title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: The Nintendo DS was chosen as the system before design work on the game had begun. Roxas was chosen as the game's protagonist as the staff thought that having a main character besides Sora would help to introduce gamers to the series' first Nintendo DS title. The staff thought that Roxas' role as a member of Organization XIII would be a suitable theme for the plot. This idea was furthered during the development of "Kingdom Hearts II", where the staff wanted to focus on what influenced Roxas to leave the Organization, which resulted in the creation of Xion's character who was connected with Roxas' origins. The development team wanted to have gameplay similar to previous "Kingdom Hearts" titles, but stated the number of buttons on the Nintendo DS was a problem. Some of the DS's functions, like the stylus, are not used in order to retain the similar gameplay from previous titles. Roxas seeing Sora's memories is incorporated throughout the game and has different types of gameplay for each world. The game's logo uses warm colors as a reference to the sunset in Twilight Town. The meaning behind the title, "358/2 Days" was left unexplained by Nomura during the promotion of the game. Upon completion, the player discerns that it references the story of Xion and Roxas, and their 358 days as members of Organization XIII.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: Though "Birth by Sleep" was the first of the three new games to begin development, "358/2 Days" was released before it. The game was slated for a release at the end of 2008, but Square Enix pushed the date to February 2009. Once again the game was delayed for Japanese release until May 30, 2009. A release in North American territories was announced on December 2, 2008. The official English trailer for the title was shown at Nintendo's press conference at E3 2009, confirming a release date of September 29, 2009 for North America and October 9, 2009 for Europe.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: "358/2 Days" was originally to have featured a world based on "Pinocchio", as evidenced by unused character portraits for Honest John, Gideon, Gepetto, and the eponymous character as a real boy, but this was cut due to space restrictions.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: Wayne Allwine, the voice of Mickey Mouse at the time of the game's development, died of complications from diabetes in 2009. The game was dedicated to his memory, and starting with "Kingdom Hearts: Birth by Sleep", Bret Iwan, Allwine's successor, voiced Mickey.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: The game received a "generally favorable" score of 75 out of 100 on Metacritic. Prior to the game's release, "Nintendo Power" Chris Hoffman and Steve Thomason referred to the game as highly anticipated, and considered it one of the better titles displayed at the 2008 Tokyo Game Show. The game was met with a range of reviews, ranging from mediocre to positive, where most of the focus was on the game's graphics and storyline.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: The graphics of the game were heavily praised by many reviewers, with Hoffman and Thomason going as far as to call them among the best on the system, and complimented the familiar feel of the gameplay and its transition between the PlayStation home consoles and the portable Nintendo ones. "Game Informer" gave the game an 8 out of 10, praising the graphics for excellent production values and the journey of the camera controls from the PlayStation Analog Stick to the DS shoulder buttons. The Japanese gaming magazine "Famitsu" gave the game 9/9/9/9 (36/40) and praised the graphical quality of the game saying they were at a level which had not been seen on a DS before, further complimenting the gameplay mechanics and missions. They were also particularly impressed with the new panel system which allows the player to customize their fighting techniques as well as the ability to customize the characters from the Organization. Unlike many other reviewers, they praised the story as "strongly captivating." The Australian video game talk show "Good Game" two reviewers gave the game a 7/10 and 7.5/10, grateful that the game didn't force the use of the stylus, especially when it came to battle.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: The RPGFan reviewer gave the game an 81 out of 100, praising the visual and aural quality, however they expressed disappointment at the recycling of most of the music from "Kingdom Hearts" and "Kingdom Hearts II".


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: Kevin VanOrd of GameSpot was complimentary of the single-player mode, commenting specifically that the artificial intelligence-controlled Organization XIII members were helpful and competent. He also praised the multiplayer mode's gameplay, calling it "fun" and citing the ease of using magic spells and items.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: The controls and overall story were of particular criticism by the reviewers, with VanOrd stating that the on-screen character ended up in one of the game field's corners often. RPGamer was highly critical of these facts, as it handed the game a 2.5/5 score and reviewer Alex Reimer concluded, "...many fans of the series may be turned off by the lackluster controls and odd story directions taken with this portable spin-off." The "Official Nintendo Magazine" gave the game a mediocre score of 69% praising the graphics and gameplay, they were critical however of the constant backtracking and confusing plot. "Good Game"s reviewers stated that while the plot was confusing, and made little sense for players new to the series, it still drew the player in and filled in the gaps of the storyline for continuing players of the series. They surmised that the repetition of worlds and missions, and overall lack of variety, combined with lengthy storytelling really hurt the gaming experience.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days" was the top-selling game during May 2009 in Japan at 291,000 copies, even though it was released during the final week of the month. The following week, it was again the top-selling game in the region at 106,000 copies. By August 2009, the game sold 490,000 copies in the region. It was also one of the most reserved games for the DS. By the end of 2009, the game sold a total of 571,981 copies in Japan alone making it the twelfth best-selling game in Japan of 2009. NPD Group sales data shows the game has sold over 360,000 copies in North America as of October 2009. In November 2009, Square Enix announced the game had sold 1.22 million units worldwide. The game was nominated for 7 awards in the Nintendo 2009 Power awards: Nintendo DS Game of the Year, Best Sound/Voice Acting, Best Adventure Game, Best Nintendo DS Graphics, Best New Character (Xion), Best Story/Writing, and Overall Game of the Year. On February 16, 2010, it was announced that "358/2 Days" won all seven of the awards that it was nominated for in the reader's vote.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: A special "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days"-themed edition of the Nintendo DSi was released alongside the game when it launched in Japan. An Ultimania guidebook of the game was released by Square on June 25, 2009. "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days" was re-released as part of the "Kingdom Hearts 10th Anniversary Box" package made in commemoration of the franchise's 10th anniversary on March 29, 2012 alongside "Kingdom Hearts Re:coded" and the debuting "". The musical themes introduced in "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days" were included in a CD that collected tracks from "Kingdom Hearts Birth by Sleep", "Kingdom Hearts Re:coded" and "358/2 Days" released on February 2, 2012.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: Square Enix published a series of light novels based on the title written by Tomoko Kanemaki and illustrated by Shiro Amano. The first volume, "The 14th", was released on July 30, 2009 and the second, "Go to the Sea", on January 28, 2010, and the third and last volume, "Xion-Seven Days", in May 2010. A manga adaptation by Amano was serialized in Square's "Monthly Shōnen Gangan" from August 2009 to August 2012. A total of five "tankōbon" volumes were released between June 22, 2010, and April 21, 2012.


title: Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days

text: In September 2012, Square Enix announced "Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix" a compilation for the PlayStation 3 to include both "Kingdom Hearts Final Mix" and "" in high definition and trophy support. Additionally, the collection includes HD cinematic scenes from "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days". The idea of a full remake, like "Kingdom Hearts Re:Chain of Memories", was considered for "Kingdom Hearts 358/2 Days". However, it was later scrapped in favor of an almost 3 hour long cinematic retelling of the game. New voice work was done for "358/2 Days" and the HD collection has "70% of the main plot." It was released in Japan on March 14, 2013, in North America on September 10, 2013, in Australia on September 12, 2013 and on September 13, 2013 in Europe. A PlayStation 4 version of the "Kingdom Hearts HD 1.5 Remix" compilation was released on March 9, 2017, in Japan, March 28, 2017, in North America, and March 31, 2017, in Europe. A piece of downloadable content for the PlayStation 4 version adds an additional scene to the cinematic, depicting the battle between Roxas and Xion. The complete edition was later ported to Xbox One, enhanced for Xbox One X and later added to Xbox Game Pass for Console and Cloud. As of May 31, 2021, KINGDOM HEARTS HD 1.5 + 2.5 REMIX is no longer available on Xbox Game Pass.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: In computer networking, Fast Ethernet physical layers carry traffic at the nominal rate of 100 Mbit/s. The prior Ethernet speed was 10 Mbit/s. Of the Fast Ethernet physical layers, 100BASE-TX is by far the most common.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: Fast Ethernet was introduced in 1995 as the IEEE 802.3u standard and remained the fastest version of Ethernet for three years before the introduction of Gigabit Ethernet. The acronym "GE/FE" is sometimes used for devices supporting both standards.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: The "100" in the media type designation refers to the transmission speed of 100 Mbit/s, while the "BASE" refers to baseband signaling. The letter following the dash ("T" or "F") refers to the physical medium that carries the signal (twisted pair or fiber, respectively), while the last character ("X", "4", etc.) refers to the line code method used. Fast Ethernet is sometimes referred to as 100BASE-X, where "X" is a placeholder for the FX and TX variants.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: Fast Ethernet is an extension of the 10-megabit Ethernet standard. It runs on twisted pair or optical fiber cable in a star wired bus topology, similar to the IEEE standard 802.3i called 10BASE-T, itself an evolution of 10BASE5 (802.3) and 10BASE2 (802.3a). Fast Ethernet devices are generally backward compatible with existing 10BASE-T systems, enabling plug-and-play upgrades from 10BASE-T. Most switches and other networking devices with ports capable of Fast Ethernet can perform autonegotiation, sensing a piece of 10BASE-T equipment and setting the port to 10BASE-T half duplex if the 10BASE-T equipment cannot perform auto negotiation itself. The standard specifies the use of CSMA/CD for media access control. A full-duplex mode is also specified and in practice, all modern networks use Ethernet switches and operate in full-duplex mode, even as legacy devices that use half duplex still exist.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: A Fast Ethernet adapter can be logically divided into a media access controller (MAC), which deals with the higher-level issues of medium availability, and a physical layer interface (PHY). The MAC is typically linked to the PHY by a four-bit 25 MHz synchronous parallel interface known as a media-independent interface (MII), or by a two-bit 50 MHz variant called reduced media independent interface (RMII). In rare cases, the MII may be an external connection but is usually a connection between ICs in a network adapter or even two sections within a single IC. The specs are written based on the assumption that the interface between MAC and PHY will be an MII but they do not require it. Fast Ethernet or Ethernet hubs may use the MII to connect to multiple PHYs for their different interfaces.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: The MII fixes the theoretical maximum data bit rate for all versions of Fast Ethernet to 100 Mbit/s. The information rate actually observed on real networks is less than the theoretical maximum, due to the necessary header and trailer (addressing and error-detection bits) on every Ethernet frame, and the required interpacket gap between transmissions.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-T is any of several Fast Ethernet standards for twisted pair cables, including: 100BASE-TX (100 Mbit/s over two-pair Cat5 or better cable), 100BASE-T4 (100 Mbit/s over four-pair Cat3 or better cable, defunct), 100BASE-T2 (100 Mbit/s over two-pair Cat3 or better cable, also defunct). The segment length for a 100BASE-T cable is limited to (the same limit as 10BASE-T and gigabit Ethernet). All are or were standards under IEEE 802.3 (approved 1995). Almost all 100BASE-T installations are 100BASE-TX.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-TX is the predominant form of Fast Ethernet, and runs over two wire-pairs inside a category 5 or above cable. Each network segment can have a maximum cabling distance of . One pair is used for each direction, providing full-duplex operation with 100 Mbit/s of throughput in each direction.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: Like 10BASE-T, the active pairs in a standard connection are terminated on pins 1, 2, 3 and 6. Since a typical category 5 cable contains 4 pairs, it can support two 100BASE-TX links with a wiring adaptor. Cabling is conventional wired to ANSI/TIA-568's termination standards, T568A or T568B. This places the active pairs on the orange and green pairs (canonical second and third pairs).


