title: Bird nest

text: The "pendent" nest is an elongated sac woven of pliable materials such as grasses and plant fibers and suspended from a branch. Oropendolas, caciques, orioles, weavers and sunbirds are among the species that weave pendent nests. In weaver birds, this is pendant, suspended from a single point hanging from branch while many other birds incorporate more than one branch to support the nest.


title: Bird nest

text: The "sphere" nest is a roundish structure; it is completely enclosed, except for a small opening which allows access. Most spherical nests are woven out of plant material. Spider webs are also frequently used, upon which other material such as lichens may be stuck for camouflage. The cape penduline tit incorporates false entrances, the parent bird carefully making sure to close the actual entrance when leaving the nest. The entrances are lined with spider webs which help seal the openings.


title: Bird nest

text: Many species of bird conceal their nests to protect them from predators. Some species may choose nest sites that are inaccessible or build the nest so as to deter predators. Bird nests can also act as habitats for other inquiline species which may not affect the bird directly. Birds have also evolved nest sanitation measures to reduce the effects of parasites and pathogens on nestlings.


title: Bird nest

text: Some aquatic species such as grebes are very careful when approaching and leaving the nest so as not to reveal the location. Some species will use leaves to cover up the nest prior to leaving.


title: Bird nest

text: Ground birds such as plovers may use "broken wing" or "rodent run" displays to distract predators from nests.


title: Bird nest

text: Many species attack predators or apparent predators near their nests. Kingbirds attack other birds that come too close. In North America, northern mockingbirds, blue jays, and Arctic terns can peck hard enough to draw blood. In Australia, a bird attacking a person near its nest is said to "swoop" the person. The Australian magpie is particularly well known for this behavior.


title: Bird nest

text: Nests can become home to many other organisms including parasites and pathogens. The excreta of the fledglings also pose a problem. In most passerines, the adults actively dispose the fecal sacs of young at a distance or consume them. This is believed to help prevent ground predators from detecting nests. Young birds of prey however usually void their excreta beyond the rims of their nests. Blowflies of the genus "Protocalliphora" have specialized to become obligate nest parasites with the maggots feeding on the blood of nestlings.


title: Bird nest

text: Some birds have been shown to choose aromatic green plant material for constructing nests that may have insecticidal properties, while others may use materials such as carnivore scat to repel smaller predators. Some urban birds, house sparrows and house finches in Mexico, have been adopted the use of cellulose from cigarette butts which may be adaptive since these fibres contain nicotine and other toxic substances that repel ectoparasites.


title: Bird nest

text: Some birds use pieces of snake slough in their nests. It has been suggested that these may deter some nest predators such as squirrels.


title: Bird nest

text: Though most birds nest individually, some species—including seabirds, penguins, flamingos, many herons, gulls, terns, weaver, some corvids and some sparrows—gather together in sizeable colonies. Birds that nest colonially may benefit from increased protection against predation. They may also be able to better use food supplies, by following more successful foragers to their foraging sites.


title: Bird nest

text: In constructing nests, birds act as ecosystem engineers by providing a sheltered microclimate and concentrated food sources for invertebrates. A global checklist lists eighteen invertebrate orders that occur in bird nests.


title: Bird nest

text: Many birds may nest close to human habitations. In addition to nest boxes which are often used to encourage cavity nesting birds (see below), other species have been specially encouraged : for example nesting white storks have been protected and held in reverence in many cultures, and the nesting of peregrine falcons on tall modern or historical buildings has captured popular interest.


title: Bird nest

text: Colonial breeders produce guano in and around their nesting sites, which is a valuable fertilizer from the Andean Pacific coast and other areas.


title: Bird nest

text: The saliva nest of the edible-nest swiftlet is used to make bird's nest soup, long considered a delicacy in China. Collection of the swiftlet nests is big business: in one year, more than 3.5 million nests were exported from Borneo to China, and the industry was estimated at $1 billion US per year (and increasing) in 2008. While the collection is regulated in some areas (at the Gomantong Caves, for example, where nests can be collected only from February to April or July to September), it is not in others, and the swiftlets are declining in areas where the harvest reaches unsustainable levels.


title: Bird nest

text: Some species of birds are considered nuisances when they nest in the proximity of human habitations. Feral pigeons are often unwelcome and sometimes also considered as a health risk.


title: Bird nest

text: The Beijing National Stadium, principal venue of the 2008 Summer Olympics, has been nicknamed "The Bird Nest" because of its architectural design, which its designers likened to a bird's woven nest.


title: Bird nest

text: In the 19th and early 20th centuries, naturalists often collected bird's eggs and their nests. The practice of egg-collecting or oology is now illegal in many jurisdictions worldwide; the study of bird nests is called caliology.


title: Bird nest

text: Bird nests are also built by humans to help in the conservation of certain birds (such as swallows). Swallow nests are generally built with plaster, wood, terracotta or stucco.


title: Bird nest

text: Artificial nests, such as nest boxes, are an important conservation tool for many species, however nest box programs rarely compare their effectiveness with individuals not using nest boxes. Red-footed falcons using nest boxes in heavily managed landscapes produced fewer fledglings than those nesting in natural nests, but also than pairs nesting in nest boxes in more natural habitats.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: In Uganda the most spoken local language is Luganda as the Baganda tribe occupies the southern central part of Uganda and the capital city of the country, followed by English (also the official language since 1962), as all schools in Uganda use it in their studies due to the introduction of English during the colonial period. English is also the language of business and judicial matters. Most spoken after Luganda and English is Swahili. This language is more common in neighbouring Kenya and Tanzania. Swahili is taught in schools as an optional additional language and it is mostly spoken by the Ugandan army. In 2005, there were talks to include Swahili into as the second official language as it was seen as neutral, however this is still not ratified by the government.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: Uganda is a multilingual country with over 70 generally estimated languages spoken. 43 of its living languages fall into four main families—Bantu, Nilotic and Central Sudanic and Kuliak. Of these, 41 are indigenous and 2 are non-indigenous. Furthermore, 5 are institutional, 27 are developing, 7 are established, 2 are endangered, and 2 are almost extinct. There is also a Ugandan Sign Language.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: In all of the Bantu speaking areas of Uganda, dialect continua are very common. For example, people around Mbarara speak ruNyankore and people from Tooro Kingdom speak ruTooro, but in between those areas there are villages where most of the people speak a dialect that is best characterised as intermediate between Runyankore and Rutooro. In fact, prior to 1952, these and other closely-related dialects had a shared literature under the name of ruNyoro (ruNyoro, ruTooro, ruNyankore, ruKiga, ruHema , ruNyambo, ruHaya) since they are all mutually intelligible. In 1952, however, separate orthographies were developed for ruNyoro and ruTooro (ruNyoro–ruTooro) and for ruNyankore and ruKiga (ruNyankore–ruKiga). Around 1990 the term "rNyakitara", which is not attached to any modern ethnic group but to the cultural heirs of the Empire of Kitara, was popularised to refer to the whole language cluster as well as to facilitate work in these languages, such as teaching at university level (Makerere). Nevertheless, a unified orthography is yet to be developed and spread.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: In south-central Uganda, the Bantu languages of Luganda and luSoga are largely interintelligible as well. This dialectic similarity also extends to the luSsese language spoken in the Ssese Islands of Lake Victoria.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: Nilotic languages include Karamojong of eastern Uganda (population 370,000), the Kakwa language in the extreme northwestern corner (about 150,000 population) and Teso south of Lake Kyoga (3.2 million 9.6% of Uganda's population). Western Nilotic Luo languages include Alur (population 459,000), Acholi, Lango, Adhola and Kuman of eastern Uganda. (Acholi and Lango are interintelligible, and sometimes the term "Luo" is used to cover them.)


title: Languages of Uganda

text: Some Southern Nilotic Kalenjin languages are spoken along the border with Kenya, including Pökoot and the Elgon languages near Kupsabiny. Kuliak languages Ik and Soo are spoken in northeast Uganda. Lugbara, Aringa, Ma'di and Ndo of northwestern Uganda are members of the Central Sudanic languages.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: In Uganda, as in many African countries, English was introduced in government and public life by way of missionary work and the educational system. During the first decades of the twentieth century, Swahili gained influence as it was not only used in the army and the police, but was also taught in schools. The baGanda viewed the introduction of Swahili as a threat to their political power and partly through their influence, English remained the only official language at that time.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: After independence, there were efforts to choose an African official language, with Swahili and Luganda as the most considered candidates. Although Luganda was the most geographically spread language, people outside Buganda were opposed to having it as a national language. English remained the official language.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: Ugandan English, a local dialect of English, is largely influenced by native languages of the Ugandan people.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: In 2011, government of Uganda revealed plans to establish a Swahili language council to boost the teaching of the Swahili language in the country. It was not until September 9, 2019 that the cabinet passed resolution to create the National Kiswahili Council.


title: Languages of Uganda

text: The National Swahili Council is meant to guide the planning process, implementation of interventions and allocation of resources to the usage and development of kiSwahili as a lingua franca-a language that is adopted as a common language between speakers whose first languages are different.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: , known as Starwing in PAL regions, is a 3D rail shooter game developed by Nintendo and Argonaut Software for the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. The first game in the "Star Fox" series, the story follows Fox McCloud and the rest of the Star Fox team defending their homeworld of Corneria against the invading forces of Andross.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Star Fox" was the second 3D Nintendo game after "X" for the Game Boy in 1992, and the first Nintendo game to use polygonal graphics, achieved with the Super FX graphics chip included in the cartridge. The complex display of three-dimensional models with polygons was uncommon in console games.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Star Fox" received critical acclaim and is often considered one of the greatest video games. It sold more than four million copies and established the "Star Fox" series as a flagship Nintendo franchise. The next-released game in the series, "Star Fox 64", was a 1997 reboot for the Nintendo 64.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: Nintendo re-released "Star Fox" worldwide for the first time in September 2017 as part of the Super NES Classic Edition. In September 2019, "Star Fox" was made available on the Nintendo Switch for subscribers of the Nintendo Switch Online service.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Star Fox" is a rail shooter in a third-person and first-person 3D perspective. The player must navigate Fox's spacecraft, an Arwing, through environments while various enemies (spaceships, robots, creatures, etc.) attack them. Along the way, various power-ups are placed in the stage to help the player. The player receives a score at the end of each level based on how many enemies have been destroyed and how well the player has defended their teammates. At the end of each level there is a boss that the player must defeat before progressing to the next level.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: Control of the Arwing includes thrusters and retro-rockets on the Arwing allowing the player to temporarily speed up or slow down. These can be used to maneuver around enemy attacks and other obstacles. Damage is incurred incrementally via loss of shield energy before the destruction of the craft. The game also has a small degree of locational damage detection: if the ship's wings clip against obstacles or the ground too much, they will break off, adversely affecting the craft's handling and removing the ability to upgrade weapons.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: The difficulty in "Star Fox" is also set in a unique way. Most scrolling shooters, if they have selectable difficulty levels, allow the player to set the difficulty by choosing an option (e.g. "Easy", "Normal", and "Hard") at the beginning of the game. This option usually affects variables such as the number of lives a player has, the number of enemies encountered in the game, the speed of enemies, and so on. By contrast, at the beginning of "Star Fox", the player is given a choice of one of three routes to take through the Lylat system. Each of these routes corresponds with a certain level of difficulty, but each route has its own series of unique levels. This gives "Star Fox" somewhat more replay value than other scrolling shooters that have a fixed series of levels each time the game is played. The three game paths all contain the planet Corneria (the first level) and Venom (the last level), but they each have different versions depending on the path taken.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: In each level, the player is accompanied by three computer-controlled wingmen: Peppy Hare, Slippy Toad and Falco Lombardi. At certain pre-scripted points, one will fly into the player's view, often either chasing an enemy or being chased and asking for assistance. Ignoring a wingman's pleas will result in him taking damage, or even being shot down. They cannot be damaged by the player's own lasers (although they will complain if hit). Regardless of their survival, wingmen are not present during boss battles but rejoin the player before the next stage. A player may choose to help their wingmen when they ask for assistance, as doing so will allow them to engage some of the enemies not destroyed by the player, helping the player to succeed and additionally making it easier to achieve maximum score in a given level. Additional points are also granted at the end of each level depending on the health of each wingman. If a wingman gets shot down, he will not return for the rest of the game.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: This game takes place in a fictional planetary system called the Lylat system, which is inhabited by anthropomorphic animal species such as foxes, frogs, birds, rabbits, and apes. It contains the planets Corneria and Venom, representing good and evil, respectively. Andross, an evil scientist, fled to the planet Venom after being banished from Corneria, and declared war on the latter, unleashing an enormous army to wreak havoc on the Lylat System. General Pepper, the commanding officer of Corneria's defense force, dispatches a prototype high-performance fighter aircraft called the "Arwing". However, lacking in time to train pilots for the new aircraft, he summons the elite mercenary team Star Fox to defeat Andross. Fox McCloud, the leader of the team, is accompanied by his teammates, Falco Lombardi, Peppy Hare, and Slippy Toad.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: Nintendo worked closely with Argonaut Software during the early years of the NES and Super NES. They developed a prototype on the NES, initially codenamed "NESGlider", which was inspired by their earlier 8-bit game "Starglider", and ported this prototype to the Super NES (the polygonal style used ended up having a strong resemblance to "Starglider 2"). Programmer Jez San told Nintendo that this was as good as it could get unless they were allowed to design custom hardware to make the Super NES better at processing 3D. Nintendo assented to this, and San hired chip designers to make the Super FX chip, the first 3D graphics accelerator in a consumer product. The Super FX was so much more powerful than the Super NES's standard processor that the development team joked that the Super NES was just a box to hold the chip. Argonaut did much of the base programming for the game's engine, while the character designs and artwork were mainly done in-house by Nintendo. The main game design was done by Shigeru Miyamoto and Katsuya Eguchi. Characters were designed by Takaya Imamura, and music was composed by Hajime Hirasawa. Nintendo suggested the "arcade-style shooting" element of the game and Argonaut brought the idea of using spaceships.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: Miyamoto cited the X-Wings from "Star Wars" were an inspiration for the Arwings. He frequently visited the Fushimi Inari-taisha shrine, about a fifteen-minute walk from the Nintendo corporate headquarters, and the Senbon Torii gates there inspired the idea of gates that the player would need to pilot the ship through. Miyamoto stated that he wanted the "Star Fox" series to star animal characters since he was not interested in making a series with conventional science fiction stories with humans, robots, monsters, and superheroes. He decided to use a fox as a main character since it reminded him of Fushimi Inari-taisha. Miyamoto explained that he had always planned to use the English word "fox" instead of the Japanese word . Imamura used Japanese folklore as an inspiration to add a bird and a hare as two other protagonists. He also added a toad; the inspiration came from a staff member of Nintendo EAD who used a toad as his personal mascot. Imamura populated the Cornerian army with dogs and the enemy army with monkeys, and made General Pepper a dog and Andross a monkey, since there is a Japanese expression about fighting like dogs and monkeys. Miyamoto created several puppets and photographed them to use as artwork for the cover of the "Star Fox" game; Miyamoto was a fan of British puppet dramas, such as "Thunderbirds", so he wanted the game cover to feature puppets. The game was released under the title "Starwing" in Europe due to the similarity of the title "Star Fox" to the name of the German company StarVox.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: In documentary named "High Score", Dylan Cuthbert and Giles Goddard discussed how when they moved to Kyoto to work in the Nintendo office, they were put in a room remotely located from the rest of Nintendo because due to the two of them not being full-time Nintendo employees, Nintendo did not want them to have access to confidential and secret projects they were working on at the time. They also discussed how Miyamoto would come visit them frequently, providing advice and feedback in between puffs of a cigarette, as Miyamoto was a notorious chain smoker at the time.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: On the weekend of April 30 to May 2, 1993, the "Super Star Fox Weekend Competition" took place at approximately 2,000 retail locations within the United States. Competitors received a limited edition "Star Fox" pin, and those who accumulated a particularly high score received "Star Fox" T-shirts as prizes. The competitors who achieved the highest score at their respective locations were entered into a randomized grand prize drawing for a choice between an all-expenses-paid trip for four to a choice of London, Paris, Sydney, or Tokyo, or a lump sum of $15,000. The grand prize was won by Trevor Petersma of Garland, Texas, who opted for the cash prize. In the United Kingdom, the competition was known as the "Starwing Challenge" and was held in gaming shops across the country on May 29. Nintendo Netherlands held the "Starwing" competition at various game-selling stores in early 1993; the winner of each day won a large "Starwing" poster. Annual "Starwing" competitions were held during the Dutch Nintendo Championships, held in October, from 1993 to 1996. After the original competition, a limited number of the game cartridges created and used for the competition were sold through the "Nintendo Power" magazine, listed in the Spring 1994 "Super Power Supplies" catalogue that was mailed to subscribers, with an original list price of $45. The cartridges feature a time-limited single-player mode on modified stages, as well as an exclusive bonus level. The altered start-up screen displays "Official Competition Cartridge".


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: According to Peter Main, Nintendo's vice president of marketing at the time, "Star Fox" had a marketing budget of $15 million.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Star Fox" was a commercial success upon release. It topped the Japanese "Famitsu" sales charts from February to March 1993, selling 325,000 units in Japan by December 1993. Nintendo sold more than 1.7 million units in Japan and the United States by the end of March 1993, becoming the fastest-selling video game launch in North America up until then. It also topped the UK sales chart in June 1993. It went on to sell over four million copies worldwide by 1998.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Star Fox" received generally positive reviews. It holds an aggregate score of 88% at GameRankings, based on an average of seven reviews. The gameplay was generally praised, with many reviewers comparing it favorably to "Space Harrier" (1985) and "After Burner" (1987). It also received a 34 out of 40 from "Famitsu" magazine, and a 4.125 out of 5 from "Nintendo Power" Magazine. The game’s groundbreaking use of 3D polygon graphics were universally lauded. "Next Gen Magazine" pointed out Star Fox as helping pioneer the use of 3D video game graphics. The game has been used as an example of how, even with a fully polygon design, the game was still very similar to older games in that there was a set path to travel through each level.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Entertainment Weekly" gave the game an A and wrote that "the first game to incorporate Nintendo's 'Super FX' computer chip, this pseudo-3D space shooter moves so fast that it practically qualifies as virtual reality. Unlike most games of this genre, though, "Star Fox" ("Nintendo of America, for Super NES") shows some heart behind the hardware — rarely have such powerful spacecrafts been piloted by so adorable an array of frogs, birds, and bunnies".


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Star Fox" was awarded Best Shooter of 1993 by Electronic Gaming Monthly. The game took the No. 115 spot on "EGM"s "The Greatest 200 Videogames of Their Time", and 82nd best game made on a Nintendo System in "Nintendo Power"s Top 200 Games list. In 1995, Total! rated Star Fox 10th on their Top 100 SNES Games and wrote that because of the Super FX Chip the game's graphics and gameplay are unlike any other SNES shooter. In 2009, "Official Nintendo Magazine" ranked the game 28th on a list of greatest Nintendo games. In 2018, Complex ranked Star Fox 24th in their "The Best Super Nintendo Games of All Time".


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: "Star Fox" has become an established Nintendo franchise, with six more installments and numerous appearances by its characters in other media such as the "Super Smash Bros." series and "". A direct sequel titled "Star Fox 2" was developed for the Super NES but never released, although programmer Dylan Cuthbert says that the game was actually completely finished. Although "Star Fox 2" was cancelled, some of the ideas and gameplay were salvaged for 1997's "Star Fox 64" (released in Europe under the title "Lylat Wars") for the Nintendo 64. Eventually, a handful of beta ROMs of "Star Fox 2" at various stages of its development were leaked onto the internet, and a fan-made translation of "Star Fox 2" from Japanese to English was released in the form of a patch that could be applied to one of the leaked ROMs. A finalized version of the game, obtained from a complete ROM located in Nintendo's archives, was released on the Super NES Classic Edition in September 2017.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: In 2002, Rare's "Star Fox Adventures" was released for Nintendo GameCube. "Adventures" was the first "Star Fox" game to incorporate action-adventure elements, where the player acts as Fox McCloud on the world of Sauria, also known as Dinosaur Planet. In 2005, "" was released for the GameCube, this time developed by Namco and specifically the same core team that handled the "Ace Combat" series. It incorporates third-person shooter elements into the game with grounded combat. "Star Fox Command", developed by Q-Games released for the Nintendo DS in 2006, is the first game in the series on a portable system and the first to feature online multiplayer. It uses many features from the unreleased "Star Fox 2", chiefly the real-time map and mission layout. "Star Fox Zero", co-developed by Nintendo and PlatinumGames, was released in 2016 and returns to the storyline of the original game and "Star Fox 64", while incorporating new elements such as the scrapped Walker transformation from "Star Fox 2" and a new Gyrowing vehicle.


title: Star Fox (1993 video game)

text: During the game's release, Nintendo teamed up with Kellogg's and Nelsonic to develop and release a promotional "Star Fox" LCD game watch to those who bought a box of corn flakes and sent the order form to Kellogg's to receive the "Star Fox" game watch for free. In the game watch, there are four levels and the object is to fly towards an attack carrier and destroy it while dodging plasma balls and falling structures. The game watch also includes a pair of earphones and a headphone jack due to the game watch missing a volume control. Nelsonic later released it in stores in a different watch appearance.


title: Riley Green (singer)

text: Riley Green (born October 18, 1988) is an American country music singer/songwriter. He saw his first success with the single "There Was This Girl" in 2018. He released an album, "Different 'Round Here", in September 2019.


title: Riley Green (singer)

text: Born and raised in Jacksonville, Alabama. His songs reflect the influences of his life growing up in a small town in the South.


title: Riley Green (singer)

text: Before he was a recording artist, Green was a Division 1 FCS Quarterback on the Jacksonville State University football team, starting for them in 2008. Green was also a contestant on the CMT reality show "Redneck Island". He released a self-titled EP in 2013, followed by additional EPs in 2015, 2016, and 2017. In 2018, he signed to the Big Machine Label Group.


title: Riley Green (singer)

text: Billy Dukes of "Taste of Country" reviewed "There Was This Girl" favorably, comparing its theme to "Chicks Dig It" by Chris Cagle and noting the more neotraditional country influence compared to Green's peers. The song charted on Country Airplay, and a music video was shot in October 2018.


title: Riley Green (singer)

text: In April 2019, Green announced the release of his second single, "In Love by Now", co-written with Rhett Akins, Ben Hayslip, and Marv Green, and released an accompanying music video shot in Belize.


title: Riley Green (singer)

text: "I Wish Grandpas Never Died" was released in August 2019 as the third single from Green's debut album, "Different 'Round Here", which was released on September 20, 2019.


title: Riley Green (singer)

text: The Academy of Country Music presented Riley Green with the New Male Artist of the Year Award for 2019.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: The Battle of Manila Bay (; ), also known as the Battle of Cavite, took place on 1 May 1898, during the Spanish–American War. The American Asiatic Squadron under Commodore George Dewey engaged and destroyed the Spanish Pacific Squadron under "Contraalmirante" (Rear admiral) Patricio Montojo. The battle took place in Manila Bay in the Philippines, and was the first major engagement of the Spanish–American War. The battle was one of the most decisive naval battles in history and marked the end of the Spanish colonial period in Philippine history.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Tensions between Spain and the United States worsened over the Spanish conduct during their efforts to quell the Cuban War of Independence, with many Americans being agitated by largely falsified reports of Spanish atrocities against the Cuban population. In January 1898, fearing the fate of American interests in Cuba due to the war, the cruiser USS "Maine" was dispatched to protect them. Less than a month later, the cruiser exploded while lying at anchor in Havana harbor, killing 261 sailors onboard and inflaming American opinion.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Upon the outbreak of war, the Americans realized that defeating a significant Spanish squadron then stationed in the Philippines was important to ensuring victory in the war. The U.S. Asiatic Squadron commanded by Dewey, a veteran of the American Civil War, was dispatched to ensure success. On 1 May, the American squadron steamed into Manila Bay to engage with the Spanish. The Spanish, aware that they were hopelessly outgunned, made a desperate defense against the Americans. The battle was not much of contest, with superior American naval gunnery and seamanship ensuring the entire Spanish fleet would be sunk with minimal casualties for the Americans, who suffered only ten casualties in all. Upon realising that the battle was hopeless, Montojo ordered his two protected cruisers to be scuttled to ensure that they did not fall into the hands of the Americans. The battle remains one of the most significant naval battles in American maritime history.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Americans living on the West Coast of the United States feared a Spanish attack at the outbreak of the Spanish–American War. Only a few U.S. Navy warships, led by the cruiser , stood between them and a powerful Spanish fleet. In practice however " Olympia" was far superior to the Spanish colonial fleet, as the battle would show.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Admiral Montojo, a career Spanish naval officer who had been dispatched rapidly to the Philippines, was equipped with a variety of obsolete vessels. Efforts to strengthen his position amounted to little. The strategy adopted by the Spanish bureaucracy suggested they could not win a war and saw resistance as little more than a face-saving exercise. Administration actions worked against the effort, sending explosives meant for naval mines to civilian construction companies while the Spanish fleet in Manila was seriously undermanned by inexperienced sailors who had not received any training for over a year. Reinforcements promised from Madrid resulted in only two poorly-armored scout cruisers being sent while at the same time the authorities transferred a squadron from the Manila fleet under Admiral Pascual Cervera to reinforce the Caribbean. Admiral Montojo had originally wanted to confront the Americans at Subic Bay, northwest of Manila Bay, but abandoned that idea when he learned the planned mines and coastal defensives were lacking and the cruiser started to leak. Montojo compounded his difficulties by placing his ships outside the range of Spanish coastal artillery (which might have evened the odds) and choosing a relatively shallow anchorage. His intent seems to have been to spare Manila from bombardment and to allow any survivors of his fleet to swim to safety. The harbor was protected by six shore batteries and three forts whose fire during the battle proved to be ineffective. Only Fort San Antonio Abad had guns with enough range to reach the American fleet, but Dewey never came within their range during the battle.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: The Spanish squadron consisted of seven ships: the cruisers (flagship), "Castilla", , , , , and the gunboat . The Spanish ships were of inferior quality to the American ships; the "Castilla" was unpowered and had to be towed by the transport ship "Manila". On 25 April, the squadron left Manila Bay for the port of Subic, intending to mount a defense there. The squadron was relying on a shore battery which was to be installed on Isla Grande. On 28 April, before that installation could be completed, a cablegram from the Spanish Consul in Hong Kong arrived with the information that the American squadron had left Hong Kong bound for Subic for the purpose of destroying the Spanish squadron and intending to proceed from there to Manila. The Spanish Council of Commanders, with the exception of the Commander of Subic, felt that no defense of Subic was possible with the state of things, and that the squadron should transfer back to Manila, positioning in shallow water so that the ships could be run aground to save the lives of the crews as a final resort. The squadron departed Subic at 10:30 a.m. on 29 April. "Manila", towing "Castilla", was last to arrive in Manila Bay, at midnight.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: At 7 p.m. on 30 April, Montojo was informed that Dewey's ships had been seen in Subic Bay that afternoon. As Manila Bay was considered unnavigable at night by foreigners, Montojo expected an attack the following morning. However, Oscar F. Williams, the United States Consul in Manila, had provided Dewey with detailed information on the state of the Spanish defenses and the lack of preparedness of the Spanish fleet. Based in part upon this intelligence, Dewey—embarked aboard "Olympia"—led his squadron into Manila Bay at midnight on 30 April.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Passing the entrance, two Spanish mines exploded but were ineffective as they were well below the draft of any of the ships due to the depth of the water. Inside the bay, ships normally used the north channel between Corregidor Island and the northern coast, and this was the only channel mined. Dewey instead used the unmined south channel between El Fraile and Caballo Islands. The El Fraile battery fired a few rounds but the range was too great. The , and were then detached from the line and took no further part in the fighting. At 5:15 a.m. on 1 May, the squadron was off Manila and the Cavite battery fired ranging shots. The shore batteries and Spanish fleet then opened fire but all the shells fell short as the fleet was still out of range. At 5:41 with the now famous phrase, "You may fire when ready, Gridley", the "Olympia"s captain was instructed to begin the destruction of the Spanish flotilla.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: The U.S. squadron swung in front of the Spanish ships and forts in line ahead, firing their port guns. They then turned and passed back, firing their starboard guns. This process was repeated five times, each time closing the range from 5,000 yards to 2,000 yards. The Spanish forces had been alerted, and most were ready for action, but they were heavily outgunned. Eight Spanish ships, the land batteries, and the forts returned fire for two and a half hours although the range was too great for the guns on shore. Five other small Spanish ships were not engaged.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Montojo accepted that his cause was hopeless and ordered his ships to ram the enemy if possible. He then slipped the "Cristina's" cables and charged. Much of the American fleet's fire was then directed at her and she was shot to pieces. Of the crew of 400, more than 200, including Montojo, were casualties and only two men remained who were able to man her guns. The ship managed to return to shore and Montojo ordered it to be scuttled. The "Castilla", which only had guns on the port side, had her forward cable shot away, causing her to swing about, presenting her weaponless starboard side. The captain then ordered her sunk and abandoned. The "Ulloa" was hit by a shell at the waterline that killed her captain and disabled half the crew. The "Luzon" had three guns out of action but was otherwise unharmed. The "Duero" lost an engine and had only one gun left able to fire.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: At 7:45 a.m., after Captain Gridley messaged Dewey that only 15 rounds of 5" ammunition remained per gun, Dewey ordered an immediate withdrawal. To preserve morale, he informed the crews that the halt in the battle was to allow the crews to have breakfast. According to an observer on the "Olympia", "At least three of his (Spanish) ships had broken into flames but so had one of ours. These fires had all been put out without apparent injury to the ships. Generally speaking, nothing of great importance had occurred to show that we had seriously injured any Spanish vessel." Montojo took the opportunity to now move his remaining ships into Bacoor Bay where they were ordered to resist for as long as possible.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: A captains' conference on the "Olympia" revealed little damage and no men killed. It was discovered that the original ammunition message had been garbled—instead of only 15 rounds of ammunition per gun remaining, the message had meant to say only 15 rounds of ammunition per gun had been expended. Reports arrived during the conference that sounds of exploding ammunition had been heard and fires sighted on the "Cristina" and "Castilla". At 10:40 a.m. action was resumed but the Spanish offered little resistance, and Montojo issued orders for the remaining ships to be scuttled and the breechblocks of their guns taken ashore. The "Olympia", "Baltimore" and "Boston" then fired on the Sangley Point battery putting it out of action and followed up by sinking the "Ulloa". The "Concord" fired on the transport "Mindanao", whose crew immediately abandoned ship. The fired on the government offices next to the arsenal and a white flag was raised over the building after which all firing ceased. The Spanish colors were struck at 12:40 p.m.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: According to all credible military scholars, Dewey won the battle with seven men very slightly wounded, a total of nine injured, and only a single fatality among his crew: Francis B. Randall, Chief Engineer on the "McCulloch", from a heart attack. On the other hand, the Spanish naval historian Agustín Ramón Rodríguez González suggests that Dewey suffered heavier losses, though still much lower than those of the Spanish squadron. Rodríguez notes that Spanish officials estimated the American casualties at 13 crewmen killed and more than 30 wounded based on reliable information collected by the Spanish consulate in Hong Kong. According to Rodríguez, Dewey may have concealed the deaths and injuries by including the numbers among the 155 men who reportedly deserted during the campaign. Such a suggestion is based on hearsay which holds no basis in fact and goes against all official records of a highly decorated U.S. Navy Admiral with a very distinguished career.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: A Spanish attempt to attack Dewey with the naval task force known as Camara's Flying Relief Column came to naught, and the naval war in the Philippines devolved into a series of torpedo boat hit-and-run attacks for the rest of the campaign. While the Spanish scored several hits, there were no American fatalities directly attributable to Spanish gunfire.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: On 2 May, Dewey landed a force of Marines at Cavite. They completed the destruction of the Spanish fleet and batteries and established a guard for the protection of the Spanish hospitals. The resistance of the forts was weak. The "Olympia" turned a few guns on the Cavite arsenal, detonating its magazine, and ending the fire from the Spanish batteries.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Dewey cabled Washington, stating that although he controlled Manila Bay, he needed 5,000 additional men to seize Manila itself.`


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: In recognition of George Dewey's leadership during the Battle of Manila Bay, a special medal known as the Dewey Medal was presented to the officers and sailors under Admiral Dewey's command. Dewey was later honored with promotion to the special rank of Admiral of the Navy. Building on his popularity, Dewey briefly ran for president in 1900, but withdrew and endorsed William McKinley, the incumbent, who won. The same year Dewey was appointed President of the General Board of the United States Navy, where he would play a key role in the growth of the U.S. Navy until his death in January 1917.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Dewey Square in Boston is named after Admiral Dewey, as is Dewey Beach, Delaware. Union Square, San Francisco features a tall monument to Admiral Dewey's victory at the Battle of Manila Bay.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Vessels engaged in actual combat during the Battle of Manila Bay ranged in size from 5,870 tons ("Olympia") to 492 tons ("Marques del Duero").


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: Despite the superiority of the American artillery, the success rate of their guns was minimal, a total of 5,859 shells were expended during the battle. Excluding shells fired at land targets and the unengaged vessels, only 145 hit the seven Spanish engaged vessels. The "Reina Cristina" and "Castilla" suffered 81 hits between them, the "Don Antonio de Ulloa" was hit 33 times, the "Don Juan de Austria" 13, the "Marques del Duero" 10, the "Isla de Cuba" five and the "Isla de Luzón" was hit three times.


title: Battle of Manila Bay

text: The batteries were supplemented with the guns removed from Montojo's fleet. The Corregidor, Caballo and El Fraile batteries had a combined total of 17 guns.


title: Alaskan husky

text: The Alaskan husky is a mix-breed of medium-sized working sled dog, developed specifically for its performance as such.


title: Alaskan husky

text: Alaskan huskies are the most commonly used type of dog for competitive sled dog racing, both in short-distance sprint racing as well as long-distance expedition races such as the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, the Yukon Quest, and the Finnmarkslopet.


title: Alaskan husky

text: The Alaskan husky is not an officially recognized breed by any kennel club, nor does it have a formal breed standard. Unlike breeds developed for the show ring, the Alaskan husky is instead a product of careful selection for desirable sled dog traits from various other breeds, such as aptitude for pulling, endurance, speed, intelligence, appetite, and tolerance of extreme weather. As a result of this specific and mindful performance-only based breeding, DNA studies show that Alaskan Huskies share a genetic signature and indeed can be identified accurately on DNA breed tests.


title: Alaskan husky

text: The Alaskan husky is an incredibly athletic dog variety, and as a dog crossbreed their appearance can vary markedly, although various lines have been bred for multiple generations and breed very true to that line's type. Some Alaskan husky lines have very traditional husky spitz-like features with pricked ears and curled tails, whilst other lines more closely resemble their hound or gundog heritage with tipped or floppy ears, straight tails and tucked up sighthound-like loins. As they are not bred with conformation in mind, cosmetic features are not a consideration for breeding, and these features instead tend to follow the purpose of the dog's intended style of sled work.


title: Alaskan husky

text: Generally Alaskan huskies are taller than Siberian Huskies and are lighter in build than Alaskan Malamutes, both of whom they share lineage with and are descended from. On average they stand between and weigh between . Tough feet are an important feature and desirable trait for breeding consideration. As with their build, the Alaskan husky's coat can vary greatly; they usually have double coats with all colors and patterns of colors seen within various lines. Distance-type Alaskan huskies often have denser double coats to better contend with cold temperatures and harsh wind, whereas sprint lines have shorter coats to allow for greater heat dissipation during races at high speeds.


title: Alaskan husky

text: It is common for distance-type Alaskan huskies to be outfitted with dog coats and dog booties during long expeditions and races, in order to regulate temperature and protect the dog's feet from ice and rough terrain. The use of dog coats has become more common into the late 20th and early 21st centuries as even the distance lines have been bred for greater speed, sacrificing some of the heavier and more dense protective double-coat of their Arctic breed ancestors.


title: Alaskan husky

text: As European traders and settlers arrived in Alaska they sought local entertainment, and turned to racing the local means of transportation, sled dogs. Aboriginal dogs found throughout Alaska were renowned for their great strength and stamina, but lacked speed, so various outcrosses to fleeter Old World breeds were utilized to produce faster-running dogs, including Siberian imports who dominated local organized races in Alaska. Since the beginning of the 20th century, various breeders have turned to various outcrosses to produce different lines of racing dogs. Most lines today contain some form of traditional husky heritage in their bloodlines, Alaskan Malamutes and Siberian Huskies being the most common, although Mackenzie River huskies, Greenland Dogs, and Samoyeds have also been utilized.


title: Alaskan husky

text: In the latter half of the 20th century the primary use of sled dogs shifted from utility to sport, particularly career competitive sled dog racing. In order to facilitate greater speed for racing sport, various breeds of gundogs and sighthounds have now been bred into Alaskan husky lines, including Pointers, Greyhounds, German Shorthaired Pointers, Salukis, Borzois, Labradors and Setters; some breeders have even used wolves at various points.


title: Alaskan husky

text: Genetic studies indicate that the Alaskan Husky originates from pre-Colonial North American Arctic village dogs (including precursors to the Alaskan Malamute) and Siberian imports (precursors to the Siberian Husky), crossbred with European breeds such as Pointers, German Shepherd Dogs, and Salukis to improve its performance.


title: Alaskan husky

text: In 2015, a DNA study indicated that the Alaskan husky, the Siberian Husky, and the Alaskan Malamute share a close genetic relationship between each other and were related to Chukotka sled-dogs from Siberia. They were separate to the two Inuit dogs: the Canadian Eskimo Dog and the Greenland Dog. The Siberian Husky and the Malamute both had maintained their Siberian lineage and had contributed significantly to the Alaskan husky, which was developed through crossing with European breeds.


title: Alaskan husky

text: Other breeds identified as having contributed to the Alaskan husky sled dog gene pool include Pointers, and a number of other non-arctic breeds by breed and type group. Genetic variation in the Alaskan husky has been analyzed based on the groupings of two purpose-driven distinct populations within the Alaskan sled dog gene pool: A distance group, and a sprint group:


title: Alaskan husky

text: The Alaskan husky has selectively been bred specifically for its athletic performance. As such, its level of athletic ability, as well as anabolic efficiency are far greater than the average domesticated dog, especially in endurance feats. Distance-specialist Alaskan huskies out-speed most animals and all other types of sled dogs when running distances of 50 miles or greater, even while pulling moderately sized loads. Studies on the metabolic capabilities in working Alaskan husky sled dogs reveal that their system transitions to utilization of low-glucose energy sources (from high-glycogen carbohydrates) early on during long periods of travel, and their reliance on these low-glucose fuels (such as those higher in fats and proteins) continue and even extend to become more pronounced after working for longer periods. A good appetite is a highly desirable trait, and is emphasized in breeding choices.


title: Alaskan husky

text: Like most working sled dogs, Alaskan huskies are capable of pulling far greater than their own body weight in load while in harness. Sprint teams of Alaskan huskies are capable of speeds of up to 28 mph (45 km/h), whereas distance-specialist teams have completed 938 mile (1510 km) races in just 8 days, 3 hours, 40 minutes, and 13 seconds with time including 40 hours of mandatory rests and other routine rests on the trail.


title: Alaskan husky

text: As specifically purposed working sled dogs, Alaskan huskies can be subject to climate or work-specific health conditions that any sled dogs may experience, such as temperature-related bronchitis or bronchopulmonary ailments, also known as "ski asthma".


title: Alaskan husky

text: In 2020, the largest study of "canine hematologic and serum biochemical analytes" to date was published, including within it the largest data set of healthy athlete dogs; the dogs of reference were 4,804 sled dogs training for the Iditarod Trail Sled Dog Race, the overwhelming majority of which were Alaskan huskies. The study found that anti-aging and anti-inflammatory biochemical levels in the dogs increased over time and with training, enhancing the dogs' physical and mental abilities until an average of 6.6 years of age. Despite noted differences in sex, genetic, and age groups in other areas, they were not statistically significant and were outside the scope of the study, making them scientifically inconclusive despite their observance.


title: Alaskan husky

text: The behaviors and temperament of the Alaskan husky can vary greatly due to the wide range of genetic backgrounds and bred-purposes within the breed. As with all sled dogs, a desire to pull and run are essential and are of high priority in decisions of breeding. Mental soundness is also important due to the need for dogs to be in close quarters with other dogs while hooked in the team, handled by people for proper care and transportation, and for dogs on racing teams to perform under environments which include trails crowded with spectators and other dog teams.


title: Alaskan husky

text: As dogs selectively-bred for their ability as working sled dogs without direct physical feedback from the driver, intelligence and problem solving are highly desired in a specimen and are often marks of talented lead dogs, which are often those with the highest consideration as breeding prospects. Dogs are expected to read the trail and situation through instincts and experience, and thus superior cognitive abilities are often bred into Alaskan husky lines in tandem with physical athletic attributes.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Gerolamo Cardano (; also Girolamo or Geronimo; ; ; 24 September 1501– 21 September 1576) was an Italian polymath, whose interests and proficiencies ranged through those of mathematician, physician, biologist, physicist, chemist, astrologer, astronomer, philosopher, writer, and gambler. He was one of the most influential mathematicians of the Renaissance, and was one of the key figures in the foundation of probability and the earliest introducer of the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem in the Western world. He wrote more than 200 works on science.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano partially invented and described several mechanical devices including the combination lock, the gimbal consisting of three concentric rings allowing a supported compass or gyroscope to rotate freely, and the Cardan shaft with universal joints, which allows the transmission of rotary motion at various angles and is used in vehicles to this day. He made significant contributions to hypocycloids, published in "De proportionibus", in 1570. The generating circles of these hypocycloids were later named Cardano circles or cardanic circles and were used for the construction of the first high-speed printing presses.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Today, he is well known for his achievements in algebra. In his 1545 book "Ars Magna", he made the first systematic use of negative numbers in Europe, published with attribution the solutions of other mathematicians for the cubic and quartic equations, and acknowledged the existence of imaginary numbers.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano was born on 24 September 1501 in Pavia, Lombardy, the illegitimate child of Fazio Cardano, a mathematically gifted jurist, lawyer, and close friend of Leonardo da Vinci. In his autobiography, Cardano wrote that his mother, Chiara Micheri, had taken "various abortive medicines" to terminate the pregnancy; he said: "I was taken by violent means from my mother; I was almost dead." She was in labour for three days. Shortly before his birth, his mother had to move from Milan to Pavia to escape the Plague; her three other children died from the disease.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: After a depressing childhood, with frequent illnesses, and the rough upbringing by his overbearing father, in 1520, Cardano entered the University of Pavia against the wish of his father, who wanted his son to undertake studies of law, but Girolamo felt more attracted to philosophy and science. During the Italian War of 1521–1526, however, the authorities in Pavia were forced to close the university in 1524. Cardano resumed his studies at the University of Padua, where he graduated with a doctorate in medicine in 1525. His eccentric and confrontational style did not earn him many friends and he had a difficult time finding work after his studies had ended. In 1525, Cardano repeatedly applied to the College of Physicians in Milan, but was not admitted owing to his combative reputation and illegitimate birth. However, he was consulted by many members of the College of Physicians, because of his irrefutable intelligence.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano wanted to practice medicine in a large, rich city like Milan, but he was denied a license to practice, so he settled for the town of Piove di Sacco, where he practiced without a license. There, he married Lucia Banderini in 1531. Before her death in 1546, they had three children, Giovanni Battista (1534), Chiara (1537) and Aldo Urbano (1543). Cardano later wrote that those were the happiest days of his life.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: With the help of a few noblemen, Cardano obtained a teaching position in mathematics in Milan. Having finally received his medical license, he practiced mathematics and medicine simultaneously, treating a few influential patients in the process. Because of this, he became one of the most sought-after doctors in Milan. In fact, by 1536, he was able to quit his teaching position, although he was still interested in mathematics. His notability in the medical field was such that the aristocracy tried to lure him out of Milan. Cardano later wrote that he turned down offers from the kings of Denmark and France, and the Queen of Scotland.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Gerolamo Cardano was the first European mathematician to make systematic use of negative numbers. He published with attribution the solution of Scipione del Ferro to the cubic equation and the solution of Cardano's student Lodovico Ferrari to the quartic equation in his 1545 book "Ars Magna", an influential work on algebra. The solution to one particular case of the cubic equation formula_1 (in modern notation) had been communicated to him in 1539 by Niccolò Fontana Tartaglia (who later claimed that Cardano had sworn not to reveal it, and engaged Cardano in a decade-long dispute) in the form of a poem, but del Ferro's solution predated Tartaglia's. In his exposition, he acknowledged the existence of what are now called imaginary numbers, although he did not understand their properties, described for the first time by his Italian contemporary Rafael Bombelli. In "Opus novum de proportionibus" he introduced the binomial coefficients and the binomial theorem.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano was notoriously short of money and kept himself solvent by being an accomplished gambler and chess player. His book about games of chance, "Liber de ludo aleae" ("Book on Games of Chance"), written around 1564, but not published until 1663, contains the first systematic treatment of probability, as well as a section on effective cheating methods. He used the game of throwing dice to understand the basic concepts of probability. He demonstrated the efficacy of defining odds as the ratio of favourable to unfavourable outcomes (which implies that the probability of an event is given by the ratio of favourable outcomes to the total number of possible outcomes). He was also aware of the multiplication rule for independent events but was not certain about what values should be multiplied.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano's work with hypocycloids led him to Cardan's Movement or Cardan Gear mechanism, in which a pair of gears with the smaller being one-half the size of the larger gear is used converting rotational motion to linear motion with greater efficiency and precision than a Scotch yoke, for example. He is also credited with the invention of the Cardan suspension or gimbal.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano made several contributions to hydrodynamics and held that perpetual motion is impossible, except in celestial bodies. He published two encyclopedias of natural science which contain a wide variety of inventions, facts, and occult superstitions. He also introduced the Cardan grille, a cryptographic writing tool, in 1550.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Significantly, in the history of education of the deaf, he said that deaf people were capable of using their minds, argued for the importance of teaching them, and was one of the first to state that deaf people could learn to read and write without learning how to speak first. He was familiar with a report by Rudolph Agricola about a deaf mute who had learned to write.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano's medical writings included: a commentary on Mundinus' anatomy and of Galen's medicine, along with the treaties "Delle cause, dei segni e dei luoghi delle malattie", "Picciola terapeutica", "Degli abusi dei medici" and "Delle orine, libro quattro".


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano has been credited with the invention of the so-called "Cardano's Rings", also called Chinese Rings, but it is very probable that they predate Cardano. The universal joint, sometimes called "Cardan joint", was not described by Cardano.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: The title of a work of Cardano's, published in 1552, "De Subtilitate" (corresponding to what would now be called transcendental philosophy), would lead us to expect, in the chapter on minerals, many far fetched theories characteristic of that age; but when treating of petrified shells, he decided that they clearly indicated the former sojourn of the sea upon the mountains.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: In 1553 Cardano traveled to Scotland to treat the Archbishop of St Andrews who suffered of a disease that had left him speechless and was thought incurable The treatment was a success and the diplomat Thomas Randolph recorded that "merry tales" about Cardano's methods were still current in Edinburgh in 1562. Cardano wrote that the Archbishop had been short of breath for ten years, and after the cure was effected by his assistant, he was paid 1,400 gold crowns.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Two of Cardano's children — Giovanni Battista and Aldo Urbano — came to ignoble ends. Giovanni Battista, Cardano's eldest and favorite son was arrested in 1560 for having poisoned his wife, after he had discovered that their three children were not his. Giovanni was put to trial and, when Cardano could not pay the restitution demanded by the victim's family, was sentenced to death and beheaded. Cardano's other son Aldo Urbano was a gambler, who stole money from his father, and so Gerolamo disinherited him in 1569.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano moved from Pavia to Bologna, in part because he believed that the decision to execute his son was influenced by Gerolamo's battles with the academic establishment in Pavia, and his colleagues' jealousy at his scientific achievements, and also because he was beset with allegations of sexual impropriety with his students. He obtained a position as professor of medicine at the University of Bologna.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Cardano was arrested by the Inquisition in 1570 after an accusation of heresy by the Inquisitor of Como, who targeted Cardano's "De rerum varietate" (1557). The inquisitors complained about Cardano's writings on astrology, especially his claim that self-harming religiously motivated actions of martyrs and heretics were caused by the stars. In his 1543 book "De Supplemento Almanach," a commentary on the astrological work "Tetrabiblos" by Ptolemy, Cardano had also published a horoscope of Jesus. Cardano was imprisoned for several months and lost his professorship in Bologna. He abjured and was freed, probably with help from powerful churchmen in Rome. All his non-medical works were prohibited and placed on the Index.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: He moved to Rome, where he received a lifetime annuity from Pope Gregory XIII (after first having been rejected by Pope Pius V, who died in 1572) and finished his autobiography. He was accepted in the Royal College of Physicians, and as well as practising medicine he continued his philosophical studies until his death in 1576.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: The seventeenth-century English physician and philosopher Sir Thomas Browne possessed the ten volumes of the Leyden 1663 edition of the complete works of Cardan in his library.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: "that famous Physician of Milan, a great Enquirer of Truth, but too greedy a Receiver of it. He hath left many excellent Discourses, Medical, Natural, and Astrological; the most suspicious are those two he wrote by admonition in a dream, that is "De Subtilitate & Varietate Rerum". Assuredly this learned man hath taken many things upon trust, and although examined some, hath let slip many others. He is of singular use unto a prudent Reader; but unto him that only desireth Hoties, or to replenish his head with varieties; like many others before related, either in the Original or confirmation, he may become no small occasion of Error."


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Alessandro Manzoni's novel "I Promessi Sposi" portrays a pedantic scholar of the obsolete, Don Ferrante, as a great admirer of Cardano. Significantly, he values him only for his superstitious and astrological writings; his scientific writings are dismissed because they contradict Aristotle, but excused on the ground that the author of the astrological works deserves to be listened to even when he is wrong.


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: English novelist E. M. Forster's "Abinger Harvest", a 1936 volume of essays, authorial reviews and a play, provides a sympathetic treatment of Cardano in the section titled 'The Past'. Forster believes Cardano was so absorbed in "self-analysis that he often forgot to repent of his bad temper, his stupidity, his licentiousness, and love of revenge" (212).


title: Gerolamo Cardano

text: Neil Patrick Harris, on the Introduction card included with the limited edition standard playing card deck that he designed for, and is distributed by Theory 11 (2021), writes, "This is going to be a challenge. Just as a spider spends its web, I've taken a page out of Cardano's book and created a puzzle. Look upon photos and inside in this deck. You can do this - just look closely at the cards. Good luck! -NPH"


title: Graz University of Technology

text: Graz University of Technology (, short "TU Graz") is one of five universities in Styria, Austria. It was founded in 1811 by Archduke John of Austria and is the oldest science and technology research and educational institute in Austria. It currently comprises seven faculties and is a public university. It offers 19 bachelors and 35 masters study programmes (of which 18 are in English) across all technology and natural science disciplines. Doctoral training is organised in 14 English-speaking doctoral schools. The university has more than 13,000 students, and approximately 2,000 students graduate every year. Science study programmes are offered in the framework of NAWI Graz together with the University of Graz.


title: Graz University of Technology

text: "TU Graz", the "University of Leoben" and "TU Wien" form the network "Austrian Universities of Technology (TU Austria)" with more than 43,000 students and 10,000 staff.


title: Graz University of Technology

text: The university has multiple campuses, as it is mainly situated on three sites in the city, two in the centre of Graz and one in the southeast of the city.


title: Graz University of Technology

text: 1811: The Joanneum is founded by Archduke John of Austria. The first subjects taught were physics, chemistry, astronomy, mineralogy, botany, and technology, and


title: Graz University of Technology

text: 1975: It is divided into five faculties and renamed Technische Universität Graz, Erzherzog-Johann Universität (Graz University of Technology, Archduke-Johann-University).


title: Graz University of Technology

text: 2004: The new Austrian university law (UG 2002) is fully implemented – the university is divided into seven faculties.


title: Graz University of Technology

text: Students at TU Graz have a choice of 19 bachelor programmes and 35 master programmes. Graduates receive the academic degrees BSc, MSc or Diplom-Ingenieur/-in (Dipl.-Ing.). The doctoral programmes (Dr.techn. and Dr.rer.nat.) are offered as postgraduate programmes. Continuing education is offered in the framework of "Lifelong Learning" and consists of nine part-time master’s programmes and university programmes plus a range of other courses.


title: Graz University of Technology

text: In the 2019 Shanghai ranking of universities/Global Ranking of Academic Subjects, it is in the 101–150 range in Computer Science & Engineeringing and Electrical & Electronic Engineering, and in the 201–300 range in Biomedical Engineering, Materials Science & Engineering and Nanoscience & Nanotechnology. In the subjects Biotechnology, Chemical Engineering, Chemistry, Earth Sciences as well as Energy Science & Engineering, Graz University of Technology can be found in the 301–400 range. In Mathematics it is in the group 401–500. In the 2021 Leiden Ranking, the PP analysis puts it on position 279, the PP ranks Graz University of Technology on place 23.


title: Graz University of Technology

text: TU Graz holds shares in more than 20 companies, mainly research centers like the Austrian Centre of Industrial Biotechnology or Virtual Vehicle. It also hosts the Austrian Centre for Electron Microscopy and Nanoanalysis and the headquarters of the Silicon Austria Labs.


title: Labelle

text: Labelle was an American girl band who were a popular vocal group of the 1960s and 1970s. The group was formed after the disbanding of two rival girl groups in the area around Philadelphia, in Pennsylvania, and Trenton, in New Jersey: "the Ordettes" and "the Del-Capris", forming as a new version of the former group, then later changing their name to the Blue Belles (and further Bluebelles). The founding members were Patti LaBelle (formerly "Patricia Holte"), Cindy Birdsong, Nona Hendryx, and Sarah Dash.


title: Labelle

text: As the Bluebelles, and later Patti LaBelle and the Bluebelles, the group found success with ballads in the doo-wop genre: "Down the Aisle (The Wedding Song)", "You'll Never Walk Alone", and "Over the Rainbow". After Birdsong departed to join The Supremes in 1967, the band, following the advice of Vicki Wickham, changed its look, musical direction, and style to reform as Labelle in 1971. Their funk rock recordings of that period became cult favorites for their brash interpretation of rock and roll and for dealing with subjects and matters that were not typically touched by female black groups. Finally, after adapting glam rock and wearing outlandish space-age and glam costumes, the band found success with the proto-disco smash hit "Lady Marmalade" in 1974, leading to their album "Nightbirds", which achieved gold success. They were the first contemporary pop group and first black pop band to perform at the Metropolitan Opera House. They were also the first black vocal group to appear on the cover of "Rolling Stone".


title: Labelle

text: Each of the band members went later on their own after the end of a tour in 1976, going on to have significant solo success. Nona Hendryx followed an idiosyncratic muse into a solo career that often bordered on the avant-garde; Sarah Dash became a celebrated session singer; and Patti LaBelle enjoyed a very successful Grammy-winning career, with several top-20 R&B hits between 1982 and 1997, a number-one pop hit with "On My Own", and lifetime-achievement awards from the Apollo Theatre, World Music Awards, and BET Awards.


title: Labelle

text: The group reunited for their first new album in 32 years, "Back to Now" in 2008. They performed together regularly until the death of Dash on September 20, 2021, at the age of 76.


title: Labelle

text: In 1959, a fifteen-year-old teenager, Patricia "Patsy" Holte won her first talent contest in high school. Following this, she sought to form her own singing group the following year called the Ordettes. Holte formed the group with singers Jean Brown, Yvonne Hogen and Johnnie Dawson. The group gained a local following. Dawson was eventually replaced by Sundray Tucker. By 1961, Jean Brown and Yvonne Hogan had ditched the group to get married and Patti and Sundray carried on as soloists.


title: Labelle

text: Later in 1961, Patti and Sundray's manager Bernard Montague contacted two singers from the Trenton, New Jersey singing group the Del-Capris, Nona Hendryx and Sarah Dash. Eventually Hendryx and Dash became official replacements for Brown and Hogan as the Ordettes. The group soon began working with musician Morris Bailey. Bailey and Montague's schedule led to Tucker leaving the group after which another singer, Cindy Birdsong, from Camden New Jersey, joined the group. The grouping of Holte, Dash, Hendryx and Birdsong toured the Chitlin' Circuit, gaining a following in the eastern U.S.


title: Labelle

text: In 1962, Chicago-based group The Starlets had traveled to Philadelphia to do sessions for producer Bobby Martin and record label owner Harold Robinson, president of Newtown Records. One of the sessions included a cover of the standard, "I Sold My Heart to the Junkman". At the time of the song's release, the group had a hit with the song "Better Tell Him No" and were unable to promote the song due to them being signed to another label. The song was credited under the name "The Blue Belles". The Ordettes auditioned by singing the song. Before hearing the group, Robinson turned them down due to being unimpressed with Patti's looks but upon hearing her singing, he changed his mind and signed the group to Newtown.


title: Labelle

text: When "I Sold My Heart" became popular, Robinson sent the Ordettes to promote it under the assumed name of the Blue Belles. After a televised performance at "American Bandstand" featuring the Ordettes, the Starlets' manager sued Harold Robinson and Bobby Martin. Around the same time, Robinson was also sued for having another group use the name "Blue Belles". Following the aftermath of the ordeals, Robinson gave Patti Holte a new name, "Patti LaBelle", and the group's name was rechristened as Patti LaBelle and The Blue Belles.


title: Labelle

text: Following several releases such as "Academy Award" and "Tear After Tear", the group recorded their first national hit under their new name in 1963 with the release of the ballad, "Down the Aisle (The Wedding Song)", first released under Newtown, before it received national distribution from King Records. As a result, the record reached the top 40 on both the pop and R&B charts, formally launching the group to national stardom. Frequent performances at the Apollo Theater helped to give the group the nickname "Sweethearts of the Apollo". Newtown released two albums on the group before Harold Robinson sold Newtown in 1963. Cameo-Parkway soon signed them and re-released the Newtown single, "You'll Never Walk Alone", at the end of the year. The record became another top 40 hit for the group in 1964 and became one of Patti LaBelle's first signature performances. They later recorded another charted hit with "Danny Boy". In 1965, the group opened for the Rolling Stones during a lengthy American tour. Shortly afterwards, Atlantic Records signed the act to the label, in hopes of bringing the group mainstream success. Their first Atlantic single, "All or Nothing", briefly made a dent on the pop charts in 1966. They had a notable entry as background singers of Wilson Pickett's first major hit, "634-5789 (Soulsville, U.S.A.)". In 1966, Atlantic released the group's first studio album, "Over the Rainbow", which included "All or Nothing" and the title track, later to be a standard for Patti.


title: Labelle

text: Around this time, the group also began touring Europe, mainly in the UK, where they performed on the show, "Ready, Steady, Go". During club performances, the group was backed up musically by a pub band called Bluesology, whose pianist was a teenager named Reg Dwight, later known as Elton John. Following the UK tour, the group kept in touch with one of the show's producers, Vicki Wickham. In early 1967, the group had another charted single with the song "Take Me for a Little While" and released their second Atlantic album, "Dreamer". Around this time, Aretha Franklin had signed with Atlantic Records, leading Atlantic to focus its efforts on her rather than on the Blue Belles. That same year, Cindy Birdsong abruptly left the group to join The Supremes, replacing original member Florence Ballard. After completing a tour where Sundray Tucker briefly rejoined the group to fill in for Birdsong, the remaining members carried on as a trio.


title: Labelle

text: As grittier soul and heavy rock dominated much of Atlantic's time, the group was let go from their contract in 1970. Bernard Montague, who was managing groups such as The Delfonics, also left them, leaving them seeking new managers. After nearly signing a contract with Herb Hamlett and Frankie Crocker, they eventually picked Vicki Wickham to work with them. Wickham later credited Dusty Springfield with convincing her to hire the group to perform on "Ready, Steady, Go" in London.


title: Labelle

text: Wickham advised the group to move to London and change their entire image and sound, much to the chagrin of Patti LaBelle, who feared the group would alienate their older fans with a new laid back "earthier" look. Wickham also advised them to change their name to simply "Labelle". Ditching the wigs and dresses, Labelle settled on Afros and jeans. They debuted this new look while backing The Who during a stop in New York. Following this, Labelle signed a contract with Track Records, The Who's label, which received distribution from Warner Bros. Records. In 1971, the group released their first album, simply titled "Labelle", quickly following it up with the 1972 album, "Moon Shadow". The albums featured the group bringing in gospel soul renditions of rock hits such as "Wild Horses" and "Won't Get Fooled Again". While not being commercial successes, the albums did become critically acclaimed, establishing the act as a progressive soul unit, while also recording daring material such as "Morning Much Better" and "Touch Me All Over".


title: Labelle

text: In 1971, Labelle were invited to record backing vocals to a covers album being recorded by Laura Nyro. The resulting album, "Gonna Take a Miracle", led to the group reaching the charts for the first time, while also establishing a rapport with Nyro, who later invited them to perform with her at Carnegie Hall. In 1973, they recorded an album for RCA Records titled "Pressure Cookin'", featuring a wildly interpretive covers medley of the songs "Something in the Air" and "The Revolution Will Not Be Televised". It was around this time that Labelle changed up their act again. Under the advice of Larry LeGaspi, the group began performing in space suits, feathers, and studs.


title: Labelle

text: In 1974, Wickham had the group signed to Epic Records where they recorded their breakthrough album, "Nightbirds", in New Orleans with producer Allen Toussaint. While Hendryx eventually wrote the majority of the album, Epic released the Kenny Nolan and Bob Crewe composition, "Lady Marmalade", as a single in August 1974. The song's rock-soul mixture helped the song to sell to listeners and by March 1975, the song had become the group's first number-one single, reaching the top of both the Billboard Hot 100 and the R&B singles chart. It also became an international hit. The album included another hit, "What Can I Do For You".


title: Labelle

text: "Nightbirds" eventually sold over a million copies and was certified gold. During the album's promotion, the group became the first rock group to perform at the Metropolitan Opera House. Wickham billed the October 6, 1974 performance, "Wear Something Silver", to adapt to Labelle's own silver-colored space outfits, worn by Patti LaBelle. Building on their success, in the spring of 1975, Labelle became the first African-American vocal group to make the cover of "Rolling Stone". Later in 1975, the group released a critically acclaimed follow-up, "Phoenix". That same year, the group contributed background vocals to several songs on Elton John's hit album, "Rock of the Westies". In 1976, they released their third album for Epic, "Chameleon", which included the tracks "Get You Somebody New", "Isn't It a Shame" and "Who's Watching the Watcher".


title: Labelle

text: Despite having critical acclaim with their follow-ups to "Nightbirds", "Phoenix" and "Chameleon" failed to repeat that album's success and the group struggled to have another hit. By 1976, tensions had developed within the group, with the act's three members splintered on the group's sound and direction. Patti LaBelle had wanted the group to record more soul, Nona Hendryx wanted the group to go further into funk rock, and Sarah Dash wanted to record songs in a more disco direction.


title: Labelle

text: During a show in Baltimore on December 3, 1976, Hendryx wandered off the stage and into the audience at the beginning of "(Can I Speak To You Before You Go To) Hollywood". Labelle's stage manager was able to steer Hendryx backstage, but Hendryx locked herself in her dressing room and beat her head against the wall until it began to bleed severely. She was removed from the theater in restraints.


title: Labelle

text: After the incident, LaBelle advised the group to disband, fearing for the other members' well-being and that the mounting tension could also put an end to their friendship. Hendryx and Dash agreed and the trio formally announced their split at the end of 1976 after fourteen years together.


title: Labelle

text: Following her departure from the Blue Belles, Cindy Birdsong enjoyed success as member of The Supremes, singing on hits such as "Up the Ladder to the Roof", "Stoned Love", Nathan Jones” and "Floy Joy". Birdsong left the group in 1972 to start a family, returned in 1973, then left again in 1976, and thereafter only recorded sporadically as a solo artist in the 80s, briefly joining The Former Ladies of the Supremes alongside former Supremes members Jean Terrell and Scherrie Payne.


title: Labelle

text: The Labelle song "(Can I Speak to You Before You Go To) Hollywood", from "Pressure Cookin"', was allegedly written by Hendryx as a response to Birdsong's departure, featuring each member of the group singing verses. Sarah Dash found some solo success after signing with Don Kirshner's label, with the disco single "Sinner Man". Dash eventually sang backup for the Rolling Stones and sang for Keith Richards' spinoff group X-pensive Winos. The more experimental Nona Hendryx has recorded in various genres including hard rock, hip-hop, house and new age, and charting with the singles, "Keep It Confidential" and "Why Should I Cry?" Patti LaBelle became an international solo superstar following Labelle's breakup, recording crossover hits such as "New Attitude", "Stir It Up" and "On My Own", resulting in Grammy wins and a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.


title: Labelle

text: In 1991, Patti LaBelle reunited with Nona Hendryx and Sarah Dash on the track, "Release Yourself", from LaBelle's Grammy-winning album, "Burnin". The trio reunited onstage at the Apollo Theater in 1991 to perform the song on LaBelle's second concert performance video while promoting the release of "Burnin"'. In addition to "Release Yourself", Hendryx and LaBelle composed the gospel-flavored ballad "When You've Been Blessed (Feels Like Heaven)". In 1995, the trio reunited again for the dance single, "Turn it Out", for the soundtrack to the film, "To Wong Foo, Thanks for Everything! Julie Newmar." The song became their first charted hit in nineteen years peaking at number-one on the Billboard dance singles chart. Four years later, the original Blue Belles (including Cindy Birdsong) reunited to receive an award from the R&B Foundation for Lifetime Achievement. In 2006, the trio of LaBelle, Dash and Hendrix briefly came together to record a Hendryx-written track called "Dear Rosa" for the soundtrack to a film called "Preaching to the Choir." In 2008, Labelle announced their reunion and released their first studio album in 32 years, the critically acclaimed "Back to Now".


title: Labelle

text: That year, the trio went back on tour together which carried through the spring of 2009. In an interview with the "Toronto Star", Patti LaBelle explained why she, Dash and Hendryx waited over 32 years to record a full-length album: "You don't want to half-step something this important...it was about finding the right time and place. We were never ones to do anything on anyone else's time anyway; we were always unconventional. I still have my glitter boots to prove it."


title: Labelle

text: The group performed a triumphant show at the Apollo Theatre in New York City on December 19, 2008. They continued to perform with each other sporadically; Dash sang with Patti LaBelle at a LaBelle concert two days before her death on September 20, 2021.


title: Labelle

text: Years after their breakup in 1976, Labelle's influence has been reflected by groups such as En Vogue, Destiny's Child and The Pussycat Dolls, who recorded the Labelle hit, "Far As We Felt Like Goin'" from the "Phoenix" album. Their biggest hit, "Lady Marmalade" continues to be covered, with its successful covers being renditions by All Saints and the Grammy-winning number-one hit collaboration between singers Christina Aguilera, Pink and Mýa and rapper Lil' Kim in 2001 (recorded for the "Moulin Rouge!" soundtrack.) The song was also covered by Madchester-era indie group The Happy Mondays, who spliced it with "Kinky Afro". The group's 1960s hit, "You'll Never Walk Alone", was covered by Sam Harris (who also covered their rendition of "Over the Rainbow"), and sampled by Kanye West in an early version of his song, "Homecoming" (which sampled the group's "walk on" intro) while their 1970s hit, "Isn't It a Shame" was sampled by Nelly on his song, "My Place". Their 1973 song, "Goin' On a Holiday", was also sampled in several hip-hop songs (sampling the group's vocal bridge, "goin', goin', goin', goin'...on...").


title: Labelle

text: The group has been called pioneers of the disco movement for the proto-disco singles "Lady Marmalade" and "Messin' With My Mind". In turn, "Lady Marmalade" has been also called one of the first mainstream disco hits (Jones and Kantonen, 1999). In 2003, "Lady Marmalade" was inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame. In 2009, their songs "It Took a Long Time" and "System" were featured in Lee Daniels' film "Precious".


title: Comté cheese

text: Comté (or Gruyère de Comté) () is a French cheese made from unpasteurized cow's milk in the Franche-Comté region of eastern France bordering Switzerland and sharing much of its cuisine. Comté has the highest production of all French Appellation d'origine contrôlée (AOC) cheeses, at around 66,500 tonnes annually. It is classified as a Swiss-type or Alpine cheese.


title: Comté cheese

text: The cheese is made in discs, each between and in diameter, and around in height. Each disc weighs up to with an FDM around 45%. The rind is usually a dusty-brown colour, and the internal paste, pâte, is a pale creamy yellow. The texture is relatively hard and flexible, and the taste is mild and slightly sweet.


title: Comté cheese

text: Fresh from the farm, milk is poured into large copper vats where it is gently warmed. Each cheese requires up to of milk. Rennet is added, causing the milk to coagulate. The curds are then cut into tiny white grains that are the size of rice or wheat which are then stirred before being heated again for around 30 minutes. The contents are then placed into moulds and the whey is pressed out. After several hours the mould is opened and left to mature in cellars, first for a few weeks at the dairy, and then over several months elsewhere.


title: Comté cheese

text: The manufacture of Comté has been controlled by AOC regulations since it became one of the first cheeses to receive AOC recognition in 1958, with full regulations introduced in 1976. The AOC regulations for Comté prescribe:


title: Comté cheese

text: Each cheese is awarded a score out of 20 by inspectors, according to 'overall appearance' (up 1 point), 'quality of rind' (1.5), 'internal appearance' (3.5), 'texture' (5), and taste (9). Those scoring >14 points, called Comté Extra, are given a green casein label with the recognizable logo of a green bell. Those cheeses scoring 12-14 points are given a brown label and are simply called Comté (see picture with different labels). Any cheese scoring 1-2 points (out of a possible 9) for taste, or <12 overall is prohibited from being named Comté and is sold for other purposes.


title: Comté cheese

text: Comté is well known for its distinct terroir: it is made in 160 village-based (cheese-making facilities) in the region, owned by farmers who bring their own milk from their cows; strict production rules linking place and product; and the seasonal environmental effects. Comté cheeses go through the process of "jury terroir", where panels of trained volunteer tasters from Comté supply chain and from the region discuss and publish bi-monthly in the newsletter Les Nouvelles de Comté about the taste and their results. This jury terroir was created by Florence Bérodier, the food scientist, to elaborate in response to a set of formidable challenges that Comté cheese underwent in the beginning for its unfamiliar taste and smell. "The jury terroir is there to speak of all the richness in the tastes of a Comté…" – original member confirmed. For Comté cheese to be worldly renowned, the quality improved, but the challenge stand still to create a uniform taste, which was impossible to achieve since there were 160 different fruitières specializing. But through the process of jury terroir, people came to focus on communication among the tasters, which improved their ability to perceive and gained in value. They acquired a general culture that enabled to describe and exchange about the taste of Comtés.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: The Sikorsky S-61R is a twin-engine helicopter used in transport or search and rescue roles. A developed version of the S-61/SH-3 Sea King, the S-61R was also built under license by Agusta as the AS-61R. The S-61R served in the United States Air Force as the CH-3C/E Sea King and the HH-3E Jolly Green Giant, and with the United States Coast Guard as the HH-3F "Pelican".


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: The Sikorsky S-61R was developed as a derivative of their S-61/SH-3 Sea King model. It features a substantially revised fuselage with a rear loading ramp, a conventional, though watertight, hull instead of the S-61's boat-hull, and retractable tricycle landing gear. The fuselage layout was used by Sikorsky for the larger CH-53 variants, and by the much later (though similarly sized) S-92.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: In 1957, Sikorsky engineers were working on a new model for the United States Navy to replace the H-34s, used for anti-submarine warfare. Designated the HSS-2 (Helicopter, anti-Submarine, Sikorsky), this helicopter would enter service as the SH-3 Sea King. On 9 January 1958, General Randolph M. Pate, Commandant of the Marine Corps, wrote to the Chief of Naval Operations (CNO) requesting procurement of modified HSS-2s to replace the Marines' UH-34s. General Pate recommended that the transport version be designated the HR3S (Helicopter, Transport-3-Sikorsky). Funds for aircraft procurement were short in 1958 and progress on the design of the HR3S was slow. Detailed specifications for the new helicopter were published by CNO on 7 March 1960. Four items were specified:


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: While the design of the assault transport version was in final review, the HSS-2 was being tested. Problems were encountered with its stability and the main transmission was limited to 2,000 horsepower, even though at peak power the engines could produce more. In July 1959, before the selection of the HR3S, Vertol Aircraft Corporation had given presentations to the Marines of their new model, the 107A, and in late March 1960, with Sikorsky engineers still wrestling with problems in the HSS-2 and designing a ramp for the HR3S, Vertol dispatched a YHC-1A (an early prototype of the 107) to the Landing Force Development Center at Marine Corps Base Quantico, for assessment by six Marine pilots. The Marine assessment endorsed the acquisition of the Vertol 107M. On 20 February 1962, the Marines selected the Vertol 107M as the winner of the HRX competition, and it entered Marine service as the CH-46 Sea Knight.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: Notwithstanding the loss of the HRX competition, Sikorsky built an S-61R prototype as a private venture, with its first flight in 1963. During its development, the US Air Force placed an order for the aircraft, which was designated CH-3C. The Air Force used the CH-3C to recover downed pilots. The CH-3E variant with more powerful engines would follow in 1965.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: The improved HH-3E variant would follow later, with eight built, and with all 50 CH-3Es converted to this standard. Known as the "Jolly Green Giant" (because of its size and olive green color scheme; alluding to the Jolly Green Giant company mascot), the HH-3E featured protective armor, self-sealing tanks, a retractable inflight refueling probe, jettisonable external tanks, a high-speed hoist, and other specialized equipment.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: In 1965, the U.S. Coast Guard ordered a version designated HH-3F Sea King (more commonly known by its nickname "Pelican") for all-weather air-sea rescue. The Pelican featured search radar with a nose antenna radome offset to port, and water landing capability.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: Italian Agusta built a S-61R variant under license, named AS-61R. Agusta produced 22 helicopters for the Italian Air Force. The company claimed it could re-open the production line in 36 months to build additional AS-61 helicopters.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: USAF variants served in numerous air rescue squadrons and aerospace rescue and recovery squadrons of the Military Airlift Command (MAC), rescue squadrons of the Air Combat Command (ACC) and other USAF major commands worldwide. The aircraft was also used by a number of Air Force Reserve Command and Air National Guard rescue squadrons. All USAF HH-3Es, to include Air Force Reserve and Air National Guard, were retired in the 1990s and replaced by the current HH-60G Pavehawk.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: The HH-3F Pelican was a dependable workhorse for the US Coast Guard from the late 1960s until it was phased out in the late 1990s. All USCG HH-3Fs were replaced by the HH-60J Jayhawk and those aircraft have since been upgraded to the MH-60T Jayhawk version.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: Between 31 May and 1 June 1967, two HH-3Es of the United States Air Force made the first nonstop flight across the Atlantic Ocean by helicopter. Departing from New York in the early hours, the two helicopters arrived at the 1967 Paris Air Show at Le Bourget after a 30 hr 46 min flight. The operation needed nine in-flight refuelings. Both helicopters were later lost in combat operations in Southeast Asia in 1969 and 1970.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: Agusta began production in 1974 and delivered 22 helicopters as replacements for the Grumman HU-16 Albatross used for SAR (Search and Rescue) missions at sea. Italian Air Force AS-61R helicopters performed SAR missions under designation HH-3F in time of peace and C/SAR (Combat SAR) in time of crisis or during military assignment. All helicopters were operated by the five flights of the 15° Stormo "Stefano Cagna" and deployed in four bases across Italy.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: From 1993 15° Stormo performed support missions to evacuate civilians during natural catastrophes and disasters in Italy. 15º Stormo was also engaged with SAR missions in the hostile zones of the several operations abroad where Italian Armed Forces were deployed - Somalia, Albania, Bosnia, Kosovo, Iraq and Afghanistan.


title: Sikorsky S-61R

text: The Italian Air Force phased out the HH-3F on 26 September 2014, replacing them with the AgustaWestland AW139 in the SAR role


title: Great American Interchange

text: The Great American Biotic Interchange (commonly abbreviated as GABI), also known as the Great American Interchange and the Great American Faunal Interchange, was an important late Cenozoic paleozoogeographic biotic interchange event in which land and freshwater fauna migrated from North America via Central America to South America and vice versa, as the volcanic Isthmus of Panama rose up from the sea floor and bridged the formerly separated continents. Although earlier dispersals had occurred, probably over water, the migration accelerated dramatically about 2.7 million years (Ma) ago during the Piacenzian age. It resulted in the joining of the Neotropic (roughly South American) and Nearctic (roughly North American) biogeographic realms definitively to form the Americas. The interchange is visible from observation of both biostratigraphy and nature (neontology). Its most dramatic effect is on the zoogeography of mammals, but it also gave an opportunity for reptiles, amphibians, arthropods, weak-flying or flightless birds, and even freshwater fish to migrate. Coastal and marine biota, however, was affected in the opposite manner; the formation of the Central American Isthmus caused what has been termed the Great American Schism, with significant diversification and extinction occurring as a result of the isolation of the Caribbean from the Pacific.


title: Great American Interchange

text: The occurrence of the interchange was first discussed in 1876 by the "father of biogeography", Alfred Russel Wallace. Wallace had spent five years exploring and collecting specimens in the Amazon basin. Others who made significant contributions to understanding the event in the century that followed include Florentino Ameghino, W. D. Matthew, W. B. Scott, Bryan Patterson, George Gaylord Simpson and S. David Webb. The Pliocene timing of the formation of the connection between North and South America was discussed in 1910 by Henry Fairfield Osborn.


title: Great American Interchange

text: Analogous interchanges occurred earlier in the Cenozoic, when the formerly isolated land masses of India and Africa made contact with Eurasia about 56 and 30 Ma ago, respectively.


title: Great American Interchange

text: After the late Mesozoic breakup of Gondwana, South America spent most of the Cenozoic era as an island continent whose "splendid isolation" allowed its fauna to evolve into many forms found nowhere else on Earth, most of which are now extinct. Its endemic mammals initially consisted primarily of metatherians (marsupials and sparassodonts), xenarthrans, and a diverse group of native ungulates known as the Meridiungulata: notoungulates (the "southern ungulates"), litopterns, astrapotheres, pyrotheres and xenungulates. A few non-therian mammals – monotremes, gondwanatheres, dryolestids and possibly cimolodont multituberculates – were also present in the Paleocene; while none of these diversified significantly and most lineages did not survive long, forms like "Necrolestes" and "Patagonia" remained as recently as the Miocene.


title: Great American Interchange

text: Marsupials appear to have traveled via Gondwanan land connections from South America through Antarctica to Australia in the late Cretaceous or early Tertiary. One living South American marsupial, the monito del monte, has been shown to be more closely related to Australian marsupials than to other South American marsupials (Ameridelphia); however, it is the most basal australidelphian, meaning that this superorder arose in South America and then dispersed to Australia after the monito del monte split off. "Monotrematum", a 61-Ma-old platypus-like monotreme fossil from Patagonia, may represent an Australian immigrant. Paleognath birds (ratites and South American tinamous) may have made a similar migration around the same time to Australia and New Zealand. Other taxa that may have dispersed by the same route (if not by flying or oceanic dispersal) are parrots, chelid turtles, and the extinct meiolaniid turtles.