title: Storm surge

text: For example, in Palm Beach on the southeast coast of Florida, the water depth reaches offshore, and out. This is relatively steep and deep; storm surge is not as great but the waves are larger compared to the west coast of Florida. Conversely, on the Gulf side of Florida, the edge of the Floridian Plateau can lie more than offshore. Florida Bay, lying between the Florida Keys and the mainland, is very shallow with depths between and . These shallow areas are subject to higher storm surges with smaller waves. Other shallow areas include much of the Gulf of Mexico coast, and the Bay of Bengal.


title: Storm surge

text: The difference is due to how much flow area the storm surge can dissipate to. In deeper water, there is more area and a surge can be dispersed down and away from the hurricane. On a shallow, gently sloping shelf, the surge has less room to disperse and is driven ashore by the wind forces of the hurricane.


title: Storm surge

text: The topography of the land surface is another important element in storm surge extent. Areas, where the land lies less than a few meters above sea level, are at particular risk from storm surge inundation.


title: Storm surge

text: The size of the storm also affects the surge height; this is due to the storm's area not being proportional to its perimeter. If a storm doubles in diameter, its perimeter also doubles, but its area quadruples. As there is proportionally less perimeter for the surge to dissipate to, the surge height ends up being higher.


title: Storm surge

text: Similar to tropical cyclones, extratropical cyclones cause an offshore rise of water. However, unlike most tropical cyclone storm surges, extratropical cyclones can cause higher water levels across a large area for longer periods of time, depending on the system.


title: Storm surge

text: In North America, extratropical storm surges may occur on the Pacific and Alaska coasts, and north of 31°N on the Atlantic Coast. Coasts with sea ice may experience an "ice tsunami" causing significant damage inland. Extratropical storm surges may be possible further south for the Gulf coast mostly during the wintertime, when extratropical cyclones affect the coast, such as in the 1993 Storm of the Century.


title: Storm surge

text: November 9–13, 2009, marked a significant extratropical storm surge event on the United States east coast when the remnants of Hurricane Ida developed into a nor'easter off the southeast U.S. coast. During the event, winds from the east were present along the northern periphery of the low-pressure center for a number of days, forcing water into locations such as Chesapeake Bay. Water levels rose significantly and remained as high as above normal in numerous locations throughout the Chesapeake for a number of days as water was continually built-up inside the estuary from the onshore winds and freshwater rains flowing into the bay. In many locations, water levels were shy of records by only .


title: Storm surge

text: Surge can be measured directly at coastal tidal stations as the difference between the forecast tide and the observed rise of water. Another method of measuring surge is by the deployment of pressure transducers along the coastline just ahead of an approaching tropical cyclone. This was first tested for Hurricane Rita in 2005. These types of sensors can be placed in locations that will be submerged and can accurately measure the height of water above them.


title: Storm surge

text: After surge from a cyclone has receded, teams of surveyors map high-water marks (HWM) on land, in a rigorous and detailed process that includes photographs and written descriptions of the marks. HWMs denote the location and elevation of floodwaters from a storm event. When HWMs are analyzed, if the various components of the water height can be broken out so that the portion attributable to surge can be identified, then that mark can be classified as storm surge. Otherwise, it is classified as storm tide. HWMs on land are referenced to a vertical datum (a reference coordinate system). During the evaluation, HWMs are divided into four categories based on the confidence in the mark; in the U.S., only HWMs evaluated as "excellent" are used by the National Hurricane Center in the post-storm analysis of the surge.


title: Storm surge

text: Two different measures are used for storm tide and storm surge measurements. Storm tide is measured using a geodetic vertical datum (NGVD 29 or NAVD 88). Since storm surge is defined as the rise of water beyond what would be expected by the normal movement caused by tides, storm surge is measured using tidal predictions, with the assumption that the tide prediction is well-known and only slowly varying in the region subject to the surge. Since tides are a localized phenomenon, storm surge can only be measured in relationship to a nearby tidal station. Tidal benchmark information at a station provides a translation from the geodetic vertical datum to mean sea level (MSL) at that location, then subtracting the tidal prediction yields a surge height above the normal water height.


title: Storm surge

text: The National Hurricane Center forecasts storm surge using the SLOSH model, which is an abbreviation for Sea, Lake and Overland Surges from Hurricanes. The model is accurate to within 20  percent. SLOSH inputs include the central pressure of a tropical cyclone, storm size, the cyclone's forward motion, its track, and maximum sustained winds. Local topography, bay and river orientation, depth of the sea bottom, astronomical tides, as well as other physical features, are taken into account in a predefined grid referred to as a SLOSH basin. Overlapping SLOSH basins are defined for the southern and eastern coastline of the continental U.S. Some storm simulations use more than one SLOSH basin; for instance, Hurricane Katrina SLOSH model runs used both the Lake Pontchartrain / New Orleans basin, and the Mississippi Sound basin, for the northern Gulf of Mexico landfall. The final output from the model run will display the maximum envelope of water, or MEOW, that occurred at each location.


title: Storm surge

text: To allow for track or forecast uncertainties, usually several model runs with varying input parameters are generated to create a map of MOMs or Maximum of Maximums. For hurricane evacuation studies, a family of storms with representative tracks for the region, and varying intensity, eye diameter, and speed are modeled to produce worst-case water heights for any tropical cyclone occurrence. The results of these studies are typically generated from several thousand SLOSH runs. These studies have been completed by the United States Army Corps of Engineers, under contract to the Federal Emergency Management Agency, for several states and are available on their Hurricane Evacuation Studies (HES) website. They include coastal county maps, shaded to identify the minimum category of hurricane that will result in flooding, in each area of the county.


title: Storm surge

text: Storm surge is responsible for significant property damage and loss of life as part of cyclones. Storm surge both destroys built infrastructure, like roads and undermines foundations and building structures.


title: Storm surge

text: Unexpected flooding in estuaries and coastal areas can catch populations unprepared, causing loss of life. The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone.


title: Storm surge

text: Additionally, storm surge can cause or transform human-utilized land through other processes, hurting soil fertility, increasing saltwater intrusion, hurting wildlife habitat, and spreading chemical or other contaminants from human storage.


title: Storm surge

text: Although meteorological surveys alert about hurricanes or severe storms, in the areas where the risk of coastal flooding is particularly high, there are specific storm surge warnings. These have been implemented, for instance, in the Netherlands, Spain, the United States, and the United Kingdom. Similarly educating coastal communities and developing local evacuation plans can reduce the relative impact on people.


title: Storm surge

text: A prophylactic method introduced after the North Sea flood of 1953 is the construction of dams and storm-surge barriers (flood barriers). They are open and allow free passage, but close when the land is under threat of a storm surge. Major storm surge barriers are the Oosterscheldekering and Maeslantkering in the Netherlands, which are part of the Delta Works project; the Thames Barrier protecting London; and the Saint Petersburg Dam in Russia.


title: Storm surge

text: Another modern development (in use in the Netherlands) is the creation of housing communities at the edges of wetlands with floating structures, restrained in position by vertical pylons. Such wetlands can then be used to accommodate runoff and surges without causing damage to the structures while also protecting conventional structures at somewhat higher low-lying elevations, provided that dikes prevent major surge intrusion.


title: Storm surge

text: Other soft adaptation methods can include changing structures so that they are elevated to avoid flooding directly, or increasing natural protections like mangroves or dunes.


title: Storm surge

text: For mainland areas, storm surge is more of a threat when the storm strikes land from seaward, rather than approaching from landward.


title: Storm surge

text: Water can also be sucked away from shore prior to a storm surge. This was the case on the western Florida coast in 2017, just before Hurricane Irma made landfall, uncovering land usually underwater. This phenomenon is known as a reverse storm surge, or a negative storm surge.


title: Storm surge

text: The deadliest storm surge on record was the 1970 Bhola cyclone, which killed up to 500,000 people in the area of the Bay of Bengal. The low-lying coast of the Bay of Bengal is particularly vulnerable to surges caused by tropical cyclones. The deadliest storm surge in the twenty-first century was caused by the Cyclone Nargis, which killed more than 138,000 people in Myanmar in May 2008. The next deadliest in this century was caused by the Typhoon Haiyan (Yolanda), which killed more than 6,000 people in the central Philippines in 2013 and resulted in economic losses estimated at $14 billion (USD).


title: Storm surge

text: The 1900 Galveston hurricane, a Category 4 hurricane that struck Galveston, Texas, drove a devastating surge ashore; between 6,000 and 12,000 people died, making it the deadliest natural disaster ever to strike the United States.


title: Storm surge

text: The highest storm tide noted in historical accounts was produced by the 1899 Cyclone Mahina, estimated at almost at Bathurst Bay, Australia, but research published in 2000 concluded that the majority of this likely was wave run-up because of the steep coastal topography. However, much of this storm surge was likely due to Mahina's extreme intensity, as computer modeling required an intensity of (the same intensity as the lowest recorded pressure from the storm) to produce the recorded storm surge. In the United States, one of the greatest recorded storm surges was generated by Hurricane Katrina on August 29, 2005, which produced a maximum storm surge of more than in southern Mississippi, with a storm surge height of in Pass Christian. Another record storm surge occurred in this same area from Hurricane Camille in 1969, with a storm tide of , also at Pass Christian. A storm surge of occurred in New York City during Hurricane Sandy in October 2012.


title: Queen ant

text: A queen ant (formally known as a gyne) is an adult, reproducing female ant in an ant colony; generally she will be the mother of all the other ants in that colony. Some female ants, such as the "Cataglyphis", do not need to mate to produce offspring, reproducing through asexual parthenogenesis or cloning, and all of those offspring will be female. Others, like those in the genus "Crematogaster", mate in a nuptial flight. Queen offspring ants develop from larvae specially fed in order to become sexually mature among most species. Depending on the species, there can be either a single mother queen, or potentially hundreds of fertile queens in some species. A queen of "Lasius niger" was held in captivity by German entomologist Hermann Appel for 28 years; also a "Pogonomyrmex owyheei" has a maximum estimated longevity of 30 years in the field.