title: Fast Ethernet

text: The configuration of 100BASE-TX networks is very similar to 10BASE-T. When used to build a local area network, the devices on the network (computers, printers etc.) are typically connected to a hub or switch, creating a star network. Alternatively, it is possible to connect two devices directly using a crossover cable. With today's equipment, crossover cables are generally not needed as most equipment supports auto-negotiation along with auto MDI-X to select and match speed, duplex and pairing.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: With 100BASE-TX hardware, the raw bits, presented 4 bits wide clocked at 25 MHz at the MII, go through 4B5B binary encoding to generate a series of 0 and 1 symbols clocked at a 125 MHz symbol rate. The 4B5B encoding provides DC equalization and spectrum shaping. Just as in the 100BASE-FX case, the bits are then transferred to the physical medium attachment layer using NRZI encoding. However, 100BASE-TX introduces an additional, medium-dependent sublayer, which employs MLT-3 as a final encoding of the data stream before transmission, resulting in a maximum fundamental frequency of 31.25 MHz. The procedure is borrowed from the ANSI X3.263 FDDI specifications, with minor changes.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: In 100BASE-T1 the data is transmitted over a single copper pair, 3 bits per symbol, each transmitted as code pair using PAM3. It supports full-duplex transmission. The twisted-pair cable is required to support 66 MHz, with a maximum length of 15 m. No specific connector is defined. The standard is intended for automotive applications or when Fast Ethernet is to be integrated into another application. It was developed as BroadR-Reach before IEEE standardization.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: In 100BASE-T2, standardized in IEEE 802.3y, the data is transmitted over two copper pairs, but these pairs are only required to be category 3 rather than the category 5 required by 100BASE-TX. Data is transmitted and received on both pairs simultaneously thus allowing full-duplex operation. Transmission uses 4 bits per symbol. The 4-bit symbol is expanded into two 3-bit symbols through a non-trivial scrambling procedure based on a linear-feedback shift register. This is needed to flatten the bandwidth and emission spectrum of the signal, as well as to match transmission line properties. The mapping of the original bits to the symbol codes is not constant in time and has a fairly large period (appearing as a pseudo-random sequence). The final mapping from symbols to PAM-5 line modulation levels obeys the table on the right. 100BASE-T2 was not widely adopted but the technology developed for it is used in 1000BASE-T.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-T4 was an early implementation of Fast Ethernet. It requires four twisted copper pairs of voice grade twisted pair, a lower-performing cable compared to category 5 cable used by 100BASE-TX. Maximum distance is limited to 100 meters. One pair is reserved for transmit, one for receive, and the remaining two switch direction. The fact that 3 pairs are used to transmit in each direction makes 100BASE-T4 inherently half-duplex.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: A very unusual 8B6T code is used to convert 8 data bits into 6 base-3 digits (the signal shaping is possible as there are nearly three times as many 6-digit base-3 numbers as there are 8-digit base-2 numbers). The two resulting 3-digit base-3 symbols are sent in parallel over 3 pairs using 3-level pulse-amplitude modulation (PAM-3).


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-T4 was not widely adopted but some of the technology developed for it is used in 1000BASE-T. Very few hubs were released with 100BASE-T4 support. Some examples include the 3com 3C250-T4 Superstack II HUB 100, IBM 8225 Fast Ethernet Stackable Hub and Intel LinkBuilder FMS 100 T4. The same applies to network interface controller cards. Bridging 100BASE-T4 with 100BASE-TX required additional network equipment.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: Proposed and marketed by Hewlett Packard, 100BaseVG was an alternative design using category 3 cabling and a token concept instead of CSMA/CD. It was slated for standardization as IEEE 802.12 but it quickly vanished when switched 100BASE-TX became popular.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: Fast Ethernet speed is not available on all SFP ports, but supported by some devices. An SFP port for Gigabit Ethernet should not be assumed to be backwards compatible with Fast Ethernet.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-X Ethernet is not backward compatible with 10BASE-F and is not forward compatible with 1000BASE-X.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-FX is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber. The 100BASE-FX physical medium dependent (PMD) sublayer is defined by FDDI's PMD, so 100BASE-FX is not compatible with 10BASE-FL, the 10 Mbit/s version over optical fiber.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-FX is still used for existing installation of multimode fiber where more speed is not required, like industrial automation plants.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-LFX is a non-standard term to refer to Fast Ethernet transmission. It is very similar to 100BASE-FX but achieves longer distances up to 4-5 km over a pair of multi-mode fibers through the use of Fabry–Pérot laser transmitter running on 1310 nm wavelength. The signal attenuation per km at 1300 nm is about half the loss of 850nm.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-SX is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber standardized in TIA/EIA-785-1-2002. It is a lower-cost, shorter-distance alternative to 100BASE-FX. Because of the shorter wavelength used (850 nm) and the shorter distance supported, 100BASE-SX uses less expensive optical components (LEDs instead of lasers).


title: Fast Ethernet

text: Because it uses the same wavelength as 10BASE-FL, the 10 Mbit/s version of Ethernet over optical fiber, 100BASE-SX can be backward-compatible with 10BASE-FL. Cost and compatibility makes 100BASE-SX an attractive option for those upgrading from 10BASE-FL and those who do not require long distances.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-LX10 is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber standardized in 802.3ah-2004 clause 58. It has a 10 km reach over a pair of single-mode fibers.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-BX10 is a version of Fast Ethernet over optical fiber standardized in 802.3ah-2004 clause 58. It uses an optical multiplexer to split TX and RX signals into different wavelengths on the same fiber. It has a 10 km reach over a single strand of single-mode fiber.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-EX is very similar to 100BASE-LX10 but achieves longer distances up to 40 km over a pair of single-mode fibers due to higher quality optics than a LX10, running on 1310 nm wavelength lasers. 100BASE-EX is not a formal standard but industry-accepted term. It is sometimes referred to as 100BASE-LH (long haul), and is easily confused with 100BASE-LX10 or 100BASE-ZX because the use of -LX(10), -LH, -EX, and -ZX is ambiguous between vendors.


title: Fast Ethernet

text: 100BASE-ZX is a non-standard but multi-vendor term to refer to Fast Ethernet transmission using 1,550 nm wavelength to achieve distances of at least 70 km over single-mode fiber. Some vendors specify distances up to 160 km over single-mode fiber, sometimes called 100BASE-EZX. Ranges beyond 80 km are highly dependent upon the path loss of the fiber in use, specifically the attenuation figure in dB per km, the number and quality of connectors/patch panels and splices located between transceivers.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: In engineering, redundancy is the intentional duplication of critical components or functions of a system with the goal of increasing reliability of the system, usually in the form of a backup or fail-safe, or to improve actual system performance, such as in the case of GNSS receivers, or multi-threaded computer processing.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: In many safety-critical systems, such as fly-by-wire and hydraulic systems in aircraft, some parts of the control system may be triplicated, which is formally termed triple modular redundancy (TMR). An error in one component may then be out-voted by the other two. In a triply redundant system, the system has three sub components, all three of which must fail before the system fails. Since each one rarely fails, and the sub components are expected to fail independently, the probability of all three failing is calculated to be extraordinarily small; it is often outweighed by other risk factors, such as human error. Redundancy may also be known by the terms "majority voting systems" or "voting logic".


