation to others.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Following his death, Lincoln was portrayed as the liberator of the slaves, the savior of the Union, and a martyr for the cause of freedom. Political historians have long held Lincoln in high regard for his accomplishments and personal characteristics. Alongside George Washington and Franklin D. Roosevelt, he has been consistently ranked both by scholars and the public as one of the top three greatest American presidents, often as the greatest president in American history.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln, a former Whig Congressman, emerged as a major Republican presidential candidate following his narrow loss to Democrat Stephen A. Douglas in the 1858 Senate election in Illinois. Though he lacked the broad support of Republican Senator William H. Seward of New York, Lincoln believed that he could emerge as the Republican presidential nominee at the convention after multiple ballots. Lincoln spent much of 1859 and 1860 building support for his candidacy, and his Cooper Union speech was well-received by eastern elites. Lincoln positioned himself in the "moderate center" of his party; he opposed the expansion of slavery into the territories but did not favor the abolition of slavery in slave states. On the first ballot of the May 1860 Republican National Convention, Lincoln finished second to Seward, but Seward was unable to clinch the nomination. Ignoring Lincoln's strong dictate to "make no contracts that bind me", his managers maneuvered to win Lincoln's nomination on the third ballot of the convention. Delegates then nominated Senator Hannibal Hamlin from Maine for vice president. The party platform opposed the extension of slavery into the territories but pledged not to interfere with it in the states. It also endorsed a protective tariff, internal improvements such as a transcontinental railroad, and policies designed to encourage the settlement of public land in the West.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: The 1860 Democratic National Convention met in April 1860, but adjourned after failing to agree on a candidate. A second convention met in June and nominated Stephen Douglas as the presidential nominee, but several pro-slavery Southern delegations refused to support Douglas, as they demanded a strongly pro-slavery nominee. These Southern Democrats held a separate convention that nominated incumbent Vice President John C. Breckinridge of Kentucky for president. A group of former Whigs and Know Nothings formed the Constitutional Union Party and nominated John Bell for president. Breckinridge and Bell would primarily contest the South, while Lincoln and Douglas would compete for votes in the North. Republicans were confident after these party conventions, with Lincoln predicting that the fractured Democrats stood little chance of winning the election.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln carried all but one Northern state to win an Electoral College majority with 180 votes to 72 for Breckinridge, 39 for Bell, and 12 for Douglas. Lincoln won every county in New England and most of the remaining counties in the North,


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: but he won just two of the 996 Southern counties. Nationwide, Lincoln took 39.8% of the popular vote, while Douglas won 29.5% of the popular vote, Breckenridge won 18.1%, and Bell won 12.6%. 82.2 percent of eligible voters took part in the contentious election, the second highest turnout in U.S. history. Despite Republican success in the presidential election, the party failed to win a majority in either house of Congress, although after secessions, Lincoln governed with a majority in both houses.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Following Lincoln's victory, all the slave states began to consider secession. Lincoln was not scheduled to take office until March 1861, leaving incumbent Democratic President James Buchanan, a "doughface" from Pennsylvania who had been favorable to the South, to preside over the country until that time. President Buchanan declared that secession was illegal while denying that the government had any power to resist it. Lincoln had no official power to act while the secession crisis escalated. Nonetheless, Lincoln was barraged with advice. Many wanted him to provide reassurances to the South that their interests were not being threatened. Realizing that soothing words on the rights of slaveholders would alienate the Republican base, while taking a strong stand on the indestructibility of the Union would further inflame Southerners, Lincoln chose a policy of silence. He believed that, given enough time without any overt acts or threats to the South, Southern unionists would carry the day and bring their states back into the Union. At the suggestion of a Southern merchant who contacted him, Lincoln did make an indirect appeal to the South by providing material for Senator Lyman Trumbull to insert into his own public address. Republicans praised Trumbull's address, Democrats assailed it, and the South largely ignored it.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: In December 1860, both the House and Senate formed special committees to address the unfolding crisis. Lincoln communicated with various Congressmen that there was room for negotiation on issues such as fugitive slaves, slavery in the District of Columbia, and the domestic slave trade. However he made it clear that he was unalterably opposed to anything which would allow the expansion of slavery into any new states or territories. On December 6, Lincoln wrote to Congressman Orlando Kellogg, a Republican on the special House committee, saying that Kellogg should "entertain no proposition for a compromise in regard to the extension of slavery. The instant you do, they have us under again; all our labor is lost, and sooner or later must be done over. Douglas is sure to be again trying to bring in his [popular sovereignty]. Have none of it. The tug has to come & better now than later."


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: In mid-December, Senator John J. Crittenden of Kentucky, the chairman of the special Senate committee, proposed a package of six constitutional amendments, known as the Crittenden Compromise. The compromise would protect slavery in federal territories south of the 36°30′ parallel and prohibit it in territories north of that latitude, with newly admitted states deciding on the status of slavery within their borders. Congress would be forbidden from abolishing slavery in any state (or the District of Columbia) or interfering with the domestic slave trade. Despite pressure from Seward, Lincoln refused to support the compromise. Still opposed to the expansion of slavery into the territories, Lincoln privately asked Republican Senators to oppose the compromise, and it failed to pass Congress.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln believed that Southern threats of secession were mostly bluster and that the sectional crisis would be defused, as it had in 1820 and 1850. However, many Southerners were convinced that assenting to Lincoln's presidency and the restriction of slavery in the territories would ultimately lead to the extinction of slavery in the United States. On December 20, 1860, South Carolina voted to secede, and six other Southern states seceded in the next forty days. In February, these Southern states formed the Confederated States of America (CSA) and elected Jefferson Davis as provisional president. Despite the formation of the CSA, the slave-holding states of Arkansas, North Carolina, Tennessee, Virginia, Delaware, Maryland, Kentucky, and Missouri still remained part of the union.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: In February 1861, two final political efforts were made to preserve the Union. The first was made by a group of 131 delegates sent by 21 states to a Peace Conference, held at the Willard's Hotel in the nation's capital. The convention submitted to Congress a seven-point constitutional amendment proposal similar in content to the earlier Crittenden Compromise. The proposal was rejected by the Senate and never considered by the House. The second effort was a "never-never" constitutional amendment on slavery, that would shield domestic institutions of the states from Congressional interference and from future constitutional amendments. Commonly known as the Corwin Amendment, the measure was approved by Congress, but was not ratified by the state legislatures.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: On February 11, 1861, Lincoln boarded a special train that over the course of the next two weeks would take him to the nation's capital. Lincoln spoke several times each day during the train trip. While his speeches were mostly extemporaneous, his message was consistent: he had no hostile intentions towards the South, disunion was not acceptable, and he intended to enforce the laws and protect property.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Rumors abounded during the course of the trip of various plots to kill Lincoln. Samuel Felton, president of the Philadelphia, Wilmington & Baltimore Railroad, hired detective Allan Pinkerton to investigate reports that secessionists might try to sabotage the railroad along the route. In conducting his investigation Pinkerton obtained information that indicated to him that an attempt on Lincoln's life would be made in Baltimore. As a result of the threat, the travel schedule was altered, tracks were closed to other traffic, and the telegraph wires even cut to heighten security. Lincoln and his entourage passed through Baltimore's waterfront at around 3 o'clock in the early morning of February 23, and arrived safely in the nation's capital a few hours later. The unannounced departure from the published schedule, along with the unconventional attire Lincoln wore to keep a low profile, led to critics and cartoonists accusing him of sneaking into Washington in disguise. Lincoln met with Buchanan and Congressional leaders shortly after arriving in Washington. He also worked to complete his cabinet, meeting with Republican Senators to obtain their feedback.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln, aware that his inaugural address would be delivered in an atmosphere filled with fear and anxiety, and amid an unstable political landscape, sought guidance from colleagues and friends as he prepared it. Among those whose counsel Lincoln sought was Orville Browning, who advised Lincoln to omit the phrase "to reclaim the public property and places which have fallen". He also asked his former rival (and Secretary of State-designate) William Seward to review it. Seward exercised his due diligence by presenting Lincoln with a six-page analysis of the speech in which he offered some 49 suggested changes, of which the president-elect incorporated 27 into the final draft.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln's first presidential inauguration occurred on March 4, 1861 on the East Portico of the United States Capitol. Prior to taking the oath, Lincoln delivered his inaugural address. He opened by attempting to reassure the South that he had no intention or constitutional authority to interfere with slavery in states where it already existed. He promised to enforce the fugitive slave law and spoke favorably about a pending constitutional amendment that would preserve slavery in the states where it currently existed. He also assured the states that had already seceded that the federal government would not "assail" (violently attack) them. After these assurances, however, Lincoln declared that secession was "the essence of anarchy" and it was his duty to "hold, occupy, and possess the property belonging to the government". Focusing on those within the South who were still on the fence regarding secession, Lincoln contrasted "persons in one section or another who seek to destroy the Union as it exists" versus "those, however, who really love the Union." In his closing remarks Lincoln spoke directly to the secessionists, and asserted that no state could secede from the Union "upon its own mere motion" and emphasized the moral commitment that he was undertaking to "preserve, protect, and defend" the laws of the land. He then concluded the address with a firm but conciliatory message:


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: Lincoln began the process of constructing his cabinet on election night. In an effort to create a cabinet that would unite the Republican Party, Lincoln attempted to reach out to every faction of his party, with a special emphasis on balancing former Whigs with former Democrats. Lincoln's eventual cabinet would include all of his main rivals for the Republican nomination. He did not shy away from surrounding himself with strong-minded men, even those whose credentials for office appeared to be much more impressive than his own. Though the cabinet appointees held different views on economic issues, all opposed the extension of slavery into the territories.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: The first cabinet position filled was that of Secretary of State. It was tradition for the president-elect to offer this, the most senior cabinet post, to the leading (best-known and most popular) person of his political party. William Seward was that man and in mid-December 1860, Vice President-elect Hamlin, acting on Lincoln's behalf, offered the position to him. Seward had been deeply disappointed by his failure to win the 1860 Republican presidential nomination, but he agreed to serve as Lincoln's Secretary of State. By the end of 1862, Seward had emerged as the dominant figure in Lincoln's cabinet, though the Secretary of State's conservative policies on abolition and other issues alienated many within the Republican Party. Despite pressure from some congressional leaders to fire Seward, Lincoln retained his Secretary of State for the duration of his presidency.


title: Presidency of Abraham Lincoln

text: President Lincoln as well had conversations with Majesty Somdetch Phra Paramendr Maha Mongut, or known as The King of Siam [now known as Thailand]. These conversations were friendly, so much so that the King of Siam mailed a letter in hopes of continuing their relationship. In this letter, the King offered a gift of 2 elephants, a symbol of peace and diplomacy. President Lincoln politely declined this offer, while in the middle of the Civil War, citing that the elephants would not cooperate with new steam engine technology. However, this was one of the first in a long line of diplomatic courtesies traded between Thailand and America.