title: Queen ant

text: Ants go through four stages of development: egg, larva, pupa (sometimes cocoon, called metamorphosis depending on the species) and adult. The larvae have no legs but are capable of some minor movement, such as bending their head toward a food source when fed. During this stage, the level of care and nourishment the larvae receive will determine their eventual adult form. When resources are low, all larvae will develop into female worker ants; however, if the parent of a sexually reproducing colony has a plentiful supply of food, some of the larvae will receive better nourishment than others, and develop into winged, sexually mature female ants destined to leave the colony. At this stage, the winged female ants are sometimes known as "princess ants".


title: Queen ant

text: When conditions are hot and humid after rain and there is minimal wind, masses of winged sexually reproducing ants or "flying ants" will leave their parent nest and take flight. The mating flights occur simultaneously in all ant nests of the particular species. The female "queen" ants will fly a long distance, during which they will mate with at least one winged male from another nest. He transfers sperm to the seminal receptacle of the queen and then dies. Once mated, the "queen" will attempt to find a suitable area to start a colony and, once found will detach her wings.


title: Queen ant

text: Once a colony is established, the worker ants meet the queen's needs such as giving her food and disposing of her waste. Because ant social structure is very complex and individual ants are relatively simple, an ant colony can be thought of as a single organism, and the individual ants as cells or limbs of the organism, as the individuals can rarely survive on their own. In a colony, some ants may be unrelated to the queen(s), such as when a brood is captured in a raid and raised as the colony's own.


title: Queen ant

text: Once the colony has established itself, the queen ant will lay eggs continuously. Among species that reproduce sexually, the queen selectively uses the sperm cells retained from the nuptial flight, laying fertilized or unfertilized eggs depending upon the cyclic needs of the colony; the sex of each individual ant is determined by whether or not the egg is fertilized. The fertilized eggs become female worker ants and unfertilized eggs develop as males; if the fertilized eggs and pupae are well-nurtured, they potentially become queens.


title: Queen ant

text: This system of sex determination, haplodiploidy, is generally true for all "Hymenoptera" – ants, bees, and wasps. However, a few ant species do not reproduce sexually and members of these clonal colonies are all female.


title: Queen ant

text: The patterns of expression of genes involved in repair of DNA damage or protein damage were compared between age-matched queens and workers of the ant "Lasius niger". The expression of these genes increased with age, and at age two months this increase, in both the legs and brain, was significantly greater in queens than in workers. This difference in repair gene expression between queens and workers suggests that the greater longevity of "L. niger" queens is due, in part, to increased investment in DNA and protein repair.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The Volkswagen ID. Buzz is a battery electric minivan produced by German manufacturer Volkswagen. Based on the dedicated battery electric MEB platform, it is the first production electric minivan from Volkswagen and part of the Volkswagen ID. series. The design of the ID. Buzz is inspired by the Volkswagen Type 2 (T1) Microbus.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The vehicle was first shown as a concept car at the 2017 North American International Auto Show. The production vehicle was unveiled in March 2022 with production starting in June, and European deliveries in the second half of the year with two models: a five-seater under the name ID. Buzz, and a cargo van as the ID. Buzz Cargo. U.S. availability is slated for 2024 in a long-wheelbase version. This version will also be used for the California campervan variant of the ID. Buzz.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: Also a reference to the sound of electricity, the name "Buzz" was derived from the word "bus", as the original Volkswagen Type 2/Microbus is commonly known simply as the "Volkswagen Bus".


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: Responding to positive feedback and strong consumer interest for the ID. Buzz Concept shown at Detroit and Geneva in 2017, CEO Herbert Diess announced in August that VW would put the vehicle into production and begin selling it in 2022.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The production version of the ID. Buzz debuted on 9 March 2022. It is one of nine new Volkswagen brand models based on the MEB platform. The ID. Buzz will be available in Europe the second half of 2022, and the US in 2024. Pre-orders in Europe began in May. Series production started in June, with an annual capacity of 130,000 units. The first deliveries are scheduled for fall 2022; the first ID. Buzz off the production line was a Cargo model, delivered to Wolfgang Kempe GmbH in Isernhagen on 15 November 2022.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The ID. Buzz is produced by Volkswagen Commercial Vehicles in Hanover; because prior ID. series vehicles have been built at the Volkswagen Zwickau-Mosel Plant, the Hanover factory needed to be retooled to accommodate EV assembly. Although the Volkswagen Chattanooga Assembly Plant began building the MEB-based ID.4 in 2021 for the US market, Volkswagen Group of America CEO Scott Keogh stated in January 2022 that bringing production of US ID. Buzz models to Chattanooga is unlikely.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: In Europe, it will launch in two configurations, a five-seater passenger van, and a cargo van; initially, a short-wheelbase version with rear-wheel drive will be available. A long-wheelbase version will debut in 2023, and will be the only version for sale in the US when it goes on sale in 2024.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: According to product lead Jeffrey Lear, the styling of the ID. Buzz was chosen to "be modern and fresh and exciting for folks who may not have even been around [during the 1960s and 70s]" while retaining cues to the original Type 2 (T1)/Microbus, including the prominent front-mounted logo and (optional) two-tone paint.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: At , the wheelbase of the ID. Buzz (SWB) is similar to that of the current Volkswagen Transporter (T6); it is wider than the T6 and features a turning circle of , which is approximately the same as a Golf.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The SWB/RWD passenger version is equipped with five seats; behind the rear bench seat, there is of cargo area. Three rows of seating will be made available later; for the SWB model, each row will have two seats for a total capacity of six, while on the long-wheelbase (LWB) model, the middle row will accommodate three for a total capacity of seven. With the second row folded down on the five-passenger SWB/RWD model, cargo capacity increases to . The ID. Buzz Cargo has two or three seats in the first row only with a fixed partition; behind the partition, the Cargo version has a capacity of .


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The vehicle's instruments are displayed on a screen. In-car entertainment and climate controls are provided on a second centrally-positioned screen; the standard infotainment screen is , with a screen as an option. The vehicle is equipped with up to eight USB ports.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: Both the ID. Buzz and ID. Buzz Cargo are equipped with the 'Car2X' local warning system to identify hazards in real-time, using signals from transportation infrastructure and other vehicles; in addition, both are equipped with a collision avoidance system (CAS) branded 'Front Assist', which provides automated emergency braking. The passenger version is equipped with 'Lane Assist', which is another CAS designed to keep the vehicle in its travel lane.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: Optional assistance features include 'Travel Assist with swarm data', which automates some driving tasks, including lane changes, and 'Memory Function', allowing the vehicle to park itself on a previously saved route.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The ID. Buzz Cargo is based on the short wheelbase version with a minimal number of seats and no rear window. The rear of the vehicle, which is separated from the cab by a bulkhead partition, has of volume and can carry up to two EUR-pallets. Depending on the configuration, the cab can accommodate two (two individual bucket seats) or three (a double bench and a separate bucket for the driver) people.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: It has dual sliding side doors and an option between a liftgate (with a window) or dual wing doors (without windows) for the rear. With the liftgate, cargo area length is ; with the wing doors, cargo length is . Interior height and maximum interior width are , respectively. Gross vehicle weight rating is and the empty kerb weight is , depending on trim, giving a payload of . Combined energy consumption is 2.93 mi/kWh (), giving an estimated range of with the 77 kW-hr battery on the WLTP cycle.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The initial short-wheelbase (SWB) version is equipped with rear-axle APP 310 motor with an output of and .


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The SWB/RWD version has an 81 kW-hr battery, of which 77 kW-hr are usable; the estimated driving range is . The vehicle can accept power at a rate of up to 11 kW using an AC source, or 170 kW at a DC fast-charging station; at the latter rate, the 81/77 kW-hr battery will charge from 5% to 80% in 30 minutes. It will be capable of bidirectional V2X supply, supplying power to the electrical grid or a household as needed, although this feature is not expected to be implemented for the US model. A future software update is planned to allow Plug & Charge functionality, where the vehicle will authenticate itself at a compatible DC fast-charging station via the ISO 15118 standard.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: In December 2021, Volkswagen confirmed the ID. Buzz would be used as the basis for a future motorhome version, tentatively named ID. California. VW currently market a T6-based campervan in Europe as the Volkswagen California.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: According to the chief executive of VW Autonomy, Alex Hitzinger, the ID. Buzz minivan is the basis of Volkswagen's self-driving automobile, and could be used for VW's ride-pooling service branded MOIA, competing with Uber. MOIA launched in April 2019, serving Hamburg, Germany, after a 2018 trial with a small fleet of battery electric Multivan T6 vehicles. The autonomous features are part of the "I.D. Pilot" mode, which is anticipated to become available in 2025.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: In 2021, late prototype versions of the production ID. Buzz were fitted with autonomous vehicle hardware and software from Argo AI for testing on public roads in Munich and at the company's private test track near the Munich airport. Previously in 2019, VW had invested US$2.6 billion in Argo as part of a partnership with Ford Motor Company to develop autonomous vehicles. On 26 October 2022, with Argo announcing its closure, VW said it would pursue automation technology with Bosch and Horizon Robotics instead.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: Concept car descriptions in 2017 indicated the electric microbus could be produced in two versions: a high-end all-wheel-drive version with one motor each on the front and rear axles and an battery pack, and a less-expensive rear-wheel-drive version with an battery pack.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The I.D. Buzz Cargo (stylized as the ID. BUZZ CARGO) debuted at the 2018 IAA Commercial Vehicles show in Hannover as a support vehicle for the Volkswagen I.D. R Pikes Peak Hillclimb racer. The Cargo has a maximum estimated cargo capacity of and uses the simplified rear-drive powertrain.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The Cargo prototype was shown in October 2019 at Nike stores in Santa Monica, California; Chicago; and New York City with retro livery branded "Blue Ribbon Sports", the predecessor company to athletic apparel manufacturer Nike, Inc.