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Redundancy sometimes produces less, instead of greater reliability it creates a more complex system which is prone to various issues, it may lead to human neglect of duty, and may lead to higher production demands which by overstressing the system may make it less safe.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Structures are usually designed with redundant parts as well, ensuring that if one part fails, the entire structure will not collapse. A structure without redundancy is called fracture-critical, meaning that a single broken component can cause the collapse of the entire structure. Bridges that failed due to lack of redundancy include the Silver Bridge and the Interstate 5 bridge over the Skagit River.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Parallel and combined systems demonstrate different level of redundancy. The models are subject of studies in reliability and safety engineering.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Unlike traditional redundancy, which uses more than one of the same thing, dissimilar redundancy uses different things. The idea is that the different things are unlikely to contain identical flaws. The voting method may involve additional complexity if the two things take different amounts of time. Dissimilar redundancy is often used with software, because identical software contains identical flaws.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Geographic redundancy corrects the vulnerabilities of redundant devices deployed by geographically separating backup devices. Geographic redundancy reduces the likelihood of events such as power outages, floods, HVAC failures, lightning strikes, tornadoes, building fires, wildfires, and mass shootings would disable the system.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: The Distant Early Warning Line was an example of Geographic redundancy. Those radar sites were a minimum of apart, but provided overlapping coverage.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: The two functions of redundancy are passive redundancy and active redundancy. Both functions prevent performance decline from exceeding specification limits without human intervention using extra capacity.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Passive redundancy uses excess capacity to reduce the impact of component failures. One common form of passive redundancy is the extra strength of cabling and struts used in bridges. This extra strength allows some structural components to fail without bridge collapse. The extra strength used in the design is called the margin of safety.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Eyes and ears provide working examples of passive redundancy. Vision loss in one eye does not cause blindness but depth perception is impaired. Hearing loss in one ear does not cause deafness but directionality is lost. Performance decline is commonly associated with passive redundancy when a limited number of failures occur.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Active redundancy eliminates performance declines by monitoring the performance of individual devices, and this monitoring is used in voting logic. The voting logic is linked to switching that automatically reconfigures the components. Error detection and correction and the Global Positioning System (GPS) are two examples of active redundancy.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Electrical power distribution provides an example of active redundancy. Several power lines connect each generation facility with customers. Each power line includes monitors that detect overload. Each power line also includes circuit breakers. The combination of power lines provides excess capacity. Circuit breakers disconnect a power line when monitors detect an overload. Power is redistributed across the remaining lines. At the Toronto Airport, there are 4 redundant electrical lines. Each of the 4 lines supply enough power for the entire airport. A Spot network substation uses reverse current relays to open breakers to lines that fail, but lets power continue to flow the airport.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Electrical power systems use power scheduling to reconfigure active redundancy. Computing systems adjust the production output of each generating facility when other generating facilities are suddenly lost. This prevents blackout conditions during major events such as an earthquake.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Fire Alarms, Burglary Alarms, Telephone Central Office Exchanges, and similar other critical systems operate on DC power.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Charles Perrow, author of "Normal Accidents", has said that sometimes redundancies backfire and produce less, not more reliability. This may happen in three ways: First, redundant safety devices result in a more complex system, more prone to errors and accidents. Second, redundancy may lead to shirking of responsibility among workers. Third, redundancy may lead to increased production pressures, resulting in a system that operates at higher speeds, but less safely.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Voting logic uses performance monitoring to determine how to reconfigure individual components so that operation continues without violating specification limitations of the overall system. Voting logic often involves computers, but systems composed of items other than computers may be reconfigured using voting logic. Circuit breakers are an example of a form of non-computer voting logic.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: The simplest voting logic in computing systems involves two components: primary and alternate. They both run similar software, but the output from the alternate remains inactive during normal operation. The primary monitors itself and periodically sends an activity message to the alternate as long as everything is OK. All outputs from the primary stop, including the activity message, when the primary detects a fault. The alternate activates its output and takes over from the primary after a brief delay when the activity message ceases. Errors in voting logic can cause both outputs to be active or inactive at the same time, or cause outputs to flutter on and off.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: A more reliable form of voting logic involves an odd number of three devices or more. All perform identical functions and the outputs are compared by the voting logic. The voting logic establishes a majority when there is a disagreement, and the majority will act to deactivate the output from other device(s) that disagree. A single fault will not interrupt normal operation. This technique is used with avionics systems, such as those responsible for operation of the Space Shuttle.


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: Each duplicate component added to the system decreases the probability of system failure according to the formula:-


title: Redundancy (engineering)

text: This formula assumes independence of failure events. That means that the probability of a component B failing given that a component A has already failed is the same as that of B failing when A has not failed. There are situations where this is unreasonable, such as using two power supplies connected to the same socket in such a way that if one power supply failed, the other would too.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: The 2021–22 season was Leeds United's 102nd season in existence. It was their second consecutive season in the Premier League, and in general, it is their 52nd ever season in the top flight of English football. In addition to the league, they also competed in the FA Cup and EFL Cup.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: Leeds began their Premier League campaign against "Battle of the Roses" rivals Manchester United at Old Trafford on 14 August 2021, live on BT Sport, losing by a score of 5–1. Bruno Fernandes opened the scoring for Manchester United in the 30th minute. After the half-time interval, Luke Ayling levelled the scores, with his first Premier League goal for Leeds. Mason Greenwood then put Manchester United ahead again in the 52nd minute, after Paul Pogba released him down the left wing. Fernandes added Manchester United's third in the 54th minute, after another assist from Pogba, and he completed his hat-trick with Manchester United's fourth goal in the 60th minute after Victor Lindelöf found him with a long ball. Fred then scored Manchester United's fifth goal in the 68th minute after a fourth assist from Pogba, a joint-Premier League record for a single match. The result left Leeds bottom of the Premier League table after the first match-week.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: Leeds next hosted Everton at Elland Road on 21 August 2021 at 15:00 BST. This was the first time Elland Road had a full capacity since the start of the COVID-19 pandemic. Leeds drew 2–2 with Dominic Calvert-Lewin opening the scoring from a penalty after referee Darren England ruled that Liam Cooper had fouled Calvert-Lewin by pulling on his shirt after consulting VAR. Mateusz Klich equalised for Leeds after Patrick Bamford found him. In the second half, Everton went in front after a Demarai Gray goal, however, Leeds later equalised through Raphinha. Raphinha became the first Leeds player to score in three consecutive matches against Everton since Peter Lorimer. The result moved Leeds out of the relegation places and up to 15th in the Premier League table.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: Leeds' following match was against League One club Crewe Alexandra at Elland Road in the EFL Cup second round on 24 August. Leeds won the tie 3–0 with a goal from captain for the night Kalvin Phillips and two more from Jack Harrison.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: Leeds' final match before the first international break of the season saw them travel to Turf Moor to draw 1–1 with Sean Dyche's Burnley on 29 August 2021. Burnley opened the scoring after a Matthew Lowton shot fell into former Leeds player Chris Wood's path, allowing him to prod the ball home; however, Leeds equalised through Bamford after a Jamie Shackleton shot fell into his path so he could foot it into the Burnley goal past Nick Pope. This was Bamford's first goal of the 2021-22 Premier League season and it came after England manager Gareth Southgate announced that he would receive his first England call-up for the 2022 FIFA World Cup Qualifiers in Group I against Hungary away at the Puskás Aréna on 2 September 2021, Andorra at home at Wembley Stadium on 5 September 2021 and Poland away at the PGE Narodowy on 8 September 2021. The result left Leeds in 15th place in the Premier League table before the first international break of the season — above Burnley in 16th place and below Palace in 14th place.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: Leeds' first match after the first international break of the season saw them host Jürgen Klopp's Liverpool at Elland Road - the visitors sat in fifth place in the Premier League table, above Everton who sat in sixth place and below Chelsea who sat in fourth place. This game saw them lose 3-0 on 12 September 2021, with Pascal Struijk receiving a red card due to a challenge on Harvey Elliott that resulted in a serious injury.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: The next two matches saw Leeds draw 1-1 with Newcastle United away (who at the time were in the relegation zone), with an early Leeds goal from Raphinha being cancelled out by one from Allan Saint-Maximin before half time; and a 1-2 loss at home to West Ham United with a 90th-minute goal by Michail Antonio winning it for the visitors. Six games into the Premier League season, Leeds United were still without a win.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: Leeds started October on a positive note, getting their first win of the season and their first clean sheet in a 1-0 win over Watford at Elland Road. Next up were Southampton who defeated Leeds narrowly, Armando Broja netting the only goal of the match. A last-minute draw against Wolves achieved through a Rodrigo penalty in stoppage time and a narrow win at Norwich saw Leeds ending the month in 17th place.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: November started with a 1-1 draw with Leicester at home, continued with a loss away at Tottenham and a draw at Brighton and ended with more last-minute drama. The game against Crystal Palace was still tied at 0-0 as Raphinha floated in a corner kick and Liam Cooper’s connecting header was blocked by the hand of Palace defender Marc Guehi. Raphinha took responsibility upon himself and slotted the penalty past Vicente Guaita to send Elland Road into ecstatic celebrations.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: December started right where November ended in terms of drama as Leeds rescued a point in a 2-2 draw against Brentford, Patrick Bamford scoring his second goal of the season in the 96th minute. In their following game, Leeds’ luck ran out, losing 3-2 against Chelsea at Stamford Bridge with two goals being scored by Jorginho through spot-kicks, the winner being scored in the 94th minute. Leeds then received their biggest loss of the season, and the joint-heaviest defeat of all Premier League teams for the 2021-22 season (equalling Chelsea's 7-0 win over Norwich), at the hands of Manchester City. Leeds ended the month with a 4-1 defeat at home to Arsenal, which led to them ending the month sitting in 16th place with just 16 points.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: January finally ended a drought of four games without a win, where Leeds also conceded 16 goals: a 3-1 victory at home against Burnley was followed by a 3-2 away win against West Ham, Jack Harrison scoring all three in the latter. The month was rounded off with a 1-0 loss against Newcastle.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: February saw Leeds start in 15th place but going on their worst run of the season. The first game of February was a spectacular 3-3 away draw against Aston Villa with Daniel James scoring a brace for Leeds and Coutinho scoring his first goal for Villa. Leeds then lost to Everton (3-0), Manchester United (4-2), Liverpool (6-0) and Tottenham (4-0) scoring only two goals and conceding 17 - a Premier League record for the most in a calendar month. Following the Spurs game, and after over three-and-a-half years in charge, Marcelo Bielsa was sacked by the club. His replacement was former RB Salzburg and RB Leipzig coach Jesse Marsch.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: The start of March saw unimproved form. Leeds slumped to defeats against Leicester (0-1 away) and to Aston Villa (3-0 at home). In typical Leeds fashion, wins came in the form of a 90+4 winner by Joe Gelhardt against Norwich (result 2-1) and a 90+1 winner by Luke Ayling in a 3-2 comeback win against Wolverhampton Wanderers. Leeds were sitting in 16th place but didn't have much of a buffer above the relegation spots. Everton and Burnley for example had three games in hand while sitting below Leeds in the table.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: April started with a draw against Southampton at Elland Road (1-1) and was followed by a 3-0 victory over Watford at Vicarage Road. Leeds was still sitting in 16th place while the teams below them started to pick up form. A frustrating draw to Palace was followed by a nearly inevitable loss to Manchester City (4-0) which saw Leeds slipping into 17th place as Burnley overtook them.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: With four games left, May was make or break for Leeds United. Their next games saw tough opponents in Arsenal and Chelsea, which both led to defeats: 2-1 at the Emirates, after a red card for a Luke Ayling tackle in the 27th minute was preceded by two goals in the first 10 minutes by former Leeds loanee Eddie Nketiah. The 3-0 loss at home to Chelsea featured another first-half red for the Whites: a 24th-minute dismissal of Dan James for a dangerously high challenge.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: Burnley lost to Tottenham on the same day that Pascal Struijk rescued a point for Leeds in a 1-1 draw against Brighton at home, the defender heading in a Joe Gelhardt cross in the 92nd minute. Leeds was above Burnley for now, but Burnley had a game in hand in which they drew with Aston Villa. This meant that Leeds and Burnley were now level on points but, with Burnley's superior goal difference of 20, Leeds had to better Burnley's result on the last day of the season.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: Burnley faced off against Newcastle and fell behind in the 20th minute through Callum Wilson. Leeds took the lead against their opponents Brentford through a penalty in the 56th minute that Raphinha converted and shortly after that, Newcastle doubled their lead against Burnley.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: In the 69th minute, Maxwel Cornet scored for Burnley as his team now pushed everything forward, trying desperately to level the scores, while in London a 78th minute Brentford equaliser through a Canós header saw Burnley's hopes come to life again. But the dismissal by Canós just two minutes later for a second bookable offence saw Leeds' press for the final 10 minutes come to fruition, with Jack Harrison scoring a deflected long-shot in the 94th minute which secured Leeds 17th place spot in the Premier League, the first side since Wigan in 2011 to survive after starting the final day in the bottom three.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: On 18 June 2021, Leeds announced six pre-season friendly matches, against Guiseley, Blackburn Rovers, Fleetwood Town, Real Betis, Ajax and Villarreal. On 12 August 2021, it was announced that head coach Marcelo Bielsa had signed a new one-year contract with the club after his previous contract ran out after the end of the previous season on 30 June 2021.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: The second round draw was made by Andy Townsend and Jobi McAnuff, live on Sky Sports. Leeds were drawn at home against Crewe Alexandra of the EFL League One. The match was played on 24 August 2021 at 19:45 BST and saw Leeds win 3–0. The draw for the third round was held on 25 August and was made by Kevin Phillips and Kevin Campbell. Leeds were drawn against Fulham of the EFL Championship at Craven Cottage. The match will be played during the week commencing 21 September 2021. On September 22, Leeds were drawn away to Arsenal in the fourth round.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: The plus (+) symbol denotes an appearance as a substitute, hence 2+1 indicates two appearances in the starting XI and one appearance as a substitute.


title: 2021–22 Leeds United F.C. season

text: In addition, Jack Jenkins and Academy players Kris Moore, Nohan Kenneh and Archie Gray were unused substitutes included in at least one matchday squad.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Asgard is a fictional realm and its capital city appearing in American comic books published by Marvel Comics. Based on the realm of the same name from Germanic mythology (particularly Norse), Asgard is home to the Asgardians and other beings adapted from Norse mythology. Asgard first appeared in "Journey into Mystery" #85 (October 1962) by Stan Lee, Larry Lieber and Jack Kirby, and features prominently in stories that follow the Marvel Comics superhero Thor, who appeared two issues earlier.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Asgard has appeared in comics and various media adaptations, including the Marvel Cinematic Universe films "Thor" (2011), "" (2013), "" (2015), "" (2017), "" (2019), and the Disney+ series "Loki" (2021). Eventually Asgard was relocated to Earth and appeared in "Avengers: Endgame" and "" (2022).


title: Asgard (comics)

text: According to Asgardian legend, in the beginning there was nothing, but in time two worlds came into being on opposite sides of the void. The one to the north was named Niflheim, a world of clouds and shadows in whose center surged the fountain Hvergelmir, from which flowed twelve rivers of ice. The one to the south was named Muspelheim, which teemed with rivers of fire. Eventually the warm air from the south carved out the ice giant Ymir from the ice in the north. Ymir became the father of all the giants, and his cow Auðumbla licked out of the ice the first Asgardian, Buri. Buri had a son named Borr, who married the giantess Bestla. Borr and Bestla had three sons named Odin, Vili, and Ve, who were known as the Æsir. Odin and his brothers grew to hate the giants and slew Ymir, and his blood formed a great sea. Odin and his brothers then raised Ymir's body from the sea and created Midgard between Niflheim and Muspelheim. With Ymir's bones they created mountains, and with his hair they created trees. They then raised Ymir's skull upon four pillars to create the heavens. Within the skull contained sparks from Muspelheim, which became the sun, moon, and stars. When Midgard was complete, Odin and his brothers created a home for themselves above it called Asgard. Between the two worlds they stretched a rainbow bridge and called it Bifröst.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Once a year Odin must undertake the Odinsleep to regain his strength. During this time Asgard is vulnerable to attack from its many enemies, most notably Odin's adopted son, Loki. Loki first takes command of Asgard during the Odinsleep, using his right as the 'son' of Odin before Thor could claim it, but fled when Asgard was invaded by Mangog as he realized that this new foe was too powerful. Loki later usurped the throne of Asgard by taking the Odinring, but fled again when Asgard was invaded by the fire demon, Surtur.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: The throne of Asgard later passes to Thor after Odin is killed in battle by Surtur, when the demon invades Earth.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: It was prophesied that Loki would lead Asgard's enemies in a final conflict known as Ragnarök, which would lead to its destruction. This comes to pass when Loki obtains the forge that created Mjolnir and creates new uru hammers for his army. The entirety of Asgard and its inhabitants are destroyed in the resulting battle.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: After Ragnarök, Donald Blake awakens Thor from the "Void of Non-Existence". Thor returns to Earth and rebuilds Asgard outside of Broxton, Oklahoma, purchasing the land with gold from the treasury. Thor then goes about restoring the Asgardians, who have been reborn in the bodies of mortal men and women.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Asgard's location on Earth makes the city a target during the "Secret Invasion" by the Skrulls led by a Super-Skrull named Godkiller, whose powers mimic Thundra, Titania, Volcana and Battleaxe. The aliens are repelled with help from Thor's ally, Beta Ray Bill.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: When Thor is forced to abdicate the throne and is exiled for killing his grandfather Bor, who was brought from the past and driven mad by Loki, control of Asgard passes to Thor's half-brother, Balder.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Asgard is destroyed yet again after Norman Osborn seizes control of S.H.I.E.L.D. following the Secret Invasion as he seeks to expel Asgard from U.S. soil in an effort to consolidate power. Osborn leads the Dark Avengers in the Siege of Asgard. The invading forces are defeated with help from the reunited Avengers, although Asgard itself is toppled by the Sentry. Immediately following the Siege, Thor reerects Heimdall's observatory atop Stark Tower as sign of solidarity with Midgard and appreciation for the Avengers' aid.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Thor restores Odin to the throne when the nine realms are invaded by "the World Eaters". However, after Thor and Odin's long-forgotten brother Cul, kill each other in battle during the "Fear Itself" event, Odin passes control of Asgard to the Vanir, headed by the "All-Mother", a triumvirate of female deities consisting of Freyja, Gaea and Idunn. Tony Stark's company, Stark Resilient then rebuilds Asgard over Broxton, Oklahoma, where it is rechristened as "Asgardia".


title: Asgard (comics)

text: During the "Original Sin" storyline, it is revealed that there is a Tenth Realm in Asgard called Heven that is inhabited by Angels. It was cut off from the rest of the realms following the Angels' attack on Asgard which led to the apparent death of an infant Angela.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Asgard later established the Congress of Worlds which consists of the representatives of the Nine Realms. After Heven was reintegrated with the other Realms, representatives of Heven started appearing as members of the Congress of Worlds.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Although they look human, all Asgardians possess certain superhuman physical attributes. They are extremely long-lived (though not immortal like their Olympian counterparts), aging at an extremely slow rate upon reaching adulthood (through the periodic consumption of the golden apples of Idunn). Asgardian flesh and bone is three times denser than similar human tissue, contributing to their superhuman strength and weight. An average Asgardian male can lift 30 tons (27.2 metric tons); an average Asgardian female can lift about 25 tons (22.7 metric tons). Asgardians are immune to all terrestrial diseases and resistant to conventional injury (however this resilience seems relatively incapable of defeating the zombie plague in Earth-2149 that affects even Asgardians). The metabolism of the Asgardians gives them superhuman stamina in all physical activities.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Dwarves are smaller in stature than the Asgardians, and have short, stocky bodies. Their average height is four feet (1.2 meters).


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Elves vary greatly in size from four to eight feet (1.2 to 2.4 meters). They tend toward slender bodies and proportionately longer limbs. The dark elves tend to be darker in color than the light elves. Both types have natural proclivity towards magic.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Giants are basically humanoid in appearance and color although they tend toward the neanderthalic in body and bone structure. Their most distinguishing feature is their height. The average giant is twenty feet (6 meters) tall, although some may reach thirty feet (9.1 meters). On occasion giants will produce stunted offspring who look similar to the Asgardians. Loki and the Executioner are both children of giants despite their diminutive six or seven foot (1.8 or 2.1 meter) stature.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Trolls are the least human-looking of the denizens of Asgard, possessing body characteristics that are almost simian. Trolls are stocky and massive, have thick body hair (almost fur) and tend toward a ruddy orange color. They are on average taller than the Asgardians but shorter than giants, around seven feet (2.1 meters) tall, although some trolls are considerably taller. Trolls tend to be extremely strong, stronger than the average Asgardian, dwarf or elf and on par with giants. Trolls like Ulik rival Thor in strength.


title: Asgard (comics)

text: Yggdrasil; the world tree is an immense ash tree that is central to the Asgardian dimension. The tree is supported by three roots that extended far into the other worlds; one to the spring of Hvergelmir in Niflheim, one to the well of Mimir in Jotunheim, and another to the well of Wyrd in Asgard. Though Midgard is not physically connected to Yggdrasil, it is said that the Earth's axis is in alignment with the tree. In the limited series "", Thor and the Warriors Three are sent to retrieve golden apples from the branches of the tree. Odin once hung himself from the tree for nine days and nights as a sacrifice to gain knowledge of the runes. Thor repeated this action during Ragnarök. Later Amora the Enchantress attempt to destroy the tree in an effort to free the body of Skurge the Executioner from its roots, an action that nearly tore apart the fabric of reality.


title: Burl

text: A burl (American English) or burr (British English) is a tree growth in which the grain has grown in a deformed manner. It is commonly found in the form of a rounded outgrowth on a tree trunk or branch that is filled with small knots from dormant buds. Burl formation is typically a result of some form of stress such as an injury or a viral or fungal infection.


title: Burl

text: Burls yield a very peculiar and highly figured wood sought after in woodworking, and some items may reach high prices on the wood market. Poaching of burl specimens and damaging the trees in the process poses a problem in some areas.


title: Burl

text: A burl results from a tree undergoing some form of stress. It may be caused by an injury, virus or fungus. Most burls grow beneath the ground, attached to the roots as a type of malignancy that is generally not discovered until the tree dies or falls over. Such burls sometimes appear as groups of bulbous protrusions connected by a system of rope-like roots. Almost all burl wood is covered by bark, even if it is underground. Insect infestation and certain types of mold infestation are the most common causes of this condition.


title: Burl

text: In some tree species, burls can grow to great size. The largest, at , occur in coast redwoods ("Sequoia sempervirens") and can engirdle the entire trunk; when moisture is present, these burls can grow new redwood trees. The world's second-largest burls can be found in Port McNeill, British Columbia. One of the largest burls known was found around 1984 in the small town of Tamworth, New South Wales. It stands tall, with an odd shape resembling a trombone. In January 2009, this burl was controversially removed from its original location, and relocated to a public school in the central New South Wales city of Dubbo.


title: Burl

text: Burls yield a very peculiar and highly figured wood, prized for its beauty and rarity. It is sought after by furniture makers, artists, and wood sculptors. There are a number of well-known types of burls (each from a particular species); these are highly valued and sliced into veneers for furniture, inlay in doors, picture frames, household objects, automobile interior paneling and trim, musical instruments, and woodturning.


title: Burl

text: The famous birdseye maple of the sugar maple ("Acer saccharum") superficially resembles burr maple, but it is something else entirely.


title: Burl

text: Burl wood is very hard to work with hand tools or on a lathe, because its grain is twisted and interlocked, causing it to chip and shatter unpredictably. This "wild grain" makes burl wood extremely dense and resistant to splitting, which made it valued for bowls, mallets, mauls and "beetles" or "beadles" for hammering chisels and driving wooden pegs.


title: Burl

text: Because of the value of burls, ancient redwoods in national Parks in Western United States have recently been poached by thieves for their burls, including at Redwood National and State Parks. Poachers often cut off the burls from the sides of the trunks using chainsaws, which exposes the tree to infection and disease, or fell the entire tree to steal burls higher up. Because of risk of poaching, Jeff Denny, the state park's redwood coast sector supervisor, encourages those buying burl to inquire where it came from and to ensure it was obtained legally. Legal acquisition methods for burl include trees from private land cleared for new development and from lumber companies with salvage permits.


title: Shobana Kamineni

text: Shobana Kamineni is an Indian business executive and the executive vice-chairperson of Apollo Hospitals. Kamineni was the president of the Confederation of Indian Industry from 2017 to 2018. She was the first woman to hold this position.


title: Shobana Kamineni

text: Kamineni is the daughter of Prathap C. Reddy, the founder and chair of Apollo Hospitals. She has three sisters, including Preetha Reddy and Sangita Reddy, who are all working as executives in Apollo Hospitals.


title: Shobana Kamineni

text: She has received an honorary doctorate from Bryant University, USA, in recognition of her work in healthcare and pharmaceuticals.


Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research (IISERs) are a group of premier public research institutions in India. The institutes were established by the Government of India through the Ministry of Human Resource Development (MHRD) to provide collegiate education in basic sciences coupled with research at the undergraduate level. The institutes were formally established by the Parliament of India through the National Institutes of Technology, Science Education and Research (Amendment) Act, 2010 (an amendment to the National Institutes of Technology Act, 2007). Seven IISERs have been established across the country, namely IISER Kolkata in West Bengal, IISER Pune in Maharashtra, IISER Mohali in Punjab, IISER Bhopal in Madhya Pradesh, IISER Thiruvananthapuram in Kerala, IISER Tirupati in Andhra Pradesh, and IISER Berhampur in Odisha. All IISERs were declared as Institutes of National Importance by the Parliament of India in 2012, to promote them as leading institutions in the country in the field of basic sciences along with its sister institutes like Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore and National Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhubaneswar. The financial outlay for each IISER is around for the first five years of establishment.


title: Indian Institutes of Science Education and Research

text: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Kolkata was functioning from the temporary campus at Mohanpur, a temporary arrangement within the campus of Bidhan Chandra Krishi Viswavidyalaya previously and now almost all the labs have been shifted to its permanent campus, over of land at Haringhata, Kalyani near Kolkata.


text: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Pune has started functioning from the National Chemical Laboratory Pune campus. Its campus has mostly been developed. The labs, lecture hall complexes, main buildings, and the hostels have been set up in the permanent campus.


text: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Mohali has started functioning from the Mahatma Gandhi State Institute of Public Administration complex in Sector 26 Chandigarh. The foundation stone for its permanent campus was laid in September 2006 by the Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh. It started functioning at its permanent campus at Sector 81, Mohali.


text: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Bhopal started functioning from the ITI Gas Rahat Building Govindpura Bhopal. The institute was moved to its main campus in Bhauri in August 2012.


text: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Thiruvananthapuram started functioning recently from its own permanent campus at Vithura, which is 40 km from Thiruvananthapuram city. Earlier, it was functioning from a temporary campus at the College of Engineering, Trivandrum.


text: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Tirupati started functioning from a transient campus at Mangalam, Tirupati about 7 km from the city in 2015. The permanent campus has been planned to be constructed at Yerpedu, about a half-an-hour away from the city in a plot of 250 acres (1 km) near the foothills of the Saptagiri ranges and Phase-1 of the construction is to expected to be completed by 2019.


text: Indian Institute of Science Education and Research, Berhampur commenced in Odisha in 2016. It is functioning from a transit campus at Government ITI. Its permanent campus is being built at Laudigam, near the sea, 20 km from Berhampur, Odisha.


text: As of August 2022, IISERs admit 1734 in total each year for their dual degree BS-MS Program. For each channel of admission below, additional cut-off criteria of respective IISERs are applicable. Candidates satisfying any of the following criteria are eligible for applying:


title: Television broadcasting

text: A television network or television broadcaster is a telecommunications network for distribution of television program content, where a central operation provides programming to many television stations or pay television providers. Until the mid-1980s, television programming in most countries of the world was dominated by a small number of terrestrial networks. Many early television networks (such as NBC, the ABC, or the BBC) evolved from earlier radio networks.


title: Television broadcasting

text: In countries where most networks broadcast identical, centrally originated content to all of their stations and where most individual television transmitters therefore operate only as large "repeater stations", the terms "television network", "television channel" (a numeric identifier or radio frequency) and "television station" have become mostly interchangeable in everyday language, with professionals in television-related occupations continuing to make a differentiation between them. Within the industry, a tiering is sometimes created among groups of networks based on whether their programming is simultaneously originated from a central point, and whether the network master control has the technical and administrative capability to take over the programming of their affiliates in real-time when it deems this necessary – the most common example being during national breaking news events.


title: Television broadcasting

text: In North America in particular, many television networks available via cable and satellite television are branded as "channels" because they are somewhat different from traditional networks in the sense defined above, as they are singular operations – they have no affiliates or component stations, but instead are distributed to the public via cable or direct-broadcast satellite providers. Such networks are commonly referred to by terms such as "specialty channels" in Canada or "cable networks" in the U.S.


title: Television broadcasting

text: A network may or may not produce all of its own programming. If not, production companies (such as Warner Bros. Television, Universal Television, Sony Pictures Television and TriStar Television) can distribute their content to the various networks, and it is common that a certain production firm may have programs that air on two or more rival networks. Similarly, some networks may import television programs from other countries, or use archived programming to help complement their schedules.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Some stations have the capability to interrupt the network through the local insertion of television commercials, station identifications and emergency alerts. Others completely break away from the network for their own programming, a method known as regional variation. This is common where small networks are members of larger networks. The majority of commercial television stations are self-owned, even though a variety of these instances are the property of an owned-and-operated television network. The commercial television stations can also be linked with a noncommercial educational broadcasting agency. It is also important to note that some countries have launched national television networks, so that individual television stations can act as common repeaters of nationwide programs.


title: Television broadcasting

text: On the other hand, television networks also undergo the impending experience of major changes related to cultural varieties. The emergence of cable television has made available in major media markets, programs such as those aimed at American bi-cultural Latinos. Such a diverse captive audience presents an occasion for the networks and affiliates to advertise the best programming that needs to be aired.


title: Television broadcasting

text: This is explained by author Tim P. Vos in his abstract "A Cultural Explanation of Early Broadcast", where he determines targeted group/non-targeted group representations as well as the cultural specificity employed in the television network entity. Vos notes that policymakers did not expressly intend to create a broadcast order dominated by commercial networks. In fact, legislative attempts were made to limit the network's preferred position.


title: Television broadcasting

text: As to individual stations, modern network operations centers usually use broadcast automation to handle most tasks. These systems are not only used for programming and for video server playout, but use exact atomic time from Global Positioning Systems or other sources to maintain perfect synchronization with upstream and downstream systems, so that programming appears seamless to viewers.


title: Television broadcasting

text: A major international television network is the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), which is perhaps most well known for its news agency BBC News. Owned by the Crown, the BBC operates primarily in the United Kingdom. It is funded by the television license paid by British residents that watch any television as it is broadcast, and, as a result, no commercial advertising appears on its networks. Outside the UK, advertising is broadcast because the license fee only applies to the BBC's British operations. 23,000 people worldwide are employed by the BBC and its subsidiary, BBC Studios. Experimental television broadcasts were started in 1929, using an electromechanical 30-line system developed by John Logie Baird. Limited regular broadcasts using this system began in 1934, and an expanded service (now named the BBC Television Service) started from Alexandra Palace in November 1936.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Television in the United States had long been dominated by the Big Three television networks, the American Broadcasting Company (ABC), CBS (formerly the Columbia Broadcasting System) and the National Broadcasting Company (NBC); however, the Fox Broadcasting Company (Fox), which launched in October 1986, has gained prominence and is now considered part of the "Big Four." The Big Three provide a significant number of programs to each of their affiliates, including newscasts, prime time, daytime and sports programming, but still reserve periods during each day where their affiliate can air local programming, such as local news or syndicated programs. Since the creation of Fox, the number of American television networks has increased, though the amount of programming they provide is often much less: for example, The CW only provides fourteen hours of primetime programming each week (along with three hours on Saturdays), while MyNetworkTV only provides ten hours of primetime programming each week, leaving their affiliates to fill time periods where network programs are not broadcast with a large amount of syndicated programming. Other networks are dedicated to specialized programming, such as religious content or programs presented in languages other than English, particularly Spanish.


title: Television broadcasting

text: The largest television network in the United States, however, is the Public Broadcasting Service (PBS), a non-profit, publicly owned, non-commercial educational service. In comparison to the commercial television networks, there is no central unified arm of broadcast programming, meaning that each PBS member station has a significant amount of freedom to schedule television shows as they consent to. Some public television outlets, such as PBS, carry separate digital subchannel networks through their member stations (for example, Georgia Public Broadcasting; in fact, some programs airing on PBS were branded on other channels as coming from GPB Kids and PBS World).


title: Television broadcasting

text: This works as each network sends its signal to many local affiliated television stations across the country. These local stations then carry the "network feed", which can be viewed by millions of households across the country. In such cases, the signal is sent to as many as 200+ stations or as little as just a dozen or fewer stations, depending on the size of the network.


title: Television broadcasting

text: With the adoption of digital television, television networks have also been created specifically for distribution on the digital subchannels of television stations (including networks focusing on classic television series and films operated by companies like Weigel Broadcasting (owners of Movies! and Me-TV) and Nexstar Media Group (owners of Rewind TV and Antenna TV), along with networks focusing on music, sports and other niche programming).


title: Television broadcasting

text: Cable and satellite providers pay the networks a certain rate per subscriber (the highest charge being for ESPN, in which cable and satellite providers pay a rate of more than $5.00 per subscriber to ESPN). The providers also handle the sale of advertising inserted at the local level during national programming, in which case the broadcaster and the cable/satellite provider may share revenue. Networks that maintain a home shopping or infomercial format may instead pay the station or cable/satellite provider, in a brokered carriage deal. This is especially common with low-power television stations, and in recent years, even more so for stations that used this revenue stream to finance their conversion to digital broadcasts, which in turn provides them with several additional channels to transmit different programming sources.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Television broadcasting in the United States was heavily influenced by radio. Early individual experimental radio stations in the United States began limited operations in the 1910s. In November 1920, Westinghouse signed on "the world's first commercially licensed radio station", KDKA in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. Other companies built early radio stations in Detroit, Boston, New York City and other areas. Radio stations received permission to transmit through broadcast licenses obtained through the Federal Radio Commission (FRC), a government entity that was created in 1926 to regulate the radio industry. With some exceptions, radio stations east of the Mississippi River received official call signs beginning with the letter "W"; those west of the Mississippi were assigned calls beginning with a "K". The number of programs that these early stations aired was often limited, in part due to the expense of program creation. The idea of a network system which would distribute programming to many stations simultaneously, saving each station the expense of creating all of their own programs and expanding the total coverage beyond the limits of a single broadcast signal, was devised.


title: Television broadcasting

text: NBC set up the first permanent coast-to-coast radio network in the United States by 1928, using dedicated telephone line technology. The network physically linked individual radio stations, nearly all of which were independently owned and operated, in a vast chain, NBC's audio signal thus transmitted from station to station to listeners across the United States. Other companies, including CBS and the Mutual Broadcasting System, soon followed suit, each network signed hundreds of individual stations on as affiliates: stations which agreed to broadcast programs from one of the networks.


title: Television broadcasting

text: As radio prospered throughout the 1920s and 1930s, experimental television stations, which broadcast both an audio and a video signal, began sporadic broadcasts. Licenses for these experimental stations were often granted to experienced radio broadcasters, and thus advances in television technology closely followed breakthroughs in radio technology. As interest in television grew, and as early television stations began regular broadcasts, the idea of networking television signals (sending one station's video and audio signal to outlying stations) was born. However, the signal from an electronic television system, containing much more information than a radio signal, required a broadband transmission medium. Transmission by a nationwide series of radio relay towers would be possible but extremely expensive.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Researchers at AT&T subsidiary Bell Telephone Laboratories patented coaxial cable in 1929, primarily as a telephone improvement device. Its high capacity (transmitting 240 telephone calls simultaneously) also made it ideal for long-distance television transmission, where it could handle a frequency band of 1 MHz. German television first demonstrated such an application in 1936 by relaying televised telephone calls from Berlin to Leipzig, away, by cable.


title: Television broadcasting

text: AT&T laid the first L-carrier coaxial cable between New York City and Philadelphia, with automatic signal booster stations every , and in 1937 it experimented with transmitting televised motion pictures over the line. Bell Labs gave demonstrations of the New York–Philadelphia television link in 1940 and 1941. AT&T used the coaxial link to transmit the Republican National Convention in June 1940 from Philadelphia to New York City, where it was televised to a few hundred receivers over the NBC station W2XBS (which evolved into WNBC) as well as seen in Schenectady, New York via W2XB (which evolved into WRGB) via off-air relay from the New York station.


title: Television broadcasting

text: NBC had earlier demonstrated an inter-city television broadcast on 1 February 1940, from its station in New York City to another in Schenectady, New York by General Electric relay antennas, and began transmitting some programs on an irregular basis to Philadelphia and Schenectady in 1941. Wartime priorities suspended the manufacture of television and radio equipment for civilian use from 1 April 1942 to 1 October 1945, temporarily shutting down expansion of television networking. However, in 1944 a short film, "Patrolling the Ether", was broadcast simultaneously over three stations as an experiment.


title: Television broadcasting

text: AT&T made its first postwar addition in February 1946, with the completion of a cable between New York City and Washington, D.C., although a blurry demonstration broadcast showed that it would not be in regular use for several months. The DuMont Television Network, which had begun experimental broadcasts before the war, launched what "Newsweek" called "the country's first permanent commercial television network" on 15 August 1946, connecting New York City with Washington. Not to be outdone, NBC launched what it called "the world's first regularly operating television network" on 27 June 1947, serving New York City, Philadelphia, Schenectady and Washington. Baltimore and Boston were added to the NBC television network in late 1947. DuMont and NBC would be joined by CBS and ABC in 1948.


title: Television broadcasting

text: In the 1940s, the term "chain broadcasting" was used when discussing network broadcasts, as the television stations were linked together in long chains along the East Coast. But as the television networks expanded westward, the interconnected television stations formed major networks of connected affiliate stations. In January 1949, with the sign-on of DuMont's WDTV in Pittsburgh, the Midwest and East Coast networks were finally connected by coaxial cable (with WDTV airing the best shows from all four networks). By 1951, the four networks stretched from coast to coast, carried on the new microwave radio relay network of AT&T Long Lines. Only a few local television stations remained independent of the networks.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Each of the four major television networks originally only broadcast a few hours of programs a week to their affiliate stations, mostly between 8:00 and 11:00 p.m. Eastern Time, when most viewers were watching television. Most of the programs broadcast by the television stations were still locally produced. As the networks increased the number of programs that they aired, however, officials at the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) grew concerned that local television might disappear altogether. Eventually, the federal regulator enacted the Prime Time Access Rule, which restricted the amount of time that the networks could air programs; officials hoped that the rules would foster the development of quality local programs, but in practice, most local stations did not want to bear the burden of producing many of their own programs, and instead chose to purchase programs from independent producers. Sales of television programs to individual local stations are done through a method called "broadcast syndication", and today nearly every television station in the United States obtains syndicated programs in addition to network-produced fare.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Late in the 20th century, cross-country microwave radio relays were replaced by fixed-service satellites. Some terrestrial radio relays remained in service for regional connections.


title: Television broadcasting

text: After the failure and shutdown of DuMont in 1956, several attempts at new networks were made between the 1950s and the 1970s, with little success. The Fox Broadcasting Company, founded by the Rupert Murdoch-owned News Corporation (now owned by Fox Corporation), was launched on 9 October 1986 after the company purchased the television assets of Metromedia; it would eventually ascend to the status of the fourth major network by 1994. Two other networks launched within a week of one another in January 1995: The WB Television Network, a joint venture between Time Warner and the Tribune Company, and the United Paramount Network (UPN), formed through a programming alliance between Chris-Craft Industries and Paramount Television (whose parent, Viacom, would later acquire half and later all of the network over the course of its existence). In September 2006, The CW was launched as a "merger" of The WB and UPN (in actuality, a consolidation of each respective network's higher-rated programs onto one schedule); MyNetworkTV, a network formed from affiliates of UPN and The WB that did not affiliate with The CW, launched at the same time.


title: Television broadcasting

text: FCC regulations in the United States restricted the number of television stations that could be owned by any one network, company or individual. This led to a system where most local television stations were independently owned, but received programming from the network through a franchising contract, except in a few major cities that had owned-and-operated stations (O&O) of a network and independent stations. In the early days of television, when there were often only one or two stations broadcasting in a given market, the stations were usually affiliated with multiple networks and were able to choose which programs would air. Eventually, as more stations were licensed, it became common for each station to be exclusively affiliated with only one network and carry all of the "prime-time" programs that the network offered. Local stations occasionally break from regularly scheduled network programming however, especially when a breaking news or severe weather situation occurs in the viewing area. Moreover, when stations return to network programming from commercial breaks, station identifications are displayed in the first few seconds before switching to the network's logo.


title: Television broadcasting

text: A number of different definitions of "network" are used by government agencies, industry, and the general public. Under the Broadcasting Act, a network is defined as "any operation where control over all or any part of the programs or program schedules of one or more broadcasting undertakings is delegated to another undertaking or person," and must be licensed by the Canadian Radio-television and Telecommunications Commission (CRTC).


title: Television broadcasting

text: Only three national over-the-air television networks are currently licensed by the CRTC: government-owned CBC Television (English) and Ici Radio-Canada Télé (French), French-language private network TVA, and APTN, a network focused on Indigenous peoples in Canada. A third French-language service, Noovo (formerly V), is licensed as a provincial network within Quebec, but is not licensed or locally distributed (outside of carriage on the digital tiers of pay television providers) on a national basis.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Currently, licensed national or provincial networks must be carried by all cable providers (in the country or province, respectively) with a service area above a certain population threshold, as well as all satellite providers. However, they are no longer necessarily expected to achieve over-the-air coverage in all areas (APTN, for example, only has terrestrial coverage in parts of northern Canada).


title: Television broadcasting

text: In addition to these licensed networks, the two main private English-language over-the-air services, CTV and Global, are also generally considered to be "networks" by virtue of their national coverage, although they are not officially licensed as such. CTV was previously a licensed network, but relinquished this license in 2001 after acquiring most of its affiliates, making operating a network license essentially redundant (per the above definition).


title: Television broadcasting

text: Smaller groups of stations with common branding are often categorized by industry watchers as television systems, although the public and the broadcasters themselves will often refer to them as "networks" regardless. Some of these systems, such as CTV 2 and the now-defunct E!, essentially operate as mini-networks, but have reduced geographical coverage. Others, such as Omni Television or the Crossroads Television System, have similar branding and a common programming focus, but schedules may vary significantly from one station to the next. Citytv originally began operating as a television system in 2002 when CKVU-TV in Vancouver started to carry programs originating from CITY-TV in Toronto and adopted that station's "Citytv" branding, but gradually became a network by virtue of national coverage through expansions into other markets west of Atlantic Canada between 2005 and 2013.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Most local television stations in Canada are now owned and operated directly by their network, with only a small number of stations still operating as affiliates.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Most television services outside North America are national networks established by a combination of publicly funded broadcasters and commercial broadcasters. Most nations established television networks in a similar way: the first television service in each country was operated by a public broadcaster, often funded by a television licensing fee, and most of them later established a second or even third station providing a greater variety of content. Commercial television services also became available when private companies applied for television broadcasting licenses. Often, each new network would be identified with their channel number, so that individual stations would often be numbered "One", "Two", "Three" and so forth.


title: Television broadcasting

text: The first television network in the United Kingdom was operated by the British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC). On 2 November 1936 the BBC opened the world's first regular high-definition television service, from a 405 lines transmitter at Alexandra Palace. The BBC remained dominant until eventually on 22 September 1955, commercial broadcasting was established to create a second television network. Rather than creating a single network with local channels owned and operated by a single company (as is the case with the BBC), each local area had a separate television channel that was independently owned and operated, although most of these channels shared a number of programmes, particularly during peak evening viewing hours. These channels formed the ITV network.


title: Television broadcasting

text: When the advent of UHF broadcasting allowed a greater number of television channels to broadcast, the BBC launched a second channel, BBC 2 (with the original service being renamed BBC 1). A second national commercial network was launched Channel 4, although Wales instead introduced a Welsh-language service, S4C. These were later followed by the launch of a third commercial network, Channel 5. Since the introduction of digital television, the BBC, ITV, Channel 4 and Channel 5 each introduced a number of digital-only channels. Sky operates a large number of channels including Sky One, Sky Witness, Pick, Challenge and Sky Atlantic; as does UKTV, which operates channels like Dave, Drama Gold, W and Yesterday.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Sweden had only one television network from 1956 until the early-1990s: the public broadcaster Sveriges Television (SVT). Commercial companies such as Modern Times Group, TV4, Viasat, and SBS Discovery have established TV networks since the 1980s although they initially aired exclusively on satellite. In 1991, TV4 became Sweden's first commercial television network to air terrestrially. Most television programming in Sweden is centralised except for local news updates that air on SVT2 and TV4.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Until 1989, Netherlands Public Broadcasting was the only television network in the Netherlands, with three stations, Nederland 1, Nederland 2 and Nederland 3. Rather than having a single production arm, there are a number of public broadcasting organizations that create programming for each of the three stations, each working relatively independently. Commercial broadcasting in the Netherlands is currently operated by two networks, RTL Nederland and SBS Broadcasting, which together broadcast seven commercial stations.


title: Television broadcasting

text: The first television network in the Soviet Union launched on 7 July 1938 when Petersburg – Channel 5 of Leningrad Television became a unionwide network.


title: Television broadcasting

text: The second television network in the Soviet Union launched on 22 March 1951 when Channel One of USSR Central Television became a unionwide network. Until 1989, there were six television networks, all owned by the USSR Gosteleradio. This changed during Mikhail Gorbachev's Perestroika program, when the first independent television network, 2×2, was launched.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Following the breakup of the Soviet Union, USSR Gosteleradio ceased to exist as well as its six networks. Only Channel One had a smooth transition and survived as a network, becoming Ostankino Channel One. The other five networks were operated by Ground Zero. This free airwave space allowed many private television networks like NTV and TV-6 to launch in the mid-1990s.


title: Television broadcasting

text: The 2000s were marked by the increased state intervention in Russian television. On 14 April 2001 NTV experienced management changes following the expulsion of former oligarch and NTV founder Vladimir Gusinsky. As a result, most of the prominent reporters featured on NTV left the network. Later on 22 January 2002, the second largest private television network TV-6, where the former NTV staff took refuge, was shut down allegedly because of its editorial policy. Five months later on 1 June, TVS was launched, mostly employing NTV/TV-6 staff, only to cease operations the following year. Since then, the four largest television networks (Channel One, Russia 1, NTV and Russia 2) have been state-owned.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Still, the 2000s saw a rise of several independent television networks such as REN (its coverage increased vastly allowing it to become a federal network), Petersburg – Channel Five (overall the same), the relaunched 2×2. The Russian television market is mainly shared today by five major companies: Channel One, Russia 1, NTV, TNT and CTC.


title: Television broadcasting

text: The major commercial television network in Brazil is Rede Globo, which was founded in 1965. It grew to become the largest and most successful media conglomerate in the country, having a dominating presence in various forms of media including television, radio, print (newspapers and magazines) and the Internet.


title: Television broadcasting

text: Australia has two national public networks, ABC Television and SBS. The ABC operates eight stations as part of its main network ABC TV, one for each state and territory, as well as three digital-only networks, ABC Kids / ABC TV Plus, ABC Me and ABC News. SBS currently operates six stations, SBS, SBS Viceland, SBS World Movies, SBS Food, NITV and SBS WorldWatch.


title: Television broadcasting

text: The first commercial networks in Australia involved commercial stations that shared programming in Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Adelaide and later Perth, with each network forming networks based on their allocated channel numbers: TCN-9 in Sydney, GTV-9 in Melbourne, QTQ-9 in Brisbane, NWS-9 in Adelaide and STW-9 in Perth together formed the Nine Network; while their equivalents on VHF channels 7 and 10 respectively formed the Seven Network and Network 10. Until 1989, areas outside these main cities had access to only a single commercial station, and these rural stations often formed small networks such as Prime Television. Beginning in 1989, however, television markets in rural areas began to aggregate, allowing these rural networks to broadcast over a larger area, often an entire state, and become full-time affiliates to one specific metropolitan network.


title: Television broadcasting

text: As well as these Free-to-air channels, there are others on Australia's Pay television network Foxtel.


title: Television broadcasting

text: New Zealand has one public network, Television New Zealand (TVNZ), which consists of two main networks: TVNZ 1 is the network's flagship network which carries news, current affairs and sports programming as well as the majority of the locally produced shows broadcast by TVNZ and imported shows. TVNZ's second network, TV2, airs mostly imported shows with some locally produced programs such as "Shortland Street". TVNZ also operates a network exclusive to pay television services, TVNZ Heartland, available on providers such as Sky. TVNZ previously operated a non-commercial public service network, TVNZ 7, which ceased operations in June 2012 and was replaced by the timeshift channel TV One Plus 1. The network operated by Television New Zealand has progressed from operating as four distinct local stations within the four main centers in the 1960s, to having the majority of the content produced from TVNZ's Auckland studios at present.


title: Television broadcasting

text: New Zealand also has several privately owned television networks with the largest being operated by MediaWorks. MediaWorks' flagship network is TV3, which competes directly with both TVNZ broadcast networks. MediaWorks also operates a second network, FOUR, which airs mostly imported programmes with children's shows airing in the daytime and shows targeted at teenagers and adult between 15 and 39 years of age during prime time. MediaWorks also operates a timeshift network, TV3 + 1, and a 24-hour music network, C4.


title: Television broadcasting

text: All television networks in New Zealand air the same programming across the entire country with the only regional deviations being for local advertising; a regional news service existed in the 1980s, carrying a regional news programme from TVNZ's studios in New Zealand's four largest cities, Auckland, Wellington, Christchurch and Dunedin.


title: Television broadcasting

text: In the 1960s, the service operated at the time by the New Zealand Broadcasting Corporation was four separate television stations – AKTV2 in Auckland, WNTV1 in Wellington, CHTV3 in Christchurch and DNTV2 in Dunedin – which each ran their own newscast and produced some in-house programmes, with other shows being shared between the stations. Programmes and news footage were distributed via mail, with a programme airing in one region being mailed to another region for broadcast the following week. A network was finally established in 1969, with the same programmes being relayed to all regions simultaneously. From the 1970s to the 1990s, locally produced programmes that aired on TV One and TV2 were produced out of one of the four main studios, with TVNZ's network hub based in Wellington. Today, most locally produced programmes that are aired by both TVNZ and other networks are not actually produced in-house, instead they are often produced by a third party company (for example, the TV2 programme "Shortland Street" is produced by South Pacific Pictures). The networks produce their own news and current affairs programs, with most of the content filmed in Auckland.


title: Television broadcasting

text: New Zealand also operates several regional television stations, which are only available in individual markets. The regional stations will typically air a local news programme, produce some shows in-house and cover local sports events; the majority of programming on the regional stations will be imported from various sources.


title: Television broadcasting

text: In the Philippines, in practice, the terms "network," "station" and "channel" are used interchangeably as programming lineups are mostly centrally planned from the networks' main offices, and since provincial/regional stations usually just relay the broadcast from their parent network's flagship station (usually based in the Mega Manila area). As such, networks made up of VHF stations are sometimes informally referred to by their over-the-air channel number in the Mega Manila area (for example, Channel 2 or "Dos" for ABS-CBN, Channel 13 or "Trese" for IBC, Channel 5 or "Singko" for TV5, Channel 9 or "Nueve" for Radio Philippines Network and Channel 7 or "Siyete" for GMA Network), while some incorporate their channel numbers in the network's name (for example, TV5, Studio 23 and Net 25, which respectively broadcast on VHF channel 5, and UHF channels 23 and 25).


title: Television broadcasting

text: Unlike the United States, where networks receive programmes produced by various production companies, the two largest networks in the Philippines produce all of their prime time programmes. Other networks adopt block-time programming, which uses programming arrangements similar to the relationship between a U.S. network and station.


title: Parliament of Great Britain

text: The Parliament of Great Britain was formed in May 1707 following the ratification of the Acts of Union by both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland. The Acts ratified the treaty of Union which created a new unified Kingdom of Great Britain and created the parliament of Great Britain located in the former home of the English parliament in the Palace of Westminster, near the City of London. This lasted nearly a century, until the Acts of Union 1800 merged the separate British and Irish Parliaments into a single Parliament of the United Kingdom with effect from 1 January 1801.


title: Parliament of Great Britain

text: Following the Treaty of Union in 1706, Acts of Union ratifying the Treaty were passed in both the Parliament of England and the Parliament of Scotland, which created a new Kingdom of Great Britain. The Acts paved the way for the enactment of the treaty of Union which created a new parliament, referred to as the 'Parliament of Great Britain', based in the home of the former English parliament. All of the traditions, procedures, and standing orders of the English parliament were retained, although there is no provision for this within the treaty, and to this day this is a contentious issue, as were the incumbent officers, and members representing England comprised the overwhelming majority of the new body. It was not even considered necessary to hold a new general election. While Scots law and Scottish legislation remained separate, new legislation was thereafter to be enacted by the new parliament, with the exception of that pertaining to private right which could only legislated on for the “evident utility” of the people.


title: Parliament of Great Britain

text: After the Hanoverian King George I ascended the British throne in 1714 through the Act of Settlement of 1701, real power continued to shift away from the monarchy. George was a German ruler, spoke poor English, and remained interested in governing his dominions in continental Europe rather than in Britain. He thus entrusted power to a group of his ministers, the foremost of whom was Sir Robert Walpole, and by the end of his reign in 1727 the position of the ministers – who had to rely on Parliament for support – was cemented. George I's successor, his son George II, continued to follow through with his father's domestic policies and made little effort to re-establish monarchical control over the government which was now in firm control by Parliament. By the end of the 18th century the monarch still had considerable influence over Parliament, which was dominated by the English aristocracy, by means of patronage, but had ceased to exert direct power: for instance, the last occasion on which the Royal Assent was withheld was in 1708 by Queen Anne. At general elections the vote was restricted to freeholders and landowners, in constituencies that had changed little since the Middle Ages, so that in many "rotten" and "pocket" boroughs seats could be bought, while major cities remained unrepresented, except by the Knights of the Shire representing whole counties. Reformers and Radicals sought parliamentary reform, but as the French Revolutionary Wars developed the British government became repressive against dissent and progress towards reform was stalled.


title: Parliament of Great Britain

text: George II's successor, George III, sought to restore royal supremacy and absolute monarchy, but by the end of his reign the position of the king's ministers – who discovered that they needed the support of Parliament to enact any major changes – had become central to the role of British governance, and would remain so ever after.


title: Parliament of Great Britain

text: During the first half of George III's reign, the monarch still had considerable influence over Parliament, which itself was dominated by the patronage and influence of the English nobility. Most candidates for the House of Commons were identified as Whigs or Tories, but once elected they formed shifting coalitions of interests rather than dividing along clear party lines. At general elections the vote was restricted in most places to property owners, in constituencies which were out of date and did not reflect the growing importance of manufacturing towns or shifts of population, so that in the rotten and pocket boroughs seats in parliament could be bought from the rich landowners who controlled them, while major cities remained unrepresented. Reformers like William Beckford and Radