title: Yakshini

text: In Jainism, there are twenty-five yakshis, including Panchanguli, Chakreshvari, Ambika, and Padmavati, who are frequently represented in Jain temples. Each is regarded as the guardian goddess of one of the present tirthankar Shri Simandhar Swami and twenty-four Jain "tirthankara". The names according to Tiloyapannatti (or Pratishthasarasangraha) and Abhidhanachintamani are:


title: Yakshini

text: In the literature and folktales of Kerala, Yakshis are generally not considered benevolent. Many folk stories feature murdered women reborn as vengeful yakshis, some of which are listed below. Aside from those mentioned below, yakshis are also featured in Malayatoor Ramakrishnan's 1967 novel "Yakshi", which describes their world as having a blue sun, carpets of crimson grass, streams of molten silver, and flowers made of sapphires, emeralds, garnets, and topaz. In the novel, young yakshis fly around on the backs of giant dragonflies. According to Ramakrishnan's novel, adult yakshis are required to enter the land of the living once a year to feed on the blood of human men.


title: Yakshini

text: According to a legend from Thekkalai, next to Nagercoil in Tamil Nadu, a pair of beautiful sisters named Chempakavally and Neelapilla turned into vengeful yakshis after becoming victims of an honor killing by their father. Since their father killed them to keep them from the clutches of the lustful raja of the region, the sister yakshis tortured and killed everyone in the palace, and their father as well. The two yakshis haunted the place where they were killed until they were placated somewhat by many poojas and rituals the construction of a temple on the site. Idols of the sister yakshis are present inside. The older sister, Chempakavally, eventually transformed into a benevolent deity and traveled to Mount Kailash to worship Lord Shiva, while the younger sister, Neelapilla, remained ferocious. It is said that some of Neelapilla's devotees offer her the fingernail clippings or locks of hair from their enemies, beseeching her to destroy them.


title: Yakshini

text: One of the most famous stories of legendary Yakshis of Kerala is that of Kalliyankattu Neeli, a powerful demoness who was fabled to have finally been stopped by the legendary priest Kadamattathu Kathanar. The Yakshi theme is the subject of popular Keralite tales, like the legend of the Yakshi of Trivandrum, as well as of certain movies in modern Malayalam cinema.


title: Yakshini

text: Mangalathu Sreedevi or Chiruthevi, also known as Kanjirottu Yakshi is a yakshi from the folklore of Kerala. According to legend, she was born into a Padamangalam Nair tharavad by name Mangalathu at Kanjiracode in South Travancore. She was also known as Chiruthevi. She was a ravishingly beautiful courtesan who had an intimate relationship with Raman Thampi, son of King Rama Varma and rival of Anizhom Thirunal Marthanda Varma. Made arrogant by her beauty and the adoration heaped on her by men, she enjoyed toying with men's lives and driving them to financial ruin.


title: Yakshini

text: However, Chiruthevi was truly in love with Kunjuraman, her palanquin-bearer, who was already married and uninterested in her romantically. In frustration, Chiruthevi arranged to have Kunjuraman's wife killed. Kunjuraman finally agreed to sleep with Chiruthevi, but then murdered her to avenge his wife.


title: Yakshini

text: Immediately after her death, Chiruthevi was reborn as a yakshi in the village of Kanjirottu, where she magically transformed into a beautiful woman mere moments after her birth. She terrorized men and drank their blood, and continued to harass Kunjuraman. Her frenzy only subsided after she made a deal with her brother Mangalathu Govindan, a close associate of Kunjuraman and a great upasaka of Lord Balarama. According to their agreement she would cohabit with Kunjuraman for a year on the condition that she would become a devotee of Narasimha after the year was up. The yakshi was installed at a temple which later came to be owned by Kanjiracottu Valiaveedu, though this temple no longer exists.


title: Yakshini

text: Sundara Lakshmi, an accomplished dancer and consort of HH Swathi Thirunal Rama Varma, was an ardent devotee of Kanjirottu Yakshi Amma.


title: Yakshini

text: The Kanjirottu yakshi is now said to reside in Vault B of Sri Padmanabhaswamy Temple in Thiruvananthapuram, Kerala, which supposedly also contains an enormous treasure. The enchanting and ferocious forms of this Yakshi are painted on the south-west part of Sri Padmanabha's shrine. The vault remains unopened due to ongoing legal issues and the legend of the Yakshi, whom some believe will wreak havoc on the world if her prayers to Lord Narasimha within Vault B are disturbed by opening the vault.


title: August: Osage County

text: August: Osage County is a tragicomedy play by Tracy Letts. It was the recipient of the 2008 Pulitzer Prize for Drama. The play premiered at the Steppenwolf Theatre in Chicago on June 28, 2007, and closed on August 26, 2007. It had its Broadway debut at the Imperial Theater on December 4, 2007, and the production transferred to the Music Box Theatre on April 29, 2008. The Broadway show closed on June 28, 2009, after 648 performances and 18 previews.


title: August: Osage County

text: The show made its UK Debut at London's National Theatre in November 2008. A US national tour began on July 24, 2009, with its first performance at Denver's Buell Theatre.


title: August: Osage County

text: In 2013, it was adapted and brought to stage by Taiwanese Greenray Theatre. The story and characters remained unchanged, except the plot took place in a Taiwanese family.


title: August: Osage County

text: The action takes place over the course of several weeks in August inside the three-story home of Beverly and Violet Weston outside Pawhuska, Oklahoma.


title: August: Osage County

text: The play opens with Beverly Weston, a once-famous poet, interviewing Johnna, a young Cheyenne woman, for a position as live-in cook and caregiver for his wife Violet, who is being treated for mouth cancer due to heavy cigarette use for most of her life. Violet is a heavy drinker addicted to several different kinds of prescription drugs and exhibits paranoia and mood swings. Beverly, who freely admits that he is an alcoholic, lightly converses about Violet's current problems, most of which Beverly concedes are the result of personal demons too powerful to be cured by drugs. Violet enters the scene clearly affected by her drugs. After an incoherent and combative argument with Beverly, Violet returns upstairs. Beverly hires Johnna, lends her a book of T.S. Eliot's poetry, and continues to drink.


title: August: Osage County

text: Several weeks later. Beverly Weston has not been seen for five days. Several family members have gathered in the house to provide support for Violet including her daughter Ivy, her sister Mattie Fae and Mattie Fae's husband Charlie. When Violet is not making calls attempting to track down her husband or popping pills, she spends the time sniping at her family, particularly Ivy, whom she criticizes for her mode of dress and lack of a romantic life. The news comes that Beverly's boat is missing, furthering the fear that he has committed suicide. Ivy's older sister Barbara arrives from Boulder, Colorado with her husband Bill and 14-year-old daughter Jean. Barbara has not visited her mother in several years, and has mixed feelings about returning to the house because of the confrontational nature of their relationship. They fall into an argument almost immediately, during which Violet accuses her of abandoning her family and breaking her father's heart.


title: August: Osage County

text: Later in the evening, Jean bonds with Johnna after the older woman allows her to smoke some marijuana in her room. She confides to Johnna that her parents are separated and are attempting to hide the fact from the family. Bill and Barbara argue over the cause of their separation as they make a bed out of the fold-out sofa in the living room: Bill is sleeping with a much younger woman, one of his students at the university where he teaches. At five AM, the local sheriff, Deon Gilbeau (Barbara's high school boyfriend) rings the doorbell and breaks the news that Beverly has been found drowned. Barbara goes to identify the body as Violet comes downstairs in a drug-addled fog. The act ends with her spiraling into confusion.


title: August: Osage County

text: Several days later. The family has come from Beverly's funeral. Violet spends a quiet moment alone in Beverly's office, bitterly reproaching him for leaving her, and takes some more pills. Before the memorial dinner prepared for the family by Johnna, several family arguments and scenes arise. Ivy and Barbara's sister Karen has flown in from Florida with her new fiancé and can talk about nothing except her wedding plans, distressing Barbara. During an argument with her mother and Mattie Fae, Ivy unwittingly confesses that she is seeing someone romantically but refuses to say who. Mattie Fae and Charlie's son Little Charles has overslept and missed the funeral. His father is sympathetic but Mattie Fae is, as usual, rude to and critical of her son. Karen's fiancé Steve discovers that Jean is a pot-smoker and offers to share his stash with her, lewdly flirting with the teenaged girl. In a private moment, it is revealed that Ivy's lover is actually Little Charles, her first cousin.


title: August: Osage County

text: Dinner is served, and Violet begins insulting and needling all of her family members. After inappropriately discussing Beverly's will at the table, she cruelly exposes Barbara and Bill's separation. When Barbara starts to fight back, Violet tauntingly reveals the full extent of her addiction, and the tensions develop into a violent confrontation, culminating in Barbara physically attacking her mother. After family members separate them, Barbara takes control of the situation, ordering that the family raid the house to discover all of Violet's hiding places for her pills.


title: August: Osage County

text: Several hours later things have calmed down, but the pain of the dinner confrontation has not gone away. Barbara reports that Violet's doctor thinks she has brain damage, and the three sisters share a drink in their father's study, discussing their mother. Ivy reveals that she and Little Charles are planning to run away to New York, and refuses to acknowledge the need for someone to take care of Violet. She reveals that it was Violet, not Beverly, who was heartbroken when Barbara left Oklahoma. Violet enters, now more coherent and off her drugs but no less incorrigible, is resigned to dealing with her demise on her own terms. She discusses a depressing story from her childhood with her daughters. In a private moment, Barbara and Violet apologize to each other, but it is uncertain how long the peace will last.


title: August: Osage County

text: Mattie Fae observes a tender moment between Little Charles and Ivy, and begins taunting him again when the ever-patient Charlie finally loses his temper with his wife, berating her for her cruelty to her own son and promising her that unless she can find a way to be kind to Little Charles, he is going to leave her. The lecture is accidentally overheard by Barbara, who confirms when pressed that Little Charles and Ivy are lovers. She is shocked when Mattie Fae reveals that Little Charles is not just Ivy's first cousin but also her half-brother, the result of a long-ago affair between Mattie Fae and Beverly. Mattie Fae refuses to tell Ivy or Little Charles the truth, leaving it up to Barbara, who knows that the news will destroy Ivy, to find a way to end the incestuous affair.


title: August: Osage County

text: Later that night, Steve and Jean share a joint, and before long, Steve attempts to molest Jean. Johnna walks in on the scene and attacks Steve with a shovel; the noise brings Jean's parents and Karen to the scene. An ugly argument follows when Jean defensively lashes out at her parents with hurtful comments about her father's affair, and Barbara slaps her. Karen leaves with Steve, choosing to lie to herself and mistakenly blaming Jean for what happened. Bill elects to return to Boulder with Jean and admits, when Barbara confronts him, that he is not going to come back to her. He leaves as Barbara tells him she loves him.


title: August: Osage County

text: Two weeks pass. Barbara, now drinking heavily, offers Johnna a chance to quit and leave the toxic environment of the Weston house, but she chooses to stay. Sheriff Gilbeau drops by the house with the news that Beverly had stayed at a motel shortly before he committed suicide. He and Barbara nearly share a tender moment, but she is too emotionally exhausted and drunk to consummate it.


title: August: Osage County

text: Several days later, Ivy has dinner with Barbara and Violet. Ivy attempts to tell her mother, over Barbara's objections, of her plans with Little Charles but Violet suddenly confesses that she already knows that Little Charles is Beverly's son. Ivy recoils in shock and horror, rebuffing Barbara's attempts to comfort her, and says that she will never tell him and leaves for New York anyway. Before she goes, Ivy angrily accuses Barbara of turning into Violet, stunning Barbara. Violet calmly reveals that she has deliberately destroyed Ivy and Charles' affair, which she knew of the entire time. Barbara and her mother have one last angry confrontation during which Violet blames Barbara for her father's suicide. Violet also reveals his suicide might have been preventable since she knew which motel he stayed in the night he left the house, but did nothing to help him until after she removed money from the couple's joint safe deposit box. Barbara, realizing that her mother has slipped beyond her help, leaves the house. Violet breaks down and is left only with Johnna, who ends the play with a quotation from a T.S. Eliot poem: "This is the way the world ends, this is the way the world ends."


title: August: Osage County

text: The show was originally produced on August 12, 2007, by the Steppenwolf Theatre Company at the Downstairs Theatre in Chicago. The Broadway production began previews on October 30, 2007, at the Imperial Theatre only days before the 2007 Broadway stagehand strike on November 10 which temporarily closed most shows. The strike continued through the official opening date of November 20, forcing the show to reschedule its December 4 opening. The Broadway production closed on June 28, 2009, after 648 performances and 18 previews. The Broadway debut used much of cast from Steppenwolf in Chicago, and opened to receive wide acclaim. The production, originally slated to close on February 17, 2008, was extended for three weeks to March 9 after the strike, and later extended to April 13, 2008, when it was subsequently given an open-ended commercial run.


title: August: Osage County

text: Both the Steppenwolf and Broadway productions were directed by Anna D. Shapiro, featuring scenic design by Todd Rosenthal, costume design by Ana Kuzmanic, lighting design by Ann G. Wrightson, sound design by Richard Woodbury, original music by David Singer, dramaturgy by Edward Sobel, dialect coaching by Cecille O'Reilly, and fight choreography by Charles Coyl. Both productions were stage managed by Deb Styer, with Jane Grey joining the New York company. "August: Osage County" made its UK debut at London's National Theatre in November 2008. Additionally, a US National Tour was launched at Denver's Ellie Caulkins Opera House on July 24, 2009, with Estelle Parsons portraying the role as Violet. This production went on to tour throughout the country. The play made its Israeli debut at Habima Theatre in Tel Aviv in January 2009 starring Gila Almagor. The play made its Puerto Rican debut at the Rene Marquez Theater Hall of the Luis A. Ferre Performing Arts Center in San Juan in March 2009 starring Gladys Rodríguez.


title: August: Osage County

text: The Melbourne Theatre Company mounted a production in Australia at the Arts Centre Playhouse starring Robyn Nevin, from 23 May to June 27, 2009. The New Theatre opened its production in Newton, NSW on June 8, 2018, with Louise Fischer directing and with Alice Livingston as Violet. The large cast engaged the audience for 3 hours and 10 minutes with 2 intervals. The tri-level house was successfully created with staircases mezaninnes by Ester Roseberg, Tom Bannerman and Rodger Wishart. Emilia Stubbs Grigoriou was Johnna who has reverted to her Cheyenne name and is given a few seconds of attention to explain the significance of the Turtle Pouch she wears around her neck.


title: August: Osage County

text: The play had its German premiere in Mannheim at the Nationaltheater on October 31, 2008, under the title "Eine Familie" ("A family"), directed by Burkhard C. Kosminski. The Austrian premiere in Vienna, in the Akademietheater from October 31, 2009, onwards was staged by the Latvian director Alvis Hermanis and featured Kirsten Dene in the role of Violet Weston. The play has been translated into Spanish and premiered in Buenos Aires at the Teatro Lola Membrives, starring Norma Aleandro and Mercedes Morán. It ran there for more than a year, with frequent sold-out houses. The play made its Swedish debut at Gothenburg City Theatre. Opening Night on January 29, 2010, starring Ann Petrén, and its Danish at the Betty Nansen Theatre in Copenhagen. It was due to premiere in Montevideo by mid-2010, at the Teatro El Galpón. August premiered on April 29, 2010, in Lima, at the Teatro La Plaza – Isil, starring Claudia Dammert. The Catalan play premiered on November 25, 2010, in the Catalan National Theatre (Teatre Nacional de Catalunya, Barcelona) with great success. It was renewed for another season during 2012. The cast included Anna Lizaran as Violet and Emma Vilarasau as Barbara. The Steppenwolf Theatre Company opened a production in Sydney in conjunction with the Sydney Theatre Company in August 2010.


title: August: Osage County

text: The amateur debut of the play was made by Hingham High School in Hingham, Massachusetts, on May 4, 2012, and was followed by a production at the Hawken School Hawken Players Society production, on November 7–10, 2013. The Auckland Theatre Company staged the New Zealand premiere of the play in September 2010, starring Jennifer Ward-Lealand, Stuart Devenie and Nancy Brunning and directed by Colin McColl. The Wellington production opened at Circa Theatre on April 1, 2011, with Jennifer Ludlam reprising the role of Violet. In April 2014, the play premiered in Romania, at the Iași National Theatre. The play had its U.S. regional premiere on September 9, 2010, in Albuquerque, New Mexico with Fusion Theatre Company. According to the company's website, performances for this production completely sold out. The cast included professional and Tony-nominated actors such as Laurie Thomas and Joanne Camp, and was directed by Gil Lazier.


title: August: Osage County

text: The play had its university premiere on September 23, 2010, in a unique co-production undertaken by Wright State University's Department of Theatre, Dance and Motion Pictures and The Human Race Theatre Company of Dayton, Ohio. The production was the first co-production of its kind for this play, combining seven professional actors with six students (EMC candidates) in WSU's BFA Acting program, and played to over four thousand during its three-week run in the Robert and Elaine Stein Auditorium on the Wright State campus. This production featured Susanne Marley as Violet Weston, the role she had played in the Broadway production, and Rainbow Dickerson, also from the Broadway production, as well as six students from the WSU undergraduate theatre program.


title: August: Osage County

text: The play has its Dutch premiere on May 1, 2011, at the Stadsschouwburg Utrecht (Utrecht City Theatre) by theatre company De Utrechtse Spelen. It was directed by Antoine Uitdehaag and starred , , Ria Eimers and Tom de Ket. The Dutch title is "Augustus: Oklahoma". Other 2011 productions included Florida Repertory Theatre Company of Fort Myers in March; the Oregon Shakespeare Festival in April; National Taiwan University in May, as the 2011 Graduation Production of the Department of Foreign Languages and Literatures; the Carolina Actors Studio Theatre of Charlotte in August; and its college premiere at Western Illinois University on April 20, 2011. Due to a serious fall during its final week of rehearsal, the director had to step in for the lead and perform the role of Violet Weston.


title: August: Osage County

text: The Spanish version ("Agosto (condado de Osage)") of the play opened on December 7, 2011, in Madrid, with an all-star-cast including Amparo Baró as Violet, Carmen Machi as Barbara, Alicia Borrachero as Ivy, Clara Sanchis as Karen, Sonsoles Benedicto as Mattie-Fae and Irene Escolar as Jean among many others, directed by Gerardo Vera. The show closed on February 22, 2012, after a huge success.


title: August: Osage County

text: In India, veteran theatre actor and director Lillete Dubey has directed a slightly adapted version of the play and has been touring with it in several Indian cities such as Delhi, Mumbai and Bangalore. In the Indian version, while the name of the play and those of most characters remain the same, the narrative has been shifted to the Indian state of Goa. Many well-known Indian theatre and film actors have major roles in the play, with Dubey herself playing the role of Violet with Sandhya Mridul as Barbara, Kitu Gidwani as Mattie, Mita Vashisht as Karen and Suchitra Pillai as Ivy.


title: August: Osage County

text: The Polish adaptation of the play, titled "Sierpień" (meaning "August"), had its premiere in Teatr Studio in Warsaw on February 2, 2012. "Imperium Theater" in Leiden, The Netherlands, was the first amateur theater company outside the United States to perform the play, on May 12, 2012. The PACE (Performing Arts Curriculum Experience) program at Mamaroneck High School opened their 2013 season with "August: Osage County" on October 23rd, 2013. The Fox Network's cartoon comedy series "American Dad" did an over the top, metaphor-festooned satirical send up of the play's style as well as Clifford Odets' "Paradise Lost", called "Blood Crieth Unto Heaven." The UMass Theatre Guild of University of Massachusetts Amherst premiered an entirely student-run production of "August: Osage County" on April 9, 2015.


title: August: Osage County

text: The play is named after a poem written by Howard Starks. Of this, Tracy Letts has stated, "I could never come up with a title as brilliant as 'August: Osage County.' Mr. Howard Starks, gentleman, teacher, poet, genius, mentor, friend, created that title for an extraordinary poem that is one of the inspirations for my play. I steal the title with deference, yet without apology – Howard, I'm sure, would have it no other way – and I dedicate this play to his memory."


title: Belgae

text: The Belgae () were a large confederation of tribes living in northern Gaul, between the English Channel, the west bank of the Rhine, and the northern bank of the river Seine, from at least the third century BC. They were discussed in depth by Julius Caesar in his account of his wars in Gaul. Some peoples in Britain were also called Belgae, and O'Rahilly equated them with the Fir Bolg in Ireland. The Belgae gave their name to the Roman province of Gallia Belgica and, much later, to the modern country of Belgium; today "Belgae" is also Latin for "Belgians".


title: Belgae

text: The consensus among linguists is that the ethnic name "Belgae" comes from the Proto-Celtic root "*belg-" or "*bolg-" meaning "to swell (particularly with anger/battle fury/etc.)", cognate with the Dutch adjective "gebelgd" "very angry" (weak perfect participle of the verb "belgen" "to become angry") and "verbolgen" "being angry" (strong perfect participle of obsolete "verbelgen" "to make angry"), as well as the Old English verb "belgan", "to be angry" (from Proto-Germanic "*balgiz"), derived ultimately from the Proto-Indo-European root "*bhelgh-" ("to swell, bulge, billow"). Thus, a Proto-Celtic ethnic name "*Bolgoi" could be interpreted as "the people who swell (particularly with anger/battle fury)".


title: Belgae

text: Julius Caesar describes Gaul at the time of his conquests (58–51 BC) as divided into three parts, inhabited by the Aquitani in the southwest, the Gauls of the biggest central part, who in their own language were called Celtae, and the Belgae in the north. Each of these three parts was different in terms of customs, laws and language. He noted that the Belgae, were "the bravest, because they are furthest from the civilization and refinement of [our] Province, and merchants least frequently resort to them, and import those things which tend to effeminate the mind; and they are the nearest to the Germans, who dwell beyond the Rhine, with whom they are continually waging war". Ancient sources such as Caesar are not always clear about the things used to define ethnicity today. While Caesar or his sources described the Belgae as distinctly different from the Gauls, Strabo stated that the differences between the Celts (Gauls) and Belgae in countenance, language, politics and way of life was a small one, unlike the difference between the Aquitanians and Celts. The fact that the Belgae were living in Gaul means that in one sense they were Gauls. This may be Caesar's meaning when he says "The Belgae have the same method of attacking a fortress as the rest of the Gauls".


title: Belgae

text: So Caesar used the word "Germani" in two ways. He described a grouping of tribes within the Belgic alliance as the "Germani", distinguishing them from their neighbours. The most important in his battles were the Eburones. The other way he uses the term is to refer to those related tribes east of the Rhine, who were not Celtic. So the Germani among the Belgae are called, based on Caesar's account, the "Germani cisrhenani", to distinguish them from other Germani living east of the Rhine in what he understood to be their homeland. However, the later historian Tacitus was informed that the name Germania was known to have changed in meaning:


title: Belgae

text: In other words, Tacitus understood that the collective name Germani had first been used in Gaul, for a specific people there with connections beyond the Rhine, the Tungri being the name of the people living where the Eburones had lived in later imperial times, and was later adopted as a collective name for the non-Celtic peoples beyond the Rhine, the other, better-known way that Caesar used the term.


title: Belgae

text: Caesar's book "Commentarii de Bello Gallico" begins: "All Gaul is divided into three parts, one of which the Belgae inhabit, the Aquitani another, those who in their own language are called Celts, in ours Gauls, the third. All these differ from each other in language, customs and laws." However, many modern scholars believe that the Belgae were a Celtic-speaking group. On the other hand, at least part of the Belgae may also have had significant genetic, cultural and historical connections to peoples east of the Rhine, including Germanic peoples, judging from archaeological, placename and textual evidence. It has also been argued based on placename studies that the older language of the area, though apparently Indo-European, was not Celtic (see Nordwestblock) and that Celtic, though influential amongst the elite, might never have been the main language of the part of the Belgic area north of the Ardennes. For example, Maurits Gysseling suggested that prior to Celtic and Germanic influences the Belgae may have comprised a distinct Indo-European branch, termed Belgian.


title: Belgae

text: However, most of the Belgic tribal and personal names recorded are identifiably Gaulish, including those of the "Germani cisrhenani", and this is indeed also true of the tribes immediately over the Rhine at this time, such as the Tencteri and Usipetes. Surviving inscriptions also indicate that Gaulish was spoken in at least part of Belgic territory.


title: Belgae

text: The Romans were not precise in their ethnography of northern barbarians: by "Germanic", Caesar may simply have meant "originating east of the Rhine" (the homeland of the "Germani cisrhenani") with no distinction of language intended. The east of the Rhine was not necessarily inhabited by Germanic speakers at this time. It has been remarked that Germanic-language speakers might have been no closer than the river Elbe in the time of Caesar. However, studies of place names, such as those of Maurits Gysseling, have been argued to show evidence of the pre-Roman presence of early Germanic languages throughout the Belgic area north of the Ardennes, where the "Germani cisrhenani" lived. The sound changes described by "Grimm's law" appear to have affected names with older forms, apparently already in the second century BC. Strong evidence for old Celtic placenames, though, is found in the Ardennes and to the south of them. According to Strabo, the country of the Belgae extended along the coast where 15 tribes were living from the Rhenus (Rhine) to the Liger (Loire). Strabo also says that "Augustus Caesar, when dividing the country into four parts, united the Keltae to the Narbonnaise; the Aquitani he preserved the same as Julius Caesar, but added thereto fourteen other nations of those who dwelt between the Garonne and the river Loire, and dividing the rest into two parts, the one extending to the upper districts of the Rhine (Gallia Lugdunensis) he made dependent upon Lugdunum, the other [he assigned] to the Belgae (Gallia Belgica)."


title: Belgae

text: Apart from the Germani, the report of Caesar seems to indicate that more of the Belgae had some Germanic ancestry and ethnicity, but this is not necessarily what defines a tribe as Belgic. Edith Wightman proposed that Caesar can be read as treating only the southwestern Belgic tribes, the Suessiones, Viromandui and Ambiani and perhaps some of their neighbours, as the true ethnic Belgae, as opposed to those in a political and military alliance with them. She reads Caesar as implying a "transition zone" of mixed ethnicity and ancestry for the Menapii, Nervii and Morini, all living in the northwest of the Belgic region, neighbours to the "Germani cisrhenani" in the northeast. (Caesar also mentions his allies the Remi being closest to the Celts amongst the Belgae.)


title: Belgae

text: It seems that, whatever their Germanic ancestry, at least some of the Belgic tribes spoke a variety of the Celtic Gaulish language as their main language by Caesar's time, and all of them used such languages in at least some contexts. Luc van Durme summarizes competing evidence of Celtic and Germanic influence at the time of Caesar by saying that "one has to accept the rather remarkable conclusion that Caesar must have witnessed a situation opposing Celtic and Germanic in Belgium, in a territory slightly more to the south than the early medieval Romance-Germanic language border", but van Durme accepts that Germanic did not block "Celticisation coming from the south" so "both phenomena were simultaneous and interfering".


title: Belgae

text: The medieval "Gesta Treverorum" compiled by monks of Trier claims that the Belgae were descendants of Trebeta, an otherwise unattested legendary founder of Trier, the Roman "Augusta Treverorum", "Augusta of the Treveri".


title: Belgae

text: Later, Tacitus mentioned a tribe called the Tungri living where the "Germani cisrhenani" had lived, and he also stated that they had once been called the Germani (although Caesar had claimed to have wiped out the name of the main tribe, the Eburones). Other tribes that may have been included among the Belgae in some contexts were the Leuci, Treveri and Mediomatrici. Posidonius includes the Armoricani, as well.


title: Belgae

text: Caesar conquered the Belgae, beginning in 57 BC. He writes that the Belgae were conspiring and arming themselves in response to his earlier conquests; to counter this threat, he raised two new legions and ordered his Gallic allies, the Aedui, to invade the territory of the Bellovaci, the largest and fiercest of the Belgae tribes. Wary of the numbers and bravery of the Belgae, Caesar initially avoided a pitched battle, resorting mainly to cavalry skirmishes to probe their strengths and weaknesses. Once he was satisfied his troops were a match for them, he made camp on a low hill protected by a marsh at the front and the river Aisne behind, near Bibrax (between modern Laon and Reims) in the territory of the Remi.


title: Belgae

text: The Belgae attacked over the river, but were repulsed after a fierce battle. Realising they could not dislodge the Romans and aware of the approach of the Aedui into the lands of the Bellovaci, the Belgae decided to disband their combined force and return to their own lands. Caesar's informants advised him that whichever tribe Caesar attacked first, the others would come to their defence. They broke camp shortly before midnight. At daybreak, satisfied the retreat was not a trap, Caesar sent cavalry to harass the rear guard, followed by three legions. Many of the Belgae were killed in battle.


title: Belgae

text: Caesar next marched into the territory of the Suessiones and besieged the town of Noviodunum (Soissons). Seeing the Romans' siege engines, the Suessiones surrendered, whereupon Caesar turned his attention to the Bellovaci, who had retreated into the fortress of Bratuspantium (between modern Amiens and Beauvais). They quickly surrendered, as did the Ambiani.


title: Belgae

text: The Nervii, along with the Atrebates and Viromandui, decided to fight (the Atuatuci had also agreed to join them, but had not yet arrived). They concealed themselves in the forests and attacked the approaching Roman column at the river Sabis (previously thought to be the Sambre, but recently the Selle is thought to be more probable). Their attack was quick and unexpected. The element of surprise briefly left the Romans exposed. Some of the Romans did not have time to take the covers off their shields or to even put on their helmets. However, Caesar grabbed a shield, made his way to the front line, and quickly organised his forces. The two Roman legions guarding the baggage train at the rear finally arrived and helped to turn the tide of the battle. Caesar says the Nervii were almost annihilated in the battle, and is effusive in his tribute to their bravery, calling them "heroes" (for more details see Battle of the Sabis).


title: Belgae

text: The Atuatuci, who were marching to their aid, turned back on hearing of the defeat and retreated to one stronghold, were put under siege, and soon surrendered and handed over their arms. However, the surrender was a ploy, and the Atuatuci, armed with weapons they had hidden, tried to break out during the night. The Romans had the advantage of position and killed 4,000. The rest, about 53,000, were sold into slavery.


title: Belgae

text: In 53 BC, the Eburones, led by Ambiorix, along with the Nervii, Menapii and Morini, revolted again and wiped out fifteen cohorts, only to be put down by Caesar. The Belgae fought in the uprising of Vercingetorix in 52 BC.


title: Belgae

text: After their final subjugation, Caesar combined the three parts of Gaul, the territory of the Belgae, Celtae and Aquitani, into a single unwieldy province ("Gallia Comata", "long-haired Gaul") that was reorganized by the emperor Augustus into its traditional cultural divisions. The province of Gallia Belgica was bounded on its east by the Rhine and extended all the way from the North Sea to Lake Constance ("Lacus Brigantinus"), including parts of what is now western Switzerland, with its capital at the city of the Remi (Reims). Under Diocletian, "Belgica Prima" (capital Augusta Trevirorum, Trier) and "Belgica Secunda" (capital Reims) formed part of the diocese of Gaul.


title: Belgae

text: The Belgae had made their way across the English Channel into southern Britain in Caesar's time. Caesar asserts they had first crossed the channel as raiders, only later establishing themselves on the island. The precise extent of their conquests is unknown. After the Roman conquest of Great Britain, the civitas of the Belgae was bordered to the north by the British Atrebates, who were also a Belgic tribe, and to the east by the Regni, who were probably linked to the Belgae as well. The arrival and spread of Aylesford-Swarling pottery across the southeastern corner of Britain has been related to the Belgic invasion since Arthur Evans published his excavation of Aylesford in 1890, which was then thought to show "the demonstrable reality of a Belgic invasion", according to Sir Barry Cunliffe, although more recent studies tend to downplay the role of migration in favour of increasing trade links; the question remains unclear.


title: Belgae

text: A large number of coins of the Ambiani dating to the mid-second century BC have been found in southern Britain and the remains of a possible Belgic fort have been unearthed in Kent. Within memory of Caesar's time, a king of the Suessiones (also referred to as Suaeuconi) called Diviciacus was not only the most powerful king of Belgic Gaul, but also ruled territory in Britain. Commius of the Atrebates, Caesar's former ally, fled to Britain after participating in Vercingetorix's rebellion and either joined or established a British branch of his tribe. Based on the development of imagery on coins, by the time of the Roman conquest, some of the tribes of south-eastern Britain likely were ruled by a Belgic nobility and were culturally influenced by them. The later "civitas" (administrative division) of Roman Britain had towns including "Portus Adurni" (Portchester) and "Clausentum" (Southampton). The "civitas" capital was at "Venta Belgarum" (Winchester), which was built on top of an Iron Age "oppidum" (this was itself built on the site of two earlier abandoned hillforts); Winchester remains Hampshire's county town to this day.


title: Belgae

text: T. F. O'Rahilly claims in his invasion model that a branch of the Belgae also settled in Ireland, and were later represented by the historical Iverni (Érainn), Ulaid and other kindreds. He claims a variety of evidence suggests memories of this were preserved in later Irish tradition, and also makes an elaborate linguistic case. According to his theory, the name of the legendary Fir Bolg (whom O'Rahilly identifies with the Érainn) is the Irish equivalent of "Belgae". Fintan O'Toole suggested the Keshcarrigan Bowl represents evidence for the movement of people into Ireland following upheaval and displacement, triggered by the Belgae arriving into Britain as refugees from the Romans.


title: Scottish mythology

text: Scottish mythology is the collection of myths that have emerged throughout the history of Scotland, sometimes being elaborated upon by successive generations, and at other times being rejected and replaced by other explanatory narratives.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The myths and legends of Scotland have a "local colour" as they tell about the way of life during the olden times, apart from giving a perspective of the nature of the country during various seasons of the year. It was the belief that Beira, the Queen of Winter, had a firm hold on the country by raising storms during January and February thus preventing greenery to emerge. She was considered a tough and brutal old woman who stirred the deadly spiraling action of Corryvreckan, ushering snow, as well as torrents resulting in the overflow of rivers. Even the creation of lochs and mountains were attributed to her.


title: Scottish mythology

text: Scottish mythology is not like the Greek and Roman myths as it deals with various aspects of nature. In this context the most powerful and feared goddess representing winter is Beira who rules winter for its entire duration. On Beltane she readily concedes to Brighid, who enjoys power until Samhain. This myth is akin to the popular myth of the Mayans and deals with female power in the "creation and the cycle of the year". However, Donald Mackenzie in his book "Scottish Wonder Tales from Myth and Legend" states that the goddesses of the Scottish myths are not glorified, very much unlike the goddesses of ancient Greece.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The rivers in Scotland were considered the dwelling places of goddesses with their characteristic denoting the nature of the river, such as the River Forth being called "deaf or soundless river" on account of its silent flow conditions, and the River Clyde called as "the purifying river" as it caused scouring and cleansing, carrying "mud and clay" during the flood season.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The Celtic goddesses were authoritative and were associated with female fertility as related to female divinity and earth. In olden times the Celtics land and national societies were both linked with the body of the goddess (also attributed as "tribal goddess") and her representative on earth was the queen. Another "ambivalent" character in Scottish myths was the "hag", the Goddess, the Gaelic Cailleach, and the Giantess, a divine being who is harmful. The hag is also considered a "healer" and helpful during childbirth and is divine and said to have "long ancestry and incredible longevity". She is also known as "at once creator and destroyer, gentle and fierce, mother and nurturer".


title: Scottish mythology

text: One Scottish origin legend, or pseudo-historical account of the foundation of the Scottish people, appears in adapted form in the tenth-century Latin "Life" of St. Cathróe of Metz. It relates that settlers from Greek Asia Minor sailed the seas and arrived at Cruachan Feli "the mountain of Ireland", probably for Cruachan Éli (Croagh Patrick, Co. Mayo), a well-known place in Hiberno-Latin hagiography since Tírechán's "Collectanea". As they roamed through Ireland, from Clonmacnoise, Armagh and Kildare to Cork, and finally, to Bangor, they were continually engaged at war with the "Pictanei". After some time, they crossed the Irish Sea to invade Caledonia North of Roman Britain, successively capturing Iona, the cities of "Rigmhonath" and "Bellathor" in the process. The latter places are echoed by the appearance of "Cinnrígmonaid" and "Cinnbelathoir" in the "Chronicle of the Kings of Alba". The territory so conquered was then named Scotia after Scota, the Egyptian wife of Spartan commander Nél or Niul, and St. Patrick converted the people to Christianity.


title: Scottish mythology

text: Once the Picts adopted Gaelic culture and their actual characteristics faded out of memory, folkloric elements filled the gaps of history. Their "sudden disappearance" was explained as a slaughter happening at a banquet given by Kenneth MacAlpin (an international folklore motif) and they were ascribed with powers like those of the fairies, brewing heather from secret recipes and living in underground chambers. In the eighteenth century the Picts were co-opted as a "Germanic" race.


title: Scottish mythology

text: In the Celtic domains of Scotland, also known as "Gàidhealtachd", there were ancient pre-Christian structures. In the farthest end of northwest Scotland there are standing stones at Callanish on the Isle of Lewis, in a vertical position, which are akin to the Stonehenge; these are believed to be older than Stonehenge and are standing for more than 5000 years and said to be denoting sun worship.


title: Scottish mythology

text: Because of the movement of people from Ulster to west Scotland, which resulted in close linguistic links between Ulster and the west of Scotland, much of Gaelic mythology was imported to Scotland, and possibly some of it was composed in Scotland. The Ulster Cycle, set around the beginning of the Christian era, consists of a group of heroic stories dealing with the lives of Conchobar mac Nessa, king of Ulster, the great hero Cúchulainn, and of their friends, lovers, and enemies. These are the Ulaid, or people of the North-Eastern corner of Ireland and the action of the stories centres round the royal court at Emain Macha, close to the modern city of Armagh. The Ulaid had close links with Gaelic Scotland, where Cúchulainn is said to have learned the arts of war.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The cycle consists of stories of the births, early lives and training, wooings, battles, feastings and deaths of the heroes and reflects a warrior society in which warfare consists mainly of single combats and wealth is measured mainly in cattle. These stories are written for the most part in prose. The centrepiece of the Ulster Cycle is the "Táin Bó Cúailnge". Other important Ulster Cycle tales include "The Tragic Death of Aife's only Son", "Fled Bricrenn" "Bricriu's Feast", and "Togail Bruidne Dá Derga" "The Destruction of Da Derga's Hostel". This cycle is, in some respects, close to the mythological cycle of the rest of the Gaelic speaking world. Some characters from the latter reappear, and the same sort of shape-shifting magic is much in evidence, side by side with a grim, almost callous realism. While it may be supposed that a few characters, such as Medb or Cú Roí, of once being deities, and Cúchulainn in particular displays superhuman prowess, the characters are firmly mortal and rooted in a specific time and place. Scottish Gaelic adaptations of Ulster Cycle tales appear in the Glenmasan manuscript.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The stories of Finn (Old, Middle, Modern Irish: Find, Finn, Fionn) mac Cumhaill and his band of soldiers the Fianna, appear to be set around the 3rd century in Gaelic Ireland and Scotland. They differ from other Gaelic mythological cycles in the strength of their links with the Gaelic-speaking community in Scotland and there are many extant texts from that country. They also differ from the Ulster Cycle in that the stories are told mainly in verse and that in tone they are nearer to the tradition of romance than the tradition of epic.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The single most important source for the Fenian Cycle is the "Acallam na Senórach" ("Colloquy of the Old Men"), which is found in two 15th-century manuscripts, the Book of Lismore and Laud 610, as well as a 17th-century manuscript from Killiney, County Dublin. The text is dated from linguistic evidence to the 12th century. The text records conversations between the last surviving members of the Fianna and Saint Patrick and runs to some 8,000 lines. The late dates of the manuscripts may reflect a longer oral tradition for the Fenian stories, the same oral tradition which was interpreted from Gaelic to English by James Macpherson in the Ossian stories.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The Fianna of the story are divided into the Clann Baiscne, led by Fionnghall, and the Clann Morna, led by his enemy, Goll mac Morna. Goll killed Fionnghall's father, Cumhal, in battle and the boy Fionn was brought up in secrecy. As a youth, while being trained in the art of poetry, he accidentally burned his thumb while cooking the Salmon of Knowledge, which allowed him to suck or bite his thumb in order to receive bursts of stupendous wisdom. He took his place as the leader of his band and numerous tales are told of their adventures. Two of the greatest Gaelic tales, "Tóraigheacht Dhiarmada agus Ghráinne" (The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne) and "Oisin in Tír na nÓg" form part of the cycle. The Diarmuid and Grainne story, which is one of the few Fenian prose tales, is a probable source of Tristan and Iseult.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The world of the Fenian Cycle is one in which professional warriors spend their time hunting, fighting, and engaging in adventures in the spirit world. New entrants into the band are expected to be knowledgeable in poetry as well as undergo a number of physical tests or ordeals. There is no religious element in these tales unless it is one of hero-worship.


title: Scottish mythology

text: "The Blue men of the Minch" (also known as storm kelpies), who occupy the stretch of water between Lewis and mainland Scotland, looking for sailors to drown and stricken boats to sink.


title: Scottish mythology

text: "Kelpies" are fabled water-spirits in the Lowland Scotland which are said to assume different shapes. Normally, they appear in the form of a horse. There is another spirit known as water-kelpie which reportedly "haunts" lakes and rivers, and indulge in drowning people. It is also reported to help running mills during night hours.


title: Scottish mythology

text: "Seonaidh" was a Celtic water-spirit which the residents of Lewis used to worship with offer of a glass of ale. According to Dr. Martin, one night the people of Lewis appeased Seonaidh. They assembled at the church of St. Mulway, each person carried food and necessities needed for the worship. Then, from the bag of malt collected from each family, ale was brewed. Then a chosen member of the congregation waded into the sea to waist deep level holding the ale filled cup, and offered ale to Seonaidh with the prayer: "I give thee this cup of ale, hoping that thou wilt be so good as to send us plenty of seaware for enriching our ground during the coming year". This event occurred in the night. After performing the offering the person who made the offering returned to the beach, and all the assembled people moved to the church where at the altar a lighted candle was shining. After some time, when the time was appropriate, the candle was put out. The inhabitants then assembled in a field behind the church and celebrated by drinking ale. They then went back home with the hope that they would be blessed with a surfeit of crops in the coming season.


title: Scottish mythology

text: "Changeling" is a fairy tale in which a fairy abducts a baby from the crib and then substitutes with another fairy. It is usually normal and grown up though it appears like a child.


title: Scottish mythology

text: "Selkies" are said to live as seals in the sea but shed their skin to become human on land, often to dance in the light of the full moon. If they lose their skin whilst in human form, they will however, be stuck in their human form forever. When taking human form they are said to have beautiful green hair. They will often reside on rocks and islands that are hidden among the waves, in order to protect themselves from humans. Selkies are mortal creatures. The legend is apparently most common in Orkney and Shetland and is very similar to those of swan maidens.


title: Scottish mythology

text: "Wulvers" are good natured creatures, similar to werewolves. They are said to leave food for poor families.


title: Scottish mythology

text: Myth is sometimes an aspect of folklore, but not all myth is folklore, nor is all folklore myth or mythological. People who express an interest in mythology are often most focused on non-human (sometimes referred to as "supernatural") beings. There have been numerous groups of such entities in Scottish culture, some of them specific to particular ethnic groups (Gaelic, Norse, Germanic, etc.), others of them probably evolving from the circumstances unique to Scotland.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The Aos-sídhe, Sìdhichean, or "Fairies" were originally the pre-Christian divinities of Gaelic Scotland. Christianity began to supersede most original mythology, causing the myths to diminish in power and prominence. The medieval Gaelic literati grouped them together as the Tuatha Dé Danann, who share certain characteristics with other characters in Celtic literature. Folk beliefs about the Banshee also reflect aspects of these beings. There are other supernatural beings whose characteristics reflect folkloric patterns from around the world. Ancestral spirits, and giants who help to form the landscape and represent the forces of nature, are ubiquitous and may point to non-elite registers of mythology.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The Loch Ness Monster is a legendary aquatic creature reported from many sightings over many years. A popular belief is that the monster is a lone survivor of the "long-extinct plesiosaurs". Although the sighting of the monster was reported as far back as the 6th century, in recent times the sightings were reported once the road around the loch was built. The first reporting of sighting of Nessie on land was about 20 yards from the loch as the monster was approaching towards the loch; it was seen by Spicer and his wife on 22 July 1933. In April 1934 a photograph was taken by a London surgeon when he was traveling to Inverness but its authenticity has been disputed. Sightings were even reported during the World War II days in May 1943 by C.B. Farrel of the Royal Observer Corps.


title: Scottish mythology

text: Loch Ness measures and has a width of at the widest. Its depth is and the bed of the loch is flat like a "bowling green". The Loch's volume is the largest in Great Britain.


title: Scottish mythology

text: The first reported sighting of the Loch Ness Monster was in the River Ness in 565 AD. The Irish monk Saint Columba was staying in the land of the Picts with his companions when he came across the locals burying a man by the River Ness. They explained that the man had been swimming the river when he was attacked by a "water beast" that had mauled him and dragged him under. They tried to rescue him in a boat, but were able only to drag up his corpse. Hearing this, Columba stunned the Picts by sending his follower Luigne moccu Min to swim across the river. The beast came after him, but Columba made the sign of the cross and commanded: "Go no further. Do not touch the man. Go back at once." The beast immediately halted as if it had been "pulled back with ropes" and fled in terror, and both Columba's men and the pagan Picts praised God for the miracle.


title: Scottish mythology

text: Arthurian mythology native to Scotland can be found in oral traditions. An example is the Scots Gaelic song 'Am Bròn Binn' (The Sweet Sorrow), which has been called "an Arthurian ballad in Scottish Gaelic". In Arthurian legend Mordred, nephew of King Arthur, was raised in Orkney and it is speculated that Camelon in Stirlingshire may have been the original 'Camelot'. There is a tradition that Arthur had a Scottish son called Smervie More.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Toronto Metropolitan University (TMU or Toronto Met) is a public research university located in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The university's core campus is situated within the Garden District, although it also operates facilities elsewhere in Toronto. The university operates seven academic divisions/faculties, the Faculty of Arts, the Faculty of Community Services, the Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science, the Faculty of Science, The Creative School, the Lincoln Alexander School of Law, and the Ted Rogers School of Management. Many of these faculties are further organized into smaller departments and schools. The university also provides continuing education services through the G. Raymond Chang School of Continuing Education.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The institution was established in 1948 as the "Ryerson Institute of Technology", named after Egerton Ryerson, a prominent contributor to the design of the Canadian public school system. His views later influenced the development of the Canadian Indian residential school system. In 1964, the institution was reorganized under provincial legislation, and renamed "Ryerson Polytechnical Institute". Under that name, the institution was granted limited degree-granting powers during the 1970s. The institution was reorganized into a full-fledged university in 1993, and renamed "Ryerson Polytechnic University". In 2002, several years after the university's school of graduate studies was established, the university adopted the name Ryerson University. In 2022, the university was renamed "Toronto Metropolitan University", in recognition of Egerton Ryerson's involvement in the residential school system, and the latter's adverse effects on indigenous cultures.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university is a co-educational institution, with approximately 44,400 undergraduates and 2,950 graduate students enrolled there during the 2019–20 academic year. As of 2017, TMU had nearly 170,000 alumni. The university's athletics department operates several varsity teams that play as TMU Bold, competing in the Ontario University Athletics conference of U Sports.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: During the Second World War, Howard Hillen Kerr, the director of the Training and Re-Establishment Institute, along with other members of the Toronto Board of Education, saw a need for specialized institutes to provide educational and vocational training for specific jobs for returning veterans. After a trip to the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) in 1943, Kerr envisioned a similar institute in Canada spanning "the gap" between secondary education and universities. Kerr's effort led to the "Vocational Education Act" and the creation of vocational schools and technological institutes in Ontario. Although several institutes had been planned during the war, their establishment was delayed by the advent of the Cold War and the potential need to remobilize. However, with the prospect of another war diminished greatly by 1948, the decision was made to open the Ryerson Institute of Technology, with class calendars hastily issued in August 1948.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The school was named after Egerton Ryerson, who established the Toronto Normal School in 1847 on the future site of the Ryerson Institute of Technology. He also helped develop education in Canada West as the region's chief superintendent of education, creating a model for publicly funding the training of teachers and working on Canada West's "Education Act, 1846". The site of the normal school eventually developed into several buildings used by the province's Department of Education and what became the Ontario Agricultural College, Royal Ontario Museum, OCAD University, and Ontario Institute for Studies in Education. Later, the grounds were used by the Royal Canadian Air Force as a training centre during the Second World War.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The Ryerson Institute of Technology was officially opened on September 16, 1948, with approximately 250 students enrolled. Kerr served as the institution's first principal until 1966, when he became the head of the Council of Regents for Colleges of Applied Arts and Technology. The initial aim for the institute to serve as a career training and vocational school was reflected by its early enrolment, with the majority of its early students being enrolled in continuing education part-time night school programs, as opposed to a full-year academic stream. Initially the institute only offered two-year career training and vocational programs; its program catalogue was later expanded to include three-year diplomas by the early 1950s. Kerr mandated that English, physical education, and history be mandated in the school's curriculum in 1952.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Initially, plans were made to house the institute entirely within the Toronto Normal School building but the rapid growth of the student population made such plans impossible. Therefore, work on the first building built specifically for the institute began in 1958; Kerr Hall was completed in 1963. Several buildings had to be razed, including temporary barracks used during the Second World War and the Toronto Normal School (though its portico façade was kept). A number of other buildings were later built surrounding the courtyard.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The "Ryerson Polytechnical Institute Act" was passed by the provincial government in 1963 to reorganize the institution. The institution was provided with its own board of governors and renamed "Ryerson Polytechnical Institute" in 1964. The nursing programs of three hospitals were transferred to the institution, the first one to be offered in a post-secondary institution in Canada. In 1971, the institute received limited degree-granting authority: Bachelor of Applied Arts and Bachelor of Technology, then Bachelor of Business Administration in 1977.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: In 1993, the institute became a full polytechnic university and renamed "Ryerson Polytechnic University," expanding the mandate of the institution to include scholarly research. The school of graduate studies was formally established in 1997. In June 2002, the institution shortened its name to "Ryerson University" to reflect its new scope. The beginning of the 21st century saw another construction boom on its campus.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: After the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada released its report in May 2015, the university acted on several recommendations made out to post-secondary institutions in the report. As a result of Egerton Ryerson's association with the establishment of the Canadian Indian residential school system, the institution faced several calls to reevaluate the namesake of the university in 2017. In 2018, a university faculty member, Denise O'Neil Green, led the community-wide consultation to formulate a response towards the Commission's report. She was later appointed the university's first vice-president for equity and community inclusion; the first vice-president position with this mandate in a Canadian post-secondary institution. In 2018, a plaque that describes Egerton Ryerson's role in the residential school system was placed next to the statue of Egerton Ryerson. After the discovery of 215 unmarked graves at the Kamloops Indian Residential School, some students and professors started using the name "X University" in May 2021 as part of a demand to have the university's name changed. In June 2021, the statue of Egerton Ryerson was toppled; its decapitated head was thrown into Toronto Harbour. The university stated that the statue will not be restored or replaced. On August 26, 2021, the university announced that it would accept the 22 recommendations of an internal task force, including the renaming of the university. On April 26, 2022, the university announced it would be renamed to Toronto Metropolitan University. The name change was formalized on December 2022, after the provincial legislature passed an amendment to the institution's governing legislation.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university's central campus primarily lies within the Garden District of downtown Toronto. The campus is "interwoven" with the rest of the downtown core, with few entrance markers delineating the campus from the rest of the city. Most of the campus is designated as a mixed-use institutional area, although portions of the campus are situated in areas zoned for commercial and residential use. In addition to zoning by-laws, the height of the university's buildings is also limited by ordinances that protect the flight paths of air medical services to St. Michael's Hospital and the Hospital for Sick Children.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Gerrard Street to the north, Jarvis Street to the east, Dundas Street East to the south, and Yonge Street to the west, serve as the perimeter for the campus core; although the university also operates facilities beyond the core campus. Kerr Hall serves as the "campus heart," while Gould Street to the south of Kerr Hall serves as the university's main east–west corridor, connecting it with the other areas of the campus.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Most of the streets and laneways throughout Toronto Metropolitan University's campus are considered a part of the public realm. These include connector streets open to vehicular traffic and pedestrian-only streets. Victoria Street south of Gerrard Street is designated as a pedestrian-only zone, having been closed to vehicular traffic since 1978. In 2010, a one-year pilot program was approved by the municipal government that closed off Gould Street to pedestrian traffic, an initiative that was later extended by six months. In February 2012, the city moved to permanently close Gould Street to car traffic, from O'Keefe Lane to Bond Street; with the closed pedestrian-only portions of Gould Street designated as Ryerson Square.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Most of the parks, plazas, and green spaces on the university's campus are owned by the university, although access to these spaces is also open to the public. These spaces include Devonian Square, and Kerr Hall's quadrangle. Devonian Square was designed by Toronto Parks, Forestry and Recreation Division, and was partly funded by the Devonian Group of Charitable Foundations of Calgary—who also lent the park its name. The space features a reflecting pool, and large Precambrian igneous and metamorphic rocks that are approximately two billion years old from the Canadian Shield. In addition to green spaces, a green roof and urban farm, initially known as the Andrew and Valerie Pringle Environmental Green Roof, was built atop George Vari Engineering and Computing Centre in 2003. The urban farm operates on a five-year crop rotation, and contains 30 different crops and hundreds of cultivars.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Several undeveloped properties also exist on the campus, with the university having acquired two parking lots from Infrastructure Ontario in 2013 for $32 million; a at 202 Dundas Street East and a at 136 Dundas Street East. The university plans to continue to operate them as parking lots until enough capital is raised to develop the sites. In 2019, the university submitted a rezoning application for a 41-storey tower at 202 Jarvis Street, which will include an 11-storey academic base with classrooms, labs, and research space intended for the Faculty of Science, along with a student residence in its upper levels.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university operates more than 40 buildings. As of 2019, the university's buildings account for over of gross floor area. The campus includes an assortment of buildings from different architectural periods; Oakham House dating back to 1848, and the university's newest building, the Daphne Cockwell Health Sciences Complex, opened in 2019. Many of the earliest buildings built specifically for use by the university were designed during the mid-20th century in a Brutalist architectural-style. The university campus saw significant expansion during the early 21st century, with the university's total floor area nearly doubling in size from 2000 to 2019.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Several buildings operate as shared spaces between the university and other tenants. Along with university-owned properties, the university also leases or holds strata titles for a number of properties surrounding the central campus.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Toronto Metropolitan University Library serves as the main academic library for the university, and is housed in an 11-storey Brutalist-style structure that was completed in 1974. As of 2012, the library's collection held over 522,000 books, over 836,000 microform units, and provide access to electronic resources including e-books, serial titles, and databases. In 2015, the Student Learning Centre was completed adjacent to the library building. The Student Learning Centre was designed by the architectural firm Snøhetta, and was built to augment the library by providing additional study space; although no books from the university's collection are stored in the Student Learning Centre.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The Image Centre is a complex located on campus that serves as a photography museum and houses School of Image Arts. The Image Centre includes several galleries, with one dedicated for exhibit works from students of the School of Image Arts. The centre also holds offices, screening rooms, and storage facilities for the university's photographic collection; stored in special climate-controlled rooms. The Image Centre dates back to the 1969, although the building was not completed until 2012, after the university was gifted 292,000 photographs of the Black Star collection. In total, the centre's collection contains approximately 375,000 objects, including historical photographs, photographs from contemporary artists, as well as the archival collections from publications like "Life" and "The New York Times". The centre is housed in a building that was renovated by Diamond Schmitt Architects during the early 2010s.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university operates three student residences with approximately 1,144 beds on campus including the Daphne Cockwell Complex, the International Living & Learning Centre, and Pitman Hall. The International Learning Centre was built in 1987 and is oldest student residence, housing approximately 256 residences. Pitman Hall was completed in 1991 and holds 565 rooms. The Daphne Cockwell Complex was completed in 2019, and holds 332 rooms. The latter building is a multi-purpose structure, with the lower levels of the Daphne Cockwell Complex holding academic facilities; whereas its residential component is housed in its upper levels. The majority of university students do not live on campus, with only 5.2 per cent of students having lived on campus during the 2017–18 academic year. However, approximately 17.9 per cent of the university's first year students lived on campus. The university operates themed-residence floors in an effort to complement the academic studies of residents; such as the "fashion floor," a themed-residential floor reserved for students of Toronto Metropolitan University's school of fashion.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: In an effort to increase the number of residences available for students, the university entered into a public–private partnership in 2012 to construct the HOEM residence on Jarvis Street. However, as opposed to the university's other residences, the HOEM residence is not owned and operated by the university. O'Keefe House was also another student residence operated by the university prior to the opening of the HOEM residence in 2018. O'Keefe House was repurposed for other university uses after the HOEM residence was opened in 2018.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Dining services are also provided by the university, although the number of dining facilities remains limited when compared to other Canadian post-secondary institutions given the campus' location in downtown Toronto; with an estimated 275 food service providers situated within a five-minute walk of the campus in 2017.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Toronto Metropolitan University's Student Campus Centre serves as the centre of student governance and student directed cultural, social, and recreational activities. The Student Campus Centre contains the offices of a number of student organizations, including the Toronto Metropolitan Students' Union, "The Eyeopener" student newspaper, and other student groups. In addition to office space, the centre also houses student lounges, study areas and computer labs, and restaurants. The building is operated by the Palin Foundation, an organization whose governing structure is made up of elected representatives from the Toronto Metropolitan University Students' Union, and the Continuing Education Students' Association at the university.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The Toronto Metropolitan University Aerospace Engineering Centre is a research centre situated within a repurposed helicopter manufacturing facility at Downsview Park. Opened in 2018, the centre was formed in partnership between the university's Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science, Bombardier, and the Downsview Aerospace Innovation and Research Consortium (DAIR). The centre provides a collaborative research environment for the university's faculty and graduate students with its industry partners. The centre forms a part of DAIR's larger research and development park. The university's varsity soccer program also makes use of sports facilities at Downsview Park.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: In 2018, the university announced plans to open a new campus in the neighbouring municipality of Brampton, in partnership with Sheridan College, in 2022. The provincial government allocated approximately $90 million in order to fund the development of the campus. However, provincial funding for the project was later withdrawn in October 2018 by a new provincial government, effectively cancelling the planned development. In 2022, the university announced plans to open a medical school in Brampton as soon as 2025.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university's Facilities Management and Development maintains a sustainability office that is charged with implementing green initiatives and sustainable operating practices throughout the university's facilities. The university is a signatory of the Talloires Declaration, a declaration for sustainability created for presidents of post-secondary institutions around the world. In 2009, the university, along with the other members from the Council of Ontario Universities, signed a pledge known as "Ontario Universities Committed to a Greener World", with the objective of transforming its campus into a model of environmental responsibility.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university operates under a bicameral system with a board of governors and a senate empowered by provincial legislation, the "Toronto Metropolitan University Act". The university's board of governors is charged with the management of university's affairs, including assets and property, as well as revenues. The board of governors has 24 members, including the university chancellor, the university president, three members elected by the university's alumni, three members elected by the university's teaching faculty, three members elected by the student body, and two members elected by administrative staff. The other eleven members of the board of governors are appointed, nine of whom by the provincial Lieutenant Governor-in-Council.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The senate is responsible for the educational policies of the university. The senate is made up of 52 elected representatives of the university community, including its faculty, student body, and alumni. Additionally, the chancellor, president, vice-presidents, deans, the chief librarian, and university registrar are also considered members of the senate.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The chancellor serves as the titular head of the university, and is primarily charged with the conferment of degrees, as well as honorary degrees from the institution. The chancellor of the university is appointed by the board of governors on a three-year term; with the current chancellor, Janice Fukakusa, having been appointed in October 2018. The board of governors is also empowered to appoint a university president; who serves as the chief executive officer of the university and acts on behalf of the board with respects to operational management and control of the university. The president is the chair of the senate and a member of the board of governors by virtue of their office. Additionally, the president also serves as the vice-chancellor of the university, assuming the duties of the chancellor in the event they are unable to, or when the office is vacant. Mohamed Lachemi is the current president of the university, having been appointed in September 2016.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Toronto Metropolitan University is a publicly funded university. The university completed the 2019–2020 academic year with $833.17 million of revenue, and $854.7 million in expenses. Government grants make up the largest source of revenue for the university, followed by student fees and tuition. Salaries make up more than half of the university's expenses at $515.7 million. As of April 2020, the university's endowment is valued at $136.285 million.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university's academic year functions on a three-term system, fall, winter, and spring/summer. The university's academic programs are administered by seven faculties, the Faculty of Arts, the Faculty of Community Services, the Faculty of Engineering and Architectural Science, the Faculty of Science, The Creative School, the Lincoln Alexander School of Law and the Ted Rogers School of Management; the latter academic division serving as the university's business school. The Lincoln Alexander School of Law is the newest academic faculty formed at the university, having taken its first cohort of students in September 2020.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Most faculties are further organized into smaller departments and schools. The Faculty of Arts is made up of ten humanities and social science departments. The Creative School is an academic division made up of nine schools focused on media, design, and creative industries; including the RTA School of Media. The Faculty of Science is composed of four departments.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Graduate programs are coordinated by the Yeates School of Graduate Studies. Toronto Metropolitan University also jointly administers several academic programs with two other post-secondary institutions based in Greater Toronto, Sheridan College and York University. Continuing education at the university is managed by the G. Raymond Chang School of Continuing Education; which offered over 400 courses as of February 2021.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university's has 909 full-time faculty members during the 2019–20 academic year. In the same year, the university had an enrolment of 28,800 full-time undergraduate students, and 2,600 full-time graduate students. In the 2019–20 academic year, the university also saw 5,951 people enrol in a G. Raymond Chang School of Continuing Education course; more than half of which were degree-credit course.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: In 2018, the university conferred 7,199 bachelor's degrees, 1,084 master's degrees, and 75 doctoral degrees. More than a quarter of the bachelor's degrees awarded that year were conferred to students in business and commerce programs. The majority of master's and doctoral degrees conferred by the university in 2018 were to students in engineering or social science-related programs. The graduation rate for students that entered the university in 2011 is 74.2 per cent.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university holds membership in a number of national and international post-secondary organizations, such as Universities Canada and the International Association of Universities. The university's business school is also accredited by the Association to Advance Collegiate Schools of Business.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: In "Maclean's" 2023 Canadian university rankings, the university was ranked eighth in the magazine's comprehensive university category, tied with the University of New Brunswick; and 19th in its reputational survey. The university has also placed in several global university rankings. In the 2022 Academic Ranking of World Universities, the university ranked 901–1000 in the world. The 2023 QS World University Rankings ranked the university 801–1000 in the world. The 2023 Times Higher Education World University Rankings placed the university 801–1000 in the world. In the "U.S. News & World Report" 2022–23 ranking, the university placed 1,452 in the world.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university also placed in rankings that evaluated the employment prospect of graduates. In the "Times Higher Education"'s 2022 global employability ranking, Toronto Metropolitan University placed 192nd in the world, and tenth in Canada.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university engages in a number of scholarly research activities. As of February 2021, there were 37 research centres and institutes operated by the university and its faculties. In the 2018–19 year, the university published 1,369 academic publications, and formed over 303 research funding partnerships.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: During the 2018-19 year, Toronto Metropolitan University's allocation of Canada Research Chairs was 23, with the university receiving $17.1 million from the Tri-Council for research support; most of which was provided by the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada. The university also managed to raise $49.6 million for research support from various levels of government. In the same year, the university managed to raise $13.2 million for research support from various related industries and non-governmental sources.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: In 2020, Research Infosource ranked Toronto Metropolitan University 23rd out of 50 Canadian research universities; with the university having a sponsored research income of $79.574 million during the 2019 fiscal year. In the same year, the university's faculty averaged a sponsored research income of $95,200, while graduate students averaged a sponsored research income of $28,900 in 2019. Toronto Metropolitan University's research performance has also been noted in several bibliometric rankings that use citation analysis to evaluate the impact a university has in the academic field. In the University Ranking by Academic Performance 2020–21 rankings, the university placed 737th out of 3000 universities.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Notable research projects and endeavours associated with the university includes hitchBOT, a hitchhiking robot created by university faculty member, Frauke Zeller, and David Smith of McMaster University. HitchBOT formed a part of the larger Smart Robots for Health Communication project, a joint research initiative between the two universities to study social robotics, artificial intelligence, and human-to-robot interactions; especially in a clinical environment.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university operates a business incubator for early-stage technology start-ups called The DMZ. The incubator assists start-ups by connecting them with investors and researchers, as well as provide them access to mentors from industry-related experts. The business incubator was established in 2010 as the Digital Media Zone, before changing its name to DMZ. As of 2019, the DMZ has assisted approximately 400 start-ups and raised over $625 million in funds since 2010. As of 2019, there were 72 start-ups developing at the DMZ. Notable start-ups supported by the DMZ includes 500px. In 2018, UBI Global named The DMZ as the world's best university-based business incubator.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The requirements for admission differ between students from Ontario, students from other provinces in Canada, and students based outside of Canada, due to the lack of uniformity in marking schemes. In addition to academic records, the university requires applicants whose first language is not English to present proof that they are proficient in the language. The mean secondary school average for a newly admitted students from an Ontario-based secondary school institution in the 2018–19 academic year was 85.4 per cent.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: In the beginning of the 2019–20 academic year, the university saw 81.9 per cent of its students continue in the same program after their first year of study at the institution; although these figures vary depending on the faculty and program. The retention rate for the university's first-time, full-time first-year students in any program was 88 per cent.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: In the 2019–20 academic year, the university's student body included 44,400 full-time and part-time undergraduate students, and 2,950 full-time and part-time graduate students. The student body is primarily made up of Canadians, with over 93 per cent of the student body originating from Canada. Nearly 80 per cent of undergraduate students originated from the Greater Toronto Area.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: According to a survey conducted in 2015, approximately 54 per cent of Toronto Metropolitan University's students travelled to the campus using local transit systems like the Toronto Transit Commission. Approximately 23 per cent of students travelled to campus using GO Transit, 14 per cent walked, and the remaining 5 per cent biked.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university full-time undergraduate population is represented by the Toronto Metropolitan Students' Union (TMSU); whereas the university's graduate student body is represented by the Toronto Metropolitan Graduate Students' Union. Part-time students, students taking distance education programs, and students of the G. Raymond Chang School of Continuing Education are represented by the Continuing Education Students’ Association of X University. All three student union organizations are members of the Canadian Federation of Students. Funds for RSU operations is collected from students through the university. Services provided by the RSU includes academic advocacy, legal services, and medical insurance.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: There exist several academic societies that fulfills the needs of student engagement, professional development, mental health, and student life, including the Ted Rogers Students' Society; the Faculty of Community Services Society; the Society of The Creative School; the Metropolitan Undergraduate Engineering Society; the Architectural Science Student Society; the Society of Arts, Social Sciences, and Humanities, Undergraduate Science Society of Toronto Metropolitan; and the Lincoln Alexander Law Students' Society. All student societies are incorporated within the university, and their retrospective Dean's Offices. All the faculty student societies plan their faculty's frosh weeks and other events.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Most academic program at Toronto Metropolitan University has a course union that are third party to the university, and funded by the RSU. A number of cultural, social, and recreational social groups are also accredited by the RSU. Formally, fraternities and sororities are not recognized by the university, or accredited as student organizations by the university's student unions. Fraternities and sororities are not accredited by the RSU given the union's requirement for accredited groups to have inclusive membership, and for them to be free of organizational levies. However, several fraternities and sororities operate in an unofficial capacity at Toronto Metropolitan University; with 10 fraternities and sororities operating as of 2016. Some of these fraternities and sororities operate as city-wide chapters, whose membership is open to various post-secondary student bodies throughout Toronto.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: There exists several student-operated media outlets at the university, including student newspapers and a campus radio station. CJRU, also known as Ryerson Radio, has served as a non-profit campus and community radio station for Toronto Metropolitan University since 2016. CJRU serves as the successor to CJRT-FM and CKLN-FM, two public radio stations formerly operated by the university.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: "The Eyeopener" is a student newspaper that has operated at the university since 1967; initially established by students of the RTA School of Media. The newspaper is operated by Rye Eye Publishing, a student-owned non-profit corporation. The newspaper's operations is funded through levies paid for by the university's student body. Students of the School of Journalism also publishes a journal and newspaper, the "Review of Journalism", and "On the Record"; both publications are staffed by School of Journalism students in their final year. Additionally, "On the Record" also produces a newscast known as OTR TV. The "Review of Journalism" was established by the School of Journalism in 1984 and probes the quality of journalism in Canada.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university's sports teams are known as TMU Bold, and participates in U Sports' Ontario University Athletics conference for most varsity sports. Varsity teams includes badminton, basketball, fencing, figure skating, ice hockey, soccer, and volleyball. The university's athletic department also maintains several other sports clubs for baseball, crickets, cross country, curling, dragon boat, esports, rugby, table tennis, track and field, ultimate frisbee, and wrestling. The university fielded its first sport teams in 1948, shortly after the institution was established.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university operates three athletic facilities in and around its campus, the Recreation and Athletic Centre, Kerr Hall Gymnasium/West, and the Mattamy Athletic Centre. The Recreation and Athletic Centre serves as the central hub for the university's athletics department, with the facility housing a fitness centre, gymnasiums, a indoor track, a pool, and squash courts. Kerr Hall Gymnasium is another athletic facility on campus that includes two gymnasiums. The Mattamy Athletic Centre is an athletic centre that forms the upper portions of Maple Leaf Gardens. The Mattamy Athletic Centre includes a cardio room, a court for basketball and volleyball, an ice-hockey rink, a fitness centre, and dance studio. Toronto Metropolitan University's varsity clubs and athletics programs primarily play their games at Mattamy Athletic Centre, or Kerr Hall Gymnasium; although the university's varsity soccer program is based at Downsview Park.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university's athletics program adopted its first mascot in 1961, when students from the Student Administrative Council purchased a live ram and decorated him with pendants for an ice hockey game. A total of five live ram mascots were used from 1961 to 1991. A costumed mascot was introduced during the 1980s, and became the university's athletic teams' only mascot after use of a live mascot ended in 1991. The ram mascot, was named "Egerton the Ram" or "Eggy the Ram", after the school's namesake. The mascot was changed to a falcon in 2022, coinciding with the varsity teams' name change from the Ryerson Rams to the TMU Bold.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: When the university was initially founded, a crest was used to identify the school. In addition to the original crest, the university also had a seal that was used on university documents and its yearbooks, although its design drew criticism. The crest was later replaced by an official coat of arms, granted by the College of Arms, in 1966. In addition to the coat of arms, the university also uses a logo that includes the official colours of the university, azure and gold; with azure intended to represent loyalty and truth, and gold representing generosity and elevation of the mind.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university also has an official seal to authenticate documents. A new seal was introduced in 2022, and features the Student Learning Centre in its centre. The seal was designed by a Ted Rogers School of Management student, who entered the design in a student competition.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university's Latin motto that appears on the coat of arms, "Mente et Artificio", translates to "With Mind and Skill". The motto was derived from the Latin motto used by MIT, "Mente et Manu", which translates to "With Mind and Hand". MIT's motto was adopted as Toronto Met's first motto, with the latter's first principal having modelled his institution after the former. However, the motto was changed to its present form in 1950.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university also has a song called "The School Song". Created during the 1950s, the lyrics for the school song were drafted by Rennie Charles, while the music was composed by Al Sauro.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: The university was granted a coat of arms by the College of Arms in 1966. In June 1999, the university's coat of arms were officially registered with the Canadian Heraldic Authority.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Elements used on the coat of arms includes ram/aries supporters, representing creative impulses. The torches on the ram supporters symbolizing light, education, liberty, and increasing knowledge. Elements on the escutcheon includes the Lamp of Learning to symbolize intelligence; and a set square on the bottom portion escutcheon to represent construction. The coat of arms is officially reserved exclusively for the use of the office of the chancellor and the university president, although its informal use has proliferated to a number of items of other university items, such as jackets and pins.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: A number of individuals are associated with the university either as alumni, or members of its administration or faculty. As of 2017, there were nearly 170,000 Toronto Metropolitan University alumni worldwide. All graduates of the university are members of the Ryerson University Alumni Association. Alumni and faculty of the university have received a number of academic awards, such as the Commonwealth Scholarship and the Gates Cambridge Scholarship.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: Alumni of Toronto Metropolitan University have assumed notable roles in a wide range of fields and specialties. Alumni that were in prominent positions in business includes Patrick Dovigi, founder and CEO of GFL Environmental; Tony Gagliano, chairman and CEO of St. Joseph Communications; John Galt, president and CEO of Husky Injection Molding Systems; Isadore Sharp, founder and chairman of Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts; Klaus Woerner, founder and CEO of ATS Automation Tooling Systems; and Michal Prywata, co-founder of Phantom Space. A number of alumni have also found success in the arts. Notable actors and actresses that have attended the university includes Nina Dobrev, Mena Massoud, Eric McCormack, Hannah Simone, Nia Vardalos, and Jacqueline MacInnes Wood. Notable alumni in the literary arts includes Louise Penny and Robert J. Sawyer.


title: Toronto Metropolitan University

text: A number of notable individuals have also served as a part of the university's administration or as a member of its faculty. Notable lecturers and professors include David Crombie, the Secretary of State for Canada; Jack Layton, the former leader of the official opposition in Canada; and Margaret MacMillan, an academic and historian. G. Raymond Chang, the chairman and president of CI Financial, also served as the chancellor of the university from 2006 to 2012.


title: Prime-counting function

text: In mathematics, the prime-counting function is the function counting the number of prime numbers less than or equal to some real number "x". It is denoted by ("x") (unrelated to the number).


title: Prime-counting function

text: Of great interest in number theory is the growth rate of the prime-counting function. It was conjectured in the end of the 18th century by Gauss and by Legendre to be approximately


title: Prime-counting function

text: where li is the logarithmic integral function. The prime number theorem was first proved in 1896 by Jacques Hadamard and by Charles de la Vallée Poussin independently, using properties of the Riemann zeta function introduced by Riemann in 1859. Proofs of the prime number theorem not using the zeta function or complex analysis were found around 1948 by Atle Selberg and by Paul Erdős (for the most part independently).


title: Prime-counting function

text: Mossinghoff and Trudgian proved an explicit upper bound for the difference between formula_7 and formula_8:


title: Prime-counting function

text: For most values of formula_11 we are interested in (i.e., when formula_11 is not unreasonably large) formula_8 is greater than formula_7. However, formula_15 is known to change sign infinitely many times. For a discussion of this, see Skewes' number.


title: Prime-counting function

text: For formula_16 let formula_17 when formula_11 is a prime number, and formula_19 otherwise. Of profound importance, Bernhard Riemann proved that formula_20 is equal to


title: Prime-counting function

text: The table shows how the three functions ("x"), "x" / log "x" and li("x") compare at powers of 10. See also, and


title: Prime-counting function

text: In the On-Line Encyclopedia of Integer Sequences, the ("x") column is sequence , is sequence , and is sequence .


title: Prime-counting function

text: The value for (10) was originally computed by J. Buethe, J. Franke, A. Jost, and T. Kleinjung assuming the Riemann hypothesis.


title: Prime-counting function

text: The value for (10) was computed by D. B. Staple. All other prior entries in this table were also verified as part of that work.


title: Prime-counting function

text: A simple way to find formula_7, if formula_11 is not too large, is to use the sieve of Eratosthenes to produce the primes less than or equal to formula_11 and then to count them.


title: Prime-counting function

text: A more elaborate way of finding formula_7 is due to Legendre (using the inclusion–exclusion principle): given formula_11, if formula_30 are distinct prime numbers, then the number of integers less than or equal to formula_11 which are divisible by no formula_32 is


title: Prime-counting function

text: when the numbers formula_36 are the prime numbers less than or equal to the square root of formula_11.


title: Prime-counting function

text: In a series of articles published between 1870 and 1885, Ernst Meissel described (and used) a practical combinatorial way of evaluating formula_7. Let formula_39 be the first formula_40 primes and denote by formula_41 the number of natural numbers not greater than formula_42 which are divisible by no formula_32 where formula_44. Then


title: Prime-counting function

text: In 1959, Derrick Henry Lehmer extended and simplified Meissel's method. Define, for real formula_42 and for natural numbers formula_40 and formula_54, formula_55 as the number of numbers not greater than "m" with exactly "k" prime factors, all greater than formula_56. Furthermore, set formula_57. Then


title: Prime-counting function

text: where the sum actually has only finitely many nonzero terms. Let formula_59 denote an integer such that formula_60, and set formula_61. Then formula_62 and formula_63 when formula_64. Therefore,