title: Volkswagen ID. Buzz

text: The concept vehicle was first shown as a prototype at the 2017 North American International Auto Show in Detroit, then shown again at Geneva in March. Members of the automotive press were invited to drive the concept during Monterey Car Week later that year, in August, where it was also announced that a production vehicle based on this prototype will be launched.


title: Claire Goose

text: Claire Goose (born 10 February 1975) is a British actress from Edinburgh, Scotland. She played Tina Seabrook, a nurse in BBC One's "Casualty", DS Mel Silver in "Waking the Dead", and Sergeant (later Inspector) Rachel Weston in ITV's "The Bill". She also narrated the last two series of "Road Wars" for digital satellite channel Sky 1 in 2009 and 2010.


title: Claire Goose

text: Born in Edinburgh, Goose was raised in Dersingham, England, where her father worked as a general practitioner. She has an elder sister, Caroline, a nursery nurse, and an elder brother, Duncan, who started the One Drinks company. Goose is a former pupil of Wisbech Grammar School and a graduate of the Italia Conti Academy of Theatre Arts.


title: Claire Goose

text: In the 1990s Goose dated her "Casualty" co-star, Jonathan Kerrigan. In 2007 she married TV producer Craig Woodrow. Together they have two daughters, Amelia and Eveline.


title: Claire Goose

text: Early theatre roles included "Addicted to Love", and "Hitting Home" at the Man in the Moon Theatre. She also appeared in early adverts for Impulse women's body spray.


title: Claire Goose

text: She became well known during the late 1990s as nurse Tina Seabrook in "Casualty". From August 2008, she played Sergeant, later Inspector Rachel Weston in ITV's "The Bill".


title: Claire Goose

text: In 2011 she appeared in BBC1 drama "Exile" with John Simm, and in 2015 appeared in the fourth series of "Death in Paradise".


title: Claire Goose

text: From 2015 she starred as the titular character in the BBC Birmingham daytime drama "The Coroner", set in the fictional coastal town of Lighthaven in South Devon. The series ran to 20 episodes. The BBC announced on 2 March 2017 that there would be no further series.


title: Claire Goose

text: In 2019, she played the lead role of Thea in "The Girl Who Fell" by Sarah Rutherford at Trafalgar Studios.


title: Ciliate

text: The ciliates are a group of alveolates characterized by the presence of hair-like organelles called cilia, which are identical in structure to eukaryotic flagella, but are in general shorter and present in much larger numbers, with a different undulating pattern than flagella. Cilia occur in all members of the group (although the peculiar Suctoria only have them for part of their life cycle) and are variously used in swimming, crawling, attachment, feeding, and sensation.


title: Ciliate

text: Ciliates are an important group of protists, common almost anywhere there is water—in lakes, ponds, oceans, rivers, and soils. About 4,500 unique free-living species have been described, and the potential number of extant species is estimated at 27,000–40,000. Included in this number are many ectosymbiotic and endosymbiotic species, as well as some obligate and opportunistic parasites. Ciliate species range in size from as little as 10 µm in some colpodeans to as much as 4 mm in length in some geleiids, and include some of the most morphologically complex protozoans.


title: Ciliate

text: In most systems of taxonomy, "Ciliophora" is ranked as a phylum under any of several kingdoms, including Chromista, Protista or Protozoa. In some older systems of classification, such as the influential taxonomic works of Alfred Kahl, ciliated protozoa are placed within the class "Ciliata" (a term which can also refer to a genus of fish). In the taxonomic scheme endorsed by the International Society of Protistologists, which eliminates formal rank designations such as "phylum" and "class", "Ciliophora" is an unranked taxon within Alveolata.


title: Ciliate

text: Unlike most other eukaryotes, ciliates have two different sorts of nuclei: a tiny, diploid micronucleus (the "generative nucleus", which carries the germline of the cell), and a large, ampliploid macronucleus (the "vegetative nucleus", which takes care of general cell regulation, expressing the phenotype of the organism). The latter is generated from the micronucleus by amplification of the genome and heavy editing. The micronucleus passes its genetic material to offspring, but does not express its genes. The macronucleus provides the small nuclear RNA for vegetative growth.


title: Ciliate

text: Division of the macronucleus occurs in most ciliate species, apart from those in class Karyorelictea, whose macronuclei are replaced every time the cell divides. Macronuclear division is accomplished by amitosis, and the segregation of the chromosomes occurs by a process whose mechanism is unknown. After a certain number of generations (200–350, in "Paramecium aurelia", and as many as 1,500 in "Tetrahymena") the cell shows signs of aging, and the macronuclei must be regenerated from the micronuclei. Usually, this occurs following "conjugation", after which a new macronucleus is generated from the post-conjugal micronucleus.


title: Ciliate

text: Food vacuoles are formed through phagocytosis and typically follow a particular path through the cell as their contents are digested and broken down by lysosomes so the substances the vacuole contains are then small enough to diffuse through the membrane of the food vacuole into the cell. Anything left in the food vacuole by the time it reaches the cytoproct (anal pore) is discharged by exocytosis. Most ciliates also have one or more prominent contractile vacuoles, which collect water and expel it from the cell to maintain osmotic pressure, or in some function to maintain ionic balance. In some genera, such as "Paramecium", these have a distinctive star shape, with each point being a collecting tube.


title: Ciliate

text: Mostly, body cilia are arranged in "mono-" and "dikinetids", which respectively include one and two kinetosomes (basal bodies), each of which may support a cilium. These are arranged into rows called "kineties", which run from the anterior to posterior of the cell. The body and oral kinetids make up the "infraciliature", an organization unique to the ciliates and important in their classification, and include various fibrils and microtubules involved in coordinating the cilia. In some forms there are also body polykinetids, for instance, among the spirotrichs where they generally form bristles called cirri.


title: Ciliate

text: The infraciliature is one of the main components of the cell cortex. Others are the "alveoli", small vesicles under the cell membrane that are packed against it to form a pellicle maintaining the cell's shape, which varies from flexible and contractile to rigid. Numerous mitochondria and extrusomes are also generally present. The presence of alveoli, the structure of the cilia, the form of mitosis and various other details indicate a close relationship between the ciliates, Apicomplexa, and dinoflagellates. These superficially dissimilar groups make up the alveolates.


title: Ciliate

text: Most ciliates are heterotrophs, feeding on smaller organisms, such as bacteria and algae, and detritus swept into the oral groove (mouth) by modified oral cilia. This usually includes a series of membranelles to the left of the mouth and a paroral membrane to its right, both of which arise from "polykinetids", groups of many cilia together with associated structures. The food is moved by the cilia through the mouth pore into the gullet, which forms food vacuoles.


title: Ciliate

text: Feeding techniques vary considerably, however. Some ciliates are mouthless and feed by absorption (osmotrophy), while others are predatory and feed on other protozoa and in particular on other ciliates. Some ciliates parasitize animals, although only one species, "Balantidium coli", is known to cause disease in humans.


title: Ciliate

text: Ciliates reproduce asexually, by various kinds of fission. During fission, the micronucleus undergoes mitosis and the macronucleus elongates and undergoes amitosis (except among the Karyorelictean ciliates, whose macronuclei do not divide). The cell then divides in two, and each new cell obtains a copy of the micronucleus and the macronucleus.


title: Ciliate

text: Typically, the cell is divided transversally, with the anterior half of the ciliate (the "proter") forming one new organism, and the posterior half (the "opisthe") forming another. However, other types of fission occur in some ciliate groups. These include "budding" (the emergence of small ciliated offspring, or "swarmers", from the body of a mature parent); "strobilation" (multiple divisions along the cell body, producing a chain of new organisms); and "palintomy" (multiple fissions, usually within a cyst).


title: Ciliate

text: Fission may occur spontaneously, as part of the vegetative cell cycle. Alternatively, it may proceed as a result of self-fertilization (autogamy), or it may follow conjugation, a sexual phenomenon in which ciliates of compatible mating types exchange genetic material. While conjugation is sometimes described as a form of reproduction, it is not directly connected with reproductive processes, and does not directly result in an increase in the number of individual ciliates or their progeny.


title: Ciliate

text: Ciliate conjugation is a sexual phenomenon that results in genetic recombination and nuclear reorganization within the cell. During conjugation, two ciliates of a compatible mating type form a bridge between their cytoplasms. The micronuclei undergo meiosis, the macronuclei disappear, and haploid micronuclei are exchanged over the bridge. In some ciliates (peritrichs, chonotrichs and some suctorians), conjugating cells become permanently fused, and one conjugant is absorbed by the other. In most ciliate groups, however, the cells separate after conjugation, and both form new macronuclei from their micronuclei. Conjugation and autogamy are always followed by fission.


title: Ciliate

text: In many ciliates, such as "Paramecium", conjugating partners (gamonts) are similar or indistinguishable in size and shape. This is referred to as "isogamontic" conjugation. In some groups, partners are different in size and shape. This is referred to as "anisogamontic" conjugation. In sessile peritrichs, for instance, one sexual partner (the microconjugant) is small and mobile, while the other (macroconjugant) is large and sessile.


title: Ciliate

text: Ciliates contain two types of nuclei: somatic "macronucleus" and the germline "micronucleus". Only the DNA in the micronucleus is passed on during sexual reproduction (conjugation). On the other hand, only the DNA in the macronucleus is actively expressed and results in the phenotype of the organism. Macronuclear DNA is derived from micronuclear DNA by amazingly extensive DNA rearrangement and amplification.


title: Ciliate

text: The macronucleus begins as a copy of the micronucleus. The micronuclear chromosomes are fragmented into many smaller pieces and amplified to give many copies. The resulting macronuclear chromosomes often contain only a single gene. In "Tetrahymena", the micronucleus has 10 chromosomes (five per haploid genome), while the macronucleus has over 20,000 chromosomes.


title: Ciliate

text: In addition, the micronuclear genes are interrupted by numerous "internal eliminated sequences" (IESs). During development of the macronucleus, IESs are deleted and the remaining gene segments, macronuclear destined sequences (MDSs), are spliced together to give the operational gene. "Tetrahymena" has about 6,000 IESs and about 15% of micronuclear DNA is eliminated during this process. The process is guided by small RNAs and epigenetic chromatin marks.


title: Ciliate

text: In spirotrich ciliates (such as "Oxytricha"), the process is even more complex due to "gene scrambling": the MDSs in the micronucleus are often in different order and orientation from that in the macronuclear gene, and so in addition to deletion, DNA inversion and translocation are required for "unscrambling". This process is guided by long RNAs derived from the parental macronucleus. More than 95% of micronuclear DNA is eliminated during spirotrich macronuclear development.


title: Ciliate

text: ln clonal populations of "Paramecium", aging occurs over successive generations leading to a gradual loss of vitality, unless the cell line is revitalized by conjugation or autogamy. In "Paramecium tetraurelia", the clonally aging line loses vitality and expires after about 200 fissions, if the cell line is not rejuvenated by conjugation or self-fertilization. The basis for clonal aging was clarified by the transplantation experiments of Aufderheide in 1986 who demonstrated that the macronucleus, rather than the cytoplasm, is responsible for clonal aging. Additional experiments by Smith-Sonneborn, Holmes and Holmes, and Gilley and Blackburn demonstrated that, during clonal aging, DNA damage increases dramatically. Thus, DNA damage appears to be the cause of aging in "P. tetraurelia".


title: Ciliate

text: Until recently, the oldest ciliate fossils known were tintinnids from the Ordovician period. In 2007, Li "et al." published a description of fossil ciliates from the Doushantuo Formation, about 580 million years ago, in the Ediacaran period. These included two types of tintinnids and a possible ancestral suctorian. A fossil "Vorticella" has been discovered inside a leech cocoon from the Triassic period, about 200 million years ago.


title: Ciliate

text: According to the 2016 phylogenetic analysis, Mesodiniea is consistently found as the sister group to all other ciliates. Additionally, two big sub-groups are distinguished inside subphylum Intramacronucleata: SAL (Spirotrichea+Armophorea+Litostomatea) and CONthreeP or Ventrata (Colpodea+Oligohymenophorea+Nassophorea+Phyllopharyngea+Plagiopylea+Prostomatea). The class Protocruziea is found as the sister group to Ventrata/CONthreeP. The class Cariacotrichea was excluded from the analysis, but it was originally established as part of Intramacronucleata.<br>The odontostomatids were identified in 2018 as its own class Odontostomatea, related to Armophorea.


title: Ciliate

text: Several different classification schemes have been proposed for the ciliates. The following scheme is based on a molecular phylogenetic analysis of up to four genes from 152 species representing 110 families:


title: Ciliate

text: Some old classifications included Opalinidae in the ciliates. The fundamental difference between multiciliate flagellates (e.g., hemimastigids, "Stephanopogon", "Multicilia", opalines) and ciliates is the presence of macronuclei in ciliates alone.


title: Ciliate

text: The only member of the ciliate phylum known to be pathogenic to humans is "Balantidium coli", which causes the disease balantidiasis. It is not pathogenic to the domestic pig, the primary reservoir of this pathogen.


title: Aosta

text: Aosta (, , ; , ; , "Veulla" or "Ouhta" ; ; ; ) is the principal city of Aosta Valley, a bilingual region in the Italian Alps, north-northwest of Turin. It is situated near the Italian entrance of the Mont Blanc Tunnel, at the confluence of the Buthier and the Dora Baltea, and at the junction of the Great and Little St Bernard Pass routes.


title: Aosta

text: Aosta was settled in proto-historic times and later became a centre of the Salassi, many of whom were killed or sold into slavery by the Romans in 25 BC. The campaign was led by Terentius Varro, who then founded the Roman colony of "Augusta Praetoria Salassorum", housing 3,000 retired veterans. After 11 BC Aosta became the capital of the Alpes Graies ("Grey Alps") province of the Empire. Its position at the confluence of two rivers, at the end of the Great and the Little St Bernard Pass, gave it considerable military importance, and its layout was that of a Roman military camp.


title: Aosta

text: After the fall of the Western Empire, the city was conquered, in turn, by the Burgundians, the Ostrogoths, and the Byzantines. The Lombards, who had annexed it to their Italian kingdom, were expelled by the Frankish Empire under Pepin the Short. Under his son, Charlemagne, Aosta acquired importance as a post on the Via Francigena, leading from Aachen to Italy. After 888 AD it was part of the renewed Kingdom of Italy under Arduin of Ivrea and Berengar of Friuli.


title: Aosta

text: In the 10th century Aosta became part of the Kingdom of Burgundy. After the fall of the latter in 1032, it became part of the lands of Count Humbert I of Savoy.


title: Aosta

text: The privilege of holding the assembly of the states-general was granted to the inhabitants in 1189. An executive council was nominated from this body in 1536, and continued to exist until 1802. After the Congress of Vienna restored the rule of Savoy it was reconstituted and formally recognized by Charles Albert of Sardinia, at the birth of his grandson Prince Amedeo, who was created duke of Aosta.


title: Aosta

text: Aosta is in the rain shadow of the Mont Blanc massif and features a warm-summer humid continental climate (Köppen: Dfb), bordering on a cool semi-arid climate (Köppen: BSk) under the Köppen climate classification due to its low average annual rainfall. It is considered temperate continental (Trewartha: Dc) in the Trewartha climate classification.


title: Aosta

text: The city experiences cold to very cold winters, hot summers and relatively dry conditions throughout the year.


title: Aosta

text: The ancient town walls of Augusta Prætoria Salassorum are still preserved almost in their entirety, enclosing a rectangle . They are high, built of concrete faced with small blocks of stone. At the bottom, the walls are nearly thick, and at the top .


title: Aosta

text: Towers stand at angles to the enceinte and others are positioned at intervals, with two at each of the four gates, making twenty towers in total. They are roughly square, and project from the wall. Of the 20 original towers, the following are well preserved:


title: Aosta

text: The east and south gates exist intact. The latter, a double gate with three arches flanked by two towers known as the Porta Praetoria (1st century AD) was the eastern gate to the city, and has preserved its original forms apart from the marble covering. It is formed by two series of arches enclosing a small square.


title: Aosta

text: The rectangular arrangement of the streets is modeled on a Roman plan dividing the town into 64 blocks (insulae). The main road, about wide, divides the city into two equal halves, running from east to west. This arrangement makes it clear that guarding the road was the main raison d'être of the city.


title: Aosta

text: The Roman theatre, of which the southern façade remains today, is tall. The structure, dating from the late reign of Augustus, occupied an area of ; it could contain up to 4,000 spectators. In the nearby was the amphitheatre, built under Claudius. A marketplace surrounded by storehouses on three sides with a temple in the centre with two on the open (south) side, as well as a thermae, have also been discovered.


title: Aosta

text: Outside the town walls is the Arch of Augustus, a triumphal arch in honour of Augustus, built in 35 BC to celebrate the victory of consul Varro Murena over the Salassi. About to the west is a single-arched Roman bridge, called the Pont d'Aël. It has a closed passage, lighted by windows for foot passengers in winter, and above it an open footpath.


title: Aosta

text: There are considerable remains of the ancient road from Eporedia (modern Ivrea) to Augusta Praetoria into the Aosta Valley. The modern railway follows this route, notable for the Pont Saint-Martin, which has a single arch with a span of and a roadway wide; the cutting of Donnas; and the Roman bridges of Cillian (Saint-Vincent) and Aosta (Pont de Pierre).


title: Aosta

text: Aosta lies on the crossroad of two major trans-alpine trunk roads: national road 26 (Italian: SS26, French: RN26) connecting the city of Chivasso to Little St Bernard Pass on the Italy-France border, and national road 27 (Italian: SS27, French: RN27) connecting the city of Aosta to the Great St Bernard Pass on the Italy-Switzerland border. Aosta is also served by the A5 motorway between Turin and Courmayeur.


title: Aosta

text: Aosta railway station, opened in 1886, forms part of the Chivasso–Ivrea–Aosta railway. Direct trains only connect Aosta up to the city of Ivrea. The branch line to nearby Pré-Saint-Didier, in the Valdigne, on the way towards Courmayeur was closed in 2015. Train service is operated by Trenitalia.


title: Aosta

text: The main bus hub is located near the Aosta train station. Buses connect the city of Aosta to the nearby valleys and to destinations outside the region, including Turin, Milan, Chamonix (France) and Martigny (Switzerland).


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: James Richard Kelly (born March 28, 1975) is an American filmmaker and screenwriter, who initially gained recognition for writing and directing the cult classic "Donnie Darko" in 2001.


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: Kelly was born James Richard Kelly in Newport News, Virginia, the son of Lane and Ennis Kelly. He grew up in Midlothian, Virginia, where he attended Midlothian High School and graduated in 1993. When he was a child, his father worked for NASA on the Mars Viking Lander program. He won a scholarship to the University of Southern California to study at the USC School of Cinema-Television where he was a member of the Phi Delta Theta fraternity. He made two short films at USC, "The Goodbye Place" and "Visceral Matter", before graduating in 1997.


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: Kelly spoke of viewing the film "Brazil" with author Robert K. Elder in an interview for "The Film That Changed My Life":


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: I think the greatest thing I learned from Terry is that every frame is worthy of attention to detail. Every frame is worthy of being frozen in time and then thrown on a wall like an oil painting, and if you work hard on every frame, the meaning of your film becomes deeper, more enhanced.


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: "Donnie Darko" (2001) was his first feature and was nominated for 21 awards, winning 11 of them, including a nomination for a Saturn Award. The film later ended up #2 on "Empire" magazine's list of the 50 greatest independent films of all time, behind Quentin Tarantino's "Reservoir Dogs".


