title: North Korean cult of personality

text: By 1992, according to Victor Cha, there had been nearly 40,000 statues of Kim Il-sung erected throughout the country, and with his death in 1994 the government began erecting 3,200 obelisks, called "", in every town and city. These obelisks espouse the virtues of the "Great Marshal" and, like the other monuments, citizens (and tourists) are required to present flowers and other tokens of respect to the statues during certain holidays and when they visit them. A 2018 review of satellite imagery revealed the existence of fewer than 11,200 outside monuments and murals.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: There are legal requirements associated with photographing statues of the Kims including one that states visitors must photograph the entire statue, not just the head or any other individual part.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: After the death of Kim Jong-il the government began to inscribe his name on each of the obelisks and build new statues in his image.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: Images of Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il are prominent in places associated with public transportation, hanging at every North Korean train station and airport. Every North Korean household is required to have a picture of both Kims hanging on a wall. Nothing else may hang on that wall and they are given special cloths to clean the images daily. Party members in neighborhoods are assigned to inspect houses for dusty portraits. If dust is found, a fine has to be paid, its amount depending on the thickness of the layer. The portraits have to be hung high up, so that people in the room may not stand higher than them. Party cadres and military officials must keep three portraits, that of the two deceased leaders and one of Kim Il-sung's wife, Kim Jong-suk. The images are only allowed to be made by government approved artists at specific Mansudae workshops. Images found within newspapers or other publications are to be respected and one must not throw away, deface or otherwise misuse a page that contains an image. They are to be collected and returned. Adult North Koreans are also required to wear a lapel pin that features their image on the left side, above their heart.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: There have been sporadic stories of people risking their lives to save the portraits from various disasters but few accounts have been verified. In 2012, a 14-year-old girl drowned while trying to save the images from her family's home during a flash flood. The North Korean government posthumously bestowed upon her the "Kim Jong-il Youth Honor Award" and her school was renamed after her.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: The Kumsusan Palace of the Sun was built as the official residence of Kim Il-sung in 1976. After his death it was converted into his mausoleum (and then that of his son's). It is reported to have cost between $100–900 million. Kumsusan is the largest mausoleum dedicated to a communist leader.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: The overall estimated cost of maintaining the personality cult varies greatly between published sources. A white paper by the Korea Institute for International Economic Policy placed the cost at 38.5% of North Korea's budget in 2004, up from 19% in 1990. However, other sources such as South Korea's "Chosun Ilbo" and the United Kingdom's "Daily Telegraph" estimate the cost in 2012 at between $40 million and $100 million respectively. Large scale construction projects for the Kim family has been blamed for the country's economic downturn in the 1980s.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: In 2013, a new holiday was announced to be celebrated on February 14, which commemorates the date that Kim Jong-il assumed the title "Generalissimo of the Democratic People's Republic of Korea". Unlike celebrations surrounding other important figures throughout the world, the celebrations are mandatory, with numerous events planned (such as dances, sporting events and parades), and citizens will place gifts of flowers at the foot of monuments. Birthday celebrations for the Kims also involve state media broadcasts of films about the lives and accomplishments of the leaders the night before the actual holiday. People are not allowed to talk or fall asleep until the broadcasts are over.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: Between 60,000 and 220,000 gifts to Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il from foreign leaders, businesspersons and others are housed in the International Friendship Exhibition.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: The museum is a source of pride for the North Korean government and is used as evidence of the greatness and popularity of their leaders. The North Korean government places a large emphasis on international recognition in order to legitimize their rule in the minds of the population. Tours are arranged to the Exhibition Hall whereupon entering and leaving visitors must pay homage by bowing before images of Kim Il-sung and Kim Jong-il, as per Korean manners and tradition.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: The former dictator of the Socialist Republic of Romania, Nicolae Ceaușescu, partially modeled his own cult of personality on Kim Il-sung's personality cult. When he visited North Korea in 1971, he was impressed by the highly personal way in which Kim ruled North Korea, and launched the July Theses when he returned to Bucharest.


title: North Korean cult of personality

text: Over the past half-century, the North Korean system has promoted an image of not only Kim Il-sung, but also his family, as a nationalist cult. ("see Other") Thus, Kim Il-sung staked his claim as uniquely deserving and qualified to the exclusion of all other potential claimants to leadership by promoting the myth of an impressive family lineage. Kim Il-sung was not only descended and born of revolutionary leaders, but he married a revolutionary leader (Kim Jong-suk) and fathered a revolutionary leader (Kim Jong-il). This in turn would help justify the succession of Kim Jong-il and then Kim Jong-un in replacing their fathers. The idea is that as long as his bloodline continues to rule, Kim Il-sung's righteous and godlike spirit lives on in the North Korean leadership.


title: Finder (software)

text: The Finder is the default file manager and graphical user interface shell used on all Macintosh operating systems. Described in its "About" window as "The Macintosh Desktop Experience", it is responsible for the launching of other applications, and for the overall user management of files, disks, and network volumes. It was introduced with the first Macintosh computer, and also exists as part of GS/OS on the Apple II. It was rewritten completely with the release of Mac OS X in 2001.


title: Finder (software)

text: In a tradition dating back to the Classic Mac OS of the 1980s and 1990s, the Finder icon is the smiling screen of a computer, known as the Happy Mac logo.


title: Finder (software)

text: The Finder uses a view of the file system that is rendered using a desktop metaphor; that is, the files and folders are represented as appropriate icons. It uses a similar interface to Apple's Safari browser, where the user can click on a folder to move to it and move between locations using "back" and "forward" arrow buttons. Like Safari, the Finder uses tabs to allow the user to view multiple folders; these tabs can be pulled off the window to make them separate windows. There is a "favorites" sidebar of commonly used and important folders on the left of the Finder window.


title: Finder (software)

text: The classic Mac OS Finder uses a spatial metaphor quite different from the more browser-like approach of the modern macOS Finder. In the classic Finder, opening a new folder opens the location in a new window: Finder windows are 'locked' so that they would only ever display the contents of one folder. It also allows extensive customization, with the user being able to give folders custom icons matching their content. This approach emphasizes the different locations of files within the operating system, but navigating to a folder nested inside multiple other folders fills the desktop with a large number of windows that the user may not wish to have open. These must then be closed individually. Holding down the option key when opening a folder would also close its parent, but this trick was not discoverable and remained under the purview of power users.


title: Finder (software)

text: The modern Finder uses macOS graphics APIs to display previews of a range of files, such as images, applications and PDF files. The Quick Look feature allows users to quickly examine documents and images in more detail from the finder by pressing the space bar without opening them in a separate application. The user can choose how to view files, with options such as large icons showing previews of files, a list with details such as date of last creation or modification, a Gallery View (replacing the previous Cover flow in macOS Mojave), and a "column view" influenced by macOS's direct ancestor NeXTSTEP.


title: Finder (software)

text: The modern Finder displays some aspects of the file system outside its windows. Mounted external volumes and disk image files can be displayed on the desktop. There is a trash can on the Dock in macOS, to which files can be dragged to mark them for deletion, and to which drives can be dragged for ejection. When a volume icon is being dragged, the Trash icon in the Dock changes to an eject icon in order to indicate this functionality. Finder can record files to optical media on the sidebar.


title: Finder (software)

text: From Yosemite onwards, the Finder is updated to include a refreshed user interface with updated typography and translucency, along with a new icon. Functionally, it also contains official support for extensions, allowing synchronization and cloud storage applications such as Dropbox to display sync status labels inside the Finder display.


title: Finder (software)

text: macOS Big Sur introduces a complete graphical redesign of the Finder, along with the rest of the user interface, sporting the removal of the brushed metal interface elements, a full height sidebar and all new iconography. Big Sur also slightly modifies the Finder icon with rounded corners.


title: Finder (software)

text: Stewart Alsop II in 1988 said "It is testimony to either the luck or vision of the original designers" of Finder that "the interface has been able to survive tremendous evolution without much essential damage" from 1984. He praised its spatial file manager as "probably a more complete definition of a PC-based universe than any" competitor, with users able to seamlessly use floppies, local and remote hard disks, and large and small file servers. Alsop said that even if Apple had stolen Xerox's technology for Finder, it was now very different. While criticizing the lack of a right mouse button and MultiFinder's clumsiness, he concluded that "Apple remains the king of user interfaces. Finder is the only interface with 1.5 million people sitting in front of it daily. Apple is spending tremendous amounts of money on both development and basic research to remain the leader".


title: Finder (software)

text: Introducing Mac OS X in 2000, Steve Jobs criticized the original Finder, saying that it "generates a ton of windows, and you get to be the janitor."


title: Finder (software)

text: "Ars Technica" columnist John Siracusa has been a long-standing defender of the spatial interface of the classic Mac OS Finder and a critic of the new design. Daring Fireball blog author John Gruber has voiced similar criticisms. In a 2005 interview he said that the Finder in version 10.3 of Mac OS X had become "worse than in 10.0" and that "the fundamental problem with the OS X Finder is that it's trying to support two opposing paradigms at once – the browser metaphor ... and the spatial metaphor from the original Mac Finder ... and it ends up doing neither one very well." Reviewing the same version of Mac OS X, Siracusa comments that the Finder "provides exactly the same self-destructive combination of spatial and browser-style features as all of its Mac OS X predecessors".


title: Finder (software)

text: Third-party macOS software developers offer Finder replacements that run as stand-alone applications, such as ForkLift, Path Finder, Xfile, and XtraFinder. These replacements are shareware or freeware and aim to include and supersede the functionality of the Finder. After Mac OS X 10.4 Tiger the UNIX command line file management tools understand resource forks and can be used for management of Mac files.


title: Finder (software)

text: There are minor differences between Finder versions and Classic OS to System 7. From System 6 onward, the version numbers are unified.


