title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Asbury Park currently has a centrally located fire station (with a new one planned for the future), with one Engine Company, one Ladder Company, two Basic Life Support Ambulances, a fireboat, and a Duty Battalion Chief. The department's apparatus fleet includes 3 Engines (including spare), 2 Ladder Trucks (including spare), 1 Rescue Truck, and 2 Ambulances, in addition to other equipment. The Asbury Park Fire Department employs 56 people, of which, 54 are certified Firefighter/Emergency Medical Technicians.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Asbury Park is located in the 6th Congressional district and is part of New Jersey's 11th state legislative district.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Monmouth County is governed by a Board of County Commissioners comprised of five members who are elected at-large to serve three year terms of office on a staggered basis, with either one or two seats up for election each year as part of the November general election. At an annual reorganization meeting held in the beginning of January, the board selects one of its members to serve as Director and another as Deputy Director. , Monmouth County's Commissioners are


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Commissioner Director Thomas A. Arnone (R, Neptune City, term as commissioner and as director ends December 31, 2022),


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Commissioner Deputy Director Susan M. Kiley (R, Hazlet Township, term as commissioner ends December 31, 2024; term as deputy commissioner director ends 2022),


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: , there were a total of 7,404 registered voters in Asbury Park, of which 2,723 (36.8%) were registered as Democrats, 464 (6.3%) were registered as Republicans and 4,209 (56.8%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There were 8 voters registered as Libertarians or Greens.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 89.1% of the vote (4,317 cast), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 9.9% (480 votes), and other candidates with 1.0% (49 votes), among the 4,896 ballots cast by the city's 8,486 registered voters (50 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 57.7%. In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 87.4% of the vote (4,693 cast), ahead of Republican John McCain with 9.7% (522 votes) and other candidates with 0.5% (28 votes), among the 5,372 ballots cast by the city's 8,429 registered voters, for a turnout of 63.7%. In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 81.9% of the vote (3,659 ballots cast), outpolling Republican George W. Bush with 17.0% (759 votes) and other candidates with 0.3% (28 votes), among the 4,466 ballots cast by the city's 8,255 registered voters, for a turnout percentage of 54.1.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Democrat Barbara Buono received 67.5% of the vote (1,488 cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 30.9% (682 votes), and other candidates with 1.6% (36 votes), among the 2,287 ballots cast by the city's 8,819 registered voters (81 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 25.9%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 75.1% of the vote (1,728 ballots cast), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 19.1% (440 votes), Independent Chris Daggett with 4.3% (100 votes) and other candidates with 0.4% (9 votes), among the 2,301 ballots cast by the city's 7,692 registered voters, yielding a 29.9% turnout.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: The Asbury Park Commercial Historic District is a historic district located along Cookman and Mattison Avenues and Bond Streets between Lake and Bangs Avenues. The district was added to the National Register of Historic Places on September 30, 2014, for its significance in commerce and entertainment.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: The Asbury Park Public Schools serve students in pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. The district is one of 31 former Abbott districts statewide that were established pursuant to the decision by the New Jersey Supreme Court in "Abbott v. Burke" which are now referred to as "SDA Districts" based on the requirement for the state to cover all costs for school building and renovation projects in these districts under the supervision of the New Jersey Schools Development Authority.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Students from Allenhurst attend the district's schools as part of a sending/receiving relationship. In July 2014, the New Jersey Department of Education approved a request by Interlaken under which it would end its sending relationship with the Asbury Park district and begin sending its students to the West Long Branch Public Schools through eighth grade and then onto Shore Regional High School. Students from Deal had attended the district's high school as part of a sending/receiving relationship that was terminated and replaced with an agreement with Shore Regional.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: As of the 2020–21 school year, the district, comprised of four schools, had an enrollment of 1,771 students and 175.0 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 10.1:1. Schools in the district (with 2020–21 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In March 2011, the state monitor overseeing the district's finances ordered that Barack Obama Elementary School be closed after the end of the 2010–2011 school year, citing a 35% decline in enrollment in the district during the prior 10 years. Students currently attending the school would be reallocated to the district's two other elementary schools, with those going into fifth grade assigned to attend middle school. During the summer of 2012, the school board approved funding for development plans to house the Board of Education in the vacant Barack Obama Elementary School. The school board awarded $894,000 to an architect firm to handle the renovation design and subsequent project bids. The estimated cost of the renovation was $1.6 million.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In 2006, Asbury Park's Board of Education was affected by the city's decision to redevelop waterfront property with eminent domain. In the case "Asbury Park Board of Education v. City of Asbury Park and Asbury Partners, LLC", the New Jersey Superior Court, Appellate Division affirmed a ruling in favor of eminent domain of the Board of Education building on Lake Avenue. The Board of Education moved to the third and fourth floors of 603 Mattison Avenue, the former "Asbury Park Press" building, where it paid $189,327 in rent per year.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In February 2007, the offices of the Asbury Park Board of Education were raided by investigators from the State Attorney General's office, prompted by allegations of corruption and misuse of funds.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Per-student expenditures in Asbury Park have generated statewide controversy for several years. In 2006, "The New York Times" reported that Asbury Park "spends more than $18,000 per student each year, the highest amount in the state." In both 2010 and 2011, the Asbury Park K–12 school district had the highest per-student expenditure in the state. As of the 2010 school reports, the high school has not met goals mandated by the No Child Left Behind Act and has been classified as "In Need of Improvement" for six years.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: The Hope Academy Charter School, founded in 2001, is an alternative public school choice that serves students in kindergarten through eighth grade. Admission is based on a lottery of submitted applications, with priority given to Asbury Park residents and siblings of existing students.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Students from Asbury Park in ninth through twelfth grades may also attend Academy Charter High School, located in Lake Como, which also serves residents of Allenhurst, Avon-by-the-Sea, Belmar, Bradley Beach, Deal, Interlaken and Lake Como, and accepts students on a lottery basis.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: While 8 of the 17 murders in Monmouth County in 2006 took place in Asbury Park, and 7 of the county's 14 murders in 2007, by 2008 there was only one murder in Asbury Park and five in the whole county. The city's police had added 19 officers since 2003 and expanded its street crime unit. After a spike in gang violence, violent crime had decreased by almost 20% from 2006 to 2008.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In the calendar year through August 26, 2013, Asbury Park has had 6 homicides; there have also been 17 people non-fatally injured in shooting incidents.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In February 2014, "Operation Dead End" arrested gang members of the Crips and Bloods; one Asbury Park patrol officer was arrested for aiding gang members.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: On June 16, 2015, Asbury Park police officers arrested a Neptune Township off-duty police officer for the murder of his ex-wife on an Asbury Park street in broad daylight.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: From before 1990 to 2015, there were 904 reported cases of HIV/AIDS in Asbury Park. Additionally, there were 418 AIDS-related deaths and 73 deaths of people who had HIV (without AIDS diagnosis.) In 2014, there were nine new cases and 2015, eight. To help people living with AIDS and their caregivers, a not-for-profit foundation called The Center provides assistance with meals, housing, and transportation.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In 2012, Asbury Park reported 6 cases of syphilis, 59 cases of gonorrhea, and 139 cases of chlamydia.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: , the city had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Monmouth County and by the New Jersey Department of Transportation.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: The main access road is Route 71 which runs north–south. Other roads that are accessible in neighboring communities include Route 18, Route 33, Route 35 and Route 66. The Garden State Parkway is at least 15 minutes away via either Routes 33 or 66.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: NJ Transit offers rail service from the Asbury Park station. on the North Jersey Coast Line, offering service to Newark Penn Station, Secaucus Junction, New York Penn Station and Hoboken Terminal.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: NJ Transit bus routes include the 317 to and from Philadelphia, and local service on the 830, 832, 836 and 837 routes. The "Shore Points" route of Academy Bus Lines provides service between Asbury Park and New York City on a limited schedule.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In August 2017, a multi-station bike share program opened in cooperation with Zagster. With six stations in the city, the program is the first of its kind on the Jersey Shore.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: According to the Köppen climate classification system, Asbury Park has a humid subtropical climate ("Cfa"). "Cfa" climates are characterized by all months having an average temperature > , at least four months with an average temperature ≥ , at least one month with an average temperature ≥ and no significant precipitation difference between seasons. Although most summer days are slightly humid with a cooling afternoon sea breeze in Asbury Park, episodes of heat and high humidity can occur with heat index values > . Since 1981, the highest air temperature was on August 9, 2001, and the highest daily average mean dew point was on August 13, 2016. July is the peak in thunderstorm activity and the average wettest month is August. Since 1981, the wettest calendar day was on August 27, 2011. During the winter months, the average annual extreme minimum air temperature is . Since 1981, the coldest air temperature was on January 22, 1984. Episodes of extreme cold and wind can occur with wind chill values < . The average seasonal (Nov–Apr) snowfall total is between and , and the average snowiest month is February which corresponds with the annual peak in nor'easter activity.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: According to the A. W. Kuchler U.S. potential natural vegetation types, Asbury Park would have a dominant vegetation type of Appalachian Oak ("104") with a dominant vegetation form of Eastern Hardwood Forest ("25"). The plant hardiness zone is 7a with an average annual extreme minimum air temperature of . The average date of first spring leaf-out is March 24 and fall color typically peaks in early-November.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Palace Amusements and the Tillie mural have featured in numerous works of popular culture. Additional works reference Asbury Park, specifically.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: For example, in the song "At Long Last Love" (1938), originally written by Cole Porter for the musical "You Never Know" (1938), Frank Sinatra sings "Is it Granada I see, or only Asbury Park?"


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Bruce Springsteen named his first album "Greetings From Asbury Park, N.J." in 1973 and described his early life there. The artist has also dedicated many songs to Asbury Park such as "4th of July, Asbury Park (Sandy)" and "My City of Ruins" on his 2002 album, "The Rising".


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: The group mewithoutYou references Asbury Park several times on their album "Ten Stories" (2012). The song "Bear's Vision of St. Agnes" mentions "that tattered rag shop back in Asbury Park", and the song "Fox's Dream of the Log Flume" mentions the pier and sand dunes.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: Asbury Park was used for the location filming of the crime drama "City by the Sea" (2002), starring Robert De Niro, James Franco and Frances McDormand, which was nominally set in Long Beach, New York, where no filming actually took place, according to a disclaimer that was included as part of the closing credits. The film features scenes set on a shabby, dilapidated boardwalk and in a ruined/abandoned casino/arcade building. Residents of both places objected to the way their cities were depicted. Asbury Park appears at the start of the 1999 film Dogma.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: The Season 2 finale of "The Sopranos", "Funhouse", originally aired in April 2000, includes several discrete dream sequences dreamed by Tony that take place on the Asbury Park Boardwalk, including Madame Marie's as well as Tony and Pauly playing cards at a table in the empty hall of the Convention Center. The episode's title alludes to the Palace, which is also shown.


title: Asbury Park, New Jersey

text: In a 1955 episode of "The Honeymooners" ("Better Living Though TV"), Alice Kramden ridicules husband Ralph Kramden's seemingly never-ending parade of failed get-rich-quick schemes, including his investment in "the uranium field in Asbury Park".


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos (CPS), also known as Chlorpyrifos ethyl, is an organophosphate pesticide that has been used on crops, animals, and buildings, and in other settings, to kill several pests, including insects and worms. It acts on the nervous systems of insects by inhibiting the acetylcholinesterase enzyme. Chlorpyrifos was patented in 1966 by Dow Chemical Company.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos is considered moderately hazardous to humans (Class II) by the World Health Organization based on acute toxicity information dating to 1999. Exposure surpassing recommended levels has been linked to neurological effects, persistent developmental disorders, and autoimmune disorders. Exposure during pregnancy may harm the mental development of children.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In the United Kingdom, the use of chlorpyrifos was banned as of 1 April 2016 (with one minor exception).


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: As of 2020, chlorpyrifos and chlorpyrifos-methyl were banned throughout the European Union, where they may no longer be used.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: As of August 18, 2021, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced a ban on the use of chlorpyrifos on food crops in the United States. Most home uses of chlorpyrifos had already been banned in the U.S. and Canada since 2001.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: It is banned in several other countries and jurisdictions as well. The Chlorpyrifos ban on food crops is the result of a 1999 lawsuit filed by NRDC to force the EPA to take action on the riskiest pesticides, as well as five additional successful court orders obtained by Earthjustice to force the EPA to take action on a 2007 petition to ban Chlorpyrifos filed by NRDC and the Pesticide Action Network of North America (PANNA).


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The industrial synthesis of chlorpyrifos (3) is made by reacting 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol (TCPy) (1) with "O","O"-diethyl phosphorochloridothioate (2):


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos was used in about 100 countries around the world to control insects in agricultural, residential, and commercial settings. Its use in residential applications is restricted in multiple countries. According to Dow, chlorpyrifos is registered for use in nearly 100 countries and is annually applied to approximately 8.5 million crop acres. The crops with the most usefulness include cotton, corn, almonds, and fruit trees, including oranges, bananas, and apples.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos was first registered for use in the United States in 1965 for the control of foliage and soil-born insects. The chemical became widely used in residential settings, on golf course turf, as a structural termite control agent, and in agriculture. Most residential use of chlorpyrifos has been phased out in the United States; however, agricultural use remains common.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: EPA estimated that, between 1987 and 1998, about 21 million pounds of chlorpyrifos were used annually in the US. In 2001, chlorpyrifos ranked 15th among pesticides used in the United States, with an estimated 8 to 11 million pounds applied. In 2007, it ranked 14th among pesticide ingredients used in agriculture in the United States.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos is normally supplied as a 23.5% or 50% liquid concentrate. The recommended concentration for direct-spray pin point application is 0.5% and for wide area application a 0.03–0.12% mix is recommended (US).


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos enters the insect through several routes. Simon et al. 1998 report that insects encounter the active ingredient in their food plants and eat it. They also find it to enter through the digestive system, skin and membranes of the respiratory system.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos exposure may lead to acute toxicity at higher doses. Persistent health effects follow acute poisoning or from long-term exposure to low doses, and developmental effects appear in fetuses and children even at very small doses.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: For acute effects, the World Health Organization classifies chlorpyrifos as Class II: moderately hazardous. The oral LD50 in experimental animals is 32 to 1000 mg/kg. The dermal LD50 in rats is greater than 2000 mg/kg and 1000 to 2000 mg/kg in rabbits. The 4-hour inhalation of LC50 for chlorpyrifos in rats is greater than 200 mg/m.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Acute poisoning results mainly from interference with the acetylcholine neurotransmission pathway, leading to a range of neuromuscular symptoms. Relatively mild poisoning can result in eye-watering, increased saliva and sweating, nausea, and headache. Intermediate exposure may lead to muscle spasms or weakness, vomiting, or diarrhea, and impaired vision. Symptoms of severe poisoning include seizures, unconsciousness, paralysis, and suffocation from lung failure.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Children are more likely to experience muscle weakness rather than twitching; excessive saliva rather than sweat or tears; seizures; and sleepiness or coma.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Acute poisoning is probably most common in agricultural areas in Asia, where many small farmers are affected. Poisoning may be due to occupational or accidental exposure or intentional self-harm. Precise numbers of chlorpyrifos poisonings globally are not available. Pesticides are used in an estimated 200,000+ suicides annually with tens of thousands due to chlorpyrifos. Organophosphates are thought to constitute two-thirds of ingested pesticides in rural Asia. Chlorpyrifos is among the commonly used pesticides used for self-harm.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In the US, the number of incidents of chlorpyrifos exposure reported to the US National Pesticide Information Center shrank sharply from over 200 in the year 2000 to less than 50 in 2003, following the residential ban.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Poisoning is treated with atropine and simultaneously with oximes such as pralidoxime. Atropine blocks acetylcholine from binding with muscarinic receptors, which reduces the pesticide's impact. However, atropine does not affect acetylcholine at nicotinic receptors and thus is a partial treatment. Pralidoxime is intended to reactivate acetylcholinesterase, but the benefit of oxime treatment is questioned. A randomized controlled trial (RCT) supported the use of higher doses of pralidoxime rather than lower doses. A subsequent double-blind RCT, that treated patients who self-poisoned, found no benefit of pralidoxime, including specifically in chlorpyrifos patients.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos poisoning was described by New Zealand scientists as the likely cause of death of several tourists in Chiang Mai, Thailand who developed myocarditis in 2011. Thai investigators came to no conclusion on the subject, but maintain that chlorpyrifos was not responsible and that the deaths were not linked.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Epidemiological and experimental animal studies suggest that infants and children are more susceptible than adults to the effects of low-dose exposure. Chlorpyrifos has been suggested to have negative impacts on cognitive functions in the developing brain. The young have a decreased capacity to detoxify chlorpyrifos and its metabolites. It is suggested that adolescents differ from adults in the metabolism of these compounds due to the maturation of organs in adolescents. This results in disruption in nervous system developmental processes, as observed in animal experiments. There are several studies observed in animals that show that chlorpyrifos alters the expression of essential genes that assist in the development of the brain.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: "Human studies": In multiple epidemiological studies, chlorpyrifos exposure during gestation or childhood has been linked with lower birth weight and neurological changes such as slower motor development and attention problems. Children with prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos have been shown to have lower IQs. They have also been shown to have a higher chance of developing autism, attention deficit problems, and developmental disorders. A cohort of 7-year-old children was studied for neurological damage from prenatal exposure to chlorpyrifos. The study determined that the exposed children had deficits in working memory and full scale intelligence quotient (IQ). In a study on groups of Chinese infants, those exposed to chlorpyrifos showed significant decreases in motor functions such as reflexes, locomotion, and grasping at 9 months compared to those not exposed. Exposure to organophosphate pesticides in general has been increasingly associated with changes in children's cognitive, behavioral and motor performance. Infant girls were shown to be more susceptible to harmful effects from organophosphate insecticides than infant boys.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: "Animal experiments": In experiments with rats, early, short-term low-dose exposure to chlorpyrifos resulted in lasting neurological changes, with larger effects on emotional processing and cognition than on motor skills. Such rats exhibited behaviors consistent with depression and reduced anxiety. In rats, low-level exposure during development has its greatest neurotoxic effects during the period in which sex differences in the brain develop. Exposure leads to reductions or reversals of normal gender differences. Exposure to low levels of chlorpyrifos early in rat life or as adults also affects metabolism and body weight. These rats show increased body weight as well as changes in liver function and chemical indicators similar to prediabetes, likely associated with changes to the cyclic AMP system. Moreover, experiments with zebrafish showed significant detriments to survivability, reproductive processes, and motor function. Varying doses created a 30%–100% mortality rate of embryos after 90 days. Embryos were shown to have decreased mitosis, resulting in mortality or developmental dysfunctions. In the experiments where embryos did survive, spinal lordosis and lower motor functions were observed. The same study showed that chlorpyrifos had more severe morphological deformities and mortality in embryos than diazinon, another commonly used organophosphate insecticide.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Adults may develop lingering health effects following acute exposure or repeated low-dose exposure. Among agricultural workers, chlorpyrifos has been associated with slightly increased risk of wheeze, a whistling sound while breathing due to obstruction of the airways.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Among 50 farm pesticides studied, chlorpyrifos was associated with higher risks of lung cancer among frequent pesticide applicators than among infrequent or non-users. Pesticide applicators as a whole were found to have a 50% lower cancer risk than the general public, likely due to their nearly 50% lower smoking rate. However, chlorpyrifos applicators had a 15% lower cancer risk than the general public, which the study suggests indicates a link between chlorpyrifos application and lung cancer.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Twelve people who had been exposed to chlorpyrifos were studied over periods of 1 to 4.5 years. They were found to have a heightened immune responses to common allergens and increased antibiotic sensitivities, elevated CD26 cells, and a higher rate of autoimmunity, compared with control groups. Autoantibodies were directed toward smooth muscle, parietal cell, brush border, thyroid gland, myelin, and the subjects also had more anti-nuclear antibodies.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The Dow Chemical Company also developed Chlorpyrifos methyl in 1966, which had a lower acute toxicity (WHO class III), but this appears to be no longer in commercial use. The molecule is similar to Chlorpyrifos ethyl, but with a O,O dimethyl chain. Proposed applications included vector control.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Primarily, chlorpyrifos and other organophosphate pesticides interfere with signaling from the neurotransmitter acetylcholine. One chlorpyrifos metabolite, chlorpyrifos-oxon, binds permanently to the enzyme acetylcholinesterase, preventing this enzyme from deactivating acetylcholine in the synapse. By irreversibly inhibiting acetylcholinesterase, chlorpyrifos leads to a build-up of acetylcholine between neurons and a stronger, longer-lasting signal to the next neuron. Only when new molecules of acetylcholinesterase have been synthesized can normal function return. Acute symptoms of chlorpyrifos poisoning only occur when more than 70% of acetylcholinesterase molecules are inhibited. This mechanism is well established for acute chlorpyrifos poisoning and also some lower-dose health impacts. It is also the primary insecticidal mechanism.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos may affect other neurotransmitters, enzymes and cell signaling pathways, potentially at doses below those that substantially inhibit acetylcholinesterase. The extent of and mechanisms for these effects remain to be fully characterized. Laboratory experiments in rats and cell cultures suggest that exposure to low doses of chlorpyrifos may alter serotonin signaling and increase rat symptoms of depression; change the expression or activity of several serine hydrolase enzymes, including neuropathy target esterase and several endocannabinoid enzymes; affect components of the cyclic AMP system; and influence other chemical pathways.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The enzyme paraoxonase 1 (PON1) detoxifies chlorpyrifos oxon, the more toxic metabolite of chlorpyrifos, via hydrolysis. In laboratory animals, additional PON1 protects against chlorpyrifos toxicity while individuals that do not produce PON1 are particularly susceptible. In humans, studies about the effect of PON1 activity on the toxicity of chlorpyrifos and other organophosphates are mixed, with modest yet inconclusive evidence that higher levels of PON1 activity may protect against chlorpyrifos exposure in adults; PON1 activity may be most likely to offer protection from low-level chronic doses. Human populations have genetic variation in the sequence of PON1 and its promoter region that may influence the effectiveness of PON1 at detoxifying chlorpyrifos oxon and the amount of PON1 available to do so. Some evidence indicates that children born to women with low PON1 may be particularly susceptible to chlorpyrifos exposure. Further, infants produce low levels of PON1 until six months to several years after birth, likely increasing the risk from chlorpyrifos exposure early in life.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Several studies have examined the effects of combined exposure to chlorpyrifos and other chemical agents, and these combined exposures can result in different effects during development. Female rats exposed first to dexamethasone, a treatment for premature labor, for three days in utero and then to low levels of chlorpyrifos for four days after birth experienced additional damage to the acetylcholine system upstream of the synapse that was not observed with either exposure alone. In both male and female rats, combined exposures to dexamethasone and chlorpyrifos decreased serotonin turnover in the synapse, for female rats with a greater-than-additive result. Rats that were co-exposed to dexamethasone and chlorpyrifos also exhibited complex behavioral differences from exposure to either chemical alone, including lessening or reversing normal sex differences in behavior. In the lab, in rats and neural cells co-exposed to both nicotine and chlorpyrifos, nicotine appears to protect against chlorpyrifos acetylcholinesterase inhibition and reduce its effects on neurodevelopment. In at least one study, nicotine appeared to enhance chlorpyrifos detoxification.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In 2011, EPA estimated that, in the general US population, people consume 0.009 micrograms of chlorpyrifos per kilogram of their body weight per day directly from food residue. Children are estimated to consume a greater quantity of chlorpyrifos per unit of body weight from food residue, with toddlers the highest at 0.025 micrograms of chlorpyrifos per kilogram of their body weight per day. People may also ingest chlorpyrifos from drinking water or from residue in food handling establishments. The EPA's acceptable daily dose is 0.3 micrograms/kg/day. However, as of 2016, EPA scientists had not been able to find any level of exposure to the pesticide that was safe. The EPA 2016 report states in part "... this assessment indicates that dietary risks from food alone are of concern ..." The report also states that previous published risk assessments for "chlorpyrifos may not provide a sufficiently health protective human health risk assessment given the potential for neurodevelopmental outcomes."


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Humans can be exposed to chlorpyrifos by way of ingestion (e.g., residue on treated produce, drinking water), inhalation (especially of indoor air), or absorption (i.e., through the skin). However, compared to other organophosphates, chlorpyrifos degrades relatively quickly once released into the environment. According to the National Institutes of Health, the half-life for chlorpyrifos (i.e., the period of time that it takes for the active amount of the chemical to decrease by 50%) "can typically range from 33–56 days for soil incorporated applications and 7–15 days for surface applications"; in water, the half-life is about 25 days, and in the air, the half-life can range from four to ten days.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Children of agricultural workers are more likely to come into contact with chlorpyrifos. A study done in an agricultural community in Washington State showed that children who lived in closer proximity to farmlands had higher levels of chlorpyrifos residues from house dust. Chlorpyrifos residues were also found on work boots and children's hands, showing that agricultural families could take home these residues from their jobs. Urban and suburban children get most of their chlorpyrifos exposure from fruits and vegetables. A study done in North Carolina on children's exposure showed that chlorpyrifos was detected in 50% of the food, dust, and air samples in both their homes and daycare, with the main route of exposure being through ingestion. Certain other populations with higher likely exposure to chlorpyrifos, such as people who apply pesticides, work on farms, or live in agricultural communities, have been measured in the US to excrete TCPy in their urine at levels that are 5 to 10 times greater than levels in the general population.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: As of 2016, chlorpyrifos was the most used conventional insecticide in the US and was used in over 40 states; the top five states (in total pounds applied) are California, North Dakota, Minnesota, Iowa, and Texas. It was used on over 50 crops, with the top five crops (in total pounds applied) being soybeans, corn, alfalfa, oranges, and almonds. Additionally, crops with 30% or more of the crop treated (compared to total acres grown) include apples, asparagus, walnuts, table grapes, cherries, cauliflower, broccoli, and onions.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Air monitoring studies conducted by the California Air Resources Board (CARB) documented chlorpyrifos in the air of California communities. Analyses indicate that children living in areas of high chlorpyrifos use are often exposed to levels that exceed EPA dosages. A study done in Washington state using passive air samplers showed that households who lived less than 250 meters from a fruit tree field had higher levels of chlorpyrifos concentrations in the air than households that were further away. Advocacy groups monitored air samples in Washington and Lindsay, California, in 2006 with comparable results. Grower and pesticide industry groups argued that the air levels documented in these studies are not high enough to cause significant exposure or adverse effects. A follow-up biomonitoring study in Lindsay also showed that people there display above-normal chlorpyrifos levels.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Among freshwater aquatic organisms, crustaceans and insects appear to be more sensitive to acute exposure than fish. Aquatic insects and animals appear to absorb chlorpyrifos directly from water rather than ingesting it with their diet or through sediment exposure.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Concentrated chlorpyrifos released into rivers killed insects, shrimp and fish. In Britain, the rivers Roding (1985), Ouse (2001), Wey (2002 & 2003), and Kennet (2013) all experienced insect, shrimp, or fish kills as a result of small releases of concentrated chlorpyrifos. The July 2013 release along the River Kennet poisoned insect life and shrimp along 15 km of the river, likely from a half a cup of concentrated chlorpyrifos washed down a drain.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Acute exposure to chlorpyrifos can be toxic to bees, with an oral LD50 of 360 ng/bee and a contact LD50 of 70 ng/bee. Guidelines for Washington state recommend that chlorpyrifos products should not be applied to flowering plants such as fruit trees within 4–6 days of blossoming to prevent bees from directly contacting the residue.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Risk assessments have primarily considered acute exposure, but more recently researchers have begun to investigate the effects of chronic, low-level exposure through residue in pollen and components of bee hives. A review of US studies, several European countries, Brazil and India found chlorpyrifos in nearly 15% of hive pollen samples and just over 20% of honey samples. Because of its high toxicity and prevalence in pollen and honey, bees are considered to have higher risk from chlorpyrifos exposure via their diet than from many other pesticides.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: When exposed in the laboratory to chlorpyrifos at levels roughly estimated from measurements in hives, bee larvae experienced 60% mortality over 6 days, compared with 15% mortality in controls. Adult bees exposed to sub-lethal effects of chlorpyrifos (0.46 ng/bee) exhibited altered behaviors: less walking; more grooming, particularly of the head; more difficulty righting themselves; and unusual abdominal spasms. Chlorpyrifos oxon appears to particularly inhibit acetylcholinesterase in bee gut tissue as opposed to head tissue. Other organophosphate pesticides impaired bee learning and memory of smells in the laboratory.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos is not regulated under international law or treaty. Organizations such as PANNA and the NRDC state that chlorpyrifos meets the four criteria (persistence, bioaccumulation, long-range transport, and toxicity) in Annex D of the Stockholm Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants and should be restricted. In 2021, the European Union submitted a proposal to list chlorpyrifos in Annex A to the Stockholm Convention.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos was used to control insect infestations of homes and commercial buildings in Europe until it was banned from sale in 2008. Chlorpyrifos is restricted from termite control in Singapore as of 2009. It was banned from residential use in South Africa as of 2010. It has been banned in the United Kingdom in 2016 apart from a limited use in drenching seedlings.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In the United States, several laws directly or indirectly regulate the use of pesticides. These laws, which are implemented by the EPA, NIOSH, USDA and FDA, include: the Clean Water Act (CWA); the Endangered Species Act (ESA); the Federal Insecticide, Fungicide, and Rodenticide Act (FIFRA); the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA); the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA); and the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act (EPCRA). As a pesticide, chlorpyrifos is not regulated under the Toxic Substances Control Act (TSCA).


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos is sold in restricted-use products for certified pesticide applicators to use in agriculture and other settings, such as golf courses or for mosquito control. It may also be sold in ant and roach baits with childproof packaging. In 2000, manufacturers reached an agreement with the EPA to voluntarily restrict the use of chlorpyrifos in places where children may be exposed, including homes, schools and day care centers.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In 2007 Pesticide Action Network North America and Natural Resources Defense Council (collectively, PANNA) submitted an administrative petition requesting a chlorpyrifos ban. On 10 August 2015, the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in PANNA v. EPA ordered the EPA to respond to PANNA's petition by "revok[ing] all tolerances for the insecticide chlorpyrifos", den[ying] the Petition or [issuing] a "proposed or final tolerance revocation" no later than 31 October 2015. The EPA was "unable to conclude that the risk from aggregate exposure from the use of chlorpyrifos [met] the safety standard of section 408(b)(2) of the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act (FFDCA)" and therefore proposed "to revoke all tolerances for chlorpyrifos."


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In an 30 October 2015 statement Dow AgroSciences disagreed with the EPA's proposed revocation and "remain[ed] confident that authorized uses of chlorpyrifos products, as directed, offer wide margins of protection for human health and safety." In a November 2016 press release, DOW argued that chlorpyrifos was "a critical tool for growers of more than 50 different types of crops in the United States" with limited or no viable alternatives." The "Environment News Service" quoted the Dow AgroSciences' statement disagreeing with the EPA findings.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In November 2016, the EPA reassessed its ban proposal after taking into consideration recommendations made by the agency's Science Advisory Panel which had rejected the EPA's methodology in quantifying the risk posed by chlorpyrifos. Using a different methodology as suggested by the panel, the EPA retained its decision to completely ban chlorpyrifos. The EPA concluded that, while "uncertainties" remain, a number of studies provide "sufficient evidence" that children experience neurodevelopment effects even at low levels of chlorpyrifos exposure.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: On 29 March 2017, EPA Administrator Scott Pruitt, appointed by the Trump administration, overturned the 2015 EPA revocation and denied the administrative petition by the Natural Resources Defense Council and the Pesticide Action Network North America to ban chlorpyrifos.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The American Academy of Pediatrics responded to the administration's decision saying they are "deeply alarmed" by Pruitt's decision to allow the pesticide's continued use. "There is a wealth of science demonstrating the detrimental effects of chlorpyrifos exposure to developing fetuses, infants, children and pregnant women. The risk to infant and children's health and development is unambiguous."


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Asked in April whether Pruitt had met with Dow Chemical Company executives or lobbyists before his decision, an EPA spokesman replied: "We have had no meetings with Dow on this topic." In June, after several Freedom of Information Act requests, the EPA released a copy of Pruitt's March meeting schedule which showed that a meeting had been scheduled between Pruitt and Dow CEO Andrew Liveris at a hotel in Houston, Texas, on 9 March. Both men were featured speakers at an energy conference. An EPA spokesperson reported that the meeting was brief and the pesticide was not discussed.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In August, it was revealed that in fact Pruitt and other EPA officials had met with industry representatives on dozens of occasions in the weeks immediately prior to the March decision, promising them that it was "a new day" and assuring them that their wish to continue using chlorpyrifos had been heard. Ryan Jackson, Pruitt's chief of staff, said in an 8 March email that he had "scared" career staff into going along with the political decision to deny the ban, adding "[T]hey know where this is headed and they are documenting it well."


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: On 9 August 2018 the U.S. 9th Circuit court of Appeals ruled that the EPA must ban chlorpyrifos within 60 days from that date. A spokesman for Dow DuPont stated that "all appellate options" would be considered. In contrast, Marisa Ordonia, a lawyer for Earthjustice, the organization that had conducted much of the legal work on the case, hailed the decision. The ruling was almost immediately appealed by Trump administration lawyers.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: As of August 18, 2021 the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) announced a ban on the use of chlorpyrifos on food crops in the United States.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The use of chlorpyrifos in agriculture can leave chemical residue on food commodities. The FFDCA requires EPA to set limits, known as tolerances, for pesticide residue in human food and animal feed products based on risk quotients for acute and chronic exposure from food in humans. These tolerances limit the amount of chlorpyrifos that can be applied to crops. FDA enforces EPA's pesticide tolerances and determines "action levels" for the unintended drift of pesticide residues onto crops without tolerances.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: After years of research without a conclusion and cognizant of the court order to issue a final ruling, the EPA proposed to eliminate all tolerances for chlorpyrifos ("Because tolerances are the maximum residue of a pesticide that can be in or on food, this proposed rule revoking all chlorpyrifos tolerances means that if this approach is finalized, all agricultural uses of chlorpyrifos would cease."), and then solicited comments.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The Dow Chemical Company is actively opposed to tolerance restrictions on chlorpyrifos and is currently lobbying the White House to, among other goals, pressure EPA to reverse its proposal to revoke chlorpyrifos food residue tolerances.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The EPA has not updated the approximately 112 tolerances pertaining to food products and supplies since 2006. However, in a 2016 report, EPA scientists had not been able to find any level of exposure to the pesticide that was safe. The EPA 2016 report states in part "... this assessment indicates that dietary risks from food alone are of concern ..." the report also states that previous published risk assessments for "chlorpyrifos may not provide a [sufficient] ... human health risk assessment given the potential for neurodevelopmental outcomes."


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: ″The ... [food only] exposures for chlorpyrifos are of risk concern ... for all population subgroups analyzed. Children (1–2 years old) is the population subgroup with the highest risk estimate at 14,000% of the ssPADfood.″ (This acronym refers to the steady-state population-adjusted dose for food, which is considered the maximum safe oral dose.)


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Based on 2006 EPA rules, chlorpyrifos has a tolerance of 0.1 part per million (ppm) residue on all food items unless a different tolerance has been set for that item or chlorpyrifos is not registered for use on that crop. EPA set approximately 112 tolerances pertaining to food products and supplies. In 2006, to reduce childhood exposure, the EPA amended its chlorpyrifos tolerance on apples, grapes and tomatoes, reducing the grape and apple tolerances to 0.01 ppm and eliminating the tolerance on tomatoes. Chlorpyrifos is not allowed on crops such as spinach, squash, carrots, and tomatoes; any chlorpyrifos residue on these crops normally represents chlorpyrifos misuse or spray drift.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Food handling establishments (places where food products are held, processed, prepared or served) are included in the food tolerance of 0.1 ppm for chlorpyrifos. Food handling establishments may use a 0.5% solution of chlorpyrifos solely for spot and/or crack and crevice treatments. Food items are to be removed or protected during treatment. Food handling establishment tolerances may be modified or exempted under FFDCA sec. 408.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos in waterways is regulated as a hazardous substance under section 311(b)(2)(A) of the Federal Water Pollution Control Act and falls under the CWA amendments of 1977 and 1978. The regulation is inclusive of all chlorpyrifos isomers and hydrates in any solution or mixture. EPA has not set a drinking water regulatory standard for chlorpyrifos, but has established a drinking water guideline of 2 ug/L.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In 2009, to protect threatened salmon and steelhead under CWA and ESA, EPA and National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) recommended limits on the use of chlorpyrifos in California, Idaho, Oregon and Washington and requested that manufacturers voluntarily add buffer zones, application limits and fish toxicity to the standard labeling requirements for all chlorpyrifos-based products. Manufacturers rejected the request. In February 2013 in Dow AgroSciences vs NMFS, the Fourth Circuit Court of Appeals vacated EPA's order for these labeling requirements. In August 2014, in the settlement of a suit brought by environmental and fisheries advocacy groups against EPA in the U.S. District Court for the Western District of Washington, EPA agreed to re-instate no-spray stream buffer zones in California, Oregon and Washington, restricting aerial spraying (300 ft.) and ground-based applications (60 ft.) near salmon populations. These buffers will remain until EPA makes a permanent decision in consultation with NMFS.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: EPCRA designates the chemicals that facilities must report to the Toxics Release Inventory (TRI), based on EPA assessments. Chlorpyrifos is not on the reporting list. It is on the list of hazardous substances under CERCLA (aka the Superfund Act). In the event of an environmental release above its reportable quantity of 1 lb or 0.454 kg, facilities are required to immediately notify the National Response Center (NRC).


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In 1995, Dow paid a $732,000 EPA penalty for not forwarding reports it had received on 249 chlorpyrifos poisoning incidents.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In 1989, OSHA established a workplace permissible exposure limit (PEL) of 0.2 mg/m3 for chlorpyrifos, based on an 8-hour time weighted average (TWA) exposure. However, the rule was remanded by the U.S. Circuit Court of Appeals and no PELs are in place presently.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: EPA's Worker Protection Standard requires owners and operators of agricultural businesses to comply with safety protocols for agricultural workers and pesticide handlers (those who mix, load and apply pesticides). For example, in 2005, the EPA filed an administrative complaint against JSH Farms, Inc. (Wapato, Washington) with proposed penalties of $1,680 for using chlorpyrifos in 2004 without proper equipment. An adjacent property was contaminated with chlorpyrifos due to pesticide drift and the property owner suffered from eye and skin irritation.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Additional laws and guidelines may apply for individual states. For example, Florida has a drinking water guideline for chlorpyrifos of 21 ug/L.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In 2003, Dow agreed to pay $2 million to New York state, in response to a lawsuit to end Dow's advertising of Dursban as "safe".


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Oregon's Department of Environmental Quality added chlorpyrifos to the list of targeted reductions in the Clackamas Subbasin as part of the Columbia River National Strategic Plan, which is based on EPA'S 2006–11 National Strategic Plan.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: California included regulation limits for chlorpyrifos in waterways and established maximum and continuous concentration limits of 0.025 ppb and 0.015 ppb, respectively. Sale and possession of chlorpyrifos have been largely banned in California, as of 6 February – 31 December 2020, respectively. The California ban has an exception that, "a few products that apply chlorpyrifos in granular form, representing less than one percent of agricultural use of chlorpyrifos, will be allowed to remain on the market."


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: In Hawaii, a 2018 law will ban products containing chlorpyrifos effective 2023. Before that, starting in 2019, the law requires temporary application permits and annual reporting and mandates a 100-foot buffer around schools during school hours.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The Australian Pesticides and Veterinary Medicine Authority has a Chlorpyrifos Chemical Review in progress.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos was never approved for use in Denmark, except on ornamental plants grown in greenhouses. This use was banned in 2012.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: On 6 December 2019, the European Union (EU) announced that it will no longer permit sales of chlorpyrifos after 31 January 2020.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The European Food Safety Authority released a statement in July 2019 which concluded that the approval criteria for chlorpyrifos which apply to human health are not met. Their literature review concluded that there is no evidence for reproductive toxicity in rats, but that chlorpyrifos is potentially genotoxic. The report stated that chlorpyrifos is clearly a potent acetylcholinesterase inhibitor, that it can be absorbed by ingestion, inhalation, and through the skin, and that epidemiological evidence supports the hypothesis that it is a human developmental neurotoxin that can cause early cognitive and behavioral deficits through prenatal exposure.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: The FSSAI (Food Safety and Standards Authority of India) did not set a usage limits for chlorpyrifos. In 2010, India barred Dow from commercial activity for 5 years after India's Central Bureau of Investigation found Dow guilty of bribing Indian officials in 2007 to allow the sale of chlorpyrifos. In 2020, the Indian government had published a draft bill to ban 27 pesticides including chlorpyrifos.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos was banned under Thai law effective from 1 June 2020. Farmers were given 270 days to destroy their stock, while a 90-day deadline was also given to farmers to return the chemicals for destruction, as their possession is considered illegal by the Department of Agriculture. After deadline, any person who possesses the illegal agrochemicals will be fined one million baht, jailed for 10 years, or both.


title: Chlorpyrifos

text: Chlorpyrifos is produced via a multistep synthesis from 3-methylpyridine, eventually reacting 3,5,6-trichloro-2-pyridinol with diethylthiophosphoryl chloride.


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: Boxcar Bertha is a 1972 American romantic crime drama film directed by Martin Scorsese and produced by Roger Corman, from a screenplay by Joyce H. Corrington and John William Corrington, Made on a low budget, the film is loose adaptation of "Sister of the Road", a pseudo-autobiographical account of the fictional character Bertha Thompson. It was Scorsese's second feature film.


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: Boxcar Bertha Thompson, a poor southern girl, is orphaned when her father's crop dusting airplane crashes. The Great Depression hits, and she soon takes to freighthopping. A few years later, she meets Big Bill Shelly, a union organizer, and they become lovers. Together with Rake Brown, a gambler, and Von Morton, who worked for Bertha's father, they start train and bank robbery by accident, and eventually face up to the railway boss H. Buckram Sartoris in the American South. The group become notorious fugitives of the law and are hunted down by the railway company. In the process, Rake is gunned down and Bill and Von are sent to a chain gang. Bertha escapes but is lured into prostitution. She meets Von by chance in a tavern for blacks and learns that Bill broke the jail and is now in hiding. Von leads Bertha to the hiding place where she has a moment of sweet reunion with Bill before Sartoris's henchmen break in and crucify Bill. Before they can leave, Von appears, wipes out all henchmen and releases Bertha from the bondage.


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: After the success of "Bloody Mama", Roger Corman wanted to make another female gangster film. Julie Corman researched female gangsters and came across the story of Boxcar Bertha. Martin Scorsese was hired to direct on the strength of his first feature. He was given the lead actors, including Barbara Hershey, David Carradine, and Barry Primus, and a shooting schedule of 24 days in Arkansas. The Reader Railroad was used for the train scenes.


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: The locomotive in those scenes was 1920 Baldwin 2-6-2 #108, which later saw service on the Conway Scenic Railroad in the late 1970s. The engine is currently at the Blacklands Railroad yard in Sulphur Springs, Texas, awaiting restoration. Locomotive #1702, a USATC S160 2-8-0 built by Baldwin in 1942, was also seen in the film as well. The locomotive is now operational at the Great Smoky Mountains Railroad.


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: Hershey later called the film "a lot of fun even though it's terribly crippled by Roger Corman and the violence and sex. But between the actors and Marty Scorsese the director, we had a lot of fun. We really had characters down but one tends to not see all that, because you end up seeing all the blood and sex."


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: Barbara Hershey publicly announced that they filmed the movie's sex scenes "without having to fake anything."


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: "Boxcar Bertha" received mixed reviews from critics. It holds an approval rating of 54% on review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes based on 24 reviews, with an average rating of 5.1/10. The website's critical consensus says, "Too derivative of other Roger Corman crime pictures to stand out, "Boxcar Bertha" feels more like a training exercise for a fledgling Martin Scorsese than a fully formed picture in its own right."


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film three stars out of four and called it "a weirdly interesting movie ... Director Martin Scorsese has gone for mood and atmosphere more than for action, and his violence is always blunt and unpleasant — never liberating and exhilarating, as the New Violence is supposed to be. We get the feeling we're inhabiting the dark night of a soul." "The New York Times" Howard Thompson found the film to be an "interesting surprise," praising Carradine's "excellent" performance and the "beautiful" direction by Scorsese, "who really comes into his own here." Kevin Thomas of the "Los Angeles Times" wrote, "What is most impressive about "Boxcar Bertha" ... is how 28-year old director Martin Scorsese, in his first Hollywood venture, has managed to shape such familiar material into a viable film."


title: Boxcar Bertha

text: Arthur D. Murphy of "Variety" gave the film a negative review, writing, "Whatever its intentions, "Boxcar Bertha" is not much more than an excuse to slaughter a lot of people ... The final cut has stripped away whatever mood and motivation may have been in the script, leaving little more than fights, shotgun blasts, beatings and aimless movement." Gene Siskel of the "Chicago Tribune" gave the film one star out of four and called it a "trashy movie" with violence that "does not shock. It merely depresses." Tom Milne of "The Monthly Film Bulletin" declared: "Abrasively scripted, stunningly shot, and beautifully acted by David Carradine, Barbara Hershey and Barry Primus in particular, "Boxcar Bertha" is much more than the exploitation picture it has been written off as (by "Variety," for instance) and makes a worthy companion piece to both "Bloody Mama" and "Bonnie and Clyde.""


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Diethylene glycol (DEG) is an organic compound with the formula (HOCHCH)O. It is a colorless, practically odorless, and hygroscopic liquid with a sweetish taste. It is a four carbon dimer of ethylene glycol. It is miscible in water, alcohol, ether, acetone, and ethylene glycol. DEG is a widely used solvent. It can be a contaminant in consumer products; this has resulted in numerous epidemics of poisoning since the early 20th century.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: DEG is produced by the partial hydrolysis of ethylene oxide. Depending on the conditions, varying amounts of DEG and related glycols are produced. The resulting product is two ethylene glycol molecules joined by an ether bond.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: "Diethylene glycol is derived as a co-product with ethylene glycol (MEG) and triethylene glycol. The industry generally operates to maximize MEG production. Ethylene glycol is by far the largest volume of the glycol products in a variety of applications. Availability of DEG will depend on demand for derivatives of the primary product, ethylene glycol, rather than on DEG market requirements."


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Diethylene glycol is one of several glycols derived from ethylene oxide. Glycols related to and coproduced with diethylene glycol and have the formula HOCHCH(OCHCH)OH are:


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Diethylene glycol is used in the manufacture of saturated and unsaturated polyester resins, polyurethanes, and plasticizers. DEG is used as a building block in organic synthesis, e.g. of morpholine and 1,4-dioxane. It is a solvent for nitrocellulose, resins, dyes, oils, and other organic compounds. It is a humectant for tobacco, cork, printing ink, and glue. It is also a component in brake fluid, lubricants, wallpaper strippers, artificial fog and haze solutions, and heating/cooking fuel. In personal care products (e.g. skin cream and lotions, deodorants), DEG is often replaced by selected diethylene glycol ethers. A dilute solution of diethylene glycol can also be used as a cryoprotectant; however, ethylene glycol is much more commonly used. Most ethylene glycol antifreeze contains a few percent diethylene glycol, present as a byproduct of ethylene glycol production.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Despite the discovery of DEG's toxicity in 1937 and its involvement in mass poisonings around the world, the information available regarding human toxicity is limited. Some authors suggest the minimum toxic dose is estimated at 0.14 mg/kg of body weight and the lethal dose is between 1.0 and 1.63 g/kg of body weight, while some suggest the LD in adults is of ~1 mL/kg, and others suggest this is the LD. Because of its adverse effects on humans, diethylene glycol is not allowed for use in food and drugs (in many countries). The U.S. Code of Federal Regulations allows no more than 0.2% of diethylene glycol in polyethylene glycol when the latter is used as a food additive. The Government of Australia does not allow DEG as a food additive due to its toxicity; it is only allowed at less than 0.25% w/w of DEG as an impurity of polyethylene glycol (PEG) even in toothpaste.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Diethylene glycol has "moderate to low" acute toxicity in animal experiments. The LD for small mammals has been tested at between 2 and 25 g/kg, less toxic than its relative ethylene glycol, but still capable of causing toxicity in humans (in high concentration only). It appears diethylene glycol may be more hazardous to humans than implied by oral toxicity data in laboratory animals.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Although there is limited information about toxicokinetics in humans, observations in mass poisonings and experimental studies suggest the following information:


title: Diethylene glycol

text: The principal method of absorption is through oral ingestion. Dermal absorption is very low, unless it is administered on broken or damaged skin. After ingestion, DEG is absorbed through the gastrointestinal tract and distributed by the bloodstream throughout the body, reaching peak blood concentrations within 30 to 120 minutes. Once DEG reaches the liver, it is metabolized by enzymes.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: At first, scientists thought that DEG metabolized into ethylene glycol, which is poisonous due to the metabolic production of glycolic acid, glyoxylic acid, and ultimately oxalic acid. The major cause of ethylene glycol toxicity is the accumulation of glycolic acid in the body, but the accumulation of calcium oxalate crystals in the kidneys can also lead to acute kidney failure. In the case of DEG, observations demonstrated there were no calcium oxalate crystal deposits in the kidneys, implying ethylene glycol is not on the DEG metabolic pathway. Rat models suggest DEG is metabolized in the liver by enzyme NAD-dependent alcohol dehydrogenase (ADH) into a hydrogen ion, NADH and 2-hydroxyethoxyacetaldehyde (CHO). Shortly after, 2-hydroxyethoxyacetaldehyde (CHO) is metabolized by the enzyme aldehyde dehydrogenase (ALDH) into the weak acid 2-hydroxyethoxyacetic acid (HEAA) with chemical formula CHO. Later on, HEAA leaves the liver through the bloodstream, being partially filtered in the kidneys for elimination.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Based on available literature, scientists suggest unmetabolized DEG and HEAA are partially reabsorbed through glomerular filtration. As a consequence, the concentrations of the weak acid HEAA and metabolites may cause renal delay, leading to metabolic acidosis and further liver and kidney damage.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Fomepizole or ethanol should be quickly administered to prevent diethylene glycol being metabolized to the compound or compounds that cause the real damage.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: For late diagnosis where ethanol or fomepizole is ineffective, because DEG has already been metabolized, hemodialysis becomes the only treatment available. Hemodialysis may either be administered alone or in combination with ethanol or fomepizole.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: The prognosis depends on prompt diagnosis and treatment due to the high mortality rate DEG intoxication produces. Patients who survive but develop kidney failure remain dialysis-dependent. All patients are likely to suffer significant morbidity.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: The physical properties of diethylene glycol make it an excellent counterfeit for pharmaceutical-grade glycerine (also called glycerol) or propylene glycol, and has caused many deaths in different countries. Incidents include its use in China as a component of cheap toothpaste, and by winemakers in Europe as an adulterant to create a "sweet" wine.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In 1937, S. E. Massengill Co. (a Tennessee drug company), manufactured sulfanilamide dissolved with diethylene glycol, to create a liquid alternative of this drug. The company tested the new product, Elixir sulfanilamide, for viscosity, appearance and fragrance. At the time, the food and drug laws did not require toxicological analysis before releasing for sale. When 105 people died in 15 states during the months of September and October, the trail led back to the elixir, and the toxic potential of this chemical was revealed. This episode was the impetus for the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938. This law, though extensively amended in subsequent years, remains the central foundation of FDA regulatory authority to the present day.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In Cape Town, South Africa, seven children developed vomiting, diarrhea, and dehydration, and died of kidney failure after administration of over-the-counter sedatives. Soon, patients started to present anuria, acidic breathing, hepatomegaly, and unresponsiveness. Patients were treated with fluid hydration and correction of acidosis, but some were not able to survive. Postmortem examination revealed damage in the kidneys and liver, and laboratory testing found DEG instead of propylene glycol in the sedatives.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Patients being treated for burns developed sudden anuric kidney failure. Further investigation revealed all patients were treated with topical silver sulfadiazine ointment that contained 7 g/kg of DEG. This event caused the death of five patients.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: During the month of July 1985, Austrian wines were found to contain up to 1,000 parts per million of DEG, giving them a desirable sweetness. Austrian wine was banned in many countries and the U.S. Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms started to test all imported wine.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In November, "The New York Times" published a wine recall that the Federal Government released after the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms tested 1,000 bottles. 45 Austrian, 5 German and 12 Italian wines tested positive for DEG. Some wines contained less than 10 parts per million of DEG, a small amount that could not be detected by laboratory analysis in Europe. This triggered the installation of more sensitive laboratory equipment in Banafi laboratories, Italy, and stronger alcohol regulations in Austria.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: After recalling millions of wine bottles, the Austrian Government experienced difficulty in finding a way to destroy the product. During September 1986, the Ministry of Public Works started testing a mixture of wine with salt to melt hazardous ice during winter. The primary results revealed that the mixture was more effective than using salt alone. The next year, an Austrian electric power plant (Österreichische Draukraftwerke) in Carinthia announced that technicians developed a way to produce energy through burning 30 million liters of contaminated wine.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: At a hospital in Bombay, India, patients were admitted to be treated for diverse health problems. Doctors prescribed glycerine for its osmotic diuretic effect, but patients started to develop kidney failure. Fourteen patients received hemodialysis, but the treatment failed. The episode resulted in the deaths of 21 patients and the discovery of glycerin contaminated with 18.5% v/v of DEG.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: During the summer months, 47 children were admitted to the Jos University teaching hospital, Nigeria, with anuria, fever and vomiting. The children later developed kidney failure and died. All the children had received acetaminophen syrup to treat upper respiratory infections related with malaria. Once physicians identified a suspect paracetamol syrup, samples were shipped to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) in the U.S., which identified DEG. It was assumed that DEG was used as a substitute of propylene glycol, and this incident encouraged the Nigerian government to develop pharmaceutical quality control guidelines.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In Bangladesh between 1990 and 1992, 339 children developed kidney failure, and most of them died, after being given paracetamol (acetaminophen) syrup contaminated with diethylene glycol. The outbreak forced the government to ban the sale of paracetamol elixirs in December 1992, causing a decline of 53% in the admission of patients with kidney failure and an 84% decline in admissions by unexplained kidney failure.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: A propolis syrup manufactured by Huilen Laboratories in Buenos Aires, Argentina, contained between 24 and 66.5% DEG, and caused the death of 29 people.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In the poorest country in the Western Hemisphere, disease outbreaks are not recognized unless widespread or unusual. Between November 1995 and June 1996, almost 109 children admitted to the University Hospital in Port-au-Prince, Haiti, presented with acute kidney failure. By June 1996, with no idea what was causing the epidemic, the Pan American Health Organization (PAHO) Haiti representative contacted the World Health Organization (WHO, the parent agency of PAHO), and WHO requested that the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention investigate.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Lead CDC investigator Dr. Katherine O'Brien conducted a case-control investigation, looking for potential clues to the epidemic. The study revealed a strong association between ingestion of two locally produced acetaminophen liquid products (Afebril and Valodon) and illness. Laboratory testing at CDC of samples taken from parents revealed significant contamination with DEG. The factory of the medication manufacturer, Pharval, was subsequently investigated by Dr. Joel Selanikio (also of CDC, and an Epidemic Intelligence Service classmate of Katherine O'Brien). Testing of medication samples taken from the factory samples by both CDC and by an independent commercial lab located in Miami, revealed contamination by DEG of 16.4% and higher. With the available technology of the era, the CDC determined the glycerin used in the syrup preparation was contaminated with approximately 24% DEG. As a result of the case-control findings, and subsequent investigation at the factory, public warnings were issued by the Ministry of Health and bottles of the two medications were taken from pharmacy shelves and destroyed. These measures quickly ended the advance of the epidemic.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Only 88 children deaths were recalled by doctors or had medical records. Nearly half of the victims were under the age of two.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Ending June 1996, the FDA had discovered counterfeit glycerin traced back to Chemical Trading and Consulting (a German broker), which bought 72 barrels of the syrup from Vos B.V., a Dutch company. Vos records revealed the syrup had been bought from Sinochem International Chemicals Company through a German trader, Metall-Chemie. In July 1996, the American Embassy in China contacted Sinochem and requested a list of Chinese glycerin makers, but the company refused to reveal the names. It was not until September 1996 that Sinochem provided a name of the manufacturer of the tainted syrup. They identified Tianhong Fine Chemicals Factory as the manufacturer. While the FDA tried to find out Tianhong's address, Chinese officials were reluctant to become involved. One year and a half after the FDA began to trace the poisonous shipments, an inspector, Ted Sze, finally visited the Tianhong Fine Chemicals Factory in Dalian, northeastern China. Once he was inside, there was nothing to do: the plant had already been shut down. The Dutch authorities assessed a $250,000 fine against Vos B.V., for not alerting anyone when they tested the syrup and found impurities.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Wang Guiping discovered how easy it was to enter China's pharmaceutical supply business and earn extra money. Records also revealed that to fool buyers, Wang falsified his license and laboratory analysis reports.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Wang declared that after making the first order of counterfeit syrup, he swallowed some of it. Once verifying that he was fine, he shipped it to Qiquihar No. 2 Pharmaceutical in 2005. Some time later, Wang found a reference to diethylene glycol in a chemical book. After manufacturing a second batch of syrup containing diethylene glycol for Qiquhar Pharmaceutical, no taste-test was performed. The counterfeit syrup ended in ampules of Amillarisin A, a medication for gall bladder problems; special pediatric enema fluid; blood vessel disease injections; intravenous pain reliever; and an arthritis medication.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In April 2006, the Guangdong Province Hospital of Guangzhou began administering Amillarisin A to their patients. Soon thereafter, patients died after receiving the medication. Mr. Wang was caught and Qiquihar was shut down by the authorities. Besides Wang, five employees of Qiquihar were prosecuted.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Ending September 2006, the Arnulfo Arias Madrid Hospital at Panama City was getting full with patients with contradictory symptoms. The symptoms seemed to match with Guillain–Barré syndrome, but these patients were also losing their ability to urinate, a symptom not related to Guillain–Barré. The death rate of this mysterious illness was nearly 50%, when hospital management decided to isolate all the patients with the illness in a large room and doctors could compare notes and theories. Soon, patients from other parts of the country started to arrive at hospitals. Doctors had no idea what was happening: the mysterious illness was attacking elderly citizens with hypertension and diabetes history. About half were receiving Lisinopril (a blood pressure medicine), and many did not remember clearly if they had been taking other drugs. Suspecting something wrong with Lisinopril, the medicine was removed from the pharmacies while the U.S. Food and Drug Administration conducted lab analyses, revealing the blood pressure drug was safe; CDC epidemiologists were then invited to participate.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: When a patient admitted for a heart attack developed the mysterious illness at the hospital, Dr. Nestor Sosa, an infectious disease specialist, analyzed the medical record. Because patients treated with Lisinopril developed a cough (a common side effect of ACE inhibitors), they were prescribed an expectorant. Immediately, biological samples and the syrup were sent by jet to CDC for analysis. When urine analyses for a series of metals, pesticides or their metabolites resulted negative, CDC scientists recalled the Nigeria and Haiti incidents. The CDC employed modern laboratory equipment to analyze the samples and confirm the results: the samples contained approximately 8% v/v DEG. Later, raw glycerin was analyzed and results revealed 22.2% v/v DEG.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: The Panamanian Government made a nationwide campaign, collecting around 6,000 bottles of cough syrup and three other products with the tainted glycerin manufactured by Social Security Laboratories. The 46 barrels of syrup were bought by Social Security Laboratories through a Panamanian middleman, Grupo Comercial Medicom, who bought the product from Rasfer Internacional, a Spanish company. In fact, Rasfer received the product from CNSC Fortune Way, which in turn bought it from the Taixing Glycerine Factory. At the request of the United States, the State Food and Drug Administration of China investigated Taixing Glycerine Factory and CNSC Fortune Way, but the agency concluded it is not under their jurisdiction because the factory is not certified to make medicine.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Taixing sold the syrup as “TD glycerin”, wording that neither Chinese inspectors nor Spanish medical authorities comprehended. Unfortunately, Taixing used “TD” for the Chinese word , meaning “substitute”. A New York Times reporter tried to obtain a comment from CNSC Fortune Way at the CPHI Worldwide (the world's largest annual pharmaceutical convention) held in Milan, Italy, during 2007, but their representatives refused to comment.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In August 2009, the Supreme Court decided to send the diethylene glycol file to the Public Ministry for an extension. The following month, the Toxicology Department of the Institute of Legal Medicine and Forensic Science published a list of 1,155 names whose medicine bottles tested positive for DEG. Only approximately 3,000 bottles had been analyzed from the total 6,000 bottles collected. The fiscal attorney urged affected citizens to approach the Public Ministry to update the official legal file and for further medical analysis. Two months later, findings revealed that 145 were proven to die by DEG intoxication, but the DA still has to investigate 953 lawsuits.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: The New York Times reported that Taixing was closed by the Chinese government and CNSC Fortune Way, which is also owned by the Chinese government, was never sanctioned. In Spain, Rasfer International declared bankruptcy after the lawyer of Medicom filed a lawsuit of $400 million in July 2008. Spanish authorities are prosecuting Asunción Criado, general manager of Rasfer Internacional, S.A., and await Panamanian citizens, René Luciani (former Social Security Director) and Jéssica Rodríguez (former Purchase National Director) for their hearings. Meanwhile, in Panama, De la Cruz, legal representative of Medicom, remains in jail pending a trial. Seventeen other persons have also been charged related to this incident. Panama awaits the extradition of Criado for her hearing.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Panama's case made CDC set standardized methodology for DEG identification, hoping to have more timely response in future events. The agency also identified urinary DEG as a biomarker for DEG exposures. The United States Food and Drug Administration also issued an Industry Guidance Document “intended to alert pharmaceutical manufacturers, pharmacy compounders, repackers, and suppliers to the potential public health hazard of glycerin contaminated with diethylene glycol (DEG)” and recommended appropriate testing procedures for the use of glycerin.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In May 2007, a Panamanian named Eduardo Arias discovered a 59-cent toothpaste that was labeled containing DEG. Panamanian officials traced the toothpaste to a local company in the Colón Free Trade Zone. In fact, the company bought the product in China and had already re-exported toothpaste to Costa Rica, Dominican Republic and Haiti, making Panama kick off a local warning. For the end of the month, the Chinese government committed to investigate the “supposedly” tainted toothpaste that had been recalled in Panama and Dominican Republic, but stated that, as per an essay written in 2000, a toothpaste containing 15.6% was not dangerous.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: On June 1, 2007, the FDA warned consumers to avoid toothpaste from China, although there was no information if these toothpastes had already entered the US, and started testing any imported Chinese toothpaste. Days later, Colgate-Palmolive found counterfeit toothpaste with its name, which was contaminated with DEG and found at dollar-type discount stores in New York, New Jersey, Pennsylvania and Maryland. The toothpaste was labeled as “Manufactured in South Africa” and contained misspellings like "isclinically", "SOUTH AFRICA" and "South African Dental Assoxiation". Although there were no reports of anyone harmed, several people in the eastern US reported experiencing headaches and pain after using the product. It was later discovered that a great number of tubes with poison ended up in hospitals for the mentally ill, prisons, juvenile detention centers, other hospitals and many other state institutions.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In July 2007, health authorities in the UK detected a counterfeit Sensodyne toothpaste on sale at a car boot sale in Derbyshire. Soon, other countries also recalling Chinese-made toothpaste were Belize, Canada, Mozambique, Saudi Arabia, New Zealand, Spain, Italy, Japan, and Ireland, plus an Indianapolis, Indiana US hotel-supplier that distributed Chinese toothpaste in Barbados, Belgium, Bermuda, Britain, Canada, Dominican Republic, France, Germany, Ireland, Italy, Mexico, Spain, Switzerland, Turks and Caicos, the United Arab Emirates and United States. What began as a local alert revealed a global problem in more than 30 countries and involving more than thirty brands. The world outcry made Chinese officials ban the practice of using diethylene glycol in toothpaste.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Ending November 2008, infants started to die after developing unexplained fevers and vomiting.  Investigations revealed that all had taken a medicine called “My Pikin Baby”, a teething mixture tainted with diethylene glycol. The poison had caused the death of at least 84 Nigerian children between ages of two months and seven years.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: The Nigerian government traced the diethylene glycol to an unlicensed chemical dealer in Lagos, who sold it to a local pharmaceutical manufacturer. Barewa Pharmaceuticals was shut down and the product was pulled off the shelves. They also arrested 12 people in connection with the incident. This being the second incident involving counterfeit glycerine, it prompted the Nigerian National Agency for Food And Drug Administration and Control (NAFDAC) to adopt zero tolerance for counterfeits.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In December 2019, some people in the city of Belo Horizonte, initially all from the same neighbourhood, started having symptoms such as nausea, vomiting, abdominal pain, acute kidney failure, facial nerve paralysis, blurred vision, temporary blindness and sensory changes. On 9 January 2020, a police report indicated quantities of diethylene glycol in one brand of beer from the small upscale brewery Backer that could have poisoned 18 people in Belo Horizonte and other cities in Minas Gerais state. On 17 January, the police confirmed the fourth death from symptoms matching DEG poisoning, and DEG contamination had been found in eight brands of beer from the same brewery. On 9 June, the police indicted 11 people, including brewery owners and employees, for manslaughter, unintentional bodily harm and food contamination. On 18 July, the 10th victim died in a Belo Horizonte hospital, a 65-year-old man who had been hospitalized since December 2019 due to the poisoning. The investigation revealed that DEG had been used as a coolant for the brewery equipment, in what should have been a closed circuit, but an undetected leak in the system contaminated some batches of beer.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: In the first week of 2020, around 17 children from Ramnagar, in the union territory of Jammu and Kashmir, were hospitalised, more than half of whom died of kidney failure. The regional drug controller authorities after investigation found out that a faulty batch of the Coldbest PC cough syrup contained 34.97% of diethylene glycol, which resulted in poisoning and subsequent renal failures. The product was recalled and after an investigation, the Drug Controller General of India, VG Somani, said at India Pharma 2020, that the GMP was not followed, and negligence was found during the production process itself. The Himachal Pradesh government is filing a criminal case against the company and its executives.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: The WHO issued a medical product alert for four “contaminated” Indian pediatric medicines, manufactured by a firm in Haryana’s Sonepat, saying these drugs identified in Gambia had been potentially linked with acute kidney injuries and 70 deaths among children in the west African country. The cough and cold syrups produced by Maiden Pharmaceuticals Limited, Sonepat in India.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: WHO said laboratory analysis of samples of each of the four products confirmed that they contain unacceptable amounts of diethylene glycol and ethylene glycol as contaminants.


title: Diethylene glycol

text: Subsequently, on 21 October 2022, 99 children were reported dead in Indonesia after ingesting the cough syrups. As a result authorities in Indonesia banned all syrup medicines. However, they advised that the syrups suspected of causing the deaths in Gambia, were not sold locally in Indonesia.


title: 1978 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Note that this squad is numbered alphabetically by surname, unlike traditional numbering systems where the goalkeeper has shirt number 1 and so forth.


title: 1978 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Jan Jongbloed wore number 8 because some of the players who had been in the Dutch squad at the 1974 FIFA World Cup, where the Netherlands used a purely alphabetical numbering system, were given the same numbers again in 1978. Hugo Hovenkamp withdrew from the squad before the tournament began, but after the deadline for naming replacement players had passed. The Netherlands thus went to the World Cup with only 21 players.


title: 1978 FIFA World Cup squads

text: Each national team had to submit a squad of 22 players. All the teams included 3 goalkeepers, except Mexico who only called two.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Kerala is a state in south-western India. Most of Kerala's 34.8 million people (in 2011) are ethnically Malayalis (Malayalam speakers). Most of the Malayalam and English speaking Keralites derive their ancestry from Dravidian communities that settled in Kerala. Additional ancestries derive from millennia of trade links across the Arabian Sea, whereby people of Arab, Jewish, Syrian and other ethnicities settled in Kerala. Many of these immigrants intermarried with native Malayalam speakers resulting in formation of many Muslims and Christians in Kerala. Some Muslims and Christians thus take lineage from Middle Eastern settlers mixed with local population.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Malayalam is Kerala's official language and is spoken by at least 97% of the people of Kerala; the next most common languages are English and Tamil which is spoken mainly by migrant workers from the neighbouring state of Tamil Nadu. Tulu and Kannada is spoken in northern parts of Kasaragod district, bordering Karnataka. In addition, Kerala is home to 321,000 indigenous tribal "Adivasis" (1.10% of the populace). Some 63% of tribals reside in the eastern districts of Wayanad (where 35.82% are tribals), Palakkad (1.02%), and Idukki (15.66%). These groups, including the Paniyars, Mooppans, Irulars, Kurumbars, and Mudugars, speak their own native languages. Cholanaikkan tribe in the Silent Valley National Park were contacted only in the 1970s and they are the most isolated tribe in the state.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Kerala is home to 2.76% of India's population, and at 859 persons per km; its land is three times as densely settled as the rest of India. Kerala's western coastal regions are the most densely settled with population of 2,022 persons per km, 2.5 times the overall population density of the state, 859 persons per km, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated. However, Kerala's population growth rate is far lower than the national average, although Kerala's population more than doubled between 1951 and 1991 – adding 15.6 million people to reach a total of 29.1 million residents in 1991 – the population stood at 31.8 million by 2001 and 33.3 million in 2011. Kerala's people are most densely settled in the coastal region, leaving the eastern hills and mountains comparatively sparsely populated. Kerala is the second-most urbanised major state in the country with 47.7% urban population according to the 2011 Census of India.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Hinduism is followed by the majority of Keralites (54.7%). The major religions followed in Kerala are Hinduism (54.7% — Hinduism in Kerala), Islam (26.6%) and Christianity (18.4%).


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Kerala also had a tiny Jewish population until recently, said to date from 587 BC when they fled the occupation of Jerusalem by Nebuchadnezzar. The 2001 Indian census recorded only 51 Jews in Kerala. The synagogue in Kochi is the oldest in the Commonwealth of Nations.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: The state has many famous temples, mosques, and churches. The oldest church in India is found in Kerala, believed to be established by St. Thomas, the disciple of Jesus Christ and the Cheramaan Juma Mosque is considered to be the oldest mosque in the Indian subcontinent which was built by an Islamic missionary Malik Dinar.


Demographics of Kerala


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Kerala ranks highest in India with respect to social development indices such as elimination of poverty, primary education and healthcare. This resulted from significant efforts begun in 1911 by the erstwhile Princely states of Cochin and Travancore to boost healthcare and education among the people and aided by the Christian missionaries. This central focus – deemed unusual in India – was then maintained after Kerala's post-independence inauguration as a state. Thus, Kerala has the highest literacy rate in India of 93.91% (2011); and life expectancy is now the highest in India. The suicide rates in Kerala are the highest in India. As per the 2011 census, Kerala and Puducherry are the only domiciles in India with a female-to-male ratio higher than 0.99. The ratio for Kerala is 1.084 – 1084 females per 1000 males – while the national figure is 0.940. It is also one of the states in India to have sub-replacement fertility.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: UNICEF and the World Health Organization (WHO) designated Kerala as the world's first "baby-friendly state" via its "Baby Friendly Hospital Initiative". The state is also known for Ayurveda, a traditional system of medicine – this traditional expertise is currently drawing increasing numbers of medical tourists. However, drawbacks to this situation includes the population's steady ageing – indeed, 11.2% of Keralites are age 60 or over.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Kerala's unusual socioeconomic and demographic situation was summarised by author and environmentalist Bill McKibben:


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: As of 2011, a total of 2,280,000 Keralites reside outside India. Largest populations are found in UAE (883,313) and USA (680,076).


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: There are more than 2,500,000 migrants living in Kerala, mostly from Assam and West Bengal, constituting more than 8% of the population. There are also migrants from Bihar, Jharkhand, Chhattisgarh, Orissa, and the North East.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Studies indicate that by the time of 2026 state elections, migrants will become a crucial voting block in many of the constituencies in Thiruvananthapuram, Kollam, Kochi, Kozhikode, Thrissur and Kannur districts.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: According to 2011 Census of India, Kerala has six 1.5 million-plus urban agglomerations: Kochi, Kozhikode, Thrissur, Malappuram, Thiruvananthapuram, and Kannur, all of which has a population of at least 1.5 million. Over a third of Keralites live in these large cities (a higher percentage than any other state), and over half the population lives in urban centres.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: According to the 2011 Census, 7 of the top 50 most populous metropolitan areas in India belong to Kerala. They are Kochi, Kozhikode, Thrissur, Malappuram, Thiruvananthapuram, Kannur and Kollam ranking 17, 19, 21, 25, 26, 27 and 48 respectively.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: The surprising aspect in these corporation numbers are that Kochi Corporation, despite being inside the state's largest urban agglomeration, is only the 2nd most populous and 4th largest in terms of area in the state. This anomaly is because the corporation limits have not been updated since its formation in 1967, and thus expansion of these outdated limits has become a big demand in Kochi.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: However, since cities are ranked in terms of their Urban Agglomeration statistics and not in terms of Local self governing bodies statistics (as seen in the Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs (MOHUA) official rankings), Kochi secures the number 1 spot in the state in terms of largest cities as one can observe below.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: The following is a list of most populous urban agglomerations in the Kerala state of India. Population statistics indicated are as of 2011 census.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: The vast majority of residents of Kerala are Malayalis, but there are many smaller ethnic groups including Tuluvas, Tamils, Kannadigas and Konkanis. In addition, as of early 2013 there are close to 2.5 million (7.5% of state population) migrant workers from other states of India in Kerala.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Kerala is the most unilingual state of India in which about 97% of the total population speak Malayalam as their Native language. However, this may be conflated due to the way languages are organised in the census system in India. In addition, there is a significant Tamil population in Idukki district, which accounts for 17.48% of its total population. Tulu and Kannada are spoken in the northern portions of Kasaragod district, each of which account for 8.77% and 4.23% of total population in the district respectively.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Hindus constitute 54.7% of the population of Kerala, followed by Islam with 26.6% population and Christianity at third with 18.4% population as per 2011 census.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: The Scheduled Caste (SC) population of Kerala State is 3,123,941 which is 9.8% of overall population. Scheduled Tribes in Kerala, with a population of 364,000, constitute 1.14% of the population.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Catholic church (Syrian and Latin rites) is the largest denomination among Kerala Christians. Malankara orthodox church, Jacobite Syrian orthodox church and Marthomite Syrian church denominations claim Syrian roots. Major Protestant groups include Church of South India (CSI), various Pentecostal churches. Chaldean Syrian, Seventh Day Adventists, Salvation Army are some other denominations.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Kerala has approximately 35 distinct scheduled tribes that constitute 1.3% of the population. Though entirely unique, their languages are often not highlighted as distinct in the census. The Paniyan, who are the numerically dominant tribe, live in north east of the state and practice settled cultivation. The Kattunaikan, Kurichian and Kuruman belong to the same region. Palleyan, Palliyan and Palliyar inhabit the Idukki region not far from the Anamalai and Palani hills of Tamil Nadu where you find the same population. The Kadar, Irular, Kurumbas, Maha malasar and Malasar inhabit the Palghat region close to their counterparts in Niligiri and Anamalai hills of Tamil Nadu. The same is the case of the Kudiya and Koraga living in the northern most tip of the state next to Kodagu and Dakshina Kannada region of Karnataka.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Birth Rate was 17.1 in 1994–2001 (20.3 in 1984–1990 & 25.0 in 1974–1980). Pathanamthitta (14.5 in 1994–2001, 17.2 in 1984–1990 & NA in 1974–1980) had the lowest TBR and Malappuram(22.4, 29.5 & 33.6) had the highest TBR.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: According to the 2011 Census, Thiruvalla taluk has the lowest birth rate and Tirurangadi taluk has the highest birth rate.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: Of the emigrants from Kerala, 42.2% were Muslims, 36.6% were Hindus and 21.2% were Christians in 1992–93. The most preferred destination was Saudi Arabia (37.8%), followed by UAE (25.9%), Other Gulf countries (13.0%), Oman (11.8%), Other Countries (7.5%) and USA(3.8%).


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: According to the 2011 census, women outnumber men in all the districts of Kerala with the highest proportion in Kannur and Pathanamthitta districts.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: In 1991, Kerala had the lowest TFR (Children born per women) in the whole of India. Hindus had a TFR of 1.66, Christians had 1.78 and Muslims had 2.97. In 2000, the TFR was 1.73 with Muslims having 2.28, Nairs having a TFR of 1.47 and Syrian Christians having TFR of 1.55. TFR for Scheduled Castes was 1.52 in 1997–98 and 1.37 in 1992–93. The lowest Fertility rate recorded anywhere in India is TFR of 1.17 for Vettuvan caste in Kerala.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: As per the 2011 Census, the fertility rate per community is as Hindu: 1.544 children per woman, Muslim: 2.351 and Christian: 1.716. For SC, the fertility is 1.485 and for ST, it is 1.629.


title: Demographics of Kerala

text: For Hindus, the TFR is highest in Wayanad (1.710) and lowest in Thiruvananthapuram (1.435). For the Muslims, it is Kannur (2.779) and Pathanamthitta (1.707), while for the Christians the respective districts are Kasaragod (1.929) and Kollam (1.539).


title: Thames Tunnel

text: The Thames Tunnel is a tunnel beneath the River Thames in London, connecting Rotherhithe and Wapping. It measures 35 feet (11 m) wide by 20 feet (6 m) high and is 1,300 feet (396 m) long, running at a depth of 75 feet (23 m) below the river surface measured at high tide. It is the first tunnel known to have been constructed successfully underneath a navigable river and was built between 1825 and 1843 by Marc Brunel and his son Isambard using the tunnelling shield newly invented by the elder Brunel and Thomas Cochrane.