title: Juliano Belletti

text: Belletti started his career playing as a central midfielder in Brazil for the youth team of Cruzeiro in 1992. His professional debut happened in November 1994. In March 1996, he was involved in a deal that sent him and Serginho to São Paulo FC in exchange for five players: Aílton, Donizete, Gilmar, Palhinha and Vítor. Playing for São Paulo, he eventually became a right-back.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: In 1999, he was loaned to Atlético Mineiro. Playing as an attacking-midfielder, Belletti helped the club to finish second in the Brazilian League and managed to win the Bola de Prata ("Silver Ball"), an award handed by "Placar" magazine to the players nominated to the Brazilian League Squad of the Year.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: After returning to São Paulo, he became a regular in the Brazil national team by playing in the right-back position once again.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: In June 2002, prior to winning the World Cup with Brazil, Belletti moved to Spanish La Liga club Villarreal on a five-year deal for an estimated fee of US$3 million. He made his debut on 21 July in a 2–0 loss at Torino in the UEFA Intertoto Cup first round, playing the final 21 minutes in place of Jorge López.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: Belletti was part of the squad that won the 2003 UEFA Intertoto Cup against Dutch club Heerenveen. On 15 February 2004, he scored twice at home to Racing Santander in a 6–3 victory.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: In May 2004, Belletti transferred to Barcelona for €4 million on a three-year deal, with Barcelona also ceding their right to buy Pepe Reina back from Villarreal. He was signed to replace Michael Reiziger, whose contract was expiring.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: Belletti's first and only goal with Barcelona was the winner in the 2006 UEFA Champions League Final against Arsenal on 17 May, when he came on as a substitute for Oleguer Presas. His third season was marked by injuries, and competition from new rival Gianluca Zambrotta proved too much for him; he played very little as the campaign ended without silverware. Nonetheless, in March 2007, he extended his deal until 2009.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: On 23 August 2007, Chelsea signed Belletti on a three-year deal for £4 million. The club had previously been trying to sign his compatriot Dani Alves, who went to Barcelona. He made his Premier League debut two days later as a 64th-minute substitute for Mikel John Obi in a 4–0 home win over Portsmouth, a 4–0 victory. He became the starting right-back, ahead of Paulo Ferreira.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: In his first season at Chelsea, Belletti scored two goals, both from long-range, the first away at Wigan Athletic in November and the second at Stamford Bridge against Tottenham Hotspur on 12 January 2008. On 21 May, in the 2008 Champions League final against Manchester United at the Luzhniki Stadium in Moscow, he came on as a substitute just before the penalty shootout, in which he scored though his team lost.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: Under compatriot new manager Luiz Felipe Scolari in 2008–09, Belletti was used as a utility player, in the central midfield and defensive midfield positions. On 18 October, he from 30 yards into the top corner against Middlesbrough in a 5–0 win at the Riverside Stadium, his fourth league goal for the club. The following 17 January, he scored a late equaliser as the team came from behind to win 2–1 at home to Stoke City.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: A year later, in January 2010, Belletti was linked with a move to Flamengo in his native Brazil, but the Blues rejected their offer. On 27 February, he was sent off for a professional foul on Manchester City midfielder Gareth Barry to concede a penalty in a 4–2 loss at Stamford Bridge. Belletti came on as a substitute in the final game of the 2009–10 Premier League season, where a Chelsea win ensured they won the title. A week later, he came on as a substitute for the injured Michael Ballack in the 2010 FA Cup Final against Portsmouth. He gave away a penalty with a foul on Kevin-Prince Boateng, which the Ghanaian missed as Chelsea won 1–0.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: On 9 June 2010, Chelsea announced that Belletti was one of three players whose contract would not be renewed at the end of the month, alongside Joe Cole and Ballack. He made a total of 94 appearances, scoring five goals.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: Following his release from Chelsea, he signed a two-year contract for Fluminense back in Brazil on 14 July 2010.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: Struggling with several injuries and being unable to find a spot in the starting line-up, Belletti had his contract ended on 15 March 2011. He played nine matches with Fluminense, starting only three.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: On 15 June 2011, Belletti signed a one-year contract with Ceará but just 12 days later, he retired due to an Achilles tendon injury.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: Belletti made his international debut for Brazil on 28 March 2001 in a 1–0 loss away to Ecuador in 2002 FIFA World Cup qualification. In July, he went to the 2001 Copa América in Colombia, where he scored in a 3–1 win against Paraguay, but netted an own goal in a shock defeat to last-minute invitees Honduras as the team suffered a quarter-final exit. The team bounced back to win the World Cup in Japan and South Korea, with Belletti playing the semi-final match against Turkey after replacing Kléberson for the final five minutes of the 1–0 win. Belletti's international career was limited by sharing his position with the team's captain, Cafú.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: Belletti played at the 2003 FIFA Confederations Cup but missed the 2005 edition, for which Cafú was absent. Suffering from a right Achilles tendon injury, his place was taken by Cicinho and Maicon, who dominated the position in the years to come by.


title: Juliano Belletti

text: On 4 February 2021, Belletti was named assistant at his first club Cruzeiro, after previously working in the club's "International Business" section. On 31 July, he was in charge of the club's first team trainings after the departure of Mozart, but returned to previous duties on 3 August after the appointment of Vanderlei Luxemburgo.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: United States v. Windsor, 570 U.S. 744 (2013), is a landmark United States Supreme Court civil rights case concerning same-sex marriage. The Court held that Section 3 of the Defense of Marriage Act (DOMA), which denied federal recognition of same-sex marriages, was a violation of the Due Process Clause of the Fifth Amendment.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Edith Windsor and Thea Spyer, a same-sex couple residing in New York, had their marriage recognized by the state of New York in 2008; Spyer died in 2009, leaving her entire estate to Windsor. Windsor sought to claim the federal estate tax exemption for surviving spouses, but was barred from doing so by Section 3 of DOMA. Seeking a refund, Windsor sued the federal government in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York. As the Department of Justice declined to defend the constitutionality of Section 3 of DOMA, the Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group (BLAG) intervened to defend the law. District Judge Barbara S. Jones ruled that Section 3 of DOMA was unconstitutional, and her ruling was affirmed by the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: The Supreme Court granted certiorari in December 2012 and handed down its judgment on June 26, 2013. In the majority opinion, which was joined by four other justices, Justice Anthony Kennedy declared Section 3 of DOMA to be unconstitutional "as a deprivation of the liberty of the person protected by the Fifth Amendment". He further wrote: "The federal statute is invalid, for no legitimate purpose overcomes the purpose and effect to disparage and to injure those whom the State, by its marriage laws, sought to protect in personhood and dignity." Four justices filed dissenting opinions, including Justice Antonin Scalia, who argued that the Court had "no power under the Constitution to invalidate this democratically adopted legislation".


title: United States v. Windsor

text: On the same day, the Court also issued a separate 5–4 decision in "Hollingsworth v. Perry" that effectively allowed same-sex marriage in California to resume. Following the decision, the Obama administration began to extend other federal rights, privileges, and benefits to married same-sex couples. Two years later, in the case of "Obergefell v. Hodges" (2015), the Court struck down all state bans on same-sex marriage, ruling that marriage is guaranteed to same-sex couples by both the Due Process Clause and the Equal Protection Clause.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Edith "Edie" Windsor (née Schlain) was born in Philadelphia on June 20, 1929, to a Russian Jewish immigrant family of modest means. During her childhood, her father lost both his candy-and-ice-cream store and his house during the Great Depression, and she at times experienced anti-Semitism. After graduating from Temple University, she married Saul Windsor. They divorced less than one year afterward, and she confided to him that she longed to be with women sexually. The divorced Edie Windsor soon moved to New York City to pursue a master's degree in mathematics at New York University; in time, she would become one of the first female senior systems programmers at IBM.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Thea Clara Spyer was born in Amsterdam on October 8, 1931, to a wealthy Jewish family that escaped the Holocaust by fleeing to the United States before the Nazi invasion of the Netherlands. Spyer enrolled at Sarah Lawrence College, but was expelled after a campus guard saw her and another woman kissing. She received a bachelor's degree from the New School for Social Research, and a master's degree and PhD in clinical psychology from City University of New York and Adelphi University, respectively. In addition to her private psychology practice in Manhattan, Spyer was an accomplished violinist. She met Windsor in 1963 at a West Village restaurant, and the two began dating after they reconnected in the Hamptons during Memorial Day weekend of 1965. Windsor had first suggested engagement in 1965. Spyer proposed to her in 1967 but presented her with a diamond brooch instead of an engagement ring, fearing that Windsor would be stigmatized at work if her colleagues knew about her relationship.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In 2007, the pair, both residents of New York, married in Toronto, Ontario, under the provisions set forth in the Canadian "Civil Marriage Act", after 40 years of romantic partnership. Canada's first openly gay judge, Justice Harvey Brownstone, officiated. After Spyer's death in 2009, Windsor was required to pay $363,053 in federal estate taxes on her inheritance of her wife's estate. Had federal law recognized the validity of their marriage, Windsor would have qualified for an unlimited spousal deduction and paid no federal estate taxes.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In May 2008, New York Governor David Paterson had ordered state agencies to recognize same-sex marriages performed in other jurisdictions. Some lower-level state courts had made similar rulings, but whether the state's highest court would give such a ruling the force of law, as Windsor's claim for a refund required, remained uncertain and was disputed throughout her lawsuit.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Windsor at first asked several gay rights advocacy groups to represent her, but none would take the case. Finally, she was referred to Roberta Kaplan, a partner at the law firm of Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison LLP, who later recalled: "When I heard her story, it took me about five seconds, maybe less, to agree to represent her". Kaplan had unsuccessfully represented the plaintiffs in a 2006 case that challenged the inability of same-sex couples to marry under New York law, "Hernández v. Robles". Both Kaplan and Windsor were members of Congregation Beit Simchat Torah.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Paul, Weiss, Rifkind, Wharton & Garrison, in conjunction with the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU), filed the case in the U.S. District Court for the Southern District of New York on behalf of Windsor as executor of Spyer's estate on November 9, 2010.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: On February 23, 2011, Attorney General Eric Holder released a statement regarding two lawsuits challenging DOMA Section 3, "Windsor" and "Pedersen v. Office of Personnel Management". He explained that the Department of Justice (DOJ) had previously defended Section 3 of DOMA in several other lawsuits in jurisdictions where precedents required the court to use the rational basis standard for reviewing laws concerning sexual orientation. Since "Windsor" was filed in the jurisdiction of the Second Circuit Court of Appeals, which had no such precedent, the DOJ had identified the proper standard of review in such cases as the more demanding "heightened scrutiny". Under that standard, it could no longer defend the constitutionality of DOMA Section 3.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: On April 18, 2011, Paul Clement, representing the Bipartisan Legal Advisory Group of the House of Representatives (BLAG), filed a motion asking to be allowed to intervene in the suit "for the limited purpose of defending the constitutionality of Section III" of DOMA. The Department of Justice did not oppose the motion.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Windsor filed a motion for summary judgment on June 24. New York Attorney General Eric Schneiderman filed a brief supporting Windsor's claim on July 26, 2011, arguing that DOMA Section 3 could not survive the scrutiny used for classifications based on sex and constitutes "an intrusion on the power of the state to define marriage". On August 1, 2011, BLAG filed a brief opposing Windsor's motion for summary judgment on the grounds that sexual orientation is not subject to heightened scrutiny.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: On June 6, 2012, Judge Barbara S. Jones ruled that a rational basis review of Section 3 of DOMA showed it to be unconstitutional, as it violated plaintiff's rights under the equal protection guarantees of the Fifth Amendment, and ordered that Windsor receive the tax refund due to her. Where BLAG had argued that the Spyer-Windsor marriage was not recognized by New York law at the time of Spyer's death – a prerequisite for Windsor's claim against the IRS – Jones cited the "informal opinion letters" of the state's governor, attorney general, and comptroller to the contrary along with several opinions in New York appellate courts. The plaintiff said afterward: "It's thrilling to have a court finally recognize how unfair it is for the government to have treated us as though we were strangers."


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Despite its approval of the ruling, the Justice Department filed a notice of appeal on June 14, 2012, to facilitate BLAG's defense of the statute. BLAG filed a motion to dismiss the DOJ's Second Circuit appeal on July 19, claiming the DOJ lacks standing because it prevailed in the District Court. Meanwhile, Windsor's legal counsel filed a petition of certiorari before judgment with the Supreme Court on July 16, 2012, asking for the case to be considered without waiting for the Second Circuit's review, citing the plaintiff's age and health.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: The DOJ replied to BLAG's motion to dismiss, asserting: (1) its standing as an "aggrieved party", because the District Court's stay prevents the DOJ from taking steps to cease enforcement of Section 3 of DOMA; and (2) that its participation ensures consideration of the constitutional issue if the Second Circuit or the Supreme Court determines that BLAG lacks standing.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: On September 27, Chief Judge Dennis Jacobs and Judges Chester J. Straub and Christopher F. Droney heard arguments in the case. On October 18, the Second Circuit Court of Appeals upheld the lower court's ruling that Section 3 of DOMA is unconstitutional. The majority opinion stated, "It is easy to conclude that homosexuals have suffered a history of discrimination." Thus they were part of a quasi-suspect class that deserves any law restricting its rights to be subjected to intermediate scrutiny. Because DOMA could not pass that test, Judge Jacobs wrote, it is unconstitutional under the equal protection guarantees of the Fifth Amendment.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Our straightforward legal analysis sidesteps the fair point that same-sex marriage is unknown to history and tradition, but law (federal or state) is not concerned with holy matrimony. Government deals with marriage as a civil status—however fundamental—and New York has elected to extend that status to same-sex couples.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: It was the first federal court of appeals decision to hold that laws that classify people based on sexual orientation should be subject to heightened scrutiny. Like the lower court, the Second Circuit held that the Spyer-Windsor marriage was valid under New York law, citing precedents on that question from several state appellate court decisions, two of which preceded Spyer's death. Where New York law is unclear, the Second Circuit must adopt a predictive approach, as it did in this case.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: On September 11, 2012, following Windsor's petition for certiorari before judgment and before the Second Circuit's ruling, the Department of Justice filed its own petition for certiorari before judgment with the Supreme Court. After the appellate ruling on October 18, the parties filed supplemental briefs. On December 7, the Supreme Court granted certiorari in the case, now "United States v. Windsor", accepting the DOJ's petition.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In addition to the question presented by the DOJ – "Whether Section 3 of DOMA violates the Fifth Amendment's guarantee of equal protection" for same sex partners – the court also asked the parties to brief and argue two other questions: whether the government's agreement with the Second Circuit's decision deprived the court of a "real dispute" and therefore of jurisdiction to hear the case, and whether BLAG had standing in its own right, i.e., the legal right to independently ask for the appeal to be heard in the event that the government was not a valid petitioner. Article III of the Constitution (the "Case or Controversy clause") forbids parties that do not themselves have a "real" and "personal" ("particularized") complaint from filing a case or appeal in a federal court.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Windsor noted in a statement that when she and her partner met nearly 50 years earlier that they never dreamed their marriage would land before the Supreme Court "as an example of why gay married couples should be treated equally, and not like second-class citizens". Noting that her deceased wife would be proud, Windsor added, "The truth is, I never expected any less from my country."


title: United States v. Windsor

text: On December 11, the Supreme Court appointed Vicki C. Jackson, a professor of constitutional law at Harvard Law School, as an "amicus curiae" to argue the two additional questions it posed. BLAG filed its own petition for certiorari, in order to enable the court to rule on the constitutionality of DOMA, even if it were to decide that it lacked jurisdiction to hear the DOJ's petition. The Supreme Court heard oral arguments on March 27, 2013.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In a 5–4 decision issued on June 26, 2013, the Supreme Court found Section 3 of DOMA (codified at ) to be unconstitutional, "as a deprivation of the liberty of the person protected by the Fifth Amendment". The Court held that the Constitution prevented the federal government from treating state-sanctioned heterosexual marriages differently from state-sanctioned same-sex marriages, and that such differentiation "demean[ed] the couple, whose moral and sexual choices the Constitution protects". Justice Anthony Kennedy authored the majority opinion, joined by Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan. Kennedy's decision to strike down a central part of DOMA cited the principles of state autonomy, equal protection and liberty, but the constitutional basis for striking down the law was not entirely clear, as it had elements of federalism, equal protection and due process. The answer may be found in Windsor's brief, in which she argues that DOMA operates to say "that married gay couples aren't genuinely married at all but are instead 'similarly situated' to unmarried people".


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Chief Justice John Roberts and Justices Antonin Scalia and Samuel Alito authored dissenting opinions, which Justice Clarence Thomas joined.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Justice Scalia's dissent, which was joined in full by Justice Thomas and in part by Chief Justice Roberts, opened:


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Scalia argued that the judgment effectively characterized opponents of same-sex marriage as "enemies of the human race":


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Scalia concluded by saying that the Supreme Court "has cheated both sides, robbing the winners of an honest victory, and the losers of the peace that comes from a fair defeat".


title: United States v. Windsor

text: The opinions of Roberts and Scalia offered different interpretations of the majority ruling. Roberts said the majority opinion was based on federalism, finding DOMA unconstitutional because the federal government was interfering with state control of marriage. He wrote: "The dominant theme of the majority opinion is that the Federal Government's intrusion into an area 'central to state domestic relations law applicable to its residents and citizens' is sufficiently 'unusual' to set off alarm bells. ... [I]ts judgment is based on federalism." Scalia was uncertain whether the majority relied upon that federalism argument or based its decision on Equal Protection grounds, writing, "if this is meant to be an equal-protection opinion, it is a confusing one".


title: United States v. Windsor

text: President Obama hailed the ruling as a "victory for American democracy". On the question of how the ruling would affect bans on same-sex marriage in those states that prohibit it, Obama said: "My personal belief, but I'm speaking now as a president as opposed to as a lawyer, is that if you've been married in Massachusetts and you move someplace else, you're still married, and that under federal law you should be able to obtain the benefits of any lawfully married couple."


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Laurence Tribe, a professor of constitutional law at Harvard Law School, described Scalia's response and dissent as "intemperate", "extraordinary", and "at the very least, an exercise in jurisprudential cynicism". He considered that Scalia appeared to have been unable to resist "the temptation to use the occasion to insult the Court's majority, and Justice Kennedy in particular, in essentially ad hominem ... terms".


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Neil Siegel, a professor of constitutional law at Duke Law School, wrote that Justice Roberts' view that the majority relied on federalism was a fallacy in that the majority did not place any weight on the federalism argument, but rather used "federalism as a waystation" to put off making a decision on the constitutionality of state laws concerning same-sex marriage.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: A day after the decision in "Windsor", the federal judge hearing "McLaughlin v. Panetta" asked the parties to explain by July 18 why the logic that found DOMA's section 3 unconstitutional did not apply equally to federal regulations that control eligibility for veterans' spousal benefits, which define "spouse" as "a person of the opposite sex". On July 18, 2013, BLAG stated in a court filing that in light of "Windsor", they would no longer seek to defend this case or similar statutes in court, and sought leave to withdraw from defending the case.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In the wake of the U.S. Supreme Court ruling the Obama Administration and several federal executive departments and agencies such as the Office of Personnel Management began to extend federal rights, privileges and benefits to married same-sex couples by changing regulations in order to conform with the Supreme Court decision in "Windsor":


title: United States v. Windsor

text: As a result of the "Windsor" decision, married same-sex couples—regardless of domicile—have tax benefits (which include the previously unavailable ability to file joint tax returns with the IRS), military benefits, federal employment benefits for employees of the U.S Government and immigration benefits.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In February 2014, the Justice Department expanded recognition of same-sex marriages in federal legal matters, including bankruptcies, prison visits, survivor benefits and the legal right to refuse to testify to incriminate a spouse. Likewise in June 2014, family medical leave benefits under the Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 were extended to married same-sex couples in all of the U.S. With respect to social security and veterans benefits, same-sex married couples who live in states where same-sex marriage is recognised are eligible for full benefits from the Veterans Affairs (VA) and the Social Security Administration (SSA). The VA and SSA can provide only limited benefits to married same-sex couples living in states where same-sex marriage isn't legal, with Congress required to amend federal law to rectify that inequity.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: According to one reporter's assessment in August 2013, despite the foregoing efforts the U.S. federal agencies are not working in concert with respect to the implementation of the "Windsor" ruling. Instead "they are creating a patchwork of regulations affecting gay and lesbian couples – and may be raising questions about discrimination and fairness in the way that federal benefits are distributed."


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In February 2015, the United States Department of Labor issued its final rule amending the definition of spouse under the FMLA in response to "Windsor". The new rule is effective March 27, 2015. The revised definition of "spouse" extends FMLA leave rights and job protections to employees in a same-sex marriage or a common-law marriage entered into in a state where those statuses are legally recognized, regardless of the state in which the employee works or resides.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: The ruling in "Windsor" led to a series of state and federal lawsuits being filed against same-sex marriage bans and affected other discrimination rulings. A year after the "Windsor" ruling was announced, there was at least one state or federal lawsuit against every state same-sex marriage ban.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: New Jersey Supreme Court previously ruled in "Lewis v. Harris" that the denial of marriage benefits violate same-sex couples equal protection under the New Jersey state constitution. But following "Windsor" a New Jersey state judge ruled that the extension of federal benefits to married same-sex couples made New Jersey's civil unions to be lacking the equal protection.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In several other cases, the ambiguity in the majority decision in "Windsor" has produced varying interpretations in later legal decisions that address state regulation of marriage and the denial of marriage rights to same-sex couples. Courts have disputed whether "Windsor" relied upon federalism or equal protection and what standard of review the Supreme Court applied. Others have used it to dismiss the precedential importance of "Baker v. Nelson". Within 2 years of the "Windsor" decision 28 district courts and 4 appeals court ruled that state level same-sex marriage bans are unconstitutional, while only two district courts and one appeals court ruled they did not violate the constitution.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In December 2013, a U.S. District Court judge ruling in "Kitchen v. Herbert" found that "Baker" no longer controlled his decision, because the rule is that "doctrinal developments" can obviate the importance of a dismissal like "Baker", and given the issues before the court "Windsor" was "highly relevant and is therefore a significant doctrinal development". It also read "Windsor" as an equal protection case, writing: "The court agrees with Justice Scalia's interpretation of


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Windsor and finds that the important federalism concerns at issue here are nevertheless insufficient to save a state-law prohibition that denies the Plaintiffs their rights to due process and equal protection under the law."


title: United States v. Windsor

text: District Court Judge Arenda Wright Allen ruling in "Bostic v. Rainey" on February 13, 2014, noted that "Windsor" discussed the deference due state laws defining marriage only to assert that "due process and equal protection


title: United States v. Windsor

text: guarantees must trump objections to federal intervention". She cited Justice Scalia's prediction that the reasoning of the majority in "Windsor" with respect to federal law motivated by a "bare ... desire to harm" would produce the same conclusion with respect to state laws.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: In "De Leon v. Perry", Orlando Garcia on February 26, 2014, framed the lawsuit in terms of "Windsor": "Now, the lower courts must apply the Supreme Court's decision in "Windsor" and decide whether a state can do what the federal government cannot -– discriminate against same-sex couples." He then made the same point Judge Wright Allen had made, citing "Windsor": "While Texas has the 'unquestioned authority' to regulate and define marriage, the State must nevertheless do so in a way that does not infringe on an individual's constitutional rights." (references omitted)


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Some courts have agreed with Scalia that the "Windsor" decision lacked clarity and proceeded to interpret it with little reference to federalism, just as Scalia had predicted. When ruling Oklahoma's ban on same-sex marriage unconstitutional on January 14, 2014, in "Bishop v. Oklahoma", U.S. District Judge Terence C. Kern described the decision as the culmination of a process: "There is no precise legal label for what has occurred in Supreme Court jurisprudence beginning with "Romer" in 1996 and culminating in "Windsor" in 2013, but this Court knows a rhetorical shift when it sees one". When U.S. District Judge Jone E. Jones ruled on May 20, 2014, that Pennsylvania's same-sex marriage ban was unconstitutional, he read "Windsor" as an equal protection decision. He cited Justice Scalia's critique of the lack of clarity in the "Windsor" decision, writing: "As Justice Scalia cogently remarked in his dissent, 'if ["Windsor"] is meant to be an equal-protection opinion, it is a confusing one. ... Windsor found DOMA unconstitutional because 'no legitimate purpose overcomes the purpose and effect to disparage and to injure.'"


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Conversely, U.S. District Judge Martin Feldman, upholding Louisiana's ban on same-sex marriage on September 3, 2014, reviewed the arguments before him and wrote: "Both sides invoke the Supreme Court's decision in "United States v. Windsor". ... But "Windsor" does little more than give both sides in this case something to hope for." In a footnote, he explained his reading of the case:


title: United States v. Windsor

text: He quoted Chief Justice Roberts' dissent as a reason not to read "Windsor" as a guide for deciding the constitutionality of restrictions on same-sex marriage: "The Court does not have before it", wrote Roberts, "and the logic of its opinion does not decide the distinct question whether the States, in the exercise of their 'historic and essential authority to define the marital relation', ... may continue to utilize the traditional definition of marriage". Feldman found nothing in "Windsor" to require him to use heightened scrutiny, saying that "Windsor starkly avoids mention of heightened scrutiny". He called the argument that "Windsor"'s use of the phrase "careful consideration" meant intermediate or heightened scrutiny amounted to "intellectual anarchy". He criticized several recent federal court decisions for failing to specify the appropriate standard of review they used to evaluate the constitutionality of bans on same-sex marriage. Instead he cited "Windsor" for its "powerful reminder" that The definition of marriage is the foundation of the State's broader authority to regulate the subject of domestic relations.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: A 3-judge panel of the Ninth Circuit Court of Appeals in "SmithKline v. Abbott" considered what standard of review to apply when determining whether sexual orientation can be used in selecting the members of a jury. It ruled unanimously on January 21, 2014, based on its reading of "Windsor", that distinctions based on sexual orientation are subject to a standard of review higher than rational basis review and that "equal protection prohibits peremptory strikes based on sexual orientation". The Ninth Circuit wrote:


title: United States v. Windsor

text: A split remains among the second, sixth and ninth circuits of the courts of appeal regarding the level of scrutiny that applies to classifications based on sexual orientation. Although the Supreme Court had the opportunity to address the level of scrutiny in "Obergefell v. Hodges", that decision focused on the fundamental right to marry.


title: United States v. Windsor

text: Many scholars have theorized that the ruling in Windsor has elevated classifications on the basis of sexual orientation to be considered under a 'rational basis with bite' evaluation; and have found the analysis to be closely synonymous with how classifications of religion are reviewed. The Ninth Circuit court also observed that the majority in "Windsor" shifted the burden from the same-sex couple to the government when it wrote that the government has to ""justify" disparate treatment of the group".


title: Teen Series

text: The Teen Series is a popular name for a group of American combat aircraft. The name stems from a series of American supersonic jet fighters built for the United States Air Force and the United States Navy during the late 20th century. The designations system was the 1962 United States Tri-Service aircraft designation system, which reset the F-# sequence. The term typically includes the Grumman F-14 Tomcat, McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle, General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon, and McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet.


title: Teen Series

text: Unsuccessful experimental and prototype fighters assigned numbers in the teen range (13–19) are generally not considered part of the series. Thus it does not include the Northrop YF-17, which later evolved into the F/A-18. The designations "F-13" and "F-19" were not assigned.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Georgie Fame (born Clive Powell; 26 June 1943) is an English R&B and jazz musician. Fame, who had a string of 1960s hits, is still performing, often working with contemporaries such as Alan Price, Van Morrison and Bill Wyman. Fame is the only British music act to have achieved three number one hits with his only top 10 chart entries: "Yeh, Yeh" in 1964, "Get Away" in 1966 and "The Ballad of Bonnie and Clyde" in 1967.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Powell was born at 1 Cotton Street, Leigh, Lancashire, England. He took piano lessons from the age of seven and on leaving Leigh Central County Secondary School at 15 he worked for a brief period in a cotton weaving mill and played piano for a band called the Dominoes in the evenings. After taking part in a singing contest at the Butlins Holiday Camp in Pwllheli, North Wales, he was offered a job there by the band leader, early British rock and roll star Rory Blackwell.


title: Georgie Fame

text: At sixteen years of age, Powell went to London and, on the recommendation of Lionel Bart, entered into a management agreement with Larry Parnes, who had given new stage names to artists Marty Wilde and Billy Fury. Fame later recalled that Parnes had given him an ultimatum over his forced change of name: "It was very much against my will but he said, 'If you don't use my name, I won't use you in the show'".


title: Georgie Fame

text: Over the following year Fame toured the UK playing beside Wilde, Joe Brown, Dickie Pride, Gene Vincent, Eddie Cochran and others. Fame played piano for Billy Fury in his backing band, the Blue Flames. When the backing band got the sack at the end of 1961, it was re-billed as "Georgie Fame and the Blue Flames" and went on to enjoy great success with a repertoire largely of rhythm and blues numbers.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Fame was influenced by jazz, blues, and the musicians Mose Allison and Willie Mabon. He was one of the first white musicians to be influenced by ska after hearing it in cafés in Jamaica and Ladbroke Grove in England. He recalled The Flamingo Club was "full of American GIs who came in from their bases for the weekend" who played for him the song "Green Onions" by Booker T. & the M.G.'s. "I had been playing piano up to that point but I bought a Hammond organ the next day."


title: Georgie Fame

text: In 1963, the band recorded its debut album, "Rhythm and Blues at the Flamingo". Produced by Ian Samwell and engineered by Glyn Johns, the album was released in place of a planned single by EMI Columbia. It failed to reach the chart, but the October 1964 follow-up, "Fame at Last", reached No. 15 on the UK Albums Chart.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Ronan O'Rahilly failed to get Fame's first record played by the BBC. After it was rejected by Radio Luxembourg, O'Rahilly announced he would start his own radio station to promote the record. The station became the offshore pirate radio station Radio Caroline.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Fame enjoyed continual chart success, with three number one hits in the UK Singles Chart. His version of "Yeh, Yeh", released on 14 January 1965, spent two weeks at No. 1 on the UK singles chart. "In the Meantime" charted in both UK and US. Fame made his US television debut that same year on "Hullabaloo". His single "Get Away", released on 21 July 1966, spent one week at No. 1 on the UK chart and 11 weeks on the chart. The song was written as a jingle for a petrol commercial. His version of the Bobby Hebb song "Sunny" made No. 13 in the UK charts in September 1966. His greatest chart success was in 1967 when "The Ballad of Bonnie and Clyde" became a number one hit in the UK, and No. 7 in the US. "Yeh, Yeh" and "The Ballad of Bonnie and Clyde" sold over one million copies and were awarded gold discs.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Fame continued playing into the 1970s, having a hit with "Rosetta" with his friend Alan Price in 1971, and they worked together extensively. In 1974, he reunited the Blue Flames and began to sing with European orchestras and big bands. He wrote jingles for radio and TV commercials and composed for the films "Entertaining Mr Sloane" (1970) and "The Alf Garnett Saga" (1972).


title: Georgie Fame

text: The artist released two singles produced by Stock Aitken Waterman in 1986, a cover of Richie Cole's "New York Afternoon", (credited as Mondo Kané featuring Dee Lewis, Coral Gordon and Georgie Fame) and a cover of a Gilberto Gil track, "Samba", under his own name, for which he wrote the English-language lyrics.


title: Georgie Fame

text: He became a member of Van Morrison's band, as well as his musical producer. He played keyboards and sang harmony vocals on "In the Days Before Rock 'n' Roll" from the album "Enlightenment" while recording and touring as a solo act. He played organ on Van Morrison's albums between 1989 and 1997 and starred at Terry Dillon's 60th-birthday party on 10 May 2008. Morrison refers to Fame in the line "I don't run into Mr. Clive" in his song "Don't Go to Nightclubs Anymore" on the 2008 "Keep It Simple" album. Fame appeared as a guest on Morrison's television concert presented by BBC Four on 25 and 27 April 2008.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Fame was a founding member of Bill Wyman's band Rhythm Kings. He also worked with Count Basie, Eric Clapton, Muddy Waters, Joan Armatrading, and the Verve.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Fame has played residences at Ronnie Scott's Jazz Club. He played organ on Starclub's album. He was the headline act on the Sunday night at the Jazz World stage at the 2009 Glastonbury Festival after performing at the Midsummer Music at Spencers festival in Essex.


title: Georgie Fame

text: On 18 April 2010, Fame and his sons Tristan Powell (guitar) and James Powell (drums) performed at the Live Room at Twickenham Stadium for the tenth birthday celebrations of The Eel Pie Club. Part of the proceeds from the concert benefitted the Otakar Kraus Music Trust, which provides music and voice therapy for children and young people with physical and mental difficulties. The trio performed later that year at the Towersey Festival.


title: Georgie Fame

text: In July 2014, Fame played at the village hall in Goring-on-Thames and then at the Cornbury Festival in Oxfordshire.


title: Georgie Fame

text: In 1972, Fame married Nicolette ("née" Harrison), Marchioness of Londonderry, the former wife of the 9th Marquess. Lady Londonderry had given birth to one of Fame's children during her marriage to the marquess; the child, Tristan, bore the courtesy title Viscount Castlereagh and was believed to be heir to the marquisate. When tests determined the child was Fame's, the Londonderrys divorced. The couple had another son, James, during their marriage.


title: Georgie Fame

text: Nicolette Powell died on 13 August 1993, after jumping off the Clifton Suspension Bridge. In an interview before her death, Fame said that they had stayed happily married because of her "charm, beauty, forbearance and understanding".


title: IV of Spades

text: IV of Spades (stylized as IV OF SPADES, pronounced "four of spades") is a Filipino rock band from Metro Manila, Philippines, consisting of vocalist, bassist and keyboardist Zild Benitez, vocalist and lead guitarist Blaster Silonga, and drummer Badjao de Castro. Unique served as the band's lead vocalist and rhythm guitarist until 2018. The band first gained exposure with the release of their 4th single "Mundo". On August 21, 2020, the band entered a hiatus.


title: IV of Spades

text: Their musical style has been described as "pop funk" and funk rock by the local press. IV of Spades has been nominated for several musical awards, both in the Philippines and internationally. The band is also known for their 1970s-inspired outfits.


title: IV of Spades

text: In July 2014, Allan Mitchell Silonga also known as "DADDY A" planned and decided to form a band for his son Blaster, who would become the band's lead guitarist and vocals. Daddy A handpicked and recruit drummer Badjao de Castro and bassist Zild Benitez, who are the sons of Daddy A's friends. Unique Salonga, Benitez's churchmate who was already writing his own music, was later recruited to become the band's lead singer.


title: IV of Spades

text: Most of the band members are sons of musicians. Blaster's father, Allan Silonga, is a member of 90s band Kindred Garden after a while evolved as k24/7 and the singing group Daddy's Home which finished third in "The X Factor Philippines". Zild's father, Franklin Benitez, was the drummer of Hungry Young Poets and Barbie's Cradle.


title: IV of Spades

text: Badjao's father, Chuck de Castro, was a member of Makatha & Posivity Band and was also a session rhythm guitarist of the Rage Band. Blaster and Zild gained popularity when they became contestants for "Eat Bulaga!"'s hit contest, Music Hero. Zild was the first member of the Music Hero Squad and was the Bass Guitar grand champion, Blaster won the Electric Guitar grand champion and the title of Ultimate Music Hero.


title: IV of Spades

text: IV of Spades signed to a record label and released their first single "Ilaw sa Daan" under Warner Music Philippines.


title: IV of Spades

text: The group's second single, “Hey Barbara” was released on July 9, 2017 and followed up by their third single “Where Have You Been My Disco?”, released on December 9, 2017 via YouTube.


title: IV of Spades

text: In 2018, the band released their fourth single called "Mundo". A video of their live performance on the song, which was uploaded on Metro Manila-based radio station Wish 107.5's YouTube channel, became the group's highest viewed single on YouTube with 137 million views as of November 2020.


title: IV of Spades

text: IV of Spades won the New Artist of the Year and the MYX Bandarito Performance of the Year and Nominated as Group the Year at the annual MYX Music Awards. The band also won the Dreams Come True with Air Asia, the airline's search for the most promising acts in the region. The band performed with David Foster as part of their prize. They also won the Favorite New Group award at the 30th annual Awit Awards.


title: IV of Spades

text: On May 5, 2018, the band announced on their official social media accounts that lead vocalist Unique Salonga had left in order to pursue "personal endeavors".


title: IV of Spades

text: On July 12, 2018, the song "In My Prison" was released simultaneously on Spotify and YouTube. It is the band's first single after Salonga's departure, with Benitez taking over full-time as lead vocalist. They released their sixth single "Bata, Dahan-Dahan!" on September 14, 2018.


title: IV of Spades

text: After they released their sixth single, they released another single "Sa Kahapon" and this time, with hip-hop artist and rapper Shanti Dope for Coke Studio Homecoming.


title: IV of Spades

text: In October 2018, IV of Spades was nominated for the Best Southeast Asia Act category in the 2018 MTV Europe Music Awards but lost to Joe Flizzow of Malaysian hip-hop group Too Phat. Within the same month, they returned to Wish 107.5 and collaborated with Moira dela Torre with a new song entitled "Huli Na Ba Ang Lahat". The song was first unveiled during a digital concert held on October 8, 2018. The show, staged by Acer Philippines in partnership with Wish 107.5, was part of the annually-held Acer Day celebration.


title: IV of Spades

text: The band released their debut studio album, "ClapClapClap!", on January 18, 2019. The album consisted of 15 songs. The most popular being Come Inside of My Heart.


title: IV of Spades

text: The band then released their single entitled "Ang Pinagmulan", on February 16, 2020. After 2 months, they released their latest single entitled "Sariling Multo (Sa Panaginip)", on April 17, 2020. The band then announced their hiatus on August 21, 2020.


title: IV of Spades

text: IV of Spades is heavily inspired by 1970s fashion, acts and sounds. Members of the band have cited various musical groups and artists as songwriting influences, including ABBA, Kings of Leon, Tame Impala, My Chemical Romance, Radiohead and Jet. The band's genre is a mix of 1970s influenced disco, funk, alternative rock and Manila Sound..


title: Deputy superintendent of police

text: Deputy superintendent of police (DSP) is a rank used by several police forces in the Commonwealth and formerly in the British Empire. The rank is usually above assistant superintendent and below superintendent.


title: Deputy superintendent of police

text: The rank of deputy superintendent of police or assistant commissioner of police (ACP) in the commissionerate system was created in 1876 as the policy of Indianisation was introduced. It was originally a rank only held by Indians and was equivalent to assistant superintendent (a rank then only held by Europeans). Deputy superintendents (DSP or DySP) are now state police officers who belong to the provincial police forces, either direct entrants at that rank or promoted from inspector. Assistant commissioners of police, who are members of the provincial forces, can be promoted to the Indian Police Service after limited years of service which varies from 8 to 15 years depending on the state. Deputy superintendents are generally posted as circle officers in a district. In the states of Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh, the rank is commonly known as circle officer (CO), although this is not technically correct as CO is a post, not a rank. In the state of West Bengal, a DSP is in charge of a sub-division and is most commonly known as a sub divisional police officer (SDPO).


title: Deputy superintendent of police

text: Candidates must be Indian citizens with any degree and between the ages of 21 to 38 years. There is a minimum physical requirement of height for men and for women, chest requirement of and chest expansion of . In Tamil Nadu, is the minimum height required. Every year, the state governments prepare a list of members of the state police service to be suitable for promotion to the Indian police Service. Officers recruited by state Public Service Commissions receive this rank directly. The rank above it is Superintendent of Police and the rank below is Inspector.


title: Deputy superintendent of police

text: The rank of deputy superintendent of police is the highest rank attainable by an officer in the National Police Cadet Corps. The rank of acting deputy superintendent of police is vested onto NPCC headquarters appointment holders who have not actually attained the rank of deputy superintendent of police. The rank insignia of deputy superintendent of police and acting deputy superintendent of police is the same, with both wearing the Singapore coat of arms above a single pip.


title: Deputy superintendent of police

text: NPCC officers who hold the rank of deputy superintendent of police have a single row of silver braid on the peak of their cap (for males) or bowler hat (for females).


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Hari Karthikeya Kondabolu (born October 21, 1982) is an American stand-up comic. His comedy covers subjects such as race, inequity, and Indian stereotypes. He was a writer for "Totally Biased with W. Kamau Bell" and the creator of the 2017 documentary film "The Problem with Apu".


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Kondabolu was born October 21, 1982 in the Flushing neighborhood of the New York City borough of Queens, to Uma and Ravi Kondabolu, who had immigrated from the city of Tenali in the Coastal Andhra region of South India. His mother was previously a physician in India, and both parents became the heads of New York area medical labs. Ravi Kondabolu had immigrated to the United States in 1978.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Kondabolu attended public schools in Queens: PS 69 in Jackson Heights, PS 115 in Floral Park, MS 172 in Floral Park, and Townsend Harris High School in Flushing, where he graduated in 2000.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Kondabolu continued performing standup when he attended Bowdoin College; he called his years at Bowdoin "incredibly formative" and continues to spend part of every year in Maine. He studied at Wesleyan University during his third year, focusing on identity and race, globalization, and "the impact of popular culture on society."


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Although his stand-up comedy career was gaining traction in 2007, he was accepted to the Masters in Human Rights program at the London School of Economics in 2007, and thus took a hiatus year from stand-up to earn his MSc.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: While in Seattle, Kondabolu began participating in its alternative comedy scene. His act included "a bit where I used to read the U.S. citizenship application onstage." In 2006, Kondabolu performed at the Bumbershoot Music and Arts Festival in Seattle, which he credits as his "big break," as a booker for HBO's Comedy Festival saw his name on the Bumbershoot website. Later, Kondabolu also filmed "Hari Kondabolu: Warn Your Relatives" in Seattle.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: From 2012 to 2013, he was on the writing staff for the FX comedy series "Totally Biased with W. Kamau Bell", produced by Chris Rock and hosted by W. Kamau Bell, on which he often appeared as a correspondent.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: His second comedy album, "Mainstream American Comic", was released on July 22, 2016 on Kill Rock Stars. It debuted at #1 on the iTunes US comedy charts and at #2 on the Billboard comedy charts.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Since 2017, Kondabolu has served as a panelist on the NPR comedy news quiz "Wait Wait Don't Tell Me."


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: In 2018, he spoke about his experience of teaching a workshop at the Columbia River Correctional Institute Comedy School in North Portland as a guest on Live Wire! Radio.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Kondabolu's humor often centers on social issues such as poverty, racism, and a rejection of Indian stereotypes seen in media. He has spoken about the challenges of dealing with white fragility when addressing race in his comedy. He has also addressed a variety of other social subjects, such as the LGBT community.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Kondabolu and his younger brother Ashok performed in a monthly, mostly improvised talk show together in New York City called "Untitled Kondabolu Brothers Project". Past guests have included Ajay Naidu, Aasif Mandvi, Bell, Leo Allen, Victor Vazquez (Kool AD of Das Racist), Charles Mudede and Blue Scholars. In January 2013, they started "Untitled Kondabolu Brothers Podcast". After a hiatus from 2015 onwards, the podcast debuted again as the "Kondabolu Brothers Podcast" in 2018 on the Earwolf label.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: He is a co-host of the podcast "Politically Re-Active" with Bell, which debuted in June 2016. He also debuted as a rotating host on "The Bugle" alongside Andy Zaltzman in the fall of 2016 after the departure of John Oliver.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Kondabolu wrote and starred in Zia Mohajerjasbi's 2007 short film "Manoj", which has played in comedy and film festivals around the world, including the Just for Laughs Festivals in Montreal and Chicago, and which mocks comedians who broadly exploit their ethnic backgrounds for their material. In "Manoj," Kondabolu portrays both Manoj, a fictional Indian immigrant comic who plays to white audiences by repeating their stereotypes of South Asians, and an Indian-American who is critical of Manoj's approach.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Kondabolu portrayed "Crossword Businessman" in the 2009 film "All About Steve", a movie he mocks in "Mainstream American Comic". He also played a supporting role in the 2016 film "Five Nights in Maine", although none of his scenes were included in the final 75-minute cut of the film. Also in 2016, he appeared as a fictionalized version of himself in the Comedy Central web series "White Flight".


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Kondabolu is the lead, creator, and executive director of "The Problem with Apu", a documentary about the character Apu from "The Simpsons" that premiered in November 2017 on TruTV. The film contextualizes Apu within minstrelsy and other tropes in American pop culture history that have historically stereotyped minorities.


title: Hari Kondabolu

text: Along with Megan Stalter, Kondabolu is a co-host of Season 1 of Netflix's Snack vs Chef a reality cooking competition series.


title: Patron saints of places

text: This is a list of patron saints of places by nation, region, and town/city. If a place is not listed here, it may be listed in "Patronage of the Blessed Virgin Mary".


title: Patron saints of places

text: This list only includes sovereign states; subdivisions, such as the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, are listed below under "Administrative subdivisions".


title: Hodag

text: In American folklore, the hodag is a fearsome critter resembling a large bull-horned carnivore with a row of thick curved spines down its back. The hodag was said to be born from the ashes of cremated oxen, as the incarnation of the accumulation of abuse the animals had suffered at the hands of their masters. The history of the hodag is strongly tied to the City of Rhinelander where it was claimed to have been discovered. The hodag has figured prominently in early Paul Bunyan stories.


title: Hodag

text: In 1893, newspapers reported the discovery of a hodag in Rhinelander, Wisconsin. The articles claimed the hodag had "the head of a frog, the grinning face of a giant elephant, thick short legs set off by huge claws, the back of a dinosaur, and a long tail with spears at the end". The reports were instigated by well-known Wisconsin land surveyor, timber cruiser and prankster Eugene Shepard, who rounded up a group of local people to capture the animal. The group reported that they needed to use dynamite to kill the beast.


title: Hodag

text: A photograph of the remains of the charred beast was released to the media. It was "the fiercest, strangest, most frightening monster ever to set razor sharp claws on the earth. It became extinct after its main food source, all white bulldogs, became scarce in the area."


title: Hodag

text: Shepard claimed to have captured another hodag in 1896, and this one was captured alive. According to Shepard's reports, he and several bear wrestlers placed chloroform on the end of a long pole, which they worked into the cave of the creature where it was overcome.


title: Hodag

text: He displayed this hodag at the first Oneida County fair. Thousands of people came to see the hodag at the fair or at Shepard's display in a shanty at his house. Having connected wires to it, Shepard would occasionally move the creature, which would typically send the already-skittish viewers fleeing the display.


title: Hodag

text: As newspapers locally, statewide, and then nationally began picking up the story of the apparently remarkable living creature, a small group of scientists from the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. announced they would be traveling to Rhinelander to inspect the apparent discovery. Their mere announcement spelled the end, as Shepard was then forced to admit that the hodag was a hoax.


title: Hodag

text: The hodag became the official symbol of Rhinelander, Wisconsin. It is the mascot of Rhinelander High School, and lends its name to numerous Rhinelander area businesses and organizations, including the annual music festival, Hodag Country Festival. The city of Rhinelander's web site calls Rhinelander "The Home of the Hodag". A larger-than-life fiberglass sculpture of a hodag, created by Tracy Goberville, a local artist, resides on the grounds of the Rhinelander Area Chamber of Commerce where it draws thousands of visitors each year. Rhinelander Ice Arena houses two hodags, one a full body creature just inside the entrance, and the other one an oversized head that blows smoke and has red eyes that light up, located in the corner just off the ice and which was created by the same artist who designed and built the Chamber Hodag.


title: Rebecca Schull

text: Rebecca Anna Schull (née Wattenberg; born February 22, 1929) is an American stage, film and television actress, best known for her role as Fay Cochran in the NBC sitcom "Wings" (1990–1997).


title: Rebecca Schull

text: Schull was born in New York City, the daughter of Rachel Gutman and real estate attorney Judah Wattenberg. She was the elder sister of the late writer Ben J. Wattenberg, and is journalist Daniel Wattenberg's aunt. She was married to Gene Schull, with whom she had three children, from 1951 until his death in 2008.


title: Rebecca Schull

text: Schull studied acting in the United States and in Dublin, Ireland. She may be best known as Fay Cochran, the ticket agent for a one-plane Nantucket Island airline, on the long-running 1990s NBC sitcom "Wings" (1990-1997).


title: Rebecca Schull

text: In 1977, Schull played Fefu in the premiere of "Fefu and Her Friends" off-broadway. She played the nursemaid in the 1976 Broadway play "Herzl". Schull also has appeared on such films and television shows as "Roseanne", "Law & Order", "", "United 93", "Frasier", "My Life", "Analyze This", "Analyze That", "Flannel Pajamas", and "Little Children". From 1982–83, she played Twyla Ralston on "One Life to Live", and appeared on various other soap operas. She appeared regularly on USA Network's drama "Suits" until 2012, when her character died; she has since made appearances in flashback scenes.


title: Rebecca Schull

text: Schull was a regular cast member on the ABC Family series "Chasing Life", which ran from 2014 to 2015.


title: Rebecca Schull

text: In 2016, Schull played Rose on the Amazon series "Crisis in Six Scenes", written and directed by Woody Allen.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Benjamin Nathan Cardozo (May 24, 1870 – July 9, 1938) was an American lawyer and jurist who served on the New York Court of Appeals from 1914 to 1932 and as an Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1932 until his death in 1938. Cardozo is remembered for his significant influence on the development of American common law in the 20th century, in addition to his philosophy and vivid prose style.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Born in New York City, Cardozo passed the bar in 1891 after attending Columbia Law School. He won an election to the New York Supreme Court in 1913 but joined the New York Court of Appeals the following year. He won election as Chief Judge of that court in 1926. As Chief Judge, he wrote majority opinions on cases such as "Palsgraf v. Long Island Railroad Co."


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: In 1932, President Herbert Hoover appointed Cardozo to the U.S. Supreme Court to succeed Oliver Wendell Holmes Jr. Cardozo served on the Court until his death in 1938, and formed part of the liberal bloc of justices known as the Three Musketeers. He wrote the Court's majority opinion in notable cases such as "Nixon v. Condon" and "Steward Machine Co. v. Davis".


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Cardozo, the son of Rebecca Washington (née Nathan) and Albert Jacob Cardozo, was born in 1870 in New York City. Both Cardozo’s maternal grandparents, Sara Seixas and Isaac Mendes Seixas Nathan, and his paternal grandparents, Ellen Hart and Michael H. Cardozo, were Western Sephardim of the Portuguese-Jewish community, and affiliated with Manhattan’s Congregation Shearith Israel. Their ancestors had immigrated to the British colonies from London, England before the American Revolution.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: The family were descended from Jewish-origin New Christian conversos. They left the Iberian Peninsula for Holland during the Inquisition. There they returned to the practice of Judaism. Cardozo family tradition held that their marrano (New Christians who maintained crypto-Jewish practices in secrecy) ancestors were from Portugal, although Cardozo’s ancestry has not been firmly traced to that country. But ”Cardozo” (archaic spelling of "Cardoso"), ”Seixas” and ”Mendes” are the Portuguese, rather than Spanish, spelling of those common Iberian surnames.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Benjamin Cardozo had a fraternal twin, his sister Emily. There were four other siblings, including an older sister Nell and older brother.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Benjamin was named for his uncle, Benjamin Nathan, a vice president of the New York Stock Exchange. He was murdered in 1870 and the case was never solved. Among their many cousins, given their deep history in the US, was the poet Emma Lazarus. Other earlier relations include Francis Lewis Cardozo (1836–1903), Thomas Cardozo, and Henry Cardozo, free men of color of Charleston, South Carolina. Francis became a Presbyterian minister in New Haven, Connecticut after education in Scotland, and was elected as Secretary of State of South Carolina during the Reconstruction era. Later he worked as an educator in Washington, DC under a Republican administration.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Albert Cardozo, Benjamin Cardozo’s father, was a judge on the Supreme Court of New York (the state’s general trial court) until 1868. He was implicated in a judicial corruption scandal, sparked by the Erie Railway takeover wars, and forced to resign. The scandal also led to the creation of the Association of the Bar of the City of New York. After leaving the court, the senior Cardozo practiced law for nearly two decades more until his death in 1885.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: When Benjamin and Emily were young, their mother Rebecca died. The twins were raised during much of their childhood largely by their sister Nell, who was 11 years older. Benjamin remained devoted to her throughout his life.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: At age 15, Cardozo entered Columbia University where he was elected to Phi Beta Kappa. He was admitted to Columbia Law School in 1889. Cardozo wanted to enter a profession that could enable him to support himself and his siblings, but he also hoped to restore the family name, sullied by his father’s actions as a judge. Cardozo left law school after two years without a law degree.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Cardozo passed the bar in 1891 and began practicing appellate law alongside his older brother. Benjamin Cardozo practiced law in New York City until year-end 1913 with Simpson, Warren and Cardozo.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Interested in advancement and restoring the family name, Cardozo ran for a judgeship on the New York Supreme Court. In November 1913, Cardozo was elected by a large margin to a 14-year term on that court, taking office on January 1, 1914.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: In February 1914, Cardozo was designated to the New York Court of Appeals under the Amendment of 1899. He was reportedly the first Jewish person to serve on the Court of Appeals.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: In January 1917, he was appointed by the governor to a regular seat on the Court of Appeals to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of Samuel Seabury. In November 1917, he was elected on the Democratic and Republican tickets to a 14-year term on the Court of Appeals.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: In 1926, he was elected, on both tickets again, to a 14-year term as Chief Judge. He took office on January 1, 1927, and resigned on March 7, 1932 to accept an appointment to the United States Supreme Court.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: His tenure was marked by a number of original rulings, in tort and contract law in particular. This is partly due to timing; rapid industrialization was forcing courts to look anew at old common law components to adapt to new settings.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: In 1921, Cardozo gave the Storrs Lectures at Yale University, which were later published as "The Nature of the Judicial Process" (On line version), a book that remains valuable to judges today. Shortly thereafter, Cardozo became a member of the group that founded the American Law Institute, which crafted a Restatement of the Law of Torts, Contracts, and a host of other private law subjects. He wrote three other books that also became standards in the legal world.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: While on the Court of Appeals, he criticized the exclusionary rule as developed by the federal courts, saying: ”The criminal is to go free because the constable has blundered”. He noted that many states had rejected the rule, but suggested that the adoption by the federal courts would affect the practice in the sovereign states.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: On February 15, 1932, President Herbert Hoover nominated Cardozo as an associate justice of the United States Supreme Court, to succeed Oliver Wendell Holmes. "The New York Times" said of Cardozo’s appointment that "seldom, if ever, in the history of the Court has an appointment been so universally commended." The Democrat Cardozo's appointment by a Republican president has been referred to as one of the few Supreme Court appointments in history that was not motivated by partisanship or politics, but strictly based on the nominee's contribution to law.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: He was confirmed by the U.S. Senate on February 24, 1932, and was sworn into office on March 14. During a radio broadcast soon after Cardozo's confirmation, Clarence C. Dill, a Democratic senator from Washington, called Hoover's appointment of Cardozo "the finest act of his career as President." The entire faculty of the University of Chicago Law School had urged Hoover to nominate Cardozo, as did the deans of the law schools at Harvard, Yale, and Columbia. Justice Harlan Fiske Stone strongly urged Hoover to name Cardozo, even offering to resign to make room for him if Hoover had his heart set on someone else (Stone had suggested to Calvin Coolidge that he should nominate Cardozo in 1925 before Stone). Hoover originally demurred; he was concerned that there were already two justices from New York, and a Jew on the court. Justice James McReynolds was a notorious anti-Semite. When the chairman of the Senate Foreign Relations Committee, William E. Borah of Idaho, added his strong support for Cardozo, however, Hoover finally bowed to the pressure.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Cardozo was a member of the Three Musketeers, along with Brandeis and Stone, who were considered to be the liberal faction of the Supreme Court. In his years as an associate justice, Cardozo wrote opinions that stressed the necessity for the tightest adherence to the Tenth Amendment.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: In truth, I am nothing but a plodding mediocrity—please observe, a plodding mediocrity—for a mere mediocrity does not go very far, but a plodding one gets quite a distance. There is joy in that success, and a distinction can come from courage, fidelity and industry.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Cardozo received the honorary degree of LL.D. from several colleges and universities, including: Columbia (1915); Yale (1921); New York (1922); Michigan (1923); Harvard (1927); St. John’s (1928); St. Lawrence (1932); Williams (1932); Princeton (1932); Pennsylvania (1932); Brown (1933); and Chicago (1933).


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: As an adult, Cardozo no longer practiced Judaism (he identified as an agnostic), but he was proud of his Jewish heritage.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Of the six children born to Albert and Rebecca Cardozo, only his twin sister Emily married. She and her husband did not have any children.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Constitutional law scholar Jeffrey Rosen noted in a "New York Times" Book Review of Richard Polenberg’s book on Cardozo:


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: In late 1937, Cardozo had a heart attack, and in early 1938, he suffered a stroke. He died on July 9, 1938, at the age of 68. He was buried in Beth Olam Cemetery in Queens.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Cardozo was the second Jewish justice to be appointed to the Supreme Court. The first was Louis Brandeis, whose family was Ashkenazi.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Cardozo was born into the Spanish and Portuguese Jewish community, which had traditions distinct from the Ashkenazi. Since the appointment of Justice Sonia Sotomayor in the 21st century, some commentators have suggested that Cardozo should be considered the ”first Hispanic justice”.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: In response to this controversy, Cardozo biographer Kaufman questioned the usage of the term ”Hispanic” in Justice Cardozo’s lifetime, stating: ”Well, I think he regarded himself as a Sephardic Jew whose ancestors came from the Iberian Peninsula”. After centuries in British North America, Cardozo "confessed in 1937 that his family preserved neither the Spanish language nor Iberian cultural traditions”. Ancestors had lived in England, the British colonies, and the United States since the 17th century.


title: Benjamin N. Cardozo

text: Some Latino advocacy groups, such as the National Association of Latino Elected Officials and the Hispanic National Bar Association, consider Sonia Sotomayor to be the first Hispanic justice, as in their view she was raised in Hispanic culture.


title: Fujifilm X series

text: The Fujifilm X series is a line of digital cameras produced by Fujifilm. The series encompasses fixed lens and interchangeable lens mirrorless cameras and premium compact point-and-shoot cameras aimed at consumer, enthusiast and professional photographers. The X series is part of the larger FinePix range of digital cameras from Fujifilm.


title: Fujifilm X series

text: Since its introduction with the X100 in 2011, the X series has grown to encompass a wide variety of designs. These lines can be broken out into the following categories or model lines.


title: Fujifilm X series

text: The following lines are united by their use of APS-C-sized sensors measuring 25.1×16.7 mm, with an aspect ratio of 3:2 and Ø31.15 mm field diameter. They are listed here within each category in the order in which the initial model of each type was introduced.


title: Fujifilm X series

text: The following lines are united by their use of inch sensors measuring 8.8 by 6.6mm, with an aspect ratio of 4:3. In addition to a shared sensor size, all of these model lines utilized fixed (non-interchangeable) zoom lenses. They are listed here in the order in which the initial model of each type was introduced.


title: Fujifilm X series

text: All X-series cameras with interchangeable lenses use Fujifilm X-mount lenses. The first such lenses were introduced along with the X-Pro1 in early 2012. The original three lenses for the new system were a set of fixed-focal length prime lenses: an 18mm f/2 wide-angle, a 35mm f/1.4 standard and a 60mm f/2.4 macro lens. The first X-mount zoom lens, an 18-55mm f/2.8–4, was released later in 2012.


title: Fujifilm X series

text: A wide variety of accessories for X series cameras and X-mount lenses have been introduced, both from Fujifilm and from third party suppliers. These include lens mount adapters; conversion lenses; camera grips; camera cases; lens hoods, caps, and filters; flashes and flash accessories; microphones; remote releases; and batteries and chargers.


title: Fujifilm X series

text: Due to the short 17.7mm flange focal distance of the Fujifilm X mount, lenses from a vast array of other systems can be adapted for use on X series cameras. An adapter to allow use of Leica M-mount lenses on X-mount cameras is offered by Fujifilm. This adapter provides a way to set the focal length of the lens which will appear in image Exif info, and correct for common color shift and vignetting problems when using M-mount lenses on digital cameras.


title: Philip Niarchos

text: Philip Niarchos (alternately: Philippos or Philippe; ) (born 1954) is a Greek billionaire, the eldest son of the Greek shipping magnate Stavros Niarchos and Eugenia Livanos, herself the elder daughter of Stavros Niarchos' rival Stavros G. Livanos.


title: Philip Niarchos

text: Philip Niarchos was reported to be 54 in 2008 when "The Sunday Times" estimated his net worth at GBP 850 million, or about $1.687 billion US at that exchange rate of that time. He is a member of the board of trustees at the Museum of Modern Art in New York City and an international council member of London's Tate Gallery. He was educated at Institut Le Rosey in Switzerland.


title: Philip Niarchos

text: Alongside his younger brother, Spyros, Niarchos is co-president and member of the board of directors at the Stavros Niarchos Foundation. The foundation is one of the world’s largest global private philanthropies founded over 25 years ago with a total of $3.3 billion awarded across 5,00 grants, focuses on global funding for physical and mental health. In 2022, the foundation announced a $15 million commitment for a youth mental health program in Greece collaborating with The Child Mind institute and The Greek Ministry of Health.


title: Philip Niarchos

text: Niarchos owns his late father's art collection. The late Stavros Niarchos amassed one of the "most important collections of Impressionist and modern art in private hands." Among the collection's trophies are Pablo Picasso's self-portrait "Yo, Picasso", which the father had bought in 1989 for $47,850,000.


title: Philip Niarchos

text: Niarchos has made plenty of additions to his father's legacy. He was suspected as being the anonymous buyer of Vincent van Gogh's "Self-Portrait", at a November 1998 Christie's auction; it sold for $71.5 million. He was certainly at the auction and was revealed as the anonymous buyer of Jean-Michel Basquiat's 1982 Self-Portrait, which closed at $3.3 million. In 1994, he bought Andy Warhol's "Red Marilyn", at Christie's for $3.63 million. Andy Warhol's skull portraits are from Niarchos' CAT scan. Warhol completed these works in 1985, using silkscreens made from CAT-scan films of the skull of Philip Niarchos, who commissioned the artist to paint his portrait. Niarchos is mentioned throughout The Andy Warhol Diaries. Warhol shares details of the dysfunctional relationship Niarchos had with the divorced and widowed socialite Barbara (née Tanner) de Kwiatkowski. Her married name was Barbara Allen at the time of her relationship with Niarchos; now she is the widow of Henryk de Kwiatkowski.


title: Philip Niarchos

text: In 1984, Niarchos married, for the third time, Victoria Christina Guinness (born 1960), daughter of Patrick Benjamin Guinness (of the banking branch of the Guinness family) and Dolores Guinness (1936–2012). Niarchos and Guinness have two sons and two daughters:


title: Philip Niarchos

text: Niarchos was a first cousin, and step-brother, of the late heiress Christina Onassis whose mother Athina Livanos (1929–1974) was a younger sister of his own mother and later became his father's last wife. Niarchos is a first cousin once removed of Athina Onassis de Miranda.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: The Battle of Alamance, which took place on May 16, 1771, was the final battle of the Regulator Movement, a rebellion in colonial North Carolina over issues of taxation and local control, considered by some to be the opening salvo of the American Revolution. Named for nearby Great Alamance Creek, the battle took place in what was then Orange County and has since become Alamance County in the central Piedmont area, about south of present-day Burlington, North Carolina.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: Some historians in the late nineteenth-early twentieth centuries considered the battle to be a warning of the coming American War for Independence, and contemporaneous locals agreed with this assessment. Yet, this has been questioned by present-day historians arguing that the Regulators (though viewed in the eyes of the royal governor and his allies as being in rebellion against King, country, and law) were not intending a complete overthrow of His Majesty's Government in North Carolina. They were only standing up against those certain local officials who had become corrupt and unworthy tools of the King, and they only turned to riot and armed rebellion as a last resort when all other peaceful means through petitions, elections to the Assembly, etc. had failed to redress their grievances. Many surviving ex-Regulators became loyalists during the Revolution, and several anti-Regulators [e.g. William Hooper, Alexander Martin, Francis Nash, and Samuel Johnston] became patriots during the Revolution.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: In the spring of 1771, Royal Governor William Tryon left New Bern, mustering and marching approximately 1,000 militia troops west to address a rebellion that had been brewing in western counties for several years, but which had included only minor, scattered acts of violence, followed by refusals to pay fees, disruptions of court proceedings, and continued harassment of government officials. About 2,000 so-called "regulators" had gathered, hoping to gain concessions from the Governor by intimidating him with a show of superior force. Funded by council member and wealthy merchant Samuel Cornell for £6,000, on May 11, Tryon left the county seat of Hillsborough with his militia to confront the Regulators, who had made camp south of Great Alamance Creek in western Orange County (present-day Alamance County).


title: Battle of Alamance

text: On the evening of May 15, Tryon received word that the Regulators were camped about six miles away. The next morning, at about 8:00 am, Tryon's troops set out to a field about one-half mile from the camp of the Regulators. He formed two lines, and divided his artillery between the wings and the center of the first line. The Regulators remained disorganized, with no leadershipno officer ranked higher than captainand no anticipation of an attack, expecting that their superior numbers would frighten Tryon's militia.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: Tryon sent one of his aides-de-camp, Captain Philemon Hawkins II, and the Sheriff of Orange County with a proclamation:


title: Battle of Alamance

text: While the terms were being read, Tryon's troops began to move forward. Shortly after that, Tryon was informed that the Regulators had rejected his terms. Herman Husband, a Quaker, realizing violence was about to take place, left the area.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: Some of the Regulators petitioned the Royal Governor to give up seven captured Regulators in exchange for two of his men that they had captured the previous day. Tryon agreed, but after a half an hour, the captured officers did not appear. He became suspicious that his positions were being flanked and ordered the militia to march within 30 yards of the Regulators. Shortly thereafter, a large crowd of Regulators appeared in front of the militia, waving their hats and daring the militia to open fire.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: At about this time, two men who had been attempting to negotiate a peace between the two sides left Tryon's camp: Reverend David Caldwell and Robert Thompson. Caldwell made it to the field between the two lines, but was warned by the Regulators, who saw that the Governor was about to open fire. Thompson was detained by Tryon as a prisoner. Tryon, in a moment of anger, took a musket from a militiaman and shot Thompson dead. Realizing what he had done, he sent a flag bearer named Donald Malcolm with a white flag in hopes of calming things quickly. The flag bearer was himself fired upon by the Regulators, who called out, "Fire and be damned".


title: Battle of Alamance

text: The Regulators lacked the leadership, organization, and ammunition that Tryon had, but the early course of the battle went well for them. They employed what was referred to as "Indian style" fighting, hiding behind trees and avoiding structure and lines. This allowed two of the Regulators, brothers named McPherson, to capture one of Tryon's three cannons. Unfortunately for them, the Regulators had no ammunition and it could not be used.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: A man considered one of the principal military leaders of the Regulators, Captain Montgomery, was killed by a shell at about the same time a bullet hit Tryon's hat. The Governor sent a second white flag, but the aide-de-camp was killed while regulator Patrick Muller called for his fellow insurgents to cease fire. Outraged at the disregard of a second white flag, the Governor rallied his troops against the insurgents, whose ammunition was running out. Many of the Regulators fled the field. Delays prevented the 300 reinforcements under Captain Benjamin Merrill from arriving in time. Some of the Regulators remained behind to continue firing upon the militia. Tryon then ordered the woods to be set on fire.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: Losses for both sides are disputed. Tryon reported nine dead and 61 wounded among the militia. Other historians indicate much greater numbers, between 15 and 27 killed. Both sides counted nine dead among the Regulators and from dozens to approximately two-hundred wounded.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: Tryon took 13 prisoners. One of them, James Few, was executed at the camp, and six were executed later in nearby Hillsborough. Many Regulators traveled on to frontier areas beyond North Carolina. The Royal Governor pardoned others and allowed them to stay on the condition that they pledge an oath of allegiance to the royal government.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: The battle took place in what was then Orange County. During the American Revolution a decade later, the same section of Orange County (subdivided into Alamance County in 1849) saw several minor skirmishes, including the infamous Pyle's Hacking Match in 1781. Recent archaeological studies at the site have shown that the area now known as Alamance Battleground was also the site of another skirmish in the revolutionary war and of a civil war era Confederate encampment.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: Six men were found guilty of treason and were sentenced to be hanged, drawn and quartered, although in practice, they were only hanged:


title: Battle of Alamance

text: Visitors to Alamance Battleground State Historic Site may view the field of battle, memorialized in 1880 with a granite monument and a second monument in 1903. Today the site contains exhibits, period cannon, and colored flags representing troop positions. The visitors' center offers exhibits, artifacts, and a presentation on the battle. Visitors may also tour the onsite Allen House, a restored frontier farmstead of the period.


title: Battle of Alamance

text: The battle features in the Diana Gabaldon novel, "The Fiery Cross", and is depicted in the television adaptation, "Outlander", in the fifth season's episode "The Ballad of Roger Mac" which first aired in 2020.


title: Glassblowing

text: Glassblowing is a glassforming technique that involves inflating molten glass into a bubble (or parison) with the aid of a blowpipe (or blow tube). A person who blows glass is called a "glassblower", "glassmith", or "gaffer". A "lampworker" (often also called a glassblower or glassworker) manipulates glass with the use of a torch on a smaller scale, such as in producing precision laboratory glassware out of borosilicate glass.


title: Glassblowing

text: As a novel glass forming technique created in the middle of the 1st century BC, glassblowing exploited a working property of glass that was previously unknown to glassworkers; inflation, which is the expansion of a molten blob of glass by introducing a small amount of air into it. That is based on the liquid structure of glass where the atoms are held together by strong chemical bonds in a disordered and random network, therefore molten glass is viscous enough to be blown and gradually hardens as it loses heat.


title: Glassblowing

text: To increase the stiffness of the molten glass, which in turn makes the process of blowing easier, there was a subtle change in the composition of glass. With reference to their studies of the ancient glass assemblages from Sepphoris of Israel, Fischer and McCray postulated that the concentration of natron, which acts as flux in glass, is slightly lower in blown vessels than those manufactured by casting. Lower concentration of natron would have allowed the glass to be stiffer for blowing.


title: Glassblowing

text: During blowing, thinner layers of glass cool faster than thicker ones and become more viscous than the thicker layers. That allows production of blown glass with uniform thickness instead of causing blow-through of the thinned layers.


title: Glassblowing

text: A full range of glassblowing techniques was developed within decades of its invention. The two major methods of glassblowing are free-blowing and mold-blowing.


title: Glassblowing

text: This method held a pre-eminent position in glassforming ever since its introduction in the middle of the 1st century BC until the late 19th century, and is still widely used as a glassforming technique, especially for artistic purposes. The process of free-blowing involves the blowing of short puffs of air into a molten portion of glass called a "gather" which has been spooled at one end of the blowpipe. This has the effect of forming an elastic skin on the interior of the glass blob that matches the exterior skin caused by the removal of heat from the furnace. The glassworker can then quickly inflate the molten glass to a coherent blob and work it into a desired shape.


title: Glassblowing

text: Researchers at the Toledo Museum of Art attempted to reconstruct the ancient free-blowing technique by using clay blowpipes. The result proved that short clay blowpipes of about facilitate free-blowing because they are simple to handle and to manipulate and can be re-used several times. Skilled workers are capable of shaping almost any vessel forms by rotating the pipe, swinging it and controlling the temperature of the piece while they blow. They can produce a great variety of glass objects, ranging from drinking cups to window glass.


title: Glassblowing

text: An outstanding example of the free-blowing technique is the Portland Vase, which is a cameo manufactured during the Roman period. An experiment was carried out by Gudenrath and Whitehouse with the aim of re-creating the Portland Vase. A full amount of blue glass required for the body of the vase was gathered on the end of the blowpipe and was subsequently dipped into a pot of hot white glass. Inflation occurred when the glassworker blew the molten glass into a sphere which was then stretched or elongated into a vase with a layer of white glass overlying the blue body.


title: Glassblowing

text: Mold-blowing was an alternative glassblowing method that came after the invention of free-blowing, during the first part of the second quarter of the 1st century AD. A glob of molten glass is placed on the end of the blowpipe, and is then inflated into a wooden or metal carved mold. In that way, the shape and the texture of the bubble of glass is determined by the design on the interior of the mold rather than the skill of the glassworker.


title: Glassblowing

text: Two types of mold, namely single-piece molds and multi-piece molds, are frequently used to produce mold-blown vessels. The former allows the finished glass object to be removed in one movement by pulling it upwards from the single-piece mold and is largely employed to produce tableware and utilitarian vessels for storage and transportation. Whereas the latter is made in multi-paneled mold segments that join together, thus permitting the development of more sophisticated surface modeling, texture and design.


title: Glassblowing

text: The Roman leaf beaker which is now on display in the J. Paul Getty Museum was blown in a three-part mold decorated with the foliage relief frieze of four vertical plants. Meanwhile, Taylor and Hill tried to reproduce mold-blown vessels by using three-part molds made of different materials. The result suggested that metal molds, in particular bronze, are more effective in producing high-relief design on glass than plaster or wooden molds.


title: Glassblowing

text: The development of the mold-blowing technique has enabled the speedy production of glass objects in large quantity, thus encouraging the mass production and widespread distribution of glass objects.


title: Glassblowing

text: The transformation of raw materials into glass takes place at around ; the glass emits enough heat to appear almost white hot. The glass is then left to "fine out" (allowing the bubbles to rise out of the mass), and then the working temperature is reduced in the furnace to around . At this stage, the glass appears to be a bright orange color. Though most glassblowing is done between , "soda-lime" glass remains somewhat plastic and workable at as low as . Annealing is usually done between .


title: Glassblowing

text: Glassblowing involves three furnaces. The first, which contains a crucible of molten glass, is simply referred to as "the furnace". The second is called the "glory hole", and is used to reheat a piece in between steps of working with it. The final furnace is called the "lehr" or "annealer", and is used to slowly cool the glass, over a period of a few hours to a few days, depending on the size of the pieces. This keeps the glass from cracking or shattering due to thermal stress. Historically, all three furnaces were contained in one structure, with a set of progressively cooler chambers for each of the three purposes.


title: Glassblowing

text: The major tools used by a glassblower are the blowpipe (or blow tube), "punty" (or punty rod, pontil, or mandrel), bench, marver, blocks, jacks, paddles, tweezers, newspaper pads, and a variety of shears.


title: Glassblowing

text: The tip of the blowpipe is first preheated; then dipped in the molten glass in the furnace. The molten glass is "gathered" onto the end of the blowpipe in much the same way that viscous honey is picked up on a honey dipper. This glass is then rolled on the marver, which was traditionally a flat slab of marble, but today is more commonly a fairly thick flat sheet of steel. This process, called "marvering", forms a cool skin on the exterior of the molten glass blob, and shapes it. Then air is blown into the pipe, creating a bubble. Next, the glassworker can gather more glass over that bubble to create a larger piece. Once a piece has been blown to its approximate final size, the bottom is finalized. Then, the molten glass is attached to a stainless steel or iron rod called a "punty" for shaping and transferring the hollow piece from the blowpipe to provide an opening and to finalize the top.


title: Glassblowing

text: The "bench" is a glassblower's workstation; it includes places for the glassblower to sit, for the handheld tools, and two rails that the pipe or punty rides on while the blower works with the piece.


title: Glassblowing

text: "Blocks" are ladle-like tools made from water-soaked fruitwood, and are used similarly to the marver to shape and cool a piece in the early steps of creation. In similar fashion, pads of water-soaked newspaper (roughly square, thick), held in the bare hand, can be used to shape the piece.


title: Glassblowing

text: "Jacks" are tools shaped somewhat like large tweezers with two blades, which are used for forming shape later in the creation of a piece."Paddles" are flat pieces of wood or graphite used for creating flat spots such as a bottom. Tweezers are used to pick out details or to pull on the glass. There are two important types of shears, straight shears and diamond shears. Straight shears are essentially bulky scissors, used for making linear cuts. Diamond shears have blades that form a diamond shape when partially open. These are used for cutting off masses of glass.


title: Glassblowing

text: There are many ways to apply patterns and color to blown glass, including rolling molten glass in powdered color or larger pieces of colored glass called "frit". Complex patterns with great detail can be created through the use of cane (rods of colored glass) and murrine (rods cut in cross-sections to reveal patterns). These pieces of color can be arranged in a pattern on a flat surface, and then "picked up" by rolling a bubble of molten glass over them. One of the most exacting and complicated caneworking techniques is "reticello", which involves creating two bubbles from cane, each twisted in a different direction and then combining them and blowing out the final form.


title: Glassblowing

text: Lampworkers, usually but not necessarily work on a much smaller scale, historically using alcohol lamps and breath- or bellows-driven air to create a hot flame at a workbench to manipulate preformed glass rods and tubes. These stock materials took form as laboratory glassware, beads, and durable scientific "specimens"—miniature glass sculpture. The craft, which was raised to an art form in the late 1960s by Hans Godo Frabel (later followed by lampwork artists such as Milon Townsend and Robert Mickelson), is still practiced today. The modern lampworker uses a flame of oxygen and propane or natural gas. The modern torch permits working both the soft glass from the furnace worker and the borosilicate glass (low-expansion) of the scientific glassblower. This latter worker may also have multiple headed torches and special lathes to help form the glass or fused quartz used for special projects.


title: Glassblowing

text: Glassblowing was invented by Syrian craftsmen from Sidon and Babylon between 27 BC and 14 AD. The ancient Romans copied the technique consisting of blowing air into molten glass with a blowpipe making it into a bubble.


title: Glassblowing

text: Hence, tube blowing not only represents the initial attempts of experimentation by glassworkers at blowing glass, it is also a revolutionary step that induced a change in conception and a deep understanding of glass. Such inventions swiftly eclipsed all other traditional methods, such as casting and core-forming, in working glass.


title: Glassblowing

text: Evidence of glass blowing comes even earlier from Indian subcontinent in the form of Indo-Pacific beads which uses glass blowing to make cavity before being subjected to tube drawn technique for bead making dated more than 2500 BP. Beads are made by attaching molten glass gather to the end of a blowpipe, a bubble is then blown into the gather.


title: Glassblowing

text: The invention of glassblowing coincided with the establishment of the Roman Empire in the 1st century BC, which enhanced the spread and dominance of this new technology. Glassblowing was greatly supported by the Roman government (although Roman citizens could not be "in trade", in particular under the reign of Augustus), and glass was being blown in many areas of the Roman world. On the eastern borders of the Empire, the first large glass workshops were set up by the Phoenicians in the birthplace of glassblowing in contemporary Lebanon and Israel as well as in the neighbouring province of Cyprus.


title: Glassblowing

text: Ennion for example, was among the most prominent glassworkers from Lebanon of the time. He was renowned for producing the multi-paneled mold-blown glass vessels that were complex in their shapes, arrangement and decorative motifs. The complexity of designs of these mold-blown glass vessels illustrated the sophistication of the glassworkers in the eastern regions of the Roman Empire. Mold-blown glass vessels manufactured by the workshops of Ennion and other contemporary glassworkers such as Jason, Nikon, Aristeas, and Meges, constitutes some of the earliest evidence of glassblowing found in the eastern territories.