title: Finder (software)

text: Since the introduction of Mac OS X, the largest rewrite of the Finder was with the 2009 release of Mac OS X 10.6, into the Cocoa API, though little change was visible to the user.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: The American comic book character Superman has appeared in many types of media. Since his first comic book appearance in 1938, Superman has appeared in radio, television, movies, and video games each on multiple occasions, and his name, symbol, and image have appeared on products and merchandise.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: The series premiered September 19, 1952 in black & white on the television network Syndication and ended April 28, 1958. George Reeves portrays Clark Kent / Superman with Jack Larson as Jimmy Olsen, John Hamilton as Perry White, and Robert Shayne as Inspector Henderson.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: The series premiered October 8, 1988 on the television network Syndication and ended on May 17, 1992. John Haymes Newton, and later Gerard Christopher, portrays Clark Kent / Superboy with Stacy Haiduk as Lana Lang, Jim Calvert as T.J. White, Scott James Wells as Lex Luthor, Stuart Whitman and Salome Jens as Jonathan and Martha Kent.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: The series premiered September 12, 1993 on ABC and ended June 14, 1997. Dean Cain stars as Clark Kent / Superman alongside Teri Hatcher as Lois Lane.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: The series premiered October 16, 2001 on The WB and ended May 13, 2011. Tom Welling stars as Clark Kent and depicts the early days of Superman as Clark, before becoming the Man of Steel.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: The series premiered October 26, 2015 on The CW and ended November 9, 2021. Tyler Hoechlin guest stars as Clark Kent / Superman alongside Bitsie Tulloch as Lois Lane.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: They later appeared in annual Arrowverse crossovers such as "Elseworlds" and "Crisis on Infinite Earths".


title: Superman (franchise)

text: The series premiered March 21, 2018 on Syfy and ended August 14, 2019. It primarily focuses on Superman's grandfather.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: The series premiered February 23, 2021 on The CW. Clark Kent / Superman and Lois Lane are the main characters in television series set in the Arrowverse, with Hoechlin and Tulloch reprising their roles.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: Superman made an appearance in the "Peacemaker" season finale episode "It's Cow or Never" portrayed by a stand-in.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: It was announced by "Collider" that Michael B. Jordan will be developing, producing and starring as Val-Zod in a limited series for HBO Max.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: Superman is a major character in the DC Animated Universe, under the portrayal of various different actors. Although still a very difficult character to beat, he is portrayed as being considerably weaker than he is in the comics. He also has a specific set of stylized sound effects whenever his powers are used. Additionally, his personality is very similar to Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's original comics, the same one used by John Byrne in the reboot of the DC Universe from 1986: somewhat rough and aggressive, although remaining the personification of moral excellence.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: An animated series titled "My Adventures with Superman" was announced in May 2021, and will feature Jack Quaid and Alice Lee leading the voice cast as Clark Kent and Lois Lane. It is said to follow a modern, relatable Clark Kent alongside a fearless, whip smart Lois Lane who are navigating the small tasks of both becoming adults and trying to save the world. The series will premiere in 2023 on HBO Max, as well as on Cartoon Network.


title: Superman (franchise)

text: Superman was a daily newspaper comic strip which began on January 16, 1939, and a separate Sunday strip was added on November 5, 1939. These strips ran continuously until May 1966. In 1941, the McClure Syndicate had placed the strip in hundreds of newspapers. At its peak, the strip, featuring Superman, was in over 300 daily newspapers and 90 Sunday papers, with a readership of over 20 million.


title: April (girl group)

text: April () was a South Korean girl group formed by DSP Media. The group debuted on August 24, 2015, with their EP "Dreaming" and its title track "Dream Candy". The group's final lineup was composed of six members: Chaekyung, Chaewon, Naeun, Yena, Rachel and Jinsol. The group officially disbanded on January 28, 2022.


title: April (girl group)

text: The group name is made up of 'A' and 'pril'. 'A' means 'the best girl group' and 'pril' means lovely girls. As combined, 'April' makes the meaning of 'the best, lovely girls'. Also known as 'Sa-wori' (사월이, April), 'Apple' (에플, pun of April) or 'Pril-e' (프릴이, pun of pril). After their debut, fans started calling them 'Chung-jeong-dol' (청정돌, pure idol).


title: April (girl group)

text: April's formation was first announced by DSP Media on February 9, 2015, following their previous girl groups Fin.K.L, Kara and Rainbow. The six-member group (Somin, Chaewon, Hyunjoo, Naeun, Yena, and Jinsol) debuted on August 24 with the EP "Dreaming" and the title track "Dream Candy" ().


title: April (girl group)

text: On November 9, the group's leader, Somin, announced her departure from the group, admitting she was uncomfortable with the concept the group would pursue; she would later go on to debut in the co-ed group KARD. The remaining five members released the single album "Boing Boing," including the title track "Muah!" and the B-side "Glass Castle" on November 25. It was followed by a Christmas special album titled "Snowman", released on December 21.


title: April (girl group)

text: On February 12, 2016, DSP Media announced that the group's fan club name was "Fineapple" (). On February 14, the group hold a mini-concert titled "Everland Romantic Concert" for Valentine's Day. On February 18, April won the Girl Group Rookie of the Year award at the 22nd Korean Entertainment Arts Awards.


title: April (girl group)

text: The group's second EP, "Spring", was released on April 27. It contains six tracks including the lead single, "Tinkerbell" (). During promotions for "Spring", Hyunjoo took a temporary hiatus from the group due to health issues, and April promoted as a four-member group.


title: April (girl group)

text: On August 21, the group held their first solo concert, titled "Dream Land", at the Baek Am Art Hall in Seoul, to celebrate their first anniversary. Another concert was held in Tokyo, Japan, on October 15. Yoon Chae-kyung also participated in both concerts as a guest member.


title: April (girl group)

text: On October 29, Hyunjoo announced her departure from April, following a seven-month hiatus, in order to pursue an acting career. New group members were confirmed in November: Chaekyung, who had previously appeared as a guest member, and Rachel.


title: April (girl group)

text: April released their third EP "Prelude" as a six-member group on January 3, 2017, with the title track "April Story" (). The group also held their comeback showcase performance for "Prelude" on the same day. On February 14, they performed a cover of Apink's """Luv""" for the 100th episode of "The Show". From February 16, they also performed on "M Countdown" with the track "Wow". On February 26, they released "So You" as a digital single. On March 20, April held their second Japanese fan-meeting titled "[#April Japan Fanmeeting 2017～April Story～]" at Shinagawa Intercity Hall, Tokyo.


title: April (girl group)

text: On April 4, they released the tennis-court-themed music video for the single "Sting", through the first episode of their reality program "A-IF-Ril". The program aired for five episodes. On May 8, the group's second reality program of the year, "April Secret", began airing on Naver TV.


title: April (girl group)

text: On May 29, April released their second single album, "Mayday". The music video for "Sting" was re-released under the title "Lovesick", along with the title track "Mayday". They performed "Lovesick" on "M Countdown" on June 22.


title: April (girl group)

text: On October 18, it was announced that the group will hold their second Japanese solo concert titled "April 2nd Live Concert in Japan 2017


title: April (girl group)

text: 「Dream Land」 (Take My Hand)" on December 10, 2017. The group also performed a concert in Korea on Christmas Day titled "2017 SPECIAL CHRISTMAS APRIL EVE".


title: April (girl group)

text: On January 30, 2018, DSP Media through the group's Twitter revealed the upcoming secret single set to release for February 7. On January 31, the agency revealed that the single was to be part of a special unit album. On February 1, it was revealed that the upcoming subunit consisting of members Jinsol and Naeun would release a song "My Story".


title: April (girl group)

text: On February 26, 2018, DSP Media confirms that April's full group comeback was set for March 12, with the group's fifth EP "The Blue" along with the title track "The Blue Bird" .


title: April (girl group)

text: On March 22, DSP Media announced that April was set to make its Japanese debut sometime during the following month. The group made their Japanese debut on April 25 with the release of the Japanese version of their 2016 single "Tinkerbell". The single also contains the Japanese version of the b-side track ""Yes, sir!"" as well as the instrumental version of both songs. The single was promoted through TV shows appearances and a series of fan-meetings in various cities of Japan.


title: April (girl group)

text: On September 17, the news outlet OSEN released an exclusive report about APRIL making a fall comeback. The reports were later confirmed by the group's youngest member Jinsol who revealed during an interview that the group was indeed preparing for a comeback. On October 4, DSP Media confirmed that the group would come back with their sixth EP "The Ruby". The album was released on October 16, along with the title track ""Oh! My Mistake"".


title: April (girl group)

text: On January 16, 2019, April released the single "Oh-E-Oh (Japanese ver.)". In the same month, they released "Magic Dream" for the television drama "My Strange Hero".


title: April (girl group)

text: On March 11, 2020, DSP Media announced that April would postpone their March comeback to April 2020 amid the coronavirus concerns. On April 10, it was revealed that April would make a comeback with their 7th EP titled "Da Capo" on April 22. According to DSP Media, "Da Capo" is a musical term which means "from the beginning". On April 22, "Da Capo" and its title track "Lalalilala" were released. "Da Capo" peaked at number five on the Gaon Album Chart, while "Lalalilala" peaked at number 40 on the Gaon Digital Chart, becoming their highest-charting releases to date.


title: April (girl group)

text: On July 14, 2020, DSP Media announced that April would make a summer comeback with the special single album "Hello Summer" on July 29, with the title track "Now or Never".


title: April (girl group)

text: On February 28, 2021, a post was made to an online forum by someone claiming to be former member Hyunjoo's brother. In the post, he claimed that Hyunjoo's departure from the group had not been because she wanted to study acting, but because she had been forced out due to being severely bullied by the other members, at one point even attempting suicide. DSP Media has denied that any bullying took place, and announced they would be pursuing legal action against Hyunjoo and her family. As a result, the group has faced heavy backlash, up to and including having members removed from endorsement deals and acting roles. Hyunjoo then posted a statement on her personal Instagram on April 18, 2021 backing the claims of the two netizens who made the accusations. She also stated that the label, DSP Media, was not allowing her to terminate her exclusive contract with them.


title: April (girl group)

text: On January 28, 2022, after a year of no activities, and following the acquisition of DSP by RBW Entertainment on January 26, DSP Media announced that April has decided to disband after six years and go their separate ways. The decision was made after a long discussion and deliberation.


title: Persistence hunting

text: Persistence hunting is pursuit until the prey can no longer flee and succumbs to exhaustion or heat stroke.


title: Persistence hunting

text: Some researchers have insisted that the point of persistence hunting is not to induce exhaustion but specifically to induce heat stroke. However, a decade later, they understood persistence hunting to include pursuit until injury or heat stroke or exhaustion; and driving prey to ambushes, natural traps like cliffs and rivers and ravines, or man-made ditches and stakes. There do not seem to be descriptions which take account of "heat dissipation theory".


title: Persistence hunting

text: Startled animals respond in characteristic ways that may be effective against animal predators. People learn how prey respond and plan (and prepare themselves) to overcome that response. They learn how to monitor their own condition and stay within their limits, while pushing the prey animal beyond its physiological limits.


title: Persistence hunting

text: Research and discussion about persistence hunting has often been in the context of providing reciprocal support for the Endurance running hypothesis. However, hunts are not intended to be a fair contest of endurance. On the contrary, hunters use their knowledge to put the prey animal at every disadvantage. Even proponents "agree that [persistence hunting] is not practiced by the Hadza and only rarely by Bushmen and other foragers".


title: Persistence hunting

text: Cheetahs near Wajir were preying on Mr Hassan's goat herd each morning. He waited a few hours until the hottest part of the day, when Cheetahs typically rest in the shade. Mr Hassan and 3 youths chased about until they captured the 2 cheetahs.


title: Persistence hunting

text: Cheetahs at hunt have exceptional speed, acceleration and deceleration — for a few seconds. A typical chase only lasts a minute and exhausts the cheetah so much that it is forced to rest. On a typical day a cheetah would make a single chase covering 200 to 500 m.


title: Persistence hunting

text: In Copper Canyon once fresh tracks were found, the deer were chased into a trap and clubbed. Either a natural trap: a river, cave, ravine, cliff or rocky ground to injure the animals' hooves; or a man-made trap of sharpened wooden stakes set into the ground and hidden with leaves. In other words the Rarámuri commonly planned and prepared game drives.


title: Persistence hunting

text: Less commonly the deer were tracked and chased to exhaustion. The hunters walked and ran at a "steady pace", a gradual jogging pace. They prepared by drinking pinole and eating a meal.


title: Persistence hunting

text: Hunting by walking was successful for duiker, steenbok and even kudu; during the hot dry season, in the central Kalahari. Fresh duiker hoof tracks were followed at a steady walk for 3 hours. Even when the animal was seen, rather than make any effort to keep it in sight, the hunter continued along the hoof tracks. The duiker was caught standing head lowered and tongue hanging out. The hunter walked up to it and clubbed it with a digging stick.


title: Persistence hunting

text: Several kudu hunts were performed, in the central Kalahari, for the documentary television program The Life of Mammals.


title: Persistence hunting

text: Persistence hunting is chosen when conditions are right: when there are prey animals already weakened by illness or injury or hunger or thirst; when tracking will be easier. Weaker kudu usually break away from the herd to hide. Predators may follow the stronger scent of the herd, giving the hidden animal a chance to escape. With that knowledge hunters look for tracks away from the herd and follow the weaker animal.


title: Persistence hunting

text: African wild dogs have been described as cooperative persistence predators and there's been a popular perception of large packs chasing down large antelope over long distances across open grass plains.


title: Persistence hunting

text: More recent observations from a different area, show they hunt opportunistically with short high-speed chases after medium-size prey, and rely on sharing kills.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: The Mickey Cobras are a large street gang affiliated with the nationwide gang alliance known as "People" and based in Chicago. The gang is considered very mobile, and its colors are green, black, and red. Factions of the gang are being established throughout the Midwestern United States.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: The gang's criminal expertise is in narcotics. The Mickey Cobras main source of income is wholesale distribution of marijuana, cocaine, and meth to other gangs, where most gangs must deal within their own. On April 5, 2005, US Attorney Patrick J. Fitzgerald described The Mickey Cobras (few in numbers compared to other gangs with same power) as one of several "super-gangs" that constitute a sizable portion of Atlanta's overall gang population.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: Some of their rivals would Gangster Disciples, Black Disciples and sometimes other People affiliates.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: The Egyptian Cobras formed in the year 1954 on Chicago's west side. The founder of the Egyptian Cobras was James Cogwell. During the mid 1950s the Egyptian Cobras fought heavily with a gang called the 14th Street Clovers. The 14th Street Clovers were the gang that later became the Vice Lords in the late 1950s.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: After several members of the 14th Street Clovers were incarcerated by 1957, the Egyptian Cobras had less competition. While incarcerated in the St. Charles Reformatory for Boys, the Clovers organized and became the Vice Lords. When the Vice Lords returned to Lawndale in the year 1958, they soon swelled into a force to be reckoned with. The Vice Lords were very aggressive and the dominant gang in Lawndale. By 1960 the Egyptian Cobras sought better opportunities on the South Side of Chicago. They relocated to the Woodlawn community.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: Cogwell led the Egyptian King Cobras as they gained a foothold and reputation in Chicago. In 1966 the Cobras new leader Henry (Mickey) Cogwell held second highest position in the Main 21 alliance, comprising the leaders of different gangs within the Black P. Stone Nation (BPSN). The Cobras and the Black P. Stone Nation allied against the Disciple Alliance and later the Gangster Nation. The Egyptian Cobras then changed their name to the Cobras Stones in 1966.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: Mickey Cogwell and the Cobras policed the police in their communities, receiving government grants to feed kids breakfast in Fuller Park area before public schools offered meals - the template for school free lunch programs all over America - and worked as an organizer for a south side union. In 1970, the commander of the Gang Intelligence Unit for the Chicago Police Department portrayed Cogwell as the link between gangs and organized crime, particularly the Chicago Outfit.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: On February 25, 1977, Mickey Cogwell was assassinated by Jeff Fort because he didn't want to be an el rukn and his followers changed their organization's name again in late '70s early '80s, becoming the Mickey Cobras in his honor. The Mickey Cobras operate mainly in Chicago and surrounding suburbs, their main base of operation is particularly in the area around Fuller Park, and the Austin neighborhood.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: The gang has been involved in many drug related criminal activities as well as criminal activities that surround the gang lifestyle such as homicide, extortion and robbery.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: Cornell Green was the second-highest ranked "king" in the Mickey Cobras street gang. Federal agents in the United States wanted Green to cooperate, and reports are falsely accusing him of doing so, although he refused. He was sentenced in September 2001 to 30 years in prison for the operation of a large-scale heroin operation on the South side of Chicago. Green was among 15 people who were prosecuted as part of this drug ring.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: -Robert Thomas, aged 30, was the only one of the 15 defendants to go to trial; he received a 30-year sentence.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: -Kamorudeen Sowemimo, aged 31, was convicted of being a major heroin supplier to the gang; he was sentenced to 14 years in prison.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: -Roderick Parker, who was one of the 15 defendants, had admitted to selling hundreds of the bags on an average day.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: Prosecutors stated that the drug trafficking operation ran by Green used street sellers with cell phones to keep customers posted on their changing locations. Between 1993 and early 2001 it was said that the gang had sold hundreds of "dime" bags (2/10 to 3/10 of a gram) for $10 per bag, and that Green made over $100,000 a week in profit from his drug sales. After Green and the others were indicted in May, Green had many assets that he owned including a house, furnished with hand carved Italian furniture and a home theatre, as well as several luxury vehicles and fur coats which he in turn had to give up as part of his plea bargain. The final total in cost of assets lost to the plea bargain is unknown.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: Today the Mickey Cobras are known formally as the "Reformed Kingdom of Mickey's Cobras". In their original identity, they were known as the Egyptian King Cobras.


title: Mickey Cobras

text: After three generations, the group has come to have a strong Islamic influence. The Mickey Cobras now have their own unique written constitution and by-laws, which show a strong Islamic influence, just like those of the modern-day BPSN. In the Illinois prison system, they are a part of the People Nation. The collective name of joined gangs under the five point star banner(V.L.,B.P.S.,L.K., M.C.,4.C.H.,).


title: Bruno Heller

text: Bruno Heller (born 13 January 1960) is an English screenwriter, producer and director. He is known for creating the HBO television series "Rome" and CBS television series "The Mentalist". He has produced the TV series "Gotham", based on the Batman franchise, for FOX and "Pennyworth" for Epix.


title: Bruno Heller

text: Heller's father, Lukas, was a German Jewish emigre and screenwriter ("Hush… Hush, Sweet Charlotte", "What Ever Happened to Baby Jane?"). His mother, Caroline (née Carter), was an English Quaker and instrumental in keeping up the Labour Party's "Save London Transport Campaign". He has three siblings, including Zoë, a columnist and writer who has published three novels, including "Notes on a Scandal".


title: Bruno Heller

text: Heller was a union soundman working in England in the 1980s when film sets were rigidly hierarchical. While working as a soundman on a series of films about England's infamous Miners' Strike, Heller met well-regarded Portuguese director Eduardo Guedes. The two collaborated on what would become Heller's first writing credit, the 1994 film "Pax" starring Amanda Plummer. ("Pax" is the Latin word for "Peace" used in the Portuguese epitaphs on gravestones.)


title: Bruno Heller

text: He left England for New York, where he met his wife, Miranda Cowley, granddaughter of the American poet and critic Malcolm Cowley, in a disco. After five years in the city, Heller moved with his family to Los Angeles where he worked on various television dramas including two projects for the USA Network: "Touching Evil" and "The Huntress". But his breakthrough came with "Rome", which he co-created. After the cancellation of that series for its high costs, Heller created "The Mentalist". In September 2012, Heller sold a legal drama named "The Advocates" to CBS, which was written and executive produced by him, but the project finally did not go to series. In 2014 Heller created a TV series based on the Batman character James Gordon called "Gotham" for Fox Broadcasting Company.


title: Bruno Heller

text: Along with John Milius and William J. MacDonald, Heller created the television series "Rome", co-produced by HBO and the BBC. Heller was also an executive producer and head writer, penning a total of 11 episodes for the series, including the pilot episode and the series finale.


title: Bruno Heller

text: The series primarily chronicles the lives and deeds of the rich, powerful, and "historically significant", yet it also focuses on the lives, fortunes, families, and acquaintances of two common men: Lucius Vorenus and Titus Pullo, two Roman soldiers mentioned historically in Caesar's "Commentarii de Bello Gallico". The fictionalised Vorenus and Pullo manage to witness and often influence many of the historical events presented in the series.


title: Bruno Heller

text: In 2008, Heller created the CBS television series, "The Mentalist", with his production company Primrose Hill Productions in association with Warner Bros. Television. On 7 January 2009, the show won the award for "Favorite New TV Drama" at the 35th People's Choice Awards and since then, the star, Simon Baker has received several nominations for his portrayal of the lead character, Patrick Jane. Heller served as showrunner from season 1 to season 6. He departed the show before season 7 to focus on "Gotham".


title: Bruno Heller

text: "The Mentalist" follows Patrick Jane, an independent consultant for the California Bureau of Investigation (CBI) based in Sacramento, California. He has a remarkable track record for solving serious crimes by using his amazing skills of observation. Jane also makes frequent use of his mentalist abilities and his semi-celebrity past as a psychic medium using paranormal abilities he now admits he feigned. He abandoned his pretense out of remorse when his attention-seeking behaviour attracted the attention of a serial killer named Red John who killed his wife and daughter.


title: Bruno Heller

text: As originally conceived, the series serves as a straightforward story of Gordon's early days on the Gotham City Police force. The show includes not only the Bruce Wayne character, but also the origin stories of several Batman villains, including the Penguin, the Riddler, Catwoman, Two-Face, Poison Ivy and Scarecrow. The first season consisted of 22 episodes after being extended from sixteen.


title: Bruno Heller

text: In 2018/19 Heller created "Pennyworth". This series focuses on the early years of Alfred Pennyworth, friend and butler to Bruce Wayne/Batman. The series is not a Gotham spinoff, but a brand new story looking at Alfred's origins as a former British soldier who sets up a private security firm and goes to work with Thomas Wayne — Batman’s father — in 1960s England. Pennyworth is set in a completely different universe despite hailing from Heller and producers Warner Horizon. Heller penned the script for the pilot episode and serves as executive producer. The drama marked a reunion for Heller with Gotham's Danny Cannon, who exec produces and directed the pilot as he did with the Fox Batman origin story.


title: Bruno Heller

text: In 1993, Heller married Miranda Phillips Cowley, then a senior vice president at HBO. The couple has two children. Miranda Cowley Heller is the New York Times #1 bestselling author of the novel, "The Paper Palace".


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: The Daintree Rainforest is a region on the northeast coast of Queensland, Australia, north of Mossman and Cairns. At around , the Daintree is a part of the largest continuous area of tropical rainforest on the Australian continent. The Daintree Rainforest is a part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland Rainforest, that spans across the Cairns Region. The Wet Tropics Rainforest (that the Daintree is a part of) is the oldest continually surviving tropical rainforest in the world. Along the coastline north of the Daintree River, tropical forest grows right down to the edge of the sea.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: In 2009 as part of the Q150 celebrations, the Daintree Rainforest was announced as one of the Q150 Icons of Queensland for its role as a "natural attraction".


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: The Daintree Rainforest was once a vast forest that covered the entire Australian continent. It is a rare survival of 120 million years of climate change, which has reduced the forest to few remaining areas of the continent.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: The rainforest is named after Richard Daintree, an Australian geologist and photographer (1832–1878).


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: The area includes the Daintree National Park, some areas of State Forest, and some privately owned land, including a residential community. Some of the privately owned land north of the Peninsula Range is being progressively purchased for conservation purposes under a $15 million government scheme involving equal contributions from the municipal (Cairns Regional Council), which includes the former Douglas Shire council), State (Queensland) and Australian Federal governments. As of May 2011, 72% of the properties earmarked for buyback or compensation had been secured. These 'buyback' areas of tropical rainforest included 215 blocks of land purchased by the Queensland Parks and Wildlife Service, and 13 purchased by private conservation agencies.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: The Daintree Rainforest contains 30% of the frog, reptile and marsupial species in Australia, and 90% of Australia's bat and butterfly species. 7% of bird species in the country can be found in this area. There are also over 12,000 species of insects in the rainforest. All of this diversity is contained within an area that takes up 0.12% of the landmass of Australia. Part of the forest is protected by the Daintree National Park and drained by the Daintree River. The roads north of the river wind through areas of lush forest, and have been designed to minimize impacts on this ancient ecosystem.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: On 29 September 2021, the Eastern Kuku Yalanji people won formal ownership of 160,213 hectares of country stretching from Mossman to Cooktown, including the Daintree National Park after a historic deal was made between the traditional custodians and the Queensland Government.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: The Daintree region combines tropical rainforest, white sandy beaches, and fringing reefs just offshore, which is a rare combination. Due to the distance between attractions, driving is often the simplest way to navigate between them. The Daintree National Park boasts many walking tracks and there are a number of accommodation options within the Daintree Rainforest itself.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: To the west of Cape Tribulation stands Mt Pieter Botte with its massive granite outcrops. The summit providing expansive vistas of undisturbed forest and to the south, the skyline is dominated by the giant granite boulders of Thornton Peak – one of Queensland's highest mountains.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: Much of the Daintree Rainforest is part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Site, being listed by UNESCO in 1988 in recognition of its universal natural values highlighted by the rainforest.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: Amongst the attributes provided as evidence for the World Heritage value of the Wet Tropics, which include the Daintree Rainforest, the Australian Government lists the following:


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: "They preserve unique, rare or superlative natural phenomena, formations or features of exceptional natural beauty" –


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: The Daintree rainforest contains important and significant habitats for conservation of biological diversity. Approximately 430 species of birds live among the trees. The primitive flowering plants "Austrobaileya scandens" and "Idiospermum australiense" are also endemic to the Daintree. However, The Daintree Region is home to a number of rare and endangered species, including the southern cassowary ("Casuarius Casuarius") and Bennett's tree-kangaroo ("Dendrolagus bennettianus").


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: The Daintree Important Bird Area (IBA) is a tract of land that largely coincides with the northernmost part of the Wet Tropics of Queensland World Heritage Site. It encompasses, or overlaps, the Kalkajaka, Ngalba Bulal, Daintree, Mount Windsor and Mowbray National Parks.


title: Daintree Rainforest

text: It has been identified as an IBA by BirdLife International because it supports a population of southern cassowaries. It also contains populations of the locally endemic tooth-billed and golden bowerbirds, lovely fairywrens, Macleay's, bridled, yellow-spotted and white-streaked honeyeaters, fernwrens, Atherton scrubwrens, mountain thornbills, chowchillas, Bower's shrike-thrushes, pied monarchs, Victoria's riflebirds and pale-yellow robins.


title: Jury rigging

text: In maritime transport terms, and most commonly in sailing, jury-rigged is an adjective, a noun, and a verb. It can describe the actions of temporary makeshift running repairs made with only the tools and materials on board; and the subsequent results thereof. The origin of jury-rigged and jury-rigging lies in such efforts done on boats and ships, characteristically sail powered to begin with. Jury-rigging can be applied to any part of a ship; be it its super-structure (hull, decks), propulsion systems (mast, sails, rigging, engine, transmission, propeller), or controls (helm, rudder, centreboard, daggerboards, rigging).


title: Jury rigging

text: Similarly, after a dismasting, a replacement mast, often referred to as a jury mast (and if necessary, yard) would be fashioned, and stayed to allow a watercraft to resume making way.


title: Jury rigging

text: The phrase 'jury-rigged' has been in use since at least 1788. The adjectival use of 'jury', in the sense of makeshift or temporary, has been said to date from at least 1616, when according to the 1933 edition of the Oxford Dictionary of the English Language, it appeared in John Smith's "A Description of New England". It appeared in Smith's more extensive "The General History of Virginia, New-England, and the Summer Isles" published in 1624.


title: Jury rigging

text: Depending on its size and purpose, a sail-powered boat may carry a limited amount of repair materials, from which some form of jury-rig can be fashioned. Additionally, anything salvageable, such as a spar or spinnaker pole, could be adapted to carrying a form of makeshift sail.


title: Jury rigging

text: Ships typically carried a selection of spare parts, e.g., items such as topmasts. However, due to their much larger size, at up to in diameter, the lower masts were too large to carry as spares. Example jury-rig configurations include:


title: Jury rigging

text: The jury mast knot may provide anchor points for securing makeshift stays and shrouds to support a jury mast, although there is differing evidence of the knot's actual historical use.


title: Jury rigging

text: Jury-rigs are not limited to boats designed for sail propulsion. Any form of watercraft found without power can be adapted to carry jury sail as necessary. In addition, other essential components of a boat or ship, such as a rudder or tiller, can be said to be 'jury-rigged' when a repair is improvised out of materials at hand.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: The Kingdom of Poland (, ), also known informally as the Regency Kingdom of Poland (), was a short-lived polity and client state proclaimed during World War I by the German Empire and Austria-Hungary on the territories of the former Russian-ruled Congress Poland, governed at the time by the Central Powers as the Government General of Warsaw.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Following the Armistice of 11 November 1918 ending World War I, in spite of the previous initial total dependence of the kingdom on its sponsors, it ultimately served against their intentions as the cornerstone proto state of the nascent Second Polish Republic, the latter composed also of territories never intended by the Central Powers to be ceded to Poland.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: The decision to propose the restoration of Poland after a century of partitions was taken up by the German policymakers in an attempt to legitimize further imperial presence in the occupied territories and create a buffer state to prevent future wars with Russia. The plan was followed by the German propaganda pamphlet campaign delivered to the Poles in 1915, claiming that the German soldiers were arriving as liberators to free Poland from subjugation by the Russian Empire. However, the German High Command under Erich Ludendorff also wanted to annex around 30,000 square kilometers of the territory of former Congress Poland, roughly corresponding the area given to Prussia after the Third Partition of Poland in 1795. Even though e.g. the demographics of Poznań show that policies of ethnic cleansing were new and unusual for the German government, apparently according to several historians it was planned to evict up to 3 million Poles and Jews to make room for German colonists in the so-called Polish Border Strip plan. The German government used punitive threats to force Polish landowners living in the German-occupied Baltic states to relocate and sell their Baltic property to the Germans in exchange for entry to Poland. Parallel efforts were made to remove Poles from Polish territories of the Prussian Partition.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: With onset of war in 1914, for the purposes of securing Germany's eastern border against the Russian imperial army, Theobald von Bethmann Hollweg, the German chancellor, decided on the annexation of a specific strip of land from Congress Poland, known later on as the Polish Border Strip. In order to avoid adding the Polish population there to the population of imperial Germany, it was proposed that the Poles would be ethnically cleansed to a proposed new Polish state further east, while the strip would be resettled with Germans.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: German Emperor Wilhelm II conceived of creating a dependent Polish state from territory conquered from Russia. This new autonomous Kingdom of Poland would be ruled by a German prince and have its military, transportation, and economy controlled by Germany. Its army and railway network would be placed under Prussian command.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Similar plans were advanced by influential German intellectuals in the early years of the war. Among them were Hans Delbrück, Friedrich Naumann, and Paul Rohrbach. They generally argued that because Polish nationalism and Polish society were so highly developed, Germany would encounter severe resistance if they attempted to annex large territories in Poland. They concluded that Germany could only effectively project power into Poland by establishing an autonomous Polish state as a German protectorate.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: During the first year of the war, German and Austrian troops quickly conquered the Russian Vistula Land, the former Congress Poland, and in 1915, divided its administration between a German Governor General in Warsaw and an Austrian counterpart in Lublin.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: In several memoranda sent during 1915 and 1916, Hans Hartwig von Beseler, the Governor-General of the Polish areas under German control, proposed the establishment of an independent Polish state. Under the influence of General Erich Ludendorff, then in effect the director of Germany's eastern European operations, this proposal included the annexation of considerable amounts of land by Germany, Lithuania, and Austria-Hungary. Gerhard von Mutius, the cousin of Chancellor von Bethmann-Hollweg and the foreign office's representative at Beseler's headquarters, disputed the use of annexation, insisting that "if the military interests allow for it, divisions and secessions should be avoided", as such a policy would secure an "anti-Russian inclination [toward] the new Poland".


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Austria-Hungary had three different ideas regarding Poland. One, the "Austro-Polish Solution", involved the creation of a Polish kingdom under the Emperor of Austria, who, among his other titles, was already King of Galicia and Lodomeria. German and Magyar (Hungarian) elements within the Habsburg monarchy opposed such a move for fear of creating a predominantly Slavic area. Unlike Emperor Francis Joseph, however, Charles I of Austria, who had acceded to the Habsburg thrones in 1916, promoted the idea. The other two ideas involved the division of the former Congress Poland between Germany and Austria-Hungary, or between Austria-Hungary and a state built from Lithuania, Belarus and the remnants of Congress Poland to create a new version of the 1795 dissolved Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: According to Polish historian Janusz Pajewski "the Austrians had underestimated Germany's desire to determine Poland's fate". They did recognise, according to Prime Minister Karl von Stürgkh, that "Poles will remain Poles [...] even 150 years after Galicia was joined to Austria, Poles still didn't become Austrians". It was clear to Austrian politicians that the creation of a Polish state along the lines intended by Germany would mean the loss of Galicia, so they proposed its partition and the formation of Ukrainian East Galicia as an Austrian province.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Of the candidates for the new Polish throne, Archduke Charles Stephen of Austria () and his son Charles Albert were early contenders. Both resided in the Galician town of Saybusch (now Żywiec) and spoke Polish fluently. Charles Stephen's daughters were married to the Polish aristocrats Princes Czartoryski and Radziwiłł.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: By early 1916, the "Austro-Polish Solution" had become hypothetical. Erich von Falkenhayn, the German Chief of the General Staff, had rejected the idea in January, followed by von Bethmann-Hollweg in February. Von Bethmann-Hollweg had been willing to see an Austrian candidate on the new Polish throne, so long as Germany retained control over the Polish economy, resources and army.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: German candidates for the throne were disputed between the royal houses of Saxony, Württemberg and Bavaria. Bavaria demanded that their Prince Leopold, the Supreme Commander of the German forces on the Eastern front, become the new monarch. Württemberg's candidate Duke Albrecht was considered suitable for the throne because he belonged to the Catholic line of the house. The Saxon House of Wettin's claim to the Polish throne was based on Frederick Augustus I of Saxony, who was made Duke of Warsaw by Napoleon during the Napoleonic Wars, and also to the election of Augustus II the Strong as the King of Poland and Grand Duke of Lithuania in 1697.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: During the German military campaign in the ethnically Polish territory, Poles were subjected to forced labour and confiscation of food and private property. Although early plans called for an Austro-Polish solution, they were abandoned by the German Chancellor in February 1916 in the face of growing dependence of Austria-Hungary on Germany. Both control over Polish economy and raw resources was to be in Germany's hands and Germany would also be in total control over the Polish army.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: The borders of this "autonomous" Poland were to be changed in favour of Germany with the annexation of the so-called "Polish Border Strip" which would lead to the annexation of considerable parts of Polish territory that had been part of the Russian partition of Poland. By the end of 1916, Germany wanted to annex almost 30,000 square kilometres of Polish territory. These lands were to be settled by ethnic Germans, while the Polish and Jewish population was to be removed.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: After the expected victory the Polish economy was to be dominated by Germany and preparations were made for German control over the Polish railway system, shipping in the Vistula and industrial areas in Dąbrowa basin, Radom and Kielce.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Such plans were also proposed by members of the German minority in Poland in the Łódź area, who protested the Act of 5th November, and in a letter to the German government demanded the annexation of western Poland by Germany and settlement of ethnic Germans in those areas.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: After the German offensive failed in the Battle of Verdun and Austria suffered military setbacks against Italy, Generals von Hindenburg and Ludendorff, now supreme commanders of the German military and increasingly the dominant force over the politics of both Germany and Austria, changed their positions on Poland: having previously considered Poland as a bargaining card in the event of a separate peace with Russia, they now postulated the establishment of a German dependency, hoping that the creation of a Polish army could replace the Central Powers' losses. In October 1916, at joint deliberations at Pszczyna, the German and Austrian leadership agreed to accelerate the proclamation promising the creation of a Polish state in the future.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: In the meantime, General von Beseler had managed to gain support among pro-Austrian Poles and the followers of Józef Piłsudski. The Narodowa Demokracja party (centred in Paris), however, rejected any cooperation with the Central Powers. After the German Emperor and Chancellor met with a Polish delegation led by Józef Brudziński, the final details were arranged. On 5 November 1916, Governor von Beseler at Warsaw issued an Act of 5th November, in which he promised that a Polish state would be created, without specifying any future Polish ruler, Polish borders or system of governance and, for the first time since 1831, had the Warsaw Royal Castle decorated with Polish flags. The Austrian Governor-General Kuk issued a similar proclamation at Lublin. A pro-German faction led by Władysław Studnicki existed but didn't gain any significant backing among the Polish population.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Immediately after the proclamation, the German governor-general in Warsaw issued an advertisement for military recruitment, resulting in Polish protests which especially decried the absence of a Polish government.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: On 14 January 1917, a Provisional Council of State () was established as a provisional government, consisting of 15 members chosen by the German and ten by the Austrian authorities. The magnate Waclaw Niemojowski was appointed "Crown Marshal", with Józef Mikułowski-Pomorski acting as his deputy. Franciszek Pius Radziwiłł and Józef Piłsudski were put in charge of the Military Commission. The Council's first proclamation espoused monarchical government, Poland's expansion towards the east and supported an army of volunteers. A "National Council" served as a provisional parliament. The Councillors insisted on actual Polish autonomy and, on 21 April, were given authority over education, law courts, and propaganda. Still, students were dissatisfied with the extent of autonomy and organised a strike on 3 May, resulting in the temporary closing of all universities.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Meanwhile, U.S. President Woodrow Wilson's proclamation in favor of a unified and independent Poland (on 22 January 1917) and the downfall of the Emperor of Russia in the February Revolution strengthened the Polish forces favoring a neutral or pro-Entente stance.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: In December 1916, a brigade of Polish legions under Stanisław Szeptycki moved into Warsaw to form the officer corps of the new Polish army.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: On 21 April, the Council of State had passed a proclamation in favor of the Polish army () and appointed Colonel Sikorski to oversee recruitment. The relationship between the Central Powers and the Polish legions became increasingly difficult, especially after the powers barred Austrian subjects from the Legions (now called the Polish auxiliary corps, "Polski Korpus Posilkowy"), aiming to divert them into the regular Austrian army. Piłsudski agreed to serve in the government, and acted as minister of war. Piłsudski had abstained from the vote on the Polish army's oath, and on 2 July resigned together with two left-wing State Councillors. The new army's oath drafted by the governors-general and passed by the Council of State resulted in a political crisis, especially since it was directed to an unspecified "future king" and emphasized the alliance with Germany and Austria. Several legionaries refused to take the oath and were arrested, prompting General von Beseler to arrest Piłsudski, his associate Kazimierz Sosnkowski, and have them confined in Germany. In August, the remains of the Legions, roughly ten thousand soldiers, were transferred to the Eastern front. Crown Marshall Niemojowski resigned on 6 August and the Council disbanded on 25 August.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: A draft constitution was proposed in 1917. After the intermission of the Temporary Committee of the Provisional Council of State (), the Central Powers introduced a provisional constitution, the "patent", on 12 September 1917. The "patent" devised a constitutional monarchy with a bicameral parliament but without ministerial responsibility. Only schools and courts were transferred to Polish authorities, but — under Polish protests — the German minority was given a separate school system. Pending the election of a King of Poland, a Regency Council () was installed as a provisional government. On 18 September, the following members of the Council were named: Aleksander Kakowski, Archbishop of Warsaw; aristocrat Prince Zdzisław Lubomirski who had served as mayor of Warsaw in 1916/17; and Józef Ostrowski, a great landowner and formerly the leading Polish politician in the Russian Duma.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: The Regency Council was ceremonially installed on 15 October, the anniversary of Tadeusz Kościuszko's death, and on 26 November, appointed Jan Kucharzewski, a lawyer who had been working in the government since June, as Prime Minister.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Administration, however, strictly remained in the hands of German authorities, now headed by Otto von Steinmeister. In March 1918, a resolution of the German Reichstag called for the establishment of a native civil administration in Poland, Kurland and Lithuania. However, the German authorities refused to transfer administration to Polish authorities and merely considered Poles as candidates to be trained under German supervision.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: After the oath crisis of 1917, recruitment to the Polish army had received scant support and achieved negligible results, reaching merely 5,000 men. In May 1918, the force was strengthened by General Józef Dowbór-Muśnicki moving his Polish corps — assembled from the former Tsarist army — to Poland. In August, the legionaries arrested for refusing the oath were released and some again volunteered for the Polish army.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: In August 1918, Achille Ratti arrived in Warsaw as an apostolic visitor to adjust the Catholic Church to the altered political circumstances. This appointment was mainly due to the influence of German Chancellor Georg von Hertling and Eugenio Pacelli, since 1917 Nuncio to Bavaria in Munich. Ratti gained fame in 1920 for being the only diplomat to stay in Warsaw during the Polish–Soviet War and was elected as Pope Pius XI in 1922.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: After Germany's 1918 Spring Offensive had failed to win the war on the Western front, General Ludendorff in September proposed seeking peace based on the plan outlined by U.S. President Wilson in January 1918 in his Fourteen Points, which in regard to Poland demanded the creation of an "independent Polish state ... guaranteed by international covenant" with "free and secure access to the sea". On 3 October the new German Chancellor, Prince Max of Baden, announced Germany's acceptance of Wilson's plan and immediate disestablishment of military administration in the countries occupied by Germany. Three days later the Regency Council in Warsaw also adopted Wilson's proposals as the basis for creating a Polish state.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: On 1 October, General von Beseler had conferred with von Hindenburg at Berlin and, informed of the gloomy military situation, had returned to Warsaw ill and dispirited. On 6 October, he handed over the administration to Polish civil servants and, on 23 October, transferred the command over Polish forces (which by then included the Polish regiments of the Austro-Hungarian Army) to the Regency Council.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: However, another Polish government based in Lublin arose to challenge the Regency's authority: on 6 November Ignacy Daszyński proclaimed the "Polish People's Republic" ("Tymczasowy Rząd Ludowy Republiki Polskiej" - literally: "Temporary People's Government of the Polish Republic"), with Daszyński himself (a Socialist politician and formerly a member of the Austrian parliament) as Prime Minister and Colonel Edward Rydz-Śmigły as a military commander. Moderates in Warsaw, who now hoped for a return of General Piłsudski, who was still held in custody at Magdeburg, repudiated Lublin's declaration of the deposition of the Regency to be deposed and its plans for radical social reforms. Already in October, the Regency Council had requested Piłsudski's release, and after negotiations through Harry Graf Kessler the General was allowed to return to Warsaw, where he arrived on 10 November. The following day Germany signed the armistice and German troops in Warsaw were disarmed as they refused to fire on Polish insurgents. Both the Regency Council and the Daszyński government ceded all authority to Piłsudski. The Regency dissolved itself three days later.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: The occupation authorities included German Governor-General at Warsaw, commander-in-chief of the Polska Siła Zbrojna — Hans Hartwig von Beseler (1 October 1915 – 11 November 1918); as well as the Austro-Hungarian Governors-General at Lublin: including Major General Erich Freiherr von Diller (1 October 1915 – 20 April 1916), Feldzeugmeister Karl Kuk (21 April 1916 – April 1917); as well as Major General Stanislaus Graf Szeptycki (April 1917 – 28 February 1918); and the Infantry General Anton Lipošćak (1 March – 11 November 1918).


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: The state authorities within the Provisional Council of State (14 January – 15 August 1917) included Waclaw Niemojowski, Crown Marshall (14 January – 6 August 1917); Deputy Marshall Józef Mikułowski-Pomorski; and from the Regency Council (15 October 1917 – 14 November 1918), Archbishop Aleksander Kakowski, Prince Zdzisław Lubomirski, and Józef Ostrowski.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: In their proclamation of 5 November 1916, the Central Powers refused to determine the Polish borders.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: Following the Bolsheviks taking power in Russia in November 1917, some Polish politicians sided with Germany as the "last bulwark of order" against the Bolshevik threat but Germany's policy of creating several smaller client states east of Poland, supported especially by the supreme command under Ludendorff, also heightened resistance to German presence in Polish territories.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: With the support of the German military, the Council of Lithuania proclaimed an independent Lithuanian state on 11 December. Polish sentiment reacted strongly, as it considered Poland and Lithuania to be a historical union and especially since it regarded Wilno (Vilnius), the proposed new Lithuanian capital, as a Polish city.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: The Regency Council sought admission to the negotiations with the Bolshevik government during travels to Berlin and Vienna early in 1918 but only gained German Chancellor Georg von Hertling's promise to admit the Polish government in an advisory capacity. This, however, was refused by the Bolshevik representatives, who denied the Polish government any legitimacy. The German representative Max Hoffmann expressed a belief that "independent Poland was always considered by me to be a utopia, and I have no doubts regarding my support for Ukrainian claims." When the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk, signed on 9 February, ceded the province of Chełm — which had been part of Congress Poland until 1913 — to the new state of Ukraine, many in Poland regarded this as a "Fourth partition of Poland", prompting a "political general strike" in Warsaw on 14 February and the resignation of the Jan Kucharzewski administration later that month. Parts of the Polish auxiliary corps under Józef Haller protested by breaking through the Austro-Russian front line to Ukraine, where they united with Polish detachments which had left the Tsarist army. After a fierce battle with the German army at Kaniów in May, the remnants were interned, though Haller managed to escape to Moscow.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: However, Poland's unspecified borders were threatened in the West as well: Late in 1917, the German supreme command had proposed annexing a "border strip" to Germany, a policy earlier suggested by a letter to the German government by members of Poland's German minority, settled around Łódź. Such plans were agreed to in principle by the German government in March 1918 and in April gained support in the Prussian House of Lords but were strongly opposed by General von Beseler in a report to Emperor Wilhelm.


title: Kingdom of Poland (1917–1918)

text: In July, Ludendorff specified his plans in a memorandum, proposing annexing a greatly enlarged "border strip" of 20,000 square kilometers. In August, Emperor Charles of Austria insisted on the Austro-Polish option, forbidding Archduke Charles Stephen from accepting the crown and declaring his opposition to any German plans for annexation. In response, General Ludendorff agreed to leave Wilno (and possibly Minsk) to Poland but reaffirmed the "border strip" plan. However, this did little to soothe Polish sentiment, which regarded the return of Wilno as self-evident and refused to yield any part of the former Kingdom of Poland.


title: Jamnagar Refinery

text: The Jamnagar Refinery is the private sector crude oil refinery owned by Reliance Industries Limited in Jamnagar, Gujarat, India. The refinery was commissioned on 14 July 1999 with an installed capacity of . Its current installed capacity is . It is currently the largest refinery in the world.


title: Jamnagar Refinery

text: On 25 December 2008, Reliance Petroleum Limited (RPL) announced the commissioning of its refinery into a Special Economic Zone in Jamnagar district of Gujarat, India. The completion of the RPL (Reliance Petroleum limited) refinery has enabled Jamnagar to emerge as a 'Refinery land', housing the world's largest refining complex with an aggregate refining capacity of of oil per day, more than any other single location in the world.


title: Jamnagar Refinery

text: The globally competitive RPL refinery was commissioned in 36 months. RPL contracted several companies having expertise in engineering construction and refining like Bechtel, UOP LLC and Foster Wheeler (Multinational Company)amongst others. There were plans for the pipeline to process High Pour Point crude oil extracted at Barmer, Rajasthan, although this would require an electrically heated traced pipeline to be set up from Barmer to Jamnagar.


title: Jamnagar Refinery

text: The entire complex, as of 2013, consists of manufacturing and allied facilities, utilities, off-sites, port facilities and a township (415 acres) with housing for its 2,500 employees, on over of land. If all of the pipes used in the refinery were laid out, one after another, they would connect the whole of India from north to south.


title: Jamnagar Refinery

text: In 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic the domestic demand for polymer strongly declined in India. As a result, in order to keep production and sales running, Reliance Industries Limited management decided to refocus the production of polymer on export markets. With the help of the Maersk shipping and logistics group, exports from the Jamnagar Refinery were quadrupled to over 10,000 x 40' containers, which transported and exported through Port Pipavav.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: The sixth and final season of the American television romantic comedy-drama "Sex and the City" aired in the United States on HBO. The show was created by Darren Star while Star, Michael Patrick King, John P. Melfi, series lead actress Sarah Jessica Parker, Cindy Chupack, and Jenny Bicks served as executive producers. The series was produced by Darren Star Productions, HBO Original Programming, and Warner Bros. Television. Sarah Jessica Parker portrays the lead character Carrie Bradshaw, while Kim Cattrall, Kristin Davis and Cynthia Nixon played her best friends Samantha Jones, Charlotte York, and Miranda Hobbes.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: The final season marks dramatic changes in the ladies' lives. While Carrie's book career is on the rise, she dates Jack Berger, a struggling writer, and Alexandr Petrovsky, a renowned Russian artist. Samantha starts a long-term relationship with a struggling actor, who becomes her client, while battling breast cancer. Miranda dates a doctor living in her building before reuniting with Steve, who she later marries. Charlotte converts to Judaism, marries Harry Goldenblatt, and tries to get pregnant through fertility treatments.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: While critical reception for season six was mixed to negative, "Sex and the City" won and was nominated for many awards during the season. All four actresses received Emmy and Golden Globe nominations, with Parker and Nixon both winning Emmy awards. The series also reached viewership highs, with the finale reaching ten million viewers in the United States and nearly five million viewers in the United Kingdom.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: The sixth season of "Sex and the City" was produced by Darren Star Productions and Warner Bros. Television, in association with HBO Original Programming. The series is based on the book of the same name, written by Candice Bushnell, which contains stories from her column with the "New York Observer". The show featured production from Antonia Ellis, Jane Raab and series star Sarah Jessica Parker, also an executive producer alongside Michael Patrick King, John Melfi, Cindy Chupack, and Jenny Bicks. Episodic writers return for the fourth season included Bicks, Chupack, Allan Heinberg, King, Julie Rottenberg, and Elisa Zuritsky. New writers enlisted for the season included Nicole Avril, Jessica Bendinger, and Amy B. Harris. The season was directed by returning directors Allen Coulter, King, Charles McDougall, Michael Spiller, and Alan Taylor. Directors new to the series included Martha Coolidge, Michael Engler, and David Frankel. Confirmed as the last season of the series, "Sex and the City"s sixth season aired twelve episodes during the summer of 2003 and eight episodes from January to February 2004. The season was filmed from May 2003 to January 2004.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: Like the previous seasons, season six features the same principal cast and characters. Sarah Jessica Parker portrays Carrie Bradshaw, a fashionable middle aged woman who writes about sex and life in New York City in her column, "Sex and the City", with the fictional "New York Star". Kim Cattrall played the promiscuous public relations agent Samantha Jones. Kristin Davis portrayed Charlotte York Goldenblatt, an optimistic, straight laced former art curator who remains the most traditional amongst her friends in terms of relationships and public decorum. Cynthia Nixon acted as the acerbic and sarcastic lawyer Miranda Hobbes, who holds a pessimistic view on relationships and men.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: The sixth season featured a number of recurring and guest actors whose characters contributed significantly to the series plotlines. Chris Noth reprised his role as Mr. Big, a sly businessman who at this point remains friends with Carrie despite their previous romantic relationships. David Eigenberg portrayed Miranda's on-off boyfriend, bar owner and father of her child Steve Brady. Willie Garson appeared as entertainment manager and Carrie's gay friend Stanford Blatch. Evan Handler plays Charlotte's Jewish boyfriend and subsequent husband Harry Goldenblatt. Lynn Cohen reprises her role as Magda, Miranda's foreign housekeeper. Mario Cantone recurs in the season as Charlotte's gay friend and former wedding planner Anthony Marantino. Jason Lewis joins the series, portraying Smith Jerrod, a burgeoning actor and Samantha's client and boyfriend. Blair Underwood acts as Dr. Robert Leeds, Miranda's neighbor and subsequent boyfriend. Ron Livingston reprises his role as Jack Berger, a writer and Carrie's love interest. Sean Palmer appears as Stanford's boyfriend and client Marcus. Mikhail Baryshnikov appeared in the last episodes as Alexandr Petrovsky, a famed Russian artist with whom Carrie becomes romantically involved.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: Season six of "Sex and the City" debuted on June 22, 2003 with the episode "To Market, to Market". Garnering a 4.9 Nielsen rating, the episode was seen in over 5.18 million households. "To Market, to Market" attracted 7.30 million viewers, and marked a slight decrease from the fifth-season premiere. Airing on a split summer-winter schedule, the first twelve episodes were broadcast in the summer. The majority of the episodes maintained a viewership above six million viewers, with only two episodes falling below the threshold. The summer season finale, "One", was viewed by 7.65 million people and registered a 5.0 Nielsen rating, eclipsing the 4.9 rating of the season premiere and becoming the highest rated episode of the series. The finale eight episodes were broadcast between January 4 and February 22, 2004. The winter premiere "Let There Be Light" attracted 6.36 million viewers, registering the lowest rated premiere since the season four premiere episode "The Agony and the 'Ex'-tacy". The series finale "An American Girl In Paris" (Part Deux) was viewed by 10.62 million viewers, achieving the highest viewership of the series, as well as achieving the highest household rating with a 6.5. In the United Kingdom, season six episodes consistently ranked among the top ten viewed programs on Channel 4. The series finale achieved a viewership of 4.71 million, the highest the series has received and ranked number two for the week it aired.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: Phil Gallo of "Variety" wrote a negative review for season six. Gallo noted that the characters have turned "one-dimensional and single-minded" and that the overall quality has declined, deeming the series a "dull rehash of a casual sex maniac searching for prey, an annoying frustrated single mother and a perky divorcee trying to understand Judaism."


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: Tom Shales of "Eugene Register-Guard" gave the episode "Let There Be Light" a mixed review, calling it a "slapdashy, mishmoshy affair in which some of the humor feels forced, as well as being inconsistent with the witty-wacky tone of the show." Shales was more positive with the next episode "The Ick Factor", which he stated was "full of snap and fizz and one certifiable shock."


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: As a result of the split season, "Sex and the City" received Golden Globe award nominations for Best Television Series – Musical or Comedy and Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy for Sarah Jessica Parker in 2004 and 2005. At the 61st Golden Globe Awards, Parker won the award for Best Actress – Television Series Musical or Comedy while Kim Cattrall, Kristin Davis and Cynthia Nixon were all nominated for the award for Best Supporting Actress – Series, Miniseries or Television Film. The series also received nominations for Outstanding Performance by an Ensemble in a Comedy Series in 2004 and 2005 for the season, winning at the 10th Screen Actors Guild Awards. Parker received another nomination for Outstanding Performance by a Female Actor in a Comedy Series at the 11th Screen Actors Guild Awards. At the 3rd PGA Golden Laurel Awards, Michael Patrick King, Cindy Chupack, John P. Melfi, Parker, Jenny Bicks and Jane Raab won the award for Television Producer of the Year Award in Episodic - Comedy for their production work on the series.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: At the 56th Primetime Emmy Awards, "Sex and the City" received eleven nominations (eight of them for major awards) and won awards for Outstanding Lead Actress in a Comedy Series, awarded to Parker for her portrayal of Carrie Bradshaw, and Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series, awarded to Nixon for her portrayal of Miranda Hobbes. The series was also nominated for the award for Outstanding Comedy Series for the sixth time, but lost to the freshman Fox series "Arrested Development". "Sex and the City" was also nominated for Outstanding Casting for a Comedy Series and Outstanding Costumes for a Series, both for the fifth time. Cattrall and Davis were both nominated for an Outstanding Supporting Actress in a Comedy Series Emmy for their respective portrays of Samantha Jones and Charlotte York Goldenblatt, being Cattrall's fifth nomination and Davis's first. The series finale "An American Girl in Paris (Part Deux)" received nominations for four awards, including Outstanding Writing for a Comedy Series and Outstanding Directing for a Comedy Series.


title: Sex and the City (season 6)

text: Costume designer Patricia Field won the Costume Designers Guild Award for Best Costume Design – Contemporary TV Series at the 7th Annual Costume Designers Guild Awards. At the 2003 Directors Guild of America Awards, three episodes from season four - "Great Sexpectations" (directed by Michael Patrick King), "Hop, Skip & a Week" (directed by Michael Engler), and "Boy Interrupted" (directed by Tim Van Patten) - were nominated for the award for Outstanding Directing – Comedy Series. Van Patten won the award in 2003 for "Boy Interrupted" and in 2004 for the episode "An American Girl in Paris: Part Deux".


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne is the expansion pack for "", a real-time strategy video game by Blizzard Entertainment. It was released worldwide on July 1, 2003, for Microsoft Windows and Mac OS X. "The Frozen Throne" builds upon the story of "Reign of Chaos" and depicts the events after the main game's conclusion. The single-player unfolds from the perspective of two new protagonists—the Night Elf warden Maiev Shadowsong and the Blood Elf prince Kael'Thas—as well as returning protagonist Arthas Menethil. Additionally, the expansion contains Act I of a separate Horde campaign that is independent from the main storyline with Blizzard releasing Acts II and III via patch in December 2003, taking in player feedback of Act I when developing these chapters.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: The expansion adds new units, buildings and heroes for each faction, two new auxiliary races, five neutral heroes (with three more later added by patches) as well as a number of tweaks to the gameplay and balancing. Sea units were reintroduced which were absent in "Reign of Chaos". Battle.net-powered multiplayer was expanded by the addition of clans, automated tournaments and new maps and custom scenarios.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: Development began in October 2002, shortly after the release of the main game and the expansion was announced on January 22, 2003. Public beta tests allowed 20,000 players in two waves to try the new features. Support continues even after release, with Blizzard adding new content and balancing changes as well as support for newer hardware.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: "The Frozen Throne" received generally favorable reviews from critics. Most reviewers praised the mission design of the single-player campaign for positively deviating from the standard real-time strategy game formula. The design and audio of the new units was generally considered fitting, though a few critics bemoaned the graphics and some of the voice-acting. By August 15, 2003, it had sold more than one million copies.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: "Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne" is a real-time strategy video game that puts players in control of a group of units and buildings in order to achieve a variety of goals. The expansion fine-tunes the gameplay of the main game rather than changing it. The food limit and the upkeep requirements, which dealt a penalty on resource gain when too many units were active at the same time, have both been increased slightly, leading to the ability to mobilize somewhat larger and more powerful forces. The cost of buildings has been decreased as well, allowing for a quicker start of the game. The weapon and armor type system has been completely revamped and a lot of units have had their weapon or armor types changed, and the weapon types are effective and ineffective against different armor types compared to "Reign of Chaos". Changes to building costs and the addition of new early-game defensive structures serve to deter early-game tactics that relied on rushing the enemy with hero units. In addition to treasure items found in the main game, enemies now will also leave "runes" upon defeat that can be used to replenish health or mana. In addition, "The Frozen Throne" re-introduces naval battles, which were previously featured in "" and , but almost completely absent in "Warcraft III".


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: For each faction, "The Frozen Throne" adds several new units and buildings, including a player-controlled shop, and one new hero, a kind of powerful unit which each can only be recruited once, per faction. To complement the new shop, normal units can be upgraded to carry items. Two new Factions, the Naga and Draenei, have also been added. The Naga feature in all four campaigns and have their own production and defense buildings as well as unique units with separate skills. While enemies in some single-player missions, players can control them in others. The Draenei on the other hand are found only in one of the campaigns and are classified by Blizzard as creeps, i.e. neutral units that attack all parties equally. The expansion also added five neutral hero units, some of which appear in the single player campaigns. Neutral heroes can be used in melee maps via the Tavern, a neutral building used to hire them. The tavern can also instantly revive any fallen hero, with an increased resource cost, and reduced health and mana of the revived hero.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: The single player missions have been given more varied objectives, ranging from controlling multiple armies at the same time to forcing players to make do with only a limited number of units. Unlike in previous "Warcraft" games, Blizzard did not include the orcs in the main campaign. According to level designer Tim Campbell, the company failed to come up with a plausible story-based reason why orcs should appear in the main story line. Blizzard instead decided to create a more RPG-driven campaign that focuses on controlling one or multiple heroes on a network of interlinked maps. As such, base building, resource gathering and unit training are absent from most of the campaign while heroes can be leveled up past the normal 10-level limit. The Horde campaign contains almost 40 items specifically created for it. Both campaigns combined add approximately 40 hours of new gameplay.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: When playing against the computer on a custom map, players can now select a difficulty level for the computer opponent. The multiplayer aspect was expanded upon with the implementation of clans and automated tournaments that include a strict 30-minute time limit. It also added the ability to chat with others while waiting for a game. The expansion includes 62 new multiplayer maps and custom scenarios based on popular mods and allows up to twelve players at the same time. If an ally leaves the game, their resources are now shown in a separate window and can be transferred.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: "The Frozen Throne" also includes an improved version of the World Editor program that can be used to create custom maps and scenarios to play against the computer or other players. The improved World Editor allows the user to do more custom work with regards to editing skills, providing more functions in the triggers, new units, more global map settings, and three new tile-sets to work with. Creators can now link multiple maps together and make events on one map affect another map. The Horde campaign was specifically made with the goal in mind of showcasing what the new World Editor was capable of. While Blizzard does not officially support the World Editor, the "Frozen Throne" version offers more options and documentation.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: "The Frozen Throne" takes place on the fictional high fantasy world of Azeroth. In the , the human paladin Arthas Menethil was corrupted by the Lich King Ner'zhul, an undead sorcerer entrapped in ice (the titular "Frozen Throne"), and became his lieutenant. Arthas invaded the High Elven kingdom and killed its general, Sylvanas Windrunner, whom he resurrected to serve him. He then paved the way for an invasion by the Burning Legion—a demonic force from another realm—who were ultimately defeated by an alliance of elves, humans, and orcs. In the events leading up to the victory against the Legion, Night Elf leader Tyrande Whisperwind freed the imprisoned Illidan Stormrage. However, Illidan consumed a demonic relic, becoming half-demon himself, and was cast out. After the Burning Legion's defeat, Illidan was contacted by Kil'jaeden, one of the remaining masters of the Legion, who tasks him with destroying the rebellious Lich King.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: The expansion introduces new factions to the game's universe: The Blood Elves, former High Elves that now suffer from addiction to magic; the Naga, mutated former Night Elves; and the Draenei, the original inhabitants of Draenor, the orc homeworld now known as Outland. "The Frozen Throne" follows the quest of the Night Elf warden Maiev Shadowsong to recapture the renegade Illidan Stormrage, Blood Elf prince Kael'thas' struggle with the Alliance and subsequent service to Illidan, Arthas' attempt to rescue the Lich King from Illidan's assault, and Sylvanas Windrunner's fight for independence. The Horde campaign is separate from the other three, being a stand-alone story and using more role-playing game mechanics over real-time strategy game mechanics. The campaign chronicles the early days of the Horde's newly established kingdom from the perspective of the beastmaster hero Rexxar.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: Maiev Shadowsong pursues the fugitive Illidan to a set of islands. There, she finds Illidan has allied himself with the Naga and obtained an artifact called the Eye of Sargeras, forcing Maiev to call on Illidan's brother Malfurion Stormrage and Malfurion's wife Tyrande Whisperwind for aid. Illidan flees with the eye to the kingdom of Lordaeron. When Tyrande is swept away by a river while helping a group of Blood Elves led by the prince Kael'thas, Maiev convinces Malfurion that she died to maintain their pursuit of Illidan. They capture Illidan and destroy the Eye, which Illidan reveals he was using to destroy the Lich King. When Kael'thas informs him that Tyrande may still be alive, he uses the Naga to help Malfurion find and rescue her. In thanks, Malfurion pardons him for his past crimes. With Maiev still in pursuit, Illidan flees to Outland.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: In Lordaeron, the Blood Elves are in an uneasy alliance with Garithos, the racist human commander of the remaining Alliance forces. When their prince Kael'thas is only able to complete a number of demeaning tasks with the help of Illidan's Naga, Garithos imprisons Kael'thas and his forces for treason. The Naga leader rescues them and leads them to Outland, where they join forces with Illidan, who promises to satisfy their addiction to magic. Together, they take over Outland. Illidan's master Kil'jaeden finds Illidan and plans to punish him for failing to destroy the Lich King, but decides not to when Illidan claims that he traveled to Outland to recruit forces for a new assault.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: Arthas returns to the Undead-controlled regions of Lordaeron where three dreadlords loyal to the Burning Legion - Balnazzar, Detheroc, and Varimathras - rule. Arthas informs them of the Legion's defeat and retreat before declaring himself king. While purging the kingdom of the remnants of the Alliance aided by Sylvanas Windrunner, Arthas notices that his powers have diminished. The Lich King telepathically contacts Arthas and explains his loss of power is a result of Illidan's attacks, and summons him to defend the Frozen Throne. Arthas leaves for Northrend where he, with the help of the Lich King's minions, defeats Illidan in a duel. Arthas shatters the ice of the throne and dons the Lich King's helmet, thereby joining their souls and becoming the new Lich King. Meanwhile, in Lordaeron, Sylvanas is freed from the Lich King's control. With the help of Varimathras, she kills the remaining two dreadlords and Garithos and declares Lordaeron the home of the free undead, rechristened the "Forsaken".


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: Untouched by the events in Lordaeron and Northrend, Horde Warchief Thrall builds a new kingdom called Durotar on the continent of Kalimdor. Rexxar, a half-ogre beastmaster and adventurer, is tasked by Thrall and other inhabitants to help build the kingdom. He is aided by Rokhan, a troll shadow hunter. Rexxar learns that humans from the island of Theramore plan to invade Durotar, led by Admiral Daelin Proudmoore, who is unwilling to accept the truce between humans and the Horde. With the help of the guilt-ridden daughter of the admiral, Jaina Proudmoore, he leads an assault on Theramore, slays the admiral, and leaves Jaina in command of the city.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: Immediately after the release, Blizzard began brainstorming content for an expansion and development began in October 2002. "The Frozen Throne" was officially announced on January 22, 2003. With the previous success of "", expectations were high for Blizzard to create another expansion that rivaled the original in both length and new content. A main focus when developing the expansion was studying the way players used the different races and units in order to identify in which area each race needed to be strengthened, leading to the development of new units and spells to meet these demands. Examples include giving Orcs a low level way to heal units and adding a human unit that can disable enemy towers from the air. When designing the campaigns, the levels were created with the new heroes' abilities in mind.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: Blizzard's Bill Roper first offered a preview of the new expansion in February 2003 before Blizzard debuted the single player campaign at E3 2003. Roper also teased that the Naga would be introduced as a new race, which ultimately was not included in the final expansion. On February 14, 2003, Blizzard announced the first beta test for the game, which offered 10,000 players a chance to sample the game. On March 10, 2003, 10,000 more players were selected to participate in the beta test. On April 1, 2003, Blizzard teased that the Pandaren would become a fifth faction in the upcoming expansion and even created an entry on the official homepage detailing heroes, history and units. While this was only an elaborate April Fools' Day prank, the final expansion did include the Pandaren Brewmaster as one of the neutral heroes which could also be unlocked in single-player in a secret mission. On May 29, 2003, Blizzard announced that the expansion set had "gone gold". It was released worldwide on July 1, 2003.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: Blizzard continued to support "The Frozen Throne" with new patches that fixes problems and added new content, such as adding an additional neutral hero in May 2004 and two more in August 2004. The expansion also only included the first chapter of the Horde campaign upon release with Acts II and III released as part of a patch in December 2003. This allowed Blizzard to take fan feedback into account when creating the next two chapters of the campaign. There have been many patches released for the game, including patch 1.21b, which allowed the game to be started without the official CD. In April 2018, Blizzard integrated proper widescreen support for the first time, more than 15 years after the game's original release.


title: Warcraft III: The Frozen Throne

text: "The Frozen Throne" received a rating of 88/100 from review aggregator Metacritic indicating generally positive reviews from critics, with only a single review below 80.