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: In 2005 Kelly wrote the screenplay for the Tony Scott-directed film, "Domino". Kelly has said, "That was a wonderful experience. I wrote that for Tony Scott. That was Tony Scott's very personal project that he had spent eight years developing with Domino Harvey, a close friend of his and almost like a daughter to him. He had spent years trying to tell her story and so that for me, it was an honor for me to get to work with Tony and to write that script for him and to design this really elaborate puzzle for him to tell her story. So that was just a privilege."


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: Kelly has written numerous scripts that have not been produced, among them adaptations of Kurt Vonnegut's "Cat's Cradle" and Louis Sachar's "Holes".


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: His fourth film, and second feature, "Southland Tales", a rough cut of which screened in competition at the 2006 Cannes Film Festival, was released November 16, 2007 and stars Dwayne Johnson, Sarah Michelle Gellar, Seann William Scott, Kevin Smith and Miranda Richardson.


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: In 2008, Kelly's production company Darko Entertainment announced that it was producing the adaptation of the bestselling book "I Hope They Serve Beer in Hell" with director Bob Gosse. The book's author Tucker Max detailed Kelly's involvement in the process on his blog.


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: After the release of "The Box", he said he was working on a thriller "set in Manhattan in the year 2014. We hope to shoot the movie in 3-D, and part of the movie would be filmed using full CGI motion capture." In 2011 he announced that he was writing and directing "Corpus Christi", a Texas-set film to be produced by Eli Roth.


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: The production was cancelled due to financial and casting problems. Kelly stated that he would instead focus on a true-crime thriller titled "Amicus" which was set to star James Gandolfini; however, the movie went unmade following the actor's death in 2013.


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: In an interview with "PopMatters" magazine in 2017, Kelly said in regards to doing an official sequel to "Donnie Darko", "I'm open to doing something much bigger and longer and more ambitious that could be a new story," Kelly said and then added, "We'll see what happens. I have a lot of stuff that I'm working on and it's ambitious and it's expensive and we'll see what happens." In regards to the 2009 "Donnie Darko" sequel "S. Darko" Kelly has said, "I had nothing to do with it. And I hate it when people try and blame me or hold me responsible for it because I had no [involvement]. I don't control the underlying rights to [the Donnie Darko franchise]. I had to relinquish them when I was 24 years old. I hate when people ask me about that because I've never seen it and I never will, so… don't ask me about the sequel."


title: Richard Kelly (filmmaker)

text: In 2016, filmmaker Kevin Smith said of Kelly: "He is insanely creative and is not unlike Christopher Nolan. But Nolan wound up in the Warner Bros. system where he got special handling, and he got a lot of money to make huge art films like "Inception". Richard can be one of our greatest filmmakers. He is right now, but just a lot of people don't realize it. He's still a kid, and someone needs to Nolan that kid."


title: Cory Vitiello

text: Cory Vitiello (born 1979) is a Canadian restaurateur and chef. He is the head of culinary development at Cactus Club Cafe. Vitiello was a contestant on the show "Chef in Your Ear".


title: Cory Vitiello

text: Vitiello was born and raised in Brantford, Ontario. He has two brothers. Monthly, his family would visit his Italian paternal grandparents in Fort Erie, Ontario. His interest in cooking started at an early age. When Vitiello was 7 years old, he requested an Easy-Bake Oven for Christmas. He graduated from Stratford Chefs School. He completed an apprenticeship at Scaramouche Restaurant in Toronto.


title: Cory Vitiello

text: Vitiello is a restaurateur and chef. He worked as a sous-chef at Cecconi's in Melbourne in 2003 and as the chef de cuisine at Drake Hotel from 2004 to 2007. In 2009, he was voted best new chef in Toronto by "EnRoute". He was the national spokesperson for Thermador in 2010 and 2011. He has opened three restaurants, Harbord Room, THR & Co. and Flock. Vitiello was a contestant on the show "Chef in Your Ear". Vitiello is head of culinary development at Cactus Club Cafe.


title: Cory Vitiello

text: Vitiello was in a relationship with Meghan Markle from 2014 to May 2016. In September 2018, Vitiello's partner, Martina Sorbara gave birth to their first son.


title: April Ashley

text: April Ashley (29 April 1935 – 27 December 2021) was an English model. She was outed as a transgender woman by "The Sunday People" newspaper in 1961 and is one of the earliest British people known to have had sex reassignment surgery. Her marriage was annulled in the court case of "Corbett v Corbett".


title: April Ashley

text: Born at 126 Smithdown Road (then Sefton General Hospital) in Liverpool, Ashley was one of six surviving children of a Roman Catholic father, Frederick Jamieson, and Protestant mother, Ada Brown, who had married two years before. During her childhood in Liverpool, Ashley suffered from both calcium deficiency, requiring weekly calcium injections at the Alder Hey Children's Hospital, and bed-wetting, resulting in her being given her own box room, at the age of two, when the family moved house.


title: April Ashley

text: Ashley joined the Merchant Navy in 1951 at the age of 16. Following a suicide attempt, she was given dishonourable discharge, and a second attempt resulted in her being sent to Ormskirk District General Hospital psychiatric unit at age 17.


title: April Ashley

text: In her book "The First Lady", Ashley tells the story of the rape she endured before transitioning. A roommate raped her, and she was severely injured.


title: April Ashley

text: After leaving the hospital, Ashley moved to London, at one point claiming to have shared a boarding house with then ship's steward John Prescott, later deputy prime minister of the United Kingdom. Having started cross-dressing, she moved to Paris in the late 1950s, began using the name Toni April, and joined the entertainer Coccinelle in the cast of the drag cabaret at the Caroussel Theatre.


title: April Ashley

text: At the age of 25, having saved £3,000, Ashley had a seven-hour-long sex reassignment surgery on 12 May 1960, performed in Casablanca, Morocco, by Georges Burou. All her hair fell out, and she endured significant pain, but the operation was successful.


title: April Ashley

text: After returning to Britain, she began using the name April Ashley and became a successful fashion model, appearing in "British Vogue", for which she was photographed by David Bailey, and winning a small role in the 1962 film "The Road to Hong Kong", which starred Bing Crosby and Bob Hope.


title: April Ashley

text: A friend sold her story to the media in 1961 and "The Sunday People" outed Ashley as a trans woman. She became a centre of attention and some scandal and her film credit was dropped.


title: April Ashley

text: In November 1960 Ashley met Hon. Arthur Corbett (later 3rd Baron Rowallan), the Eton-educated son and heir of Lord Rowallan. They married in 1963 but the marriage soon ended. Ashley's lawyers wrote to Corbett in 1966 demanding maintenance payments and in 1967 Corbett responded by filing suit to have the marriage annulled. The annulment was granted in 1970 on the grounds that Ashley was male, but Corbett had known about her history when they married. This is the case known as "Corbett v Corbett".


title: April Ashley

text: After a heart attack in London, Ashley retired for some years to the Welsh border town of Hay-on-Wye. In her book "April Ashley's Odyssey" she stated that Amanda Lear was assigned male at birth and that they had worked together at Le Carousel where Lear had used the drag name Peki d'Oslo. Ashley had once been great friends with Lear but according to Ashley's book "The First Lady" they had had a major falling out and had not spoken for years.


title: April Ashley

text: In the 1980s Ashley married Jeffrey West on the cruise ship RMS "Queen Mary" in Long Beach, California, US. They parted but remained friends. In the early 1990s, she worked for Greenpeace before taking a job in an art gallery.


title: April Ashley

text: She talked about her life at St George's Hall, Liverpool as part of the city's Homotopia Festival on 15 November 2008, and on 18 February 2009 at the Southbank Centre.


title: April Ashley

text: Ashley latterly lived in Fulham, southwest London. She died at home on 27 December 2021, at the age of 86.


title: April Ashley

text: "April Ashley's Odyssey", a biography by Duncan Fallowell, was published in 1982. In 2006 Ashley released her autobiography, "The First Lady", and made TV appearances on Channel Five News, "This Morning" and BBC News. In one interview she said, "This is the real story and contains a lot of things I just couldn't say in 1982", including alleged affairs with Michael Hutchence, Peter O'Toole, Omar Sharif, Turner Prize sculptor Grayson Perry and others. The book was pulled from the market, however, after it was discovered that it heavily plagiarized the 1982 book written by Fallowell.


title: April Ashley

text: The 1983 biography of Peter O'Toole by Michael Freedland rejects the claim of an affair with Ashley. It states that he was acquainted with her in Spain while filming, but his then-wife Siân Phillips was with him at the time and knew the relationship to be platonic.


title: April Ashley

text: In 2012 Pacific Films and Limey Yank Productions announced a project to create a film about Ashley's life.


title: Julia Campbell

text: Julia Campbell (born March 12, 1962) is an American film and television actress. Her most noted role to date was "mean girl" Christie Masters in "Romy and Michele's High School Reunion".


title: Julia Campbell

text: Campbell had a starring role in the feature film, "Tillamook Treasure" (2006), in which she plays Kathryn Kimbell, the mother of the story's lead character. She has appeared on such television shows as "Still Standing", "Martial Law", "Herman's Head", "Ally McBeal", "Malcolm in the Middle", "Seinfeld" ("The Frogger" episode), "Friends", "House", "The Mentalist", "The Practice", "The Pretender", and "Dexter".


title: Julia Campbell

text: Some of her earliest notable roles were on the daytime soap operas "Ryan's Hope" (in which she played Ryan granddaughter Maura "Katie" Thompson) and "Santa Barbara" (in which she played Courtney Capwell) and the comedy film "Livin' Large". In 2009, she guest starred on the NBC drama "Heroes" as Mary Campbell, mother of a new recurring character, Luke, in the episode "Trust and Blood".


title: Julia Campbell

text: She appeared on the last episode of the series "The Shield", on which her husband Jay Karnes played the character of Dutch Wagenbach, as a lawyer for Dutch's partner, Steve Billings, who is instantly attracted to Dutch.


title: Julia Campbell

text: Campbell was born in Redstone Arsenal, near Huntsville, Alabama, the daughter of a model mother and an army officer father. She is married to actor Jay Karnes. Before that, she was married to actor Bernard White.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Christian sources, such as the New Testament books in the Christian Bible, include detailed stories about Jesus, but scholars differ on the historicity of specific episodes described in the biblical accounts of Jesus. The only two events subject to "almost universal assent" are that Jesus was baptized by John the Baptist and was crucified by the order of the Roman Prefect Pontius Pilate.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Non-Christian sources that are used to study and establish the historicity of Jesus include Jewish sources such as Josephus, and Roman sources such as Tacitus. These sources are compared to Christian sources such as the Pauline Epistles and the Synoptic Gospels. These sources are usually independent of each other (i.e., Jewish sources do not draw upon Roman sources), and similarities and differences between them are used in the authentication process.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: In a review of the state of research, the Jewish scholar Amy-Jill Levine stated that "no single picture of Jesus has convinced all, or even most scholars" and that all portraits of Jesus are subject to criticism by some group of scholars.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The writings of the 1st century Romano-Jewish historian Flavius Josephus include references to Jesus and the origins of Christianity. Josephus' "Antiquities of the Jews", written around 93–94 CE, includes two references to Jesus in Books and .


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Of the two passages, the James passage in Book 20 is used by scholars to support the existence of Jesus, the "Testimonium Flavianum" in Book 18 his crucifixion. Josephus' James passage attests to the existence of Jesus as a historical person and that some of his contemporaries considered him the Messiah. According to Bart Ehrman, Josephus' passage about Jesus was altered by a Christian scribe, including the reference to Jesus as the Messiah.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: A textual argument against the authenticity of the James passage is that the use of the term "Christos" there seems unusual for Josephus. An argument based on the flow of the text in the document is that, given that the mention of Jesus appears in the "Antiquities" before that of the John the Baptist, a Christian interpolator may have inserted it to place Jesus in the text before John. A further argument against the authenticity of the James passage is that it would have read well even without a reference to Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The passage deals with the death of "James the brother of Jesus" in Jerusalem. Whereas the works of Josephus refer to at least twenty different people with the name Jesus, this passage specifies that this Jesus was the one "who was called Christ". Louis Feldman states that this passage, above others, indicates that Josephus did say something about Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Modern scholarship has almost universally acknowledged the authenticity of the reference in of the "Antiquities" to "the brother of Jesus, who was called Christ, whose name was James", and considers it as having the highest level of authenticity among the references of Josephus to Christianity.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The "Testimonium Flavianum" (meaning the testimony of Flavius [Josephus]) is the name given to the passage found in of the "Antiquities" in which Josephus describes the condemnation and crucifixion of Jesus at the hands of the Roman authorities. Scholars have differing opinions on the total or partial authenticity of the reference in the passage to the execution of Jesus by Pontius Pilate. The general scholarly view is that while the "Testimonium Flavianum" is most likely not authentic in its entirety, it is broadly agreed upon that it originally consisted of an authentic nucleus with a reference to the execution of Jesus by Pilate which was then subject to Christian interpolation. Although the exact nature and extent of the Christian redaction remains unclear, there is broad consensus as to what the original text of the "Testimonium" by Josephus would have looked like. This conventional viewpoint was challenged in 2022 by G. J. Goldberg’s paraphrase model of the "Testimonium". Using research on Josephus’s composition methods, Goldberg demonstrated that the Testimonium can be understood as a paraphrase by Josephus of a text very similar to, if not identical with, Luke’s Emmaus narrative (Luke 24:18–24). Goldberg argues that consequently there cannot have been any significant Christian additions to Josephus’s version, as they would have no reason to have been consistent with this paraphrase relationship. Furthermore, Josephus would have known if his Emmaus-like source was factually accurate or not, and so his "Testimonium" genuinely attests to the historicity of Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The references found in "Antiquities" have no parallel texts in the other work by Josephus such as the "Jewish War", written twenty years earlier, but some scholars have provided explanations for their absence, such as that the "Antiquities" covers a longer time period and that during the twenty-year gap between the writing of the "Jewish Wars" (c. 70 CE) and "Antiquities" (after 90 CE) Christians had become more important in Rome and were hence given attention in the "Antiquities".


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: A number of variations exist between the statements by Josephus regarding the deaths of James and the New Testament accounts. Scholars generally view these variations as indications that the Josephus passages are not interpolations, because a Christian interpolator would more likely have made them correspond to the Christian traditions. Robert Eisenman provides numerous early Christian sources that confirm the Josephus testament, that James was the brother of Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The Roman historian and senator Tacitus referred to Christ, his execution by Pontius Pilate and the existence of early Christians in Rome in his final work, "Annals" (c. AD 116), . The relevant passage reads: "called Christians by the populace. Christus, from whom the name had its origin, suffered the extreme penalty during the reign of Tiberius at the hands of one of our procurators, Pontius Pilatus."


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Scholars generally consider Tacitus's reference to the execution of Jesus by Pontius Pilate to be both authentic, and of historical value as an independent Roman source about early Christianity that is in unison with other historical records. William L. Portier has stated that the consistency in the references by Tacitus, Josephus and the letters to Emperor Trajan by Pliny the Younger reaffirm the validity of all three accounts.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Tacitus was a patriotic Roman senator and his writings show no sympathy towards Christians. Andreas Köstenberger and separately Robert E. Van Voorst state that the tone of the passage towards Christians is far too negative to have been authored by a Christian scribe – a conclusion shared by John P. Meier Robert E. Van Voorst states that "of all Roman writers, Tacitus gives us the most precise information about Christ".


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: John Dominic Crossan considers the passage important in establishing that Jesus existed and was crucified, and states: "That he was crucified is as sure as anything historical can ever be, since both Josephus and Tacitus... agree with the Christian accounts on at least that basic fact." Bart D. Ehrman states: "Tacitus's report confirms what we know from other sources, that Jesus was executed by order of the Roman governor of Judea, Pontius Pilate, sometime during Tiberius's reign." Eddy and Boyd state that it is now "firmly established" that Tacitus provides a non-Christian confirmation of the crucifixion of Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Although the majority of scholars consider it to be genuine, a few scholars question the authenticity of the passage given that Tacitus was born 25 years after Jesus' death.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Some scholars have debated the historical value of the passage given that Tacitus does not reveal the source of his information. Gerd Theissen and Annette Merz argue that Tacitus at times had drawn on earlier historical works now lost to us, and he may have used official sources from a Roman archive in this case; however, if Tacitus had been copying from an official source, some scholars would expect him to have labeled Pilate correctly as a "prefect" rather than a "procurator". Theissen and Merz state that Tacitus gives us a description of widespread prejudices against Christianity and a few precise details about "Christus" and Christianity, the source of which remains unclear. However, Paul R. Eddy has stated that given his position as a senator Tacitus was also likely to have had access to official Roman documents of the time and did not need other sources.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Michael Martin notes that the authenticity of this passage of the Annals has also been disputed on the grounds that Tacitus would not have used the word “messiah” in an authentic Roman document.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Weaver notes that Tacitus spoke of the persecution of Christians, but no other Christian author wrote of this persecution for a hundred years.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Hotema notes that this passage was not quoted by any Church father up to the 15th century, although the passage would have been very useful to them in their work; and that the passage refers to the Christians in Rome being a multitude, while at that time the Christian congregation in Rome would actually have been very small.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Richard Carrier has proposed the idea that the reference is a Christian interpolation, and that Tacitus intended to refer to "Chrestians" as a separate religious group unaffiliated with Christianity. However, the majority view is that the terms are synonymous.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Scholars have also debated the issue of hearsay in the reference by Tacitus. Charles Guignebert argued that "So long as there is that possibility [that Tacitus is merely echoing what Christians themselves were saying], the passage remains quite worthless". R. T. France states that the Tacitus passage is at best just Tacitus repeating what he had heard through Christians. However, Paul R. Eddy has stated that as Rome's preeminent historian, Tacitus was generally known for checking his sources and was not in the habit of reporting gossip. Tacitus was a member of the Quindecimviri sacris faciundis, a council of priests whose duty it was to supervise foreign religious cults in Rome, which as Van Voorst points out, makes it reasonable to suppose that he would have acquired knowledge of Christian origins through his work with that body.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Mara (son of Sarapion) was a Stoic philosopher from the Roman province of Syria. Sometime between 73 AD and the 3rd century, Mara wrote a letter to his son (also called Sarapion) which may contain an early non-Christian reference to the crucifixion of Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The letter refers to the unjust treatment of "three wise men": the murder of Socrates, the burning of Pythagoras, and the execution of "the wise king" of the Jews. The author explains that in all three cases the wrongdoing resulted in the future punishment of those responsible by God and that when the wise are oppressed, not only does their wisdom triumph in the end, but God punishes their oppressors.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The letter includes no Christian themes and the author is presumed to be a pagan. Some scholars see the reference to the execution of the "wise king" of the Jews as an early non-Christian reference to Jesus. Criteria that support the non-Christian origin of the letter include the observation that "king of the Jews" was not a Christian title, and that the letter's premise that Jesus lives on through the wisdom of his teachings is in contrast to the Christian concept that Jesus continues to live through his resurrection.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Scholars such as Robert Van Voorst see little doubt that the reference to the execution of the "king of the Jews" is about the death of Jesus. Others such as Craig A. Evans see less value in the letter, given its uncertain date, and the possible ambiguity in the reference.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The Roman historian Suetonius (c. 69 – after 122 CE) made references to early Christians and their leader in his work "Lives of the Twelve Caesars" (written 121 CE). The references appear in and which describe the lives of Roman Emperors Claudius and Nero. The Nero 16 passage refers to the abuses by Nero and mentions how he inflicted punishment on Christians – which is generally dated to around AD 64. This passage shows the clear contempt of Suetonius for Christians - the same contempt expressed by Tacitus and Pliny the Younger in their writings, but does not refer to Jesus himself.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The earlier passage in Claudius may include a reference to Jesus, but is subject to debate among scholars. In Suetonius refers to the expulsion of Jews by Claudius and states:


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The reference in Claudius 25 involves the agitations in the Jewish community which led to the expulsion of some Jews from Rome by Claudius, and is likely the same event mentioned in the Acts of the Apostles (). Most historians date this expulsion to around AD 49–50. Suetonius refers to the leader of the Christians as "Chrestus", a term also used by Tacitus, referred in Latin dictionaries as a (amongst other things) version of 'Christus'. However, the wording used by Suetonius implies that Chrestus was alive at the time of the disturbance and was agitating the Jews in Rome. This weakens the historical value of his reference as a whole, and there is no overall scholarly agreement about its value as a reference to Jesus. However, the confusion of Suetonius also points to the lack of Christian interpolation, for a Christian scribe would not have confused the Jews with Christians.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Most scholars assume that in the reference Jesus is meant and that the disturbances mentioned were due to the spread of Christianity in Rome. However, scholars are divided on the value of the Suetonius' reference. Some scholars such as Craig A. Evans, John Meier and Craig S. Keener see it as a likely reference to Jesus. Others such as Stephen Benko and H. Dixon Slingerland see it as having little or no historical value.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Menahem Stern states Suetonius definitely was referring to Jesus; because he would have added "a certain" to Chrestus if he had meant some unknown agitator.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The Babylonian Talmud in a few cases includes possible references to Jesus using the terms "Yeshu", "Yeshu ha-Notzri", "ben Stada", and "ben Pandera". Some of these references probably date back to the Tannaitic period (70–200 CE). In some cases, it is not clear if the references are to Jesus, or other people, and scholars continue to debate their historical value, and exactly which references, if any, may be to Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Robert Van Voorst states that the scarcity of Jewish references to Jesus is not surprising, given that Jesus was not a prominent issue for the Jews during the first century, and after the devastation caused by the Siege of Jerusalem in the year 70, Jewish scholars were focusing on preserving Judaism itself, rather than paying much attention to Christianity.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Robert Eisenman argues that the derivation of Jesus of Nazareth from "ha-Notzri" is impossible on etymological grounds, as it would suggest rather "the Nazirite" rather than "the Nazarene".


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Van Voorst states that although the question of who was referred to in various points in the Talmud remains subject to debate among scholars, in the case of "Sanhedrin 43a" (generally considered the most important reference to Jesus in rabbinic literature), Jesus can be confirmed as the subject of the passage, not only from the reference itself, but from the context that surrounds it, and there is little doubt that it refers to the death of Jesus of Nazareth. Christopher M. Tuckett states that if it is accepted that death narrative of Sanhedrin 43a refers to Jesus of Nazareth then it provides evidence of Jesus' existence and execution.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Andreas Kostenberger states that the passage is a Tannaitic reference to the trial and death of Jesus at Passover and is most likely earlier than other references to Jesus in the Talmud. The passage reflects hostility toward Jesus among the rabbis and includes this text:


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: It is taught: On the eve of Passover they hung Yeshu and the crier went forth for forty days beforehand declaring that "[Yeshu] is going to be stoned for practicing witchcraft, for enticing and leading Israel astray. Anyone who knows something to clear him should come forth and exonerate him." But no one had anything exonerating for him and they hung him on the eve of Passover.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Peter Schäfer states that there can be no doubt that the narrative of the execution of Jesus in the Talmud refers to Jesus of Nazareth, but states that the rabbinic literature in question are not Tannaitic but from a later Amoraic period and may have drawn on the Christian gospels, and may have been written as responses to them. Bart Ehrman and separately Mark Allan Powell state that given that the Talmud references are quite late, they can give no historically reliable information about the teachings or actions of Jesus during his life.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Another reference in early second century Rabbinic literature (Tosefta Hullin II 22) refers to Rabbi Eleazar ben Dama who was bitten by a snake, but was denied healing in the name of Jesus by another Rabbi for it was against the law, and thus died. This passage reflects the attitude of Jesus' early Jewish opponents, i.e. that his miracles were based on evil powers.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Eddy and Boyd, who question the value of several of the Talmudic references state that the significance of the Talmud to historical Jesus research is that it never denies the existence of Jesus, but accuses him of sorcery, thus indirectly confirming his existence. R. T. France and separately Edgar V. McKnight state that the divergence of the Talmud statements from the Christian accounts and their negative nature indicate that they are about a person who existed. Craig Blomberg states that the denial of the existence of Jesus was never part of the Jewish tradition, which instead accused him of being a sorcerer and magician, as also reflected in other sources such as Celsus. Andreas Kostenberger states that the overall conclusion that can be drawn from the references in the Talmud is that Jesus was a historical person whose existence was never denied by the Jewish tradition, which instead focused on discrediting him.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The earliest documents to discuss Jesus are an exchange of letters between the Roman Emperor Tiberius the king of Osroene Abgar V discussing political developments in the region near Parthia.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Pliny the Younger (c. 61 – c. 112), the provincial governor of Pontus and Bithynia, wrote to Emperor Trajan "c". 112 concerning how to deal with Christians, who refused to worship the emperor, and instead worshiped "Christus". Charles Guignebert, who does not doubt that Jesus of the Gospels lived in Gallilee in the 1st century, nevertheless dismisses this letter as acceptable evidence for a historical Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Thallus, of whom very little is known, and none of whose writings survive, wrote a history allegedly around the middle to late first century CE, to which Eusebius referred. Julius Africanus, writing "c" 221, links a reference in the third book of the "History" to the period of darkness described in the crucifixion accounts in three of the Gospels. It is not known whether Thallus made any mention to the crucifixion accounts; if he did and the dating is accurate, it would be the earliest noncanonical reference to a gospel episode, but its usefulness in determining the historicity of Jesus is uncertain. The dating of Thallus is dependent on him writing about an event during the 207th Olympiad (49–52 AD), which means he wrote after that date, not near that date. This depends on the text being corrupt, which would mean Thallus could have been writing after the 217th Olympiad (89–92 AD), or even the 167th Olympiad (112–109 BC). He is first referenced by Theophilus, writing around 180 AD, which means Thallus could have written any time between 109 BC and 180 AD. All we know is Thallus mentioned a solar eclipse, and as solar eclipses are not possible at Passover, that would mean Thallus was not talking about the crucifixion of Jesus at all.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Phlegon of Tralles, AD 80–140: similar to Thallus, Julius Africanus mentions a historian named Phlegon who wrote a chronicle of history around AD 140, where he records:


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: “Phlegon records that, in the time of Tiberius Caesar, at full moon, there was a full eclipse of the sun from the sixth to the ninth hour.” (Africanus, Chronography, 18:1) Phlegon is also mentioned by Origen (an early church theologian and scholar, born in Alexandria):


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: “Now Phlegon, in the thirteenth or fourteenth book, I think, of his Chronicles, not only ascribed to Jesus a knowledge of future events . . . but also testified that the result corresponded to His predictions.” (Origen Against Celsus, Book 2, Chapter 14)


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: “And with regard to the eclipse in the time of Tiberius Caesar, in whose reign Jesus appears to have been crucified, and the great earthquakes which then took place … ” (Origen Against Celsus, Book 2, Chapter 33)


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: “Jesus, while alive, was of no assistance to himself, but that he arose after death, and exhibited the marks of his punishment, and showed how his hands had been pierced by nails.” (Origen Against Celsus, Book 2, Chapter 59). However, Eusebius in The Chronicon (written in the 4th century AD) records what Phlegon said verbatim. "Now, in the fourth year of the 202nd Olympiad [32 AD], a great eclipse of the sun occurred at the sixth hour [noon] that excelled every other before it, turning the day into such darkness of night that the stars could be seen in heaven, and the earth moved in Bithynia, toppling many buildings in the city of Nicaea." Phlegon never mentions Jesus or the 3 hour darkness. He also mentions a solar eclipse, which can not occur at Passover. Apart from the year (which may be a corruption), this description fits an earthquake and eclipse that occurred in North West Turkey on November, 29 AD.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Philo, who dies after A.D. 40, is mainly important for the light he throws on certain modes of thought and phraseology found again in some of the Apostles. Eusebius indeed preserves a legend that Philo had met Peter in Rome during his mission to the Emperor Caius; moreover, that in his work on the contemplative life he describes the life of the Church of Alexandria, rather than that of the Essenes and Therapeutae. But it is hardly probable that Philo had heard enough of Jesus and His followers to give an historical foundation to the foregoing legends.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Celsus writing late in the second century produced the first full-scale attack on Christianity. Celsus' document has not survived but in the third century Origen replied to it, and what is known of Celsus' writing is through the responses of Origen. According to Origen, Celsus accused Jesus of being a magician and a sorcerer. While the statements of Celsus may be seen as valuable, they have little historical value, given that the wording of the original writings can not be examined.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The Dead Sea Scrolls are first century or older writings that show the language and customs of some Jews of Jesus' time. Scholars such as Henry Chadwick see the similar uses of languages and viewpoints recorded in the New Testament and the Dead Sea Scrolls as valuable in showing that the New Testament portrays the first century period that it reports and is not a product of a later period. However, the relationship between the Dead Sea scrolls and the historicity of Jesus has been the subject of highly controversial theories, and although new theories continue to appear, there is no overall scholarly agreement about their impact on the historicity of Jesus, despite the usefulness of the scrolls in shedding light on first-century Jewish traditions.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: There is a limestone burial box from the 1st century known as the James Ossuary with the Aramaic inscription, "James, son of Joseph, brother of Jesus." The authenticity of the inscription was challenged by the Israel Antiquities Authority, who filed a complaint with the Israeli police. In 2012, the owner of the ossuary was found not guilty, with the judge ruling that the authenticity of the ossuary inscription had not been proven either way. It has been suggested it was a forgery.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Various books, memoirs and stories were written about Jesus by the early Christians. The most famous are the gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke and John. All but one of these are believed to have been written within 50–70 years of the death of Jesus, with the Gospel of Mark believed to be the earliest, and the last the Gospel of John. Blainey writes that the oldest surviving record written by an early Christian is a short letter by St Paul: the First Epistle to the Thessalonians, which appeared about 25 years after the death of Jesus. This letter, while important in describing issues for the development of Gentilic Christianity, contains little of significance for understanding the life of the historic Jesus. Ehrman observes that Paul in his writings does document interactions with eyewitnesses of Jesus life such as the apostle Peter, James the brother of Jesus, and John.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: According to critical scholars such as Bart Ehrman and Robert Eisenman the gospels were written by Christians decades after Jesus' death, by authors who had not witnessed any events in Jesus' life.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: However, Ehrman observes that the surviving Gospels show usage of much earlier independent written and oral sources that extended back to the time of Jesus death around 29 or 30 CE, but did not survive; and that Luke's observation that many sources existed by his time is accurate.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: In the context of Christian sources, even if all other texts are ignored, the Pauline epistles can provide some information regarding Jesus. This information does not include a narrative of the life of Jesus, and refers to his existence as a person, but adds few specific items apart from his death by crucifixion. This information comes from those letters of Paul whose authenticity is not disputed. Paul was not a companion of Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Of the thirteen letters that bear Paul's name, seven are considered authentic by almost all scholars, and the others are generally considered pseudepigraphic. The 7 undisputed letters (and their approximate dates) are: 1 Thessalonians (c. 51 CE), Philippians (c. 52–54 CE), Philemon (c. 52–54 CE), 1 Corinthians (c. 53–54 CE), Galatians (c. 55 CE), 2 Corinthians (c. 55–56 CE) and Romans (c. 55–58 CE). The authenticity of these letters is accepted by almost all scholars, and they have been referenced and interpreted by early authors such as Origen and Eusebius.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Given that the Pauline epistles are generally dated AD 50–60, they are the earliest surviving Christian texts that include information about Jesus. These letters were written approximately twenty to thirty years after the generally accepted time period for the death of Jesus, around AD 30–36. The letters were written during a time when Paul recorded encounters with eyewitnesses such as disciples of Jesus, e.g. states that three years after his conversion Paul went to Jerusalem and stayed with Apostle Peter for fifteen days. According to Buetz, during this time Paul disputed the nature of Jesus' message with Jesus' brother James, concerning the importance of adhering to kosher food restrictions and circumcision, important features of determining Jewish identity. The New Testament narratives, however, do not give any details about what they discussed at that time; fourteen years after that meeting, Paul returned to Jerusalem to confirm that his teaching was orthodox, as part of the Council of Jerusalem.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The Pauline letters were not intended to provide a narrative of the life of Jesus, but were written as expositions of Christian teachings. In Paul's view, the earthly life of Jesus was of lower importance than the theology of his death and resurrection, a theme that permeates Pauline writings. However, the Pauline letters clearly indicate that for Paul, Jesus was a real person (born of a woman as in Gal 4.4), a Jew ("born under the law", Romans 1.3) who had disciples (1 Corinthians 15.5), who was crucified (as in 1 Corinthians 2.2 and Galatians 3.1) and later resurrected (1 Corinthians 15.20, Romans 1.4 and 6.5, Philippians 3:10–11). The letters reflect the general concept within the early Gentillic Christian Church that Jesus existed, was crucified and later raised from the dead.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The references by Paul to Jesus do not in themselves prove the existence of Jesus, but they do establish that the existence of Jesus was the accepted norm within the early Christians (including the Christian community in Jerusalem, given the references to collections there) twenty to thirty years after the death of Jesus, at a time when those who could have been acquainted with him could still be alive.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The seven Pauline epistles that are widely regarded as authentic include the following information that along with other historical elements are used to study the historicity of Jesus:


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The existence of only these references to Jesus in the Pauline epistles has given rise to criticism of them by G. A. Wells, who is generally accepted as a leader of the movement to deny the historicity of Jesus. When Wells was still denying the existence of Jesus, he criticized the Pauline epistles for not mentioning items such as John the Baptist or Judas or the trial of Jesus and used that argument to conclude that Jesus was not a historical figure.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: James D. G. Dunn addressed Wells' statement and stated that he knew of no other scholar that shared that view, and most other scholars had other and more plausible explanations for the fact that Paul did not include a narrative of the life of Jesus in his letters, which were primarily written as religious documents rather than historical chronicles at a time when the life story of Jesus could have been well known within the early Church. Dunn states that despite Wells' arguments, the theories of the non-existence of Jesus are a "thoroughly dead thesis".


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: While Wells no longer denies the existence of Jesus, he has responded to Dunn, stating that his arguments from silence not only apply to Paul but all early Christian authors, and that he still has a low opinion of early Christian texts, maintaining that for Paul Jesus may have existed a good number of decades before.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The Pauline letters sometimes refer to creeds, or confessions of faith, that predate their writings. For instance reads: "For what I received I passed on to you as of first importance: that Christ died for our sins according to the Scriptures, that he was buried, that he was raised on the third day according to the Scriptures." refers to Romans 1:2 just before it which mentions an existing gospel, and in effect may be treating it as an earlier creed.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Here Paul refers to others before him who preached the creed. James Dunn states that indicates that in the 30s Paul was taught about the death of Jesus a few years earlier.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The Pauline letters thus contain Christian creed elements of pre-Pauline origin. The antiquity of the creed has been located by many biblical scholars to less than a decade after Jesus' death, originating from the Jerusalem apostolic community. Concerning this creed, Campenhausen wrote, "This account meets all the demands of historical reliability that could possibly be made of such a text," whilst A. M. Hunter said, "The passage therefore preserves uniquely early and verifiable testimony. It meets every reasonable demand of historical reliability."


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: These creeds date to within a few years of Jesus' death, and developed within the Christian community in Jerusalem. Although embedded within the texts of the New Testament, these creeds are a distinct source for Early Christianity. This indicates that existence and death of Jesus was part of Christian belief a few years after his death and over a decade before the writing of the Pauline epistles.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The four canonical gospels, Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John, are the main sources for the biography of Jesus' life, the teachings and actions attributed to him. Three of these (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are known as the synoptic Gospels, from the Greek σύν (syn "together") and ὄψις (opsis "view"), given that they display a high degree of similarity in content, narrative arrangement, language and paragraph structure. The presentation in the fourth canonical gospel, i.e. John, differs from these three in that it has more of a thematic nature rather than a narrative format. Scholars generally agree that it is impossible to find any direct literary relationship between the synoptic gospels and the Gospel of John.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The authors of the New Testament generally showed little interest in an absolute chronology of Jesus or in synchronizing the episodes of his life with the secular history of the age. The gospels were primarily written as theological documents in the context of early Christianity with the chronological timelines as a secondary consideration. One manifestation of the gospels being theological documents rather than historical chronicles is that they devote about one third of their text to just seven days, namely the last week of the life of Jesus in Jerusalem. Although the gospels do not provide enough details to satisfy the demands of modern historians regarding exact dates, scholars have used them to reconstruct a number of portraits of Jesus. However, as stated in the gospels do not claim to provide an exhaustive list of the events in the life of Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Scholars have varying degrees of certainty about the historical reliability of the accounts in the gospels, and the only two events whose historicity is the subject of almost universal agreement among scholars are the baptism and crucifixion of Jesus. Scholars such as E.P. Sanders and separately Craig A. Evans go further and assume that two other events in the gospels are historically certain, namely that Jesus called disciples, and caused a controversy at the Temple.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Ever since the Augustinian hypothesis, scholars continue to debate the order in which the gospels were written, and how they may have influenced each other, and several hypothesis exist in that regard, e.g. the Markan priority hypothesis holds that the Gospel of Mark was written first c. 70 CE. In this approach, Matthew is placed at being sometime after this date and Luke is thought to have been written between 70 and 100 CE. However, according to the competing, and more popular, Q source hypothesis, the gospels were not independently written, but were derived from a common source called Q. The two-source hypothesis then proposes that the authors of Matthew and Luke drew on the Gospel of Mark as well as on Q.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The gospels can be seen as having three separate lines: A literary line which looks at it from a textual perspective, secondly a historical line which observes how Christianity started as a renewal movement within Judaism and eventually separated from it, and finally a theological line which analyzes Christian teachings. Within the historical perspective, the gospels are not simply used to establish the existence of Jesus as sources in their own right alone, but their content is compared and contrasted to non-Christian sources, and the historical context, to draw conclusions about the historicity of Jesus.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Two possible patristic sources that may refer to eyewitness encounters with Jesus are the early references of Papias and Quadratus, reported by Eusebius of Caesarea in the 4th century.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: Richard Bauckham states that while Papias was collecting his information (c. 90), Aristion and the elder John (who were Jesus' disciples) were still alive and teaching in Asia minor, and Papias gathered information from people who had known them. However, the exact identity of the "elder John" is wound up in the debate on the authorship of the Gospel of John, and scholars have differing opinions on that, e.g. Jack Finegan states that Eusebius may have misunderstood what Papias wrote, and the elder John may be a different person from the author of the fourth gospel, yet still a disciple of Jesus. Gary Burge, on the other hand sees confusion on the part of Eusebius and holds the elder John to be different person from the apostle John.


title: Sources for the historicity of Jesus

text: The letter of Quadratus (possibly the first Christian apologist) to emperor Hadrian (who reigned 117 – 138) is likely to have an early date and is reported by Eusebius in his "Ecclesiastical History" 4.3.2 to have stated: