title: India and the United Nations

text: Despite its anti-status quo stand on many global issues, India's attitude toward the basic structure of the UN was fundamentally conservative. It accepted the organization and distribution of power in the UN, as both a guarantee of Indian sovereignty and as a check on the numerical superiority of the U.S. and its western coalition. India supported the charter provisions for a Security Council veto for the great powers, opposed the U.S. initiative to circumvent the veto through the Uniting for Peace Resolution, dismissed Hammarskjöld's notion of a "UN presence" as interventionist and opposed all efforts to conduct UN directed plebiscites as tests of opinion.


title: India and the United Nations

text: India's procedural conservatism was based both on its commitment to national sovereignty and its desire to protect Indian interests. Its experience with the UN had not always been positive. In the early years after independence, a whole range of issues, which had their origins in the partition of the Indian subcontinent between India and Pakistan, came before the UN. These issues included the disputed princely states of Junagadh, Hyderabad and Kashmir, which were ultimately incorporated into the Indian Union through the use of military force.


title: India and the United Nations

text: The most persistent of these disputes was the Kashmir conflict. Nehru's faith in the UN and adherence to its principles proved costly on some occasions due to the power play inherent in the organization. This was seen by his decision to refer Pakistan's intervention ('invasion') in disputed Kashmir to the UN Security Council in January 1948. The United Kingdom, which was hoping to avoid being seen as unfriendly to a Muslim state after the creation of Israel, used pressure tactics on its allies France, Canada and the US to support the Pakistani viewpoint that Kashmir's accession to India was disputable and had to be put to the test of a plebiscite. Nehru's hope that the UN would unconditionally instruct Pakistan to vacate the one-third portion of Kashmir that the Pakistani tribesmen and army had occupied fell flat in the face of geopolitical manoeuvrings and cross-issue linkage. To this day, Indian strategic commentators and critics of Nehru bemoan his cardinal mistake of taking the Kashmir dispute to a UN that was packed with pro-Pakistani partisan powers. According to columnist Brahma Chellaney, 'Nehru did not appreciate that the UN was an institution of power politics, not an impartial police force'. As if a double reminder were needed that India was small fry in a UN dominated by crafty Great Powers divided into two ideological camps, New Delhi was disappointed to find that Security Council members the US, United Kingdom and France tried to prevent it from forcibly absorbing the Portuguese colony of Goa in 1961. But for the Soviet veto in favour of India, Goa could have become enmeshed in another Kashmir-like stalemate for decades, buffeted by the changing winds of Great Power alignments and preferences that were paralysing and hijacking the UN.


title: India and the United Nations

text: Overall the period from 1947-1962 was marked by India's active interest in all UN activities under the leadership of V. K. Krishna Menon who was the Indian Ambassador to the United Nations from 1952-1962. Indian leadership and peacekeeping roles in the UN brought it considerable recognition and global standing.


title: India and the United Nations

text: India's defeat in the Sino-Indian War came as a grave shock compared to its global aspirations and recognition. Large-scale hostilities and military reverse dealt a shattering blow to its self-confidence and pride. India was obliged to turn towards the west for military and political support. Following the conflict with China, India became involved in two wars with Pakistan and entered a period of political instability, economic stagnation, food shortages and near-famine conditions. India's role diminished in the UN which came both as a result of its image and a deliberate decision by the post-Nehru political leadership to adopt a low profile at the UN and speak only on vital Indian interests. This change in policy was implemented during the 1965 debate on Kashmir in the Security Council when Indian Foreign Minister Swaran Singh dramatically stormed out of the session in response to the intemperate language of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, Pakistan's Foreign Minister. In his book ""India's Changing Role in the United Nations"" Stanley Kochanek shows how 'bilateralism became the guiding principle of Indian foreign policy', relegating the UN to just an 'arena for maintaining such contacts'. Further the Soviet Union's backing became far more important than a slow and indecisive UN Security Council when India obtained its greatest strategic victory by beating China in the 1967 War and breaking up Pakistan into two and carving out independent Bangladesh in 1971.


title: India and the United Nations

text: In 1974, India tested its first nuclear device, the aftermath of which resulted in an atomic embargo by the US and Canada. Soon after the UN's non-proliferation agenda became another irritant that forced New Delhi to view some units of the organization with distaste as fronts for imposing discriminatory regimes instead of promoting universal disarmament. From the very beginning it has refused to lend its support to the Nuclear Non-proliferation Treaty with India's then External Affairs Minister and later President, Pranab Mukherjee in a visit to Tokyo in 2007 commenting that: ""If India did not sign the NPT, it is not because of its lack of commitment for non-proliferation, but because we consider NPT as a flawed treaty and it did not recognise the need for universal, non-discriminatory verification and treatment."" In short, the 1960s as a whole saw major changes in the global system but a general decline in UN activities.


title: India and the United Nations

text: From January 2011 to January 2013, India was a non permanent member of the UN Security Council. According to Rejaul Karim Laskar, a scholar of India's foreign policy, as a non-permanent member from January 2011 to January 2013, India played a crucial role on important international issues with a view to promote international peace and security as well as India's own national security.


title: India and the United Nations

text: From January 2021 onwards, India became a non-permanent member of the UN Security Council for the 8th time. India's term will last through 2021 and 2022. India became the President of the Security Council in the month of August 2021 and will hold the position once more in the month December 2022. India aims to focus on issues like maritime security, peacekeeping, counter-terrorism, Africa, etc. India seeks a permanent seat in the Security Council as a member of the G4.


title: India and the United Nations

text: India has been seeking a permanent seat on the United Nations Security Council as a member of the G4, an organization composed of Brazil, Germany, Japan, and India, all who are currently seeking permanent representation. The Russian Federation, United States, United Kingdom and France support India and the other G4 countries gaining permanent seats.


title: India and the United Nations

text: According to the G4 proposal, the UN Security Council should be expanded beyond the current fifteen members to include twenty-five members. If this actually happens, it would be the first time permanent Security Council status is extended to a South Asian nation and supporters of the G4 plan suggest that this will lead to greater representation of developing nations rather than the current major powers.


title: India and the United Nations

text: India makes a number of claims to justify its demand. India has the world's second largest population and is the world's largest liberal democracy. It is also the world's fifth largest economy and third largest in terms of purchasing power parity as of 2020. India is the largest contributor of troops to United Nations peacekeeping missions with 7,860 personnel deployed with ten UN Peacekeeping Missions as of 2014 after Bangladesh and Pakistan, all three nations being in South Asia. India has contributed more than 180,000 troops, the largest number from any country, participated in more than 43 missions and 156 Indian peacekeepers have made the supreme sacrifice while serving in UN missions. India has also provided and continues to provide eminent Force Commanders for UN Missions.


title: India and the United Nations

text: Although the U.S. and other permanent Council members were not very supportive of expanding the Security Council, in his visit to India, US President Barack Obama has offered his support for India to become a permanent member of the Council. However, the reaction from other Council members are not very clear, particularly from China. Thus it is uncertain whether the demands by G4 nations will be implemented anytime soon.


title: India and the United Nations

text: According to a formal statement by Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi at the General Debate of the 75th Session of the United Nations General Assembly :


title: India and the United Nations

text: From 1945 to present, a total of 4 members from India have been appointed as Judges of the International Court of Justice, the primary judicial branch of the United Nations. Moreover, Nagendra Singh was appointed as the President from 1985 to 1988. In addition, 3 member have also served as Judges sitting ad hoc.


title: India and the United Nations

text: Now India's Supreme Court Justice 'Justice: Dalveer Bhandari' has been appointed as the judge in International Court of Justice for a second term. Justice Dalveer Bhandari has studied at JNVU Jodhpur and served as judge in both high court and The Supreme Court in India.


title: India and the United Nations

text: In November 2016, Vinod Rai was appointed as Chairman of UN Panel of External Auditors and Shashi Kant Sharma as Member of the United Nations Board of Auditor General.


title: India and the United Nations

text: Joint Inspection Unit is the only independent external oversight body of the United Nations system mandated to conduct evaluations, inspections and investigations system-wide. Achamkulangare Gopinathan currently serves as Chairman, since January 2013. He was re-appointed to this post.


title: India and the United Nations

text: Many schools in India have now started taking up Model United Nations to educate their students about global issues.


title: India and the United Nations

text: In service to the United Nations, Satish Nambiar was appointed as 1st Force Commander and Head of Mission of UNPROFOR and Jai Shanker Menon as Head of Mission and Force Commander of United Nations Disengagement Observer Force.


title: India and the United Nations

text: According to UN estimates, India is currently the fourth-largest police-contributing country with 1,009 officers, and the third-largest contributor of female police officers.


title: India and the United Nations

text: As of 16 April 2019, the United Nations had arrears of USD 38 million to India for its troop contributions.


title: India and the United Nations

text: On 11 December 2014, the United Nations General Assembly adopted without a vote a resolution commemorating 21 June as the International Yoga Day, recognising the holistic benefits of this timeless practice and its inherent compatibility with the principles and values of the United Nations.


title: India and the United Nations

text: In 2016, with focus on combating inequalities to achieve Sustainable Development Goals, B. R. Ambedkar's birth anniversary was observed at the United Nations for the first time. India has made a plea to declare April 14 as International Equality Day.


title: India and the United Nations

text: For FY 2015-16, India's contribution to the United Nations was , which was 55 per cent more compared with the previous fiscal. India is a contributor to the UN regular budget. Indian contribution to United Nations Democracy Fund was USD 250 million until 2009.


title: India and the United Nations

text: India has a permanent mission to the UN, which is led by the Permanent Representative (UN Ambassador), currently Ruchira Kamboj, who was appointed in July 2022.


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: Atthaphan Phunsawat (; also known as Gun (), born 4 October 1993) is a Thai actor and host. He is best known for his role as Punn in "The Gifted" (2018), Third in "Theory of Love" (2019), Black/White in "Not Me" (2021–2022)


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: Atthaphan was born on 4 October 1993 in Bangkok, Thailand. He used to study Business Administration at the University of Bangkok but now he is studying Political Science at Ramkhamhaeng University.


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: At a young age, Atthaphan entered the entertainment industry supported by his mother, who knew about her son's ambitions: 'Mommy, Gun wants to be on TV', he reminisced in an interview. With her support, he auditioned for film companies and became the first winner of The Boy Model Competition 2003.


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: His first main role came in 2004's 'Gomin', one of his more popular works in Thailand. This folklore soap-opera was very popular when it aired and pushed Gun to become a known child actor at the age of nine to ten. Since then, he has been continuously active in the industry—to a greater or lesser extent—taking part in a pile of Channel 7 and Channel 3's TV dramas throughout his childhood.


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: Particularly, it was in the field of cinema that Atthaphan started to stand out in the drama genre, where he was noticed in alternative productions such as Kongkiat Khomsiri's "Slice" (2009), a Thai thriller where a teenage Gun surprised audiences by portraying an abused child, subsequently being nominated for the Suphannahong National Film Awards and to win Best Supporting Actor at the 7th Chalerm Thai Awards (2010).


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: Another production that earned him prestige for his acting prowess was undoubtedly Anucha Boonyawatana's film 'The Blue Hour' (2015), whose role of Tam won him a nomination of Best Actor at Thai Film Directors Association Awards and another at Suphannahong National Film Awards (2016), additionally winning Performance of the Year at the Bioscope Awards 2015 alongside his co-star Oabnithi Wiwattanawarang (Oab).


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: After signing with GMMTV in 2016, Gun gained prominence for playing Rome in 'Senior Secret Love: Puppy Honey' (2016) and its respective sequel alongside Jumpol Adulkittiporn. The strong chemistry between the two led them to host web programs, to release the single 'Too Cute To Handle' and starring roles in the romantic drama 'Theory of Love' (2019). Together, Off and Gun received numerous Best Couple Awards from award-giving bodies such as Maya Awards (2018, 2019) and LINE TV Awards (2019, 2020).


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: Atthaphan also found independent acclaim for his performance as Punn in 'The Gifted' (2018), for which he won Best Fight Scene at the LINE TV Awards (2019) and Best Actor in a Supporting Role at the 24th Asian Television Awards (2020).


title: Atthaphan Phunsawat

text: Outside his acting career, Gun owns the clothing brand GENTE and co-owns another clothing brand Too Cute To Be Cool with actresses Alice Tsoi and Nichaphat Chatchaipholrat (Pearwah).


title: Anton Newcombe

text: Anton Alfred Newcombe (born August 29, 1967) is an American singer, songwriter, multi-instrumentalist, producer, and founder of the music group The Brian Jonestown Massacre.


title: Anton Newcombe

text: Newcombe was the subject of the 2004 documentary film "Dig!", along with Portland, Oregon alternative rock band The Dandy Warhols.


title: Anton Newcombe

text: Newcombe started in the 1980s recording with a band called Homeland. Besides his own group, Newcombe has worked with a number of bands, most notably The Dandy Warhols, The High Dials, The Manvils, Innaway, and The Quarter After. He recorded and produced Dead Meadow's album "Got Live if You Want It", and recorded a cover of Ewan MacColl's song "Dirty Old Town" with Lorraine Leckie on her 2008 album "Four Cold Angels".


title: Anton Newcombe

text: Newcombe founded the musical group The Brian Jonestown Massacre in San Francisco, California in 1990. Core members in the early years included Matt Hollywood, Jeffrey Davies, Joel Gion, Travis Threlkel, Peter Hayes, Patrick Straczek, Ricky Maymi, Brian Glaze, Elise Dye and Dean Taylor, although the line up was subject to frequent changes. Newcombe wrote most of the group's songs, with Hollywood collaborating or contributing others on occasion. Following Hollywood's departure from the group in 1998, Newcombe's name became almost synonymous with The Brian Jonestown Massacre. Newcombe was also heavily involved in the post-production of his albums, often engineering and mixing them on his own. A prolific artist, he authored over 150 songs in a 15-year period.


title: Anton Newcombe

text: Newcombe recorded two albums with Toronto singer-songwriter Tess Parks: "I Declare Nothing" in 2015, and the eponymous "Tess Parks & Anton Newcombe" in 2018.


title: Anton Newcombe

text: In 2019, Newcombe founded the musical group L’Épée along with French film star Emmanuelle Seigner and The Limiñanas.


title: Anton Newcombe

text: Newcombe founded the record label A Recordings Ltd., where he releases records for The Brian Jonestown Massacre and other artists including Dead Meadow and the Vacant Lots.


title: Anton Newcombe

text: Part of Newcombe's life is featured prominently in the documentary film "Dig!" which focuses on the tense relationship between The Brian Jonestown Massacre and The Dandy Warhols as both bands struggle for success.


title: Anton Newcombe

text: Newcombe has battled drug addiction, alcoholism and depression. He lives in Berlin with his wife, Katy, and their son, Wolfgang.


title: Flathead Lake

text: The lake is a remnant of the ancient, massive glacial dammed lake, Lake Missoula of the era of the last interglacial. Flathead Lake is a natural lake along the mainline of the Flathead River. It was dammed in 1930 by Kerr Dam at its outlet on Polson Bay, slightly raising the lake level; the dam generates electricity. The hydroelectric has been owned and operated by the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes since 2015. It is one of the cleanest lakes in the populated world for its size and type.


title: Flathead Lake

text: Located in the northwest corner of the state of Montana, south of Kalispell, it is approximately long and wide, covering . It is a similar size as Minnesota's Mille Lacs Lake, but smaller than Red Lake. It is about half the area of San Francisco Bay (main bay). It is larger in surface area than Lake Tahoe, but it is much smaller in volume due to Tahoe's depth. Flathead Lake has a maximum depth of , and an average of . This makes Flathead Lake deeper than the average depths of the Yellow Sea or the Persian Gulf. Flathead Lake is in a scenic part of Montana, southwest of Glacier National Park and is flanked by two scenic highways, which wind along its curving shoreline. On the west side is U.S. Route 93, and on the east, is Route 35.


title: Flathead Lake

text: The lake is bordered on its eastern shore by the Mission Mountains and on the west by the Salish Mountains. The Flathead valley was formed by the glacial damming of the Flathead River and sustains a remarkably mild climate for a region located this far north and inland; the Pacific Ocean is almost to the west. The mild climate allows for cherry orchards on the east shore and vineyards for wine production on the west shore. There are also apple, pear and plum orchards around the lake as well as vegetables, hay, honey, nursery tree, Christmas tree, sod/turf, and wheat production bordering or near the lake.


title: Flathead Lake

text: Melita Island is a island on Flathead Lake, located about one-half mile off the west lakeshore. At its highest point Melita is above water level. The closest access is from Walstad Landing (one and a half miles), a state-maintained landing off Highway 93, approximately 15 minutes north of Polson. The island is owned by the Montana Council of the Boy Scouts of America, and is home to Camp Melita Island, and is used and for other activities; there is a project for woodland rehabilitation run by the Montana Council. There is also a bald eagle reserve which is protected by the Native Americans. Boy Scouts began using the island in the 1940s.


title: Flathead Lake

text: Once known as "Salish Lake", this body of water was named for the Salish Indians. Early European explorers, like David Thompson, called them the Flathead Indians because of a misinterpretation of early Native American sign language. A common misconception is that the name is derived from a practice of head flattening more common among tribes such as the Chinook. There is no evidence to show that the Salish ever had this custom. Since the late 19th century, the Salish were mostly removed to the Flathead Indian Reservation, located at the southern end of the lake.


title: Flathead Lake

text: The Seli’š Ksanka Qlispe’ Dam, built near Polson, regulates the lake's water level, generates hydroelectric power, and provides water for irrigation to support agriculture in the area. The lake has an irregularly shaped shoreline and a dozen small islands, the largest of which is a state park called Wild Horse Island. These islands cover .


title: Flathead Lake

text: The Flathead River and the Swan River (known also as the Bigfork River where it enters the lake) are the lake's major tributaries. The lake is inhabited by the native bull trout and cutthroat trout, as well as the non-native lake trout, yellow perch, and lake whitefish. Local residents have reported sighting other aquatic fauna in the lake as well, such as sturgeon and the Flathead Lake Monster.


title: Flathead Lake

text: The non-native opossum shrimp, ("Mysis diluviana"), were introduced by Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks in the Flathead drainage basin to encourage production of larger kokanee salmon; they migrated into Flathead Lake and have altered the ecosystem.


title: Flathead Lake

text: Fishermen had introduced lake trout 80 years prior but remained at low densities until the non-native Mysis became established. The bottom-dwelling mysids eliminated a recruitment bottleneck for lake trout by providing a deep water source of food where little was available previously. Lake trout subsequently flourished on mysids; this voracious piscivore now dominates the lake fishery. The formerly abundant kokanee were extirpated, and native bull and westslope cutthroat trout are imperiled. Predation by Mysis has shifted zooplankton and phytoplankton community size structure. Bayesian change point analysis of primary productivity (27-y time series) showed a significant step increase of 55 mg C m−2 d−1 (i.e., 21% rise) concurrent with the mysid invasion, but little trend before or after despite increasing nutrient loading. Mysis facilitated predation by lake trout and indirectly caused the collapse of kokanee, redirecting energy flow through the ecosystem that would otherwise have been available to other top predators (bald eagles).


title: Flathead Lake

text: Flathead Lake lies at the southern end of a geological feature called the Rocky Mountain Trench. The trench, which formed with the Rocky Mountains, extends north into the southern Yukon as a straight, steep valley, which also holds the headwaters of the Columbia River. During the last ice age this trench was filled by an enormous glacier. As the glacier moved southward it carved out the trench. The Polson Moraine, near present-day Polson, Montana, marks the southernmost extent of the glacier during the last ice age and thus is the site of the glacier's terminal moraine.


title: Flathead Lake

text: The large size of the Polson Moraine indicates that the glacier stalled here for many years before retreating. As the climate warmed, a portion of the glacier in the Mission Valley receded more slowly than the main body, which kept the lake basin from being filled with sediment. Eventually this ice also melted, forming a lake behind the moraine. Once the water reached the top of this moraine dam, it began to cut a channel through it. Most moraine dammed lakes drain quickly because water cuts entirely through the moraine. However, Flathead Lake remains because a bedrock hill buried underneath the Polson Moraine prevented the moraine from being completely cut through so the meltwater never completely drained.


title: Flathead Lake

text: At one time, probably when the valley was partially filled by a glacier, the level of Flathead Lake was about higher and drained through the valley west of Elmo, Montana, which is at the end of Big Arm Bay, bottom center in the aerial photo above. Water carved out a wide, flat-bottomed pass with a deeper, narrow channel at the south edge of the pass. The deeper channel and traces of the dry riverbed are still visible from Route 28.


title: Flathead Lake

text: Flathead Lake is home to a number of native and non-native fishes, and is managed cooperatively by both Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks and the Confederated Salish and Kootenai Tribes. The lake is home to the semi-annual "Mack Days" Lake Trout fishing contest, which aims to reduce the non-native "Mackinaw trout" or lake trout ("Salvelinus namaycush") populations, as well as educate people about the Flathead Lake Fisheries Management Plan. Like the majority of other nonnative species, they became established in the lake from the late 1800s-early 1900s. The introduction of lake trout has placed increased pressure on the ecologically similar threatened native bull trout ("Salvelinus confluentus").


title: Flathead Lake

text: Since the inception of this event in 2002, over 402,000 lake trout have been harvested. Another recent introduced non-native fish is the Dodd Fish, another name for yellow perch ("Perca flavescens").


title: Flathead Lake

text: In addition to these commonly-pursued game fish, the lake is also home to other native species that currently are not actively managed by government fish and wildlife agencies, including the longnose sucker ("Catostomus catostomus"), redside shiner ("Richardsonius balteatus"), and slimy sculpin ("Cottus cognatus").


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: After the Partition of India, during October–November 1947 in the Jammu region of the princely state of Jammu and Kashmir, many Muslims were massacred and others driven away to West Punjab. The killings were carried out by extremist Hindus and Sikhs, aided and abetted by the forces of Maharaja Hari Singh. The activists of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) played a key role in planning and executing the riots. An estimated 20,000–100,000 Muslims were massacred. Subsequently, many non-Muslims were massacred by Pakistani tribesmen, in the Mirpur region of today's Pakistani administered Kashmir, and also in the Rajouri area of Jammu division.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: At the time of the Partition of India in 1947, the British abandoned their suzerainty over the princely states, which were left with the options of joining India or Pakistan or remaining independent. Hari Singh, the Maharaja of Jammu and Kashmir, the Maharaja indicated his preference to remain independent of the new dominions. All the major political groups of the state supported the Maharaja's decision, except for the Muslim Conference, which declared in favour of accession to Pakistan on 19 July 1947. The Muslim Conference was popular among Muslims in the Jammu province of the state, while the National Conference was popular in the Kashmir region.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: With the support of Mian Iftikharuddin, Muslim Conference leader Sardar Ibrahim met Pakistan Colonel Akbar Khan for the 1947 Poonch Rebellion. Sardar Ibrahim requested and received arms for the rebels. Establishing a base in Murree in Pakistan Punjab, arms and ammunition were attempted to be purchased in NWFP which were to be smuggled into Jammu and Kashmir. Meanwhile, the Maharaja was informed of 400 armed Muslims who had infiltrated from Kahuta for the purpose of terrorising Hindu and Sikh minorities. Pakistan was informed and urged to control the infiltration.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: On 12 September 1947, then prime minister and defense minister of Pakistan Liaquat Ali Khan approved two plans for an invasion of Kashmir prepared by Colonel Akbar Khan and Sardar Shaukat Hayat Khan. Pashtun tribes were mobilized for an armed attack.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Roughly 100,000 Muslims and non-Muslims from East Punjab and West Punjab respectively were safely escorted through Jammu by Jammu and Kashmir State Forces.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Unlike the Kashmir valley which remained mostly calm during this transition period, the Jammu province which was contiguous to Punjab, experienced mass migration that led to violent inter-religious activity. Large numbers of Hindus and Sikhs from Rawalpindi and Sialkot started arriving since March 1947, bringing "harrowing stories of Muslim atrocities in West Punjab". According to scholar Ilyas Chattha, this provoked counter-violence on Jammu Muslims, which had "many parallels with that in Sialkot". He writes, "the Kashmiri Muslims were to pay a heavy price in September–October 1947 for the earlier violence of West Punjab."


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: According to scholar Ian Copland, the administration's pogrom against its Muslim subjects in Jammu was undertaken partly out of revenge for the Poonch rebellion that started earlier.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Observers state that a main aim of Hari Singh and his administration was to alter the demographics of the region by eliminating the Muslim population, in order to ensure a Hindu majority in the region.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Scholar Ilyas Chattha and Jammu journalist Ved Bhasin blame the mishandling of law and order by Maharaja Hari Singh and his armed forces in Jammu, for the large scale communal violence in the region.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: On 14 October, the RSS activists and the Akalis attacked various villages of Jammu district—Amrey, Cheak, Atmapur and Kochpura—and after killing some Muslims, looted their possessions and set their houses on fire. There was mass killing of Muslims in and around Jammu city. The state troops led the attacks. The state officials provided arms and ammunition to the rioters. The administration had demobilised many Muslim soldiers in the state army and had discharged Muslim police officers. Most of the Muslims outside the Muslim dominated areas were killed by the communal rioters who moved in vehicles with arms and ammunition, though the city was officially put under curfew. Many Gujjar men and women who used to supply milk to the city from the surrounding villages were reportedly massacred en route. It is said that the Ramnagar reserve in Jammu was littered with the dead bodies of Gujjar men, women and children. In the Muslim localities of Jammu city, "Talab Khatikan" and "Mohalla Ustad", Muslims were surrounded and were denied water supply and food. The Muslims in Talab Khatikan area had joined to defend themselves with the arms they could gather, who later received support from the Muslim Conference. They were eventually asked to surrender and the administration asked them to go to Pakistan for their safety. These Muslims and others who wanted to go to Sialkot, in thousands, were loaded in numerous trucks and were escorted by the troops in the first week of November. When they reached the outskirts of the city, they were pulled out and killed by armed Sikhs and RSS men, while abducting the women.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: There were also reports of large-scale massacres of Muslims in Udhampur district, particularly in proper Udhampur, Chenani, Ramnagar, Bhaderwah and Reasi areas. Killing of numerous Muslims was reported from Chhamb, Deva Batala, Manawsar and other parts of Akhnoor with many people fleeing to Pakistan or moving to Jammu. In Kathua district and Billawar area, there was extensive killing of Muslims with women being raped and abducted.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: On 16 November 1947, Sheikh Abdullah arrived in Jammu and a refugee camp was set up in "Mohalla Ustad".


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Mahatma Gandhi commented on the situation in Jammu on 25 December 1947 in his speech at a prayer meeting in New Delhi: "The Hindus and Sikhs of Jammu and those who had gone there from outside killed Muslims. The Maharaja of Kashmir is responsible for what is happening there…A large number of Muslims have been killed there and Muslim women have been dishonoured."


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: According to Ved Bhasin and scholar Ilyas Chattha, the Jammu riots were executed by members of the Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) who were joined by the refugees from West Pakistan, and were supported strongly by Hari Singh and his administration with a main aim to change the demographic composition of Jammu region and ensure a non-Muslim majority. Bhasin states, the riots were "clearly" planned by the activists of RSS. Observers have noted that the Akali Sikhs and some former members of the Indian National Army (INA) also participated in this violence along with the RSS and state forces.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Bhasin says that the massacres took place in the presence of the then Jammu and Kashmir's Prime Minister Mehr Chand Mahajan and the governor of Jammu, Lala Chet Ram Chopra, and that some of those who led these riots in Udhampur and Bhaderwah later joined the National Conference with some of them also serving as ministers.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: An early official calculation made in Pakistan, using headcount data, estimated 50,000 Muslims killed. A team of two Englishmen jointly commissioned by the governments of India and Pakistan investigated seven major incidents of violence between 20 October – 9 November 1947, estimating 70,000 deaths. Scholar Ian Copland estimated total deaths to be around 80,000, while Ved Bhasin estimated them to be around 100,000. Scholar Christopher Snedden says, the number of Muslims killed were between 20,000 and 100,000. Justice Yusuf Saraf estimates them to be between 20,000 and 30,000.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Much higher figures were reported by newspapers at that time. A report by a special correspondent of "The Times", published on 10 August 1948, stated that a total of 237,000 Muslims were either killed or migrated to Pakistan. The editor of "The Statesman" Ian Stephens claimed that 500,000 Muslims, "the entire Muslim element of the population", was eliminated and 200,000 "just disappeared". Scholar Ian Copland finds these figures dubious.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: The Pakistani newspaper "Nawa-i-Waqt" reported that more than 100,000 Jammu refugees had arrived in Sialkot by 20 November 1947. Snedden, on the other hand, cites a "comprehensive report" in "Dawn", which said that 200,000 Muslims went as refugees to Pakistan in October–November 1947. An unidentified organisation in Pakistan counted refugees from Jammu and Kashmir during May–July 1949, and found 333,964 refugees from the Indian-held parts of the state. Of these, an estimated 100,000 refugees returned to their homes in 1949–1950, leaving an estimated 233,964 refugees in Pakistan. Based on the electoral rolls of Pakistan-administered Kashmir in 1970, the number that remained in Pakistan is estimated to be in the range 219,718 – 259,047.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Muslims in the western districts of Poonch jagir began an agitation against taxes in mid-1947, which escalated into an armed rebellion against Hari Singh's government, and expanded to Mirpur district. In October 1947, a force of Pathan tribesman crossed into Kashmir from Pakistan's North-West Frontier Province and the adjoining princely states and tribal areas. The rebels took control of most of the countryside in these districts by the end of the month, driving non-Muslims to seek shelter in towns where the State troops were garrisoned. Beginning on 24 October, the towns themselves fell to the rebels: Bhimber (24 October), Rajauri (7 November), and Mirpur (25 November).


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Rajouri was held by the "Azad Kashmir forces", or rebels from Poonch, and the raiders, until April 1948, when the town was taken by the Indian armed forces. The town was surrounded by Muslim mobs who carried out extensive killings, loot and rapes of Hindu residents. The Hindus facing this persecution included the town's residents as well as refugees. Some Hindus were able to escape, while others were sheltered by sympathetic Muslims. Mass suicides and killings, including by beheading or poisoning, occurred among women, sometimes at the hands of men in their family. These were the result of fears that they would be sexually abused by the raiders. The capture of Rajouri from the raiders is commemorated on 13 April, and a monument honoring the incident was erected in the town.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: After the Indian army repelled the Pashtun raiders from near Srinagar on 25 November, the raiders turned to Mirpur, in present-day Azad Kashmir. Political scientist Christopher Snedden writes of unverifiable allegations that 20,000 non-Muslims were killed on and shortly after 25 November in Mirpur, and a further 2500 were abducted. In the district of Mirpur and nearby regions of Poonch, Hindu and Sikh women were also raped and abducted. November 25 is now commemorated as "Mirpur Day" in Indian-administered Kashmir.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: The table below compares the 1941 percentage of Muslim population with the present percentage for the Indian-administered part of the Jammu province and gives figures for estimated 'loss' of Muslims, due to deaths as well as migration.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: Scholar Ian Copland tries to estimate how many Muslims might have been killed in the Jammu violence based on demographic data. If the headcount figure of 333,964 refugees from the Indian-administered parts of the state is used to calculate an estimate, one ends up with a surplus rather than a deficit. However, Justice Yusuf Saraf estimates that 100,000 Jammu refugees returned to their homes in 1949–1950. If we deduct this 100,000 from the original headcount figure, the estimate of Muslims killed would be a few tens of thousands.


title: 1947 Jammu massacres

text: The table below compares the 1941 percentage of 'Hindu & Sikh' population (H/S population) with that in 1951 for the areas of Pakistan-administered Azad Kashmir (comprising 89 per cent of the Mirpur District, 60 per cent of the Poonch Jagir and 87 per cent of the Muzaffarabad District).


title: Travel literature

text: The genre of travel literature encompasses outdoor literature, guide books, nature writing, and travel memoirs.


title: Travel literature

text: One early travel memoirist in Western literature was Pausanias, a Greek geographer of the 2nd century CE. In the early modern period, James Boswell's "Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides" (1786) helped shape travel memoir as a genre.


title: Travel literature

text: Early examples of travel literature include the "Periplus of the Erythraean Sea" (generally considered a 1st century CE work; authorship is debated), Pausanias' "Description of Greece" in the 2nd century CE, "Safarnama" (Book of Travels) by Nasir Khusraw (1003-1077), the "Journey Through Wales" (1191) and "Description of Wales" (1194) by Gerald of Wales, and the travel journals of Ibn Jubayr (1145–1214), Marco Polo (1254–1354), and Ibn Battuta (1304–1377), all of whom recorded their travels across the known world in detail. As early as the 2nd century CE, Lucian of Samosata discussed history and travel writers who added embellished, fantastic stories to their works. The travel genre was a fairly common genre in medieval Arabic literature.


title: Travel literature

text: In China, 'travel record literature' () became popular during the Song dynasty (960–1279). Travel writers such as Fan Chengda (1126–1193) and Xu Xiake (1587–1641) incorporated a wealth of geographical and topographical information into their writing, while the 'daytrip essay' "Record of Stone Bell Mountain" by the noted poet and statesman Su Shi (1037–1101) presented a philosophical and moral argument as its central purpose. Chinese travel literature of this period was written in a variety of different styles, including narratives, prose, essays and diaries, although most were written in prose.


title: Travel literature

text: One of the earliest known records of taking pleasure in travel, of travelling for the sake of travel and writing about it, is Petrarch's (1304–1374) ascent of Mont Ventoux in 1336. He states that he went to the mountaintop for the pleasure of seeing the top of the famous height. His companions who stayed at the bottom he called "frigida incuriositas" ("a cold lack of curiosity"). He then wrote about his climb, making allegorical comparisons between climbing the mountain and his own moral progress in life.


title: Travel literature

text: Michault Taillevent, a poet for the Duke of Burgundy, travelled through the Jura Mountains in 1430 and recorded his personal reflections, his horrified reaction to the sheer rock faces, and the terrifying thunderous cascades of mountain streams. Antoine de la Sale (c. 1388–c. 1462), author of "Petit Jehan de Saintre", climbed to the crater of a volcano in the Lipari Islands in 1407, leaving us with his impressions. "Councils of mad youth" were his stated reasons for going. In the mid-15th century, Gilles le Bouvier, in his "Livre de la description des pays", gave us his reason to travel and write:


title: Travel literature

text: By the 16th century, accounts to travels to India and Persia had become common enough that they had been compiled into collections such as the (""New World"") by Simon Grynaeus, and collections by Ramusio and Richard Hakluyt. 16th century travelers to Persia included the brothers Robert Shirley and Anthony Shirley, and for India Duarte Barbosa, Ralph Fitch, Ludovico di Varthema, Cesare Federici, and Jan Huyghen van Linschoten.


title: Travel literature

text: In the 18th century, travel literature was commonly known as "books of travels," which mainly consisted of maritime diaries. In 18th-century Britain, travel literature was highly popular, and almost every famous writer worked in the travel literature form; "Gulliver's Travels" (1726), for example, is a social satire imitating one, and Captain James Cook's diaries (1784) were the equivalent of today's best-sellers. Alexander von Humboldt's "Personal narrative of travels to the equinoctial regions of America, during the years 1799–1804", originally published in French, was translated to multiple languages and influenced later naturalists, including Charles Darwin.


title: Travel literature

text: Other later examples of travel literature include accounts of the Grand Tour: aristocrats, clergy, and others with money and leisure time travelled Europe to learn about the art and architecture of its past. One tourism literature pioneer was Robert Louis Stevenson (1850–1894) with "An Inland Voyage" (1878), and "Travels with a Donkey in the Cévennes" (1879), about his travels in the Cévennes (France), is among the first popular books to present hiking and camping as recreational activities, and tells of commissioning one of the first sleeping bags.


title: Travel literature

text: Other notable writers of travel literature in the 19th century include the Russian Ivan Goncharov, who wrote about his experience of a tour around the world in "Frigate "Pallada"" (1858), and Lafcadio Hearn, who interpreted the culture of Japan with insight and sensitivity.


title: Travel literature

text: The 20th century's interwar period has been described as a heyday of travel literature when many established writers such as Graham Greene, Robert Byron, Rebecca West, Freya Stark, Peter Fleming and Evelyn Waugh were traveling and writing notable travel books.


title: Travel literature

text: In the late 20th century there was a surge in popularity of travel writing, particularly in the English-speaking world with writers such as Bruce Chatwin, Paul Theroux, Jonathan Raban, Colin Thubron, and others. While travel writing previously had mainly attracted interest by historians and biographers, critical studies of travel literature now also developed into an academic discipline in its own right.


title: Travel literature

text: Travel books come in styles ranging from the documentary, to the literary, as well as the journalistic, and from memoir to the humorous to the serious. They are often associated with tourism and include guide books. Travel writing may be found on web sites, in periodicals, on blogs and in books. It has been produced by a variety of writers, including travelers, military officers, missionaries, explorers, scientists, pilgrims, social and physical scientists, educators, and migrants.


title: Travel literature

text: Travel literature often intersects with philosophy or essay writing, as in V. S. Naipaul's "" (1976), whose trip became the occasion for extended observations on a nation and people. This is similarly the case in Rebecca West's "Black Lamb and Grey Falcon" (1941), focused on her journey through Yugoslavia, and in Robin Esrock's series of books about his discoveries in Canada, Australia and around the globe. Fictional travel narratives may also show this tendency, as in Mark Twain's "Adventures of Huckleberry Finn" (1884) or Robert M. Pirsig's "Zen and the Art of Motorcycle Maintenance" (1974).


title: Travel literature

text: Sometimes a writer will settle into a locality for an extended period, absorbing a sense of place while continuing to observe with a travel writer's sensibility. Examples of such writings include Lawrence Durrell's "Bitter Lemons" (1957), Bruce Chatwin's widely acclaimed "In Patagonia" (1977) and "The Songlines" (1987), Deborah Tall's "The Island of the White Cow: Memories of an Irish Island" (1986), and Peter Mayle's best-selling "A Year in Provence" (1989) and its sequels.


title: Travel literature

text: Travel and nature writing merge in many of the works by Sally Carrighar, Gerald Durrell and Ivan T. Sanderson. Sally Carrighar's works include "One Day at Teton Marsh" (1965), "Home to the Wilderness" (1973), and "Wild Heritage" (1965). Gerald Durrell's "My Family and Other Animals" (1956) is an autobiographical work by the British naturalist. It tells of the years that he lived as a child with his siblings and widowed mother on the Greek island of Corfu between 1935 and 1939. It describes the life of the Durrell family in a humorous manner, and explores the fauna of the island. It is the first and most well-known of Durrell's "Corfu trilogy", together with "Birds, Beasts, and Relatives" and "The Garden of the Gods" (1978).


title: Travel literature

text: Ivan T. Sanderson published "Animal Treasure", a report of an expedition to the jungles of then-British West Africa; "Caribbean Treasure", an account of an expedition to Trinidad, Haiti, and Surinam, begun in late 1936 and ending in late 1938; and "Living Treasure", an account of an expedition to Jamaica, British Honduras (now Belize) and the Yucatán. These authors are naturalists, who write in support of their fields of study.


title: Travel literature

text: Another naturalist, Charles Darwin, wrote his famous account of the journey of HMS "Beagle" at the intersection of science, natural history and travel.


title: Travel literature

text: A number of writers famous in other fields have written about their travel experiences. Examples are Samuel Johnson's "A Journey to the Western Islands of Scotland" (1775); Charles Dickens' "American Notes for General Circulation" (1842); Mary Wollstonecraft's "Letters Written during a Short Residence in Sweden, Norway, and Denmark" (1796); Hilaire Belloc's "The Path To Rome" (1902); D. H. Lawrence's "Twilight in Italy and Other Essays" (1916); "Mornings in Mexico and Other Essays" (1927); Rebecca West's "Black Lamb and Grey Falcon" (1941); and John Steinbeck's "" (1962).


title: Travel literature

text: The Dutch writer Cees Nooteboom is a prolific travel writer. Among his many travel books is the acclaimed "Roads to Santiago". Englishmen Eric Newby, H. V. Morton, the Americans Bill Bryson and Paul Theroux, and Welsh author Jan Morris are or were widely acclaimed as travel writers (though Morris has frequently claimed herself as a writer of 'place' rather than travel "per se"). Canadian travel writer Robin Esrock has written a series of books about discovering unique experiences in Canada, Australia and around the world.


title: Travel literature

text: Bill Bryson in 2011 won the Golden Eagle Award from the Outdoor Writers and Photographers Guild. On 22 November 2012, Durham University officially renamed the Main Library the Bill Bryson Library for his contributions as the university's 11th chancellor (2005–11). Paul Theroux was awarded the 1981 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for his novel "The Mosquito Coast", which was adapted for the 1986 movie of the same name. He was also awarded in 1989 the Thomas Cook Travel Book Award for "Riding the Iron Rooster".


title: Travel literature

text: In 2005, Jan Morris was awarded the Golden PEN Award by English PEN for "a Lifetime's Distinguished Service to Literature".


title: Travel literature

text: In the world of sailing Joshua Slocum's "Sailing Alone Around the World" (1900) is a classic of outdoor adventure literature. In April 1895, Joshua Slocum set sail from Boston, Massachusetts and in "Sailing Alone Around the World", he described his departure in the following manner:


title: Travel literature

text: More than three years later, on June 27, 1898, Slocum returned to Newport, Rhode Island, having circumnavigated the world.


title: Travel literature

text: A guide book or travel guide is "a book of information about a place, designed for the use of visitors or tourists". An early example is Thomas West's guide to the English Lake District, published in 1778. Thomas West, an English priest, popularized the idea of walking for pleasure in his guide to the Lake District of 1778. In the introduction he wrote that he aimed: to encourage the taste of visiting the lakes by furnishing the traveller with a Guide; and for that purpose, the writer has here collected and laid before him, all the select stations and points of view, noticed by those authors who have last made the tour of the lakes, verified by his own repeated observations. To this end he included various 'stations' or viewpoints around the lakes, from which tourists would be encouraged to appreciate the views in terms of their aesthetic qualities. Published in 1778 the book was a major success.


title: Travel literature

text: It will usually include full details relating to accommodation, restaurants, transportation, and activities. Maps of varying detail and historical and cultural information are also often included. Different kinds of guide books exist, focusing on different aspects of travel, from adventure travel to relaxation, or aimed at travelers with different incomes, or focusing on sexual orientation or types of diet. Travel guides can also take the form of travel websites.


title: Travel literature

text: A travel journal, also called road journal, is a record made by a traveller, sometimes in diary form, of the traveler's experiences, written during the course of the journey and later edited for publication. This is a long-established literary format; an early example is the writing of Pausanias (2nd century CE) who produced his "Description of Greece" based on his own observations. James Boswell published his "The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides" in 1786 and Goethe published his "Italian Journey", based on diaries, in 1816. Fray Ilarione da Bergamo and Fray wrote travel accounts of colonial Mexico in the 1760s. Fannie Calderón de la Barca, the Scottish-born wife of the Spanish ambassador to Mexico 1839–1842, wrote "Life in Mexico", an important travel narrative of her time there, with many observations of local life.


title: Travel literature

text: A British traveller, Mrs Alec Tweedie, published a number of travelogues, ranging from Denmark (1895) and Finland (1897), to the U.S. (1913), several on Mexico (1901, 1906, 1917), and one on Russia, Siberia, and China (1926). A more recent example is Che Guevara's "The Motorcycle Diaries". A travelogue is a film, book written up from a travel diary, or illustrated talk describing the experiences of and places visited by traveller. American writer Paul Theroux has published many works of travel literature, the first success being "The Great Railway Bazaar".


title: Travel literature

text: In addition to published travel journals, archive records show that it was historically common for travellers to record their journey in diary format, with no apparent intention of future publication, but as a personal record of their experiences. This practice is particularly visible in nineteenth-century European travel diaries.


title: Travel literature

text: Anglo-American Bill Bryson is known for "A Walk in the Woods", made into a Hollywood film of the same name.


title: Travel literature

text: The writings of escaped slaves of their experience under slavery and their escape from it is a type of travel literature that developed during the 18th and 19th centuries, detailing how slaves escaped the restrictive laws of the southern United States and the Caribbean to find freedom. As John Cox says in "Traveling South", "travel was a necessary prelude to the publication of a narrative by a slave, for slavery could not be simultaneously experienced and written."


title: Travel literature

text: A particularly famous slave travel narrative is Frederick Douglass' autobiographical "Narrative", which is deeply intertwined with his travel experiences, beginning with his travels being entirely at the command of his masters and ending with him traveling when and where he wishes. Solomon Northup's "Twelve Years a Slave" is a more traditional travel narrative, and he too overcomes the restrictions of law and tradition in the south to escape after he is kidnapped and enslaved. Harriet Ann Jacobs' "Incidents" includes significant travel that covers a small distance, as she escapes one living situation for a slightly better one, but also later includes her escape from slavery to freedom in the north.


title: Travel literature

text: Some fictional travel stories are related to travel literature. Although it may be desirable in some contexts to distinguish fictional from non-fictional works, such distinctions have proved notoriously difficult to make in practice, as in the famous instance of the travel writings of Marco Polo or John Mandeville. Examples of fictional works of travel literature based on actual journeys are:


title: Travel literature

text: In the 21st century, travel literature became a genre of social media in the form of travel blogs, with travel bloggers using outlets like personal blogs, Pinterest, Twitter, Facebook and Instagram to convey information about their adventures, and provide advice for navigating particular countries, or for traveling generally. Travel blogs were among the first instances of blogging, which began in the mid-1990s.


title: Travel literature

text: The systematic study of travel literature emerged as a field of scholarly inquiry in the mid-1990s, with its own conferences, organizations, journals, monographs, anthologies, and encyclopedias. Important, pre-1995 monographs are: "Abroad" (1980) by Paul Fussell, an exploration of British interwar travel writing as escapism; "Gone Primitive: Modern Intellects, Savage Minds" (1990) by Marianna Torgovnick, an inquiry into the primitivist presentations of foreign cultures; "Haunted Journeys: Desire and Transgression in European Travel Writing" (1991) by Dennis Porter, a close look at the psychological correlatives of travel; "Discourses of Difference: An Analysis of Women's Travel Writing" by Sara Mills, an inquiry into the intersection of gender and colonialism during the 19th century; "Imperial Eyes: Travel Writing and Transculturation" (1992), Mary Louise Pratt's influential study of Victorian travel writing's dissemination of a colonial mind-set; and "Belated Travelers" (1994), an analysis of colonial anxiety by Ali Behdad.


title: Travel literature

text: Prizes awarded annually for travel books have included the Thomas Cook Travel Book Award, which ran from 1980 to 2004, the Boardman Tasker Prize for Mountain Literature, and the Dolman Best Travel Book Award, which began in 2006. The Lowell Thomas Travel Journalism Awards, which began in 1985, are given by the SATW Foundation, and include two awards for travel books and travel guidebooks, as well as awards for travel coverage in publications, websites, and broadcast and audio-visual formats, and for magazine, newspaper, and website articles in a variety of categories. The National Outdoor Book Awards also recognize travel literature in the outdoor and adventure areas, as do the Banff Mountain Book Awards. The North American Travel Journalists Association holds an annual awards competition honoring travel journalism in a multitude of categories, ranging across print and online media.


title: Shrimp paste

text: Shrimp paste or prawn sauce is a fermented condiment commonly used in Southeast Asian and Southern Chinese cuisines. It is primarily made from finely crushed shrimp or krill mixed with salt, and then fermented for several weeks. They are either sold in their wet form or are sun-dried and either cut into rectangular blocks or sold in bulk. It is an essential ingredient in many curries, sauces and sambal. Shrimp paste can be found in many meals in Cambodia, Indonesia, Laos, Malaysia, Myanmar, the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. It is often an ingredient in dip for fish or vegetables.


title: Shrimp paste

text: Trasi, (Indonesian-Javanese fermented shrimp paste; alt. spelling: "terasi"), as mentioned in two ancient Sundanese scriptures, "Carita Purwaka Caruban Nagari" and "Mertasinga", had been around in Java before sixth century. According to "Carita Purwaka Caruban Nagari", Cirebon had angered the King of Galuh Kingdom after they stopped paying a tribute (in the forms of shrimp paste and salt, their regional products) to him. In "Mertasinga", it was mentioned that Cirebon was attacked by Galuh Kingdom because they stopped sending "trasi" to the king".


title: Shrimp paste

text: "Trasi" was one of Java's most popular exports bought by traders from neighboring islands and abroad. According to Purwaka Caruban Nagari, Chinese Muslim explorer, Zheng He of Yunnan, used to buy "trasi" from Cirebon and brought it back to his homeland. He was the one who introduced "trasi" to China, a foreign condiment which later became popular and inspired locals to make their own version.


title: Shrimp paste

text: In 1707, William Dampier described "trassi" (or "terasi", Indonesian shrimp paste) in his book "A New Voyage Round the World"; "A composition of a strong odor, but it became a very tasty meal for the indigenous people." Dampier described it further as a mixture of shrimp and small fish made into a kind of soft pickle with salt and water, and then the dough was packed tightly in a clay jar. The pickling process softens the fish and makes it mushy. Then they poured arrack into the jars to preserve them. "The mushy fish remains was called trassi," Dampier wrote; "The aroma is very strong. However, after adding a little part of it, the dish's flavour became quite savory."


title: Shrimp paste

text: In the 1880s, "trassi" was described by Anna Forbes during her visit to Ambon. Anna was the wife of British naturalist Henry Ogg Forbes; the couple travelled through the Dutch East Indies in the 1880s. In her journal she describes the culture, customs and tradition of the natives, including their culinary tradition. Because of this foul-smelled ingredient, she accused her cook of trying to poison her and threw away that "horrible rotten package". Later she wrote: "Then, I observed each dish of the native or European, those that I have consumed since my arrival in the East contains this; the essence of that rotten stuff that has been used as a spice."


title: Shrimp paste

text: Traditional "Kapi" is described by Simon de La Loubère, a French diplomat appointed by King Louis XIV to the Royal Court of Siam in 1687. In one chapter, "Concerning the Table of the Siamese" he wrote: "Their sauces are plain, a little water with some spices, garlic, chilbols, or some sweet herb, as baulm. They do much esteem a liquid sauce, like mustard, which is only corrupted crayfish, because they are ill salted; they called it "Capi".


title: Shrimp paste

text: Shrimp paste may vary in appearance from pale liquid sauces to solid chocolate-coloured blocks. Shrimp paste produced in Hong Kong and Vietnam is typically a light pinkish grey; while the type used for Burmese, Lao, Cambodian, Thai, Indonesian cooking is darker brown. In the Philippines, they are commonly bright red or pink, due to the use of "angkak" (red yeast rice) as a colouring agent. While all shrimp paste has a pungent aroma, the scent of higher grade shrimp paste is generally milder. Markets near villages producing shrimp paste are the best places to obtain the highest quality product. Shrimp paste varies between different Asian cultures and can vary in smell, texture and saltiness.


title: Shrimp paste

text: "Bagoóng alamáng" (also variously as "aramáng", "uyap", "dayok", or "ginamós", among others in various Philippine languages) is Filipino for shrimp paste. It is a type of "bagoóng", which is a class of fermented seafood in Philippine cuisine (including fermented fish, oysters, and clams) which also produces fish sauce ("patís"). It is made from the same "Acetes" shrimp as in Indonesian and Malaysian variants (known in Filipino/Tagalog as "alamang") and is commonly eaten as a topping on green mangoes (also boiled saba bananas or cassava), used as a major cooking ingredient, or sautéed and eaten with white rice. "Bagoóng" paste varies in appearance, flavour, and spiciness depending on the type. Pink and salty "bagoóng alamáng" is marketed as "fresh", and is essentially the shrimp-salt mixture left to marinate for a few days. This "bagoóng" is rarely used in this form, save as a topping for unripe mangoes. The paste is customarily sautéed with various condiments, and its flavour can range from salty to spicy-sweet. The colour of the sauce will also vary with the cooking time and the ingredients used in sautéing.


title: Shrimp paste

text: Unlike in other parts of Southeast Asia and in Western Visayas, where the shrimp is fermented beyond recognition or ground to a smooth consistency, the shrimp in "bagoóng alamáng" in many parts of the Philippines is still identifiable, the sauce itself having a chunky consistency. A small amount of cooked or sautéed "bagoóng" is served as the side condiment of "kare-kare", an oxtail stew made with peanuts. It is also used as the key flavouring agent of "binagoongan" (lit. "that to which "bagoóng" is applied"), a pork dish.


title: Shrimp paste

text: The word "bagoóng", also refers to the sauce made with the bonnet mouth and anchovy fish, known as "bagoóng terong".


title: Shrimp paste

text: Belacan, a Malay variety of shrimp paste, is prepared from small shrimp from the "Acetes" species, known as "geragau" in Malaysia or "rebon" in Indonesia. In Malaysia, normally the krill are steamed first and after that are mashed into a paste and stored for several months. The fermented shrimp are then prepared, fried and hard-pressed into cakes. William Marsden, an English writer, included the word in his "A Dictionary of the Malayan Language" published in 1812.


title: Shrimp paste

text: Belacan is used as an ingredient in many dishes. A common preparation is "sambal belacan", made by mixing toasted belacan with chilli peppers, minced garlic, shallot paste and sugar and then fried. Sometimes it is toasted to bring out the flavour, usually creating a strong, distinctive odour.


title: Shrimp paste

text: In Northern Australia, a variant of "sambal belacan" is known locally as blachan or blachung (a phonetic spelling of the Indonesian pronunciation), and is popularly prepared among Indigenous and Torres Strait Islander families in Broome, Darwin and Cairns. Its presence is credited to the influence of early Makassan traders.


title: Shrimp paste

text: A version of belacan similar to Filipino "fresh" "bagoong alamang" shrimp paste (which is fermented for a shorter period) is known as cincalok.


title: Shrimp paste

text: "Galmbo" are dried baby shrimps which are ground with dried red chillies, spices and palm vinegar to make a spice paste used in the sour, sweet and spicy sauce known as balchao in Goa, India. It was brought to Goa by the Portuguese and originated in Macao. It is more like a pickle and is used as a side condiment in small quantities.


title: Shrimp paste

text: "Haam ha" (; ) alternatively spelled ""hom ha"", also known as "har cheong" (; ). It is a finely ground shrimp paste popular in southeastern Chinese cooking, and a staple seasoning in many places Cantonese people settled. It is lighter in colour compared to shrimp pastes made farther south. It is considered indispensable in many pork, seafood, and vegetable stir fry dishes. The smell and flavor are very strong. A pearl-sized ball of "haam ha" is enough to season a stir fry for two people. The shrimp paste industry has historically been important in the Hong Kong region, and Hong Kong factories continue to ship "haam ha" to communities around the world.


title: Shrimp paste

text: In Cambodia and Thailand shrimp paste is called "kapi" (, ; ); (). In Thailand is an essential ingredient in many types of "nam phrik", spicy dips or sauces, and in all Thai curry pastes, such as the paste used in "kaeng som". Very popular in Thailand is "nam phrik kapi", a spicy condiment made with fresh shrimp paste and most often eaten together with fried "pla thu" (short mackerel) and fried, steamed or raw vegetables. In Southern Thailand there are three types of shrimp paste: one made only from shrimp, one containing a mixture of shrimp and fish ingredients, and another paste that is sweet. "Nam phrik maeng da" is available in Hat Yai and Satun markets. The body fluids of the horseshoe crab ("maeng da") are pressed and mixed with "kapi", giving a quite sweet taste. "Nam phrik makham" is "kapi" mixed with tamarind ("makham") and is more sour.


title: Shrimp paste

text: Another common Thai food product is "mun kung", which is confusingly also commonly translated as "shrimp paste". "Mun kung" is orange, oily, and more liquid while "kapi" is grey, light purple or even black, and much more solid and crumbly. "Mun kung" is actually the fat from inside the head of the shrimp, from the organ that plays the role of the liver and pancreas, making it somewhat like a shrimp pâté or foie gras. The term "shrimp tomalley" may also be used for "nam kung" although "tomalley" by default is generally assumed to be harvested from lobster or crab, and may also be used in English translations of the culinary extremely different Japanese food product "kanimiso".


title: Shrimp paste

text: In Vietnam shrimp paste ("mắm tôm", ) are of two varieties: a thickened paste or a more liquefied sauce. To prepare for serving it is usually mixed with sugar, lime juice, kumquat and chili when used as a dipping sauce. Vietnamese people often use "mắm tôm" as a dipping sauce for boiled meat, fried tofu, fried fish or for seasoning some soup dishes, such as "bún mắm".


title: Shrimp paste

text: A watery dip or condiment that is very popular in Myanmar, especially the Burmese and Karen ethnic groups. The ngapi (either fish or shrimp, but mostly whole fish ngapi is used) is boiled with onions, tomato, garlic, pepper and other spices. The result is a greenish-grey broth-like sauce, which makes its way to every Burmese dining table. Fresh, raw or blanched vegetables and fruits (such as mint, cabbage, tomatoes, green mangoes, green apples, olives, chilli, onions and garlic) are dipped into the ngapi yay and eaten. Sometimes, in less affluent families, ngapi yay forms the main dish, and also the main source of protein.


title: Shrimp paste

text: "Petis udang" is a black coloured shrimp paste in Indonesia and Malaysia. "Petis udang" is a version of shrimp/prawn paste used in Indonesia, Malaysia and Singapore. In Indonesia it is particularly popular in East Java. This thick black paste has a molasses like consistency instead of the hard brick like appearance of belacan. It also tastes sweeter because of the added sugar. Petis is produced by boiling down the slurry of leftovers from shrimp processing. Molasses is generally added to provide a sweet flavour to the petis. It is used to flavour common local street foods like "popiah" spring rolls, "Asam laksa", "chee cheong fan" rice rolls and "rojak" salads, such as "rujak cingur" and "rujak petis". In Indonesia, major producer of "petis" are home industries in Sidoarjo, Pasuruan and Gresik area in East Java.


title: Shrimp paste

text: In the Chittagong Hill Tracts, Bangladesh, shrimp paste is called "sidol" or "nappi" by the indigenous Jumma people. They use it to make vegetable food, such as bamboo shoots curry. This bamboo shoot curry is a traditional food of the indigenous Jumma people. They eat it in this way. First bamboo shoots are collected from the bamboo forest, then defoliated and boiled in water. Then boiling water is mixed with the shrimp paste. Some chili, garlic paste, salt, and flour are added to the shrimp paste mixed with water. The mixture is heated and, after a few minutes, put on the boiled bamboo shoots on the mixture while still heating. After some minutes, the food is ready to serve.


title: Shrimp paste

text: Terasi (, ), an Indonesian (especially Javanese) variant of dried shrimp paste, is usually purchased in dark blocks, but is also sometimes sold ground as granulated coarse powder. The colour and aroma of terasi varies depending on which village produced it. The colour ranges from a soft purple-reddish hue to darkish brown. In Cirebon, a coastal city in West Java, terasi is made from tiny shrimp ("Acetes") called "rebon", the origin of the city's name. Another kind is petis made from shrimp or tuna mixed with palm sugar. In Sidoarjo, East Java, terasi is made from the mixture of ingredients such as fish, small shrimp ("udang"), and vegetables. Terasi is an important ingredient in sambal Terasi, also many other Indonesian cuisine, such as sayur asem (vegetable soup with tamarind), lotek (also called gado-gado, Indonesian style salad in peanut sauce), karedok (similar to lotek, but the vegetables are served raw), and rujak (Indonesian style hot and spicy fruit salad).


title: Shrimp paste

text: Shrimp paste continues to be made by fishing families in coastal villages. They sell it to vendors, middlemen or distributors who package it for resale to consumers. Shrimp paste is often known for the region it comes from since production techniques and quality vary from village to village. Some coastal regions in Indonesia such as Bagansiapiapi in Riau, Indramayu and Cirebon in West Java, and Sidoarjo in East Java; as well as villages such as Pulau Betong in Malaysia or Ma Wan island in Hong Kong and in Lingayen Gulf, Pangasinan in the Philippines are well known for producing very fine quality shrimp paste.


title: Shrimp paste

text: Preparation techniques can vary greatly; however, the following procedure is most common in China, and much of Southeast Asia.


title: Shrimp paste

text: After being caught, small shrimp are unloaded, rinsed and drained before being dried. Drying can be done on plastic mats on the ground in the sun, on metal beds on low stilts, or using other methods. After several days, the shrimp-salt mixture will darken and turn into a thick pulp. If the shrimp used to produce the paste were small, it is ready to be served as soon as the individual shrimp have broken-down beyond recognition. If the shrimp are larger, fermentation will take longer and the pulp will be ground to provide a smoother consistency. The fermentation/grinding process is usually repeated several times until the paste fully matures. The paste is then dried and cut into bricks by the villagers to be sold. Dried shrimp paste does not require refrigeration.


title: Shrimp paste

text: Shrimp paste can be found in nations outside Southeast Asia in markets catering to Asian customers. In the Netherlands, Indonesian type of shrimp paste can be found in supermarkets selling Asian foodstuff such as "Trassie Oedang" from the Conimex brand. In the United States, brands of Thai shrimp paste such as "Pantainorasingh" and "Tra Chang" can be found. Shrimp pastes from other countries are also available in Asian supermarkets and through mail order. It is also readily available in Suriname due to the high concentration of Javanese inhabitants. In Australia, shrimp paste can be found in most suburbs where Southeast Asian people reside.


title: Dracaena sanderiana

text: Dracaena sanderiana is a species of flowering plant in the family Asparagaceae, native to Central Africa. It was named after the German–English gardener Henry Frederick Conrad Sander (1847–1920). The plant is commonly marketed as "lucky bamboo".


title: Dracaena sanderiana

text: Common names include Sander's dracaena, ribbon dracaena, lucky bamboo, curly bamboo, Chinese water bamboo, Goddess of Mercy's plant, Belgian evergreen. It is also called ribbon plant, although the same common name is sometimes used for "Chlorophytum comosum" (also known as the "spider plant"). While the word "bamboo" occurs in several of this plant's common names, "D. sanderiana" is of an entirely different taxonomic order from true bamboos – though it is worth noting that this plant and true bamboos both fall under the monocot clade. Despite several of its common names that suggest it is from China or Belgium, it is a native African species. "Dracaena sanderiana" is often confused with "Dracaena braunii", a plant from coastal West Africa with flowers 5 times shorter than those of "D. sanderiana".


title: Dracaena sanderiana

text: A perennial herb reaching a height of , the plant has slightly twisted leaves of grey-green colour, with a length of which is up to . The stem is fleshy, which distinguishes it from bamboo. It requires bright, ventilated areas. It tolerates dry air and does not require constant spraying. A very tenacious plant, it is rather difficult to destroy it.


title: Dracaena sanderiana

text: "Dracaena sanderiana" and its related varieties are popular houseplants. It is a suitable plant in a confined space, and the most suitable place is a scattered light or semi-shade site because direct sunlight causes yellowing and burning of leaves. Ideal temperature ranges from . It requires average warmth, good illumination, regular watering with dry periods in between. If planted in the ground, it loses its bamboo-like look and it would fill with a leaf-like shape like other dragon trees.


title: Andrewsarchus

text: Andrewsarchus () is an extinct genus of mammal that lived during the middle Eocene epoch in what is now Inner Mongolia, China. Only one species is usually recognized, A. mongoliensis, known from a single skull of great size discovered in 1923 during the expeditions to Central Asia by the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH). Generally classified as a mesonychid since its original description, most recent studies classify it as an artiodactyl. One study specifically classifies "Andrewsarchus" as a member of the clade Cetancodontamorpha, closely related to entelodonts, hippos and cetaceans (members of the infraorder that includes the whales).


title: Andrewsarchus

text: The only known skull was found at a locality in the lower levels of the middle Eocene Irdin Manha Formation of Inner Mongolia, by the paleontological assistant Kan Chuen Pao during the spring of the second year (1923) of the Central Asiatic Expeditions (CAE) of the AMNH, led by the explorer and naturalist Roy Chapman Andrews. The skull is now on display at the American Museum of Natural History in New York.


title: Andrewsarchus

text: The genus name was dedicated to Andrews by Henry Fairfield Osborn, and it derives from the surname "Andrews" + ('leader', 'chief' or 'commander'). The species epithet "mongoliensis" refers to Inner Mongolia, the region where the type material was found.


title: Andrewsarchus

text: It was classified in the clade Mesonychia due to the similarity in structure between its teeth and skull with those of other mesonychid species known from complete skeletons; however, much of this was based only on Osborn's original publication, and more recent studies have found it to have no special mesonychid affinities, instead grouping it with various artiodactyl clades. Indeed, one study (Spaulding et al., 2009) has not only found them to be closer to entelodonts, but as kin to Whippomorpha in the clade Cetacodontamorpha.


title: Andrewsarchus

text: A possible synonym of "Andrewsarchus" was "Paratriisodon", which was described in 1959 on the basis of a lower jaw fragment about 34 cm long and some upper jaw and tooth remains from the Upper Eocene Lushih Formation in the Chinese Henan Province, and whose reconstructed size resembles that of "Andrewsarchus". The original describer of "Paratriisodon" considered it to be a representative of the Arctocyonidae.


title: Andrewsarchus

text: Osborn (1924) declared "Andrewsarchus" as the largest terrestrial mammalian carnivore known on the basis of the length of the skull, which he used to estimate its size by comparing it to the mesonychid "Mesonyx". However, since the known morphology of "Andrewsarchus" is entelodont-like and consequently very different from mesonychids in habits and likely in body proportions, according to Szalay and Gould (1966) if a size estimate has to be made it would be more appropriate to follow the proportions of entelodonts.


title: Andrewsarchus

text: The type skull of "Andrewsarchus mongoliensis" (AMNH 20135) is in basal length, with a long snout comprising 60% of that measurement. The orbits of the eyes are set low and widely separated from one another by the snout, the sagittal crest is small, and the articulation for the mandible is shallow.


title: Andrewsarchus

text: "Andrewsarchus mongoliensis" has a complete placental tooth formula with 3 incisors, 1 canine, 4 premolars and 3 molars in each side of the jaws, as in entelodonts. The incisors are arranged in a semicircular configuration, the second and third premolars are elongated and single-cusped, the crowns of the molars are heavily wrinkled, and the first and second molars are much more heavily worn than the precedent and subsequent teeth. In fact, the molars are so similar to those of entelodonts it has been suggested that had they been found in isolation, they would have been classified as such. There are also greatly enlarged second incisors, as big as the canines, which despite not being preserved can be estimated from the diameter of their tooth sockets. They were proportionally small compared to the whole dentition and the size of the skull according to Szalay and Gould, contrary to Osborn's description.


title: James Eastland

text: James Oliver Eastland (November 28, 1904 February 19, 1986) was an American attorney, plantation owner, and politician from Mississippi. A Democrat, he served in the United States Senate in 1941 and again from 1943 until his resignation on December 27, 1978. Eastland was a leader of Southern resistance against racial integration during the civil rights movement, often speaking of African Americans as "an inferior race." Eastland has been called the "Voice of the White South" and the "Godfather of Mississippi Politics."


title: James Eastland

text: The son of prominent attorney, politician, and cotton planter Woods Eastland, he attended the local schools of Scott County, Mississippi, and took courses at the University of Mississippi, Vanderbilt University, and the University of Alabama. He completed his legal education by studying in his father's office, attaining admission to the bar in 1927. Eastland practiced law in Sunflower County, Mississippi, and took over management of his family's cotton plantation. Becoming active in politics as a Democrat, he served in the Mississippi House of Representatives from 1928 to 1932.


title: James Eastland

text: When Senator Pat Harrison died in office in 1941, the governor appointed Eastland to fill the vacancy on the condition that Eastland not run in that year's special election to complete the term. Eastland served from June to September 1941. The special election was won by Wall Doxey. Eastland went on to defeat Doxey in the 1942 primary for the Democratic nomination for a full term. The Democratic party, which was then Mississippi's dominant party, made Eastland's primary victory a safe seat, and he returned to the Senate in January 1943. Eastland was reelected five times, serving until resigning in December 1978, days before the end of his final term. Eastland advanced through seniority to the chairmanship of the Senate Judiciary Committee, serving over 20 years, and President pro tempore of the Senate.


title: James Eastland

text: Eastland was born in Doddsville, in the Mississippi Delta on November 28, 1904, the son of Woods Caperton Eastland, a lawyer and cotton planter, and Alma Teresa (Austin) Eastland. He was named James after his late uncle, who was allegedly murdered earlier in 1904 by Luther Holbert, who was subsequently lynched. In 1905 he moved with his parents to Forest, the county seat of Scott County, Mississippi. His father was active in Mississippi politics and served as a district attorney. The son attended the local segregated public schools and graduated from Forest High School in 1922.


title: James Eastland

text: Eastland attended the University of Mississippi (1922-1924), Vanderbilt University (1925-1926), and the University of Alabama (1926-1927). He studied law in his father's office, attained admission to the bar in 1927, and practiced in Sunflower County. Active in politics, he was elected to one term in the Mississippi House of Representatives, and served from 1928 to 1932. After completing his House term, Eastland remained active in politics and government. He was a sought-after campaign speaker, including speeches on behalf of the gubernatorial candidacies of Paul B. Johnson Sr. in 1935 and 1939. In addition, he was a member of the board of trustees of the state hospital for the insane.


title: James Eastland

text: In the 1930s, Eastland took over management of his family's Sunflower County plantation; he eventually expanded it to nearly . Even after entering politics, he considered himself first and foremost a cotton planter. Cotton plantations were adopting mechanization but he still had many African-American laborers on the plantation, most of whom worked as sharecroppers.


title: James Eastland

text: Eastland was appointed to the U.S. Senate in 1941 by Governor Paul B. Johnson Sr., following the death of Senator Pat Harrison. Johnson first offered the appointment to Woods Eastland, whom he had known since childhood; Woods Eastland declined and suggested his son. Johnson appointed James Eastland on the condition that he would not run later that year in the special election to complete the term, ensuring that no candidate would have the advantage of incumbency. Eastland kept his word, and the election was won by 2nd District Congressman Wall Doxey.


title: James Eastland

text: In 1942, Eastland was one of three candidates who challenged Doxey for a full term. Doxey had the support of President Franklin D. Roosevelt and Mississippi's senior U.S. Senator, Theodore G. Bilbo, but Eastland defeated him in the Democratic primary. At the time, Mississippi was effectively a one-party state, dominated by white Democrats since the disfranchisement of African Americans with the passage of the 1890 state constitution. The state used poll taxes, literacy tests and white primaries to exclude African Americans from the political system.


title: James Eastland

text: Eastland returned to the Senate on January 3, 1943. Roosevelt and Eastland developed a working relationship that enabled Eastland to oppose New Deal programs that were unpopular in Mississippi, while he supported the President's agenda on other issues. Eastland was effective in developing that type of arrangement with presidents of both parties during his long tenure in the Senate. Also effective because of his seniority, he gained major federal investment in the state, such as infrastructure construction including the Tennessee–Tombigbee Waterway and federal relief after disasters such as Hurricane Camille.


title: James Eastland

text: Early 1947 saw a renewed effort by the Truman administration to promote civil rights with activities such as President Truman addressing the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) and delivering an address to Congress entirely dedicated to the subject. Eastland, among many other Southerners who saw the civil rights backing of the administration as an attack on their "way of life", addressed the Senate floor a week after Truman's speech on the matter, saying Southerners were expected to "remain docile" in light of their laws and culture being destroyed "under the false guise of another civil-rights bill." Six weeks before the 1948 United States Presidential election, Eastland predicted the defeat of the incumbent President Harry Truman, telling an audience in Memphis, Tennessee that voting for him was a waste. After Truman's surprise victory, Eastland "remained publicly undaunted".


title: James Eastland

text: In 1956, Eastland was appointed chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee, and he served in this position until his retirement from the Senate. He was re-elected five times. He did not face substantive Republican opposition until 1966, as party politics were realigning after passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. In 1966, freshman Representative Prentiss Walker, the first Republican to represent Mississippi at the federal level since Reconstruction, ran against Eastland. The Walker campaign was an early Republican effort to attract white conservatives to its ranks, because recently passed civil rights legislation had enabled African Americans in the South to begin participating in the political process, and most of them became active as liberals in the Democratic Party.


title: James Eastland

text: Former Republican Party state chairman Wirt Yerger had considered running against Eastland but bowed out after Walker announced his candidacy. Walker ran well to Eastland's right, accusing him of not having done enough to keep integration-friendly judges from being confirmed by the Senate. As is often the case when a one-term representative runs against a popular incumbent senator or governor, Walker was soundly defeated. Years later, Yerger said that Walker's decision to relinquish his House seat after one term for the vagaries of a Senate race against Eastland was "very devastating" to the growth of the Mississippi Republicans.


title: James Eastland

text: In February 1960, Senator Kenneth B. Keating made a motion to report an Eisenhower administration-backed civil rights bill out of the Senate Judiciary Committee. Olin D. Johnston objected on the grounds that the committee did not have permission to sit while the full Senate was meeting. Eastland upheld the objection. Keating later stated that Eastland intentionally refused to recognize him earlier, which prevented him from making his motion before the full Senate convened. Eastland disputed Keating's claim, stated that he had recognized Keating in an appropriate manner, and advised Keating not to repeat his claim to the full Senate.


title: James Eastland

text: In September 1960, Eastland and Thomas Dodd said officials in the State Department cleared the way for the regime of Fidel Castro to reign in Cuba and that lower-ranking officials had misinformed Americans about the political climate of Cuba with assistance from the media. Incumbent Secretary of State Christian Herter responded to the claims by saying they were incorrect or misleading.


title: James Eastland

text: Eastland announced his support for United States Deputy Attorney General Byron White to replace the retiring Charles Evans Whittaker as Associate Justice on March 30, 1962, Eastland stating that White would be an able justice. White took office the following month.


title: James Eastland

text: Eastland introduced an amendment that he stated would nullify the Supreme Court prayer decision on June 29, 1962.


title: James Eastland

text: In September 1963, Eastland, Stennis, and Georgia Senator Richard Russell jointly announced their opposition to the ratification of the nuclear test ban treaty. The opposition was viewed as denting hopes of the Kennedy administration to be met with minimal disagreement during the treaty's appearance before the Senate.


title: James Eastland

text: In 1972, Eastland was reelected with 58 percent of the vote in his closest contest ever. His Republican opponent, Gil Carmichael, an automobile dealer from Meridian, was likely aided by President Richard Nixon's landslide reelection in 49 states, including taking 78 percent of Mississippi's popular vote. However, Nixon had worked "under the table" to support Eastland, a long-time personal friend. Nixon and other Republicans provided little support for Carmichael to avoid alienating conservative Southern Democrats, who increasingly supported Republican positions on many national issues.


title: James Eastland

text: The Republicans worked to elect two House candidates, Trent Lott and Thad Cochran, both of whom later became influential U.S. Senators. Recognizing that Nixon would handily carry Mississippi, Eastland did not endorse the Democratic presidential candidate, George McGovern of South Dakota, who was considered a liberal. Four years later, Eastland supported the candidacy of fellow Southern Democrat Jimmy Carter of Georgia, rather than Nixon's successor, President Gerald R. Ford. Eastland's former press secretary, Larry Speakes, a Mississippi native, served as a press spokesman for Gerald Ford and Ford's running mate, US Senator Robert J. Dole.


title: James Eastland

text: During his last Senate term, Eastland served as President pro tempore of the Senate, as he was the longest-serving Democrat in the Senate.


title: James Eastland

text: In January 1970, after G. Harrold Carswell was accused of harboring both sexist and racist beliefs, Eastland told reporters that he believed this was the first instance of a Supreme Court nominee being challenged on his views on the legal rights of women. In April, the Senate Judiciary Committee scheduled a vote for a plan that if enacted would give each state one electoral vote for each congressional district. During a meeting with reporters, Eastland espoused his view that the Senate would not approve any constitutional amendment reforming the Presidential election system that year. In November, along with fellow Southerners Strom Thurmond and Sam J. Ervin Jr., Eastland was one of three Senators to vote against an occupational safety bill that would establish federal supervision to oversee working conditions. Later that month, after President Nixon vetoed a curb on spending for political broadcasts, Republican leader Hugh Scott announced that he would offer comprehensive campaign reforms the following year and called for senators to join him in sustaining the veto. It was agreed by members of both parties that Eastland was one of eight senators who were essential to supporting Democratic opposition to the veto and thereby make the difference in overriding it.


title: James Eastland

text: In April 1971, Eastland introduced a six‐bill package intended to adjust the Internal Security Act of 1950 in addition to plugging loopholes noted by various decisions made by the Supreme Court, Eastland noting that his proposed version of the Internal Security Act would give the Subversive Activities Control Board more efficiency.


title: James Eastland

text: In October 1971, after President Richard Nixon nominated Lewis F. Powell and William Rehnquist to the Supreme Court, Eastland announced his intent to hasten the hearings of Rehnquist and Powell while admitting his doubts that hearings would begin the following week given the Senate being in recess.


title: James Eastland

text: In October 1974, Eastland was one of five senators to sponsor legislation authored by Jesse Helms permitting prayer in public schools and taking the issue away from the Supreme Court which had previously ruled in 1963 that school prayer violated the First Amendment to the United States Constitution through the establishment of a religion.


title: James Eastland

text: In June 1976, Eastland joined a coalition of Democratic politicians who endorsed Georgia Governor Jimmy Carter for the presidency. "The New York Times" assessed Stennis and Eastland as jointly "trying to pull Mississippi out for Mr. Carter" in their first campaign for a national Democrat in decades.


title: James Eastland

text: On May 18, 1977, Eastland made a joint appearance with President Jimmy Carter in the Rose Garden in support of proposed foreign intelligence surveillance legislation. Eastland said the legislation was "vitally needed in this country" and that he was satisfied with its bipartisan support.


title: James Eastland

text: Over the summer of 1977, the Justice Department enlisted the aid of Eastland as part of its effort to thwart "balkanization" of litigation authority, Eastland and Attorney General Griffin Bell moving to block six measures that if enacted would have permitted the independent agencies to go to court under certain circumstances in the event the Justice Department did not act on a case 45 days after it was referred to the department.


title: James Eastland

text: By August 1977, the Carter administration reached a compromise plan to stem the flow of illegal aliens into the United States, Eastland, Attorney General Bell, and United States Secretary of Labor F. Ray Marshall agreeing to civil penalties up to $1,000 for offending employers.


title: James Eastland

text: By September 1977, the seventy-three-year-old Eastland was considering retirement, with discussions of Ted Kennedy assuming his position as Chairman of the Senate Judiciary Committee.


title: James Eastland

text: In October 1977, Eastland was one of several influential Senators invited to meet with President Carter as the latter tried gaining support in the Senate for the Panama Canal treaties.


title: James Eastland

text: On February 14, 1974, Special Prosecutor for the U.S. Department of Justice Leon Jaworski wrote to Eastland complaining that President Nixon had refused to give him material that he needed for his Watergate investigation including 27 tapes relating to the Watergate cover‐up in addition to political donations of milk producers and the activities of the plumbers unit of the White House. The contents of the letter to Eastland were disclosed to the public by Jaworski the following month. In May, the House Judiciary Committee opened impeachment hearings against President Nixon after the release of 1,200 pages of transcripts of White House conversations between him and his aides and the administration. That month, the Senate Judiciary Committee passed a resolution supporting Jaworski observing that he was "acting within the scope of the authority conferred upon MT". Eastland's support for the resolution was seen by observers as part of a pattern of Nixon backers turning against him in light of the Watergate scandal. In August, "Newsweek" magazine released Eastland's name as one of thirty-six senators who the White House believed would support President Nixon remaining in office in the event of impeachment. The article mentioned the White House believing some of the supporters were shaky and that thirty-four of them would need to remain firm to override a potential conviction. Within days of the article's release, President Nixon announced his resignation in the face of near-certain impeachment.


title: James Eastland

text: Eastland is the most recent President pro tempore to have served during a vacancy in the Vice Presidency. He did so twice during the tumultuous 1970s, first from October to December 1973, following Spiro Agnew's resignation until the swearing-in of Gerald Ford as Vice President, and then from August to December 1974, from the time that Ford became President until Nelson Rockefeller was sworn in as Vice President. Then, Eastland was second in the presidential line of succession, behind only Speaker of the House Carl Albert.


title: James Eastland

text: During World War II, Eastland vocally opposed and degraded the service of African American soldiers in the war. He incited protests and comparisons to Hitlerism following a vitriolic speech on the floor of the Senate in July 1945, in which he complained that the Negro soldier was physically, morally, and mentally incapable of serving in combat. Eastland claimed that the "boys from the South were fighting to maintain white supremacy".


title: James Eastland

text: In 1944 Eastland said: I have no prejudice in my heart, but the white race is the superior race and the Negro race an inferior race and the races must be kept separate by law.The same year he protested against "Smith v. Allwright", which banned White primaries:This decision reveals an alarming tendency to destroy the sovereignty of the states. Our supreme court is usurping the legislative function, and Congress may yet prove the last citadel of constitutional government.When the Supreme Court issued its decision in the landmark case "Brown v. Board of Education", ruling that segregation in public schools was unconstitutional, Eastland, like the majority of Southern Democrats, denounced it. In a speech given in Senatobia, Mississippi on August 12, 1955, he announced:


title: James Eastland

text: Eastland would become actively involved with the White Citizens' Council, an organization which boasted 60,000 members across the South and was called "the new Klan that enforces thought control by economic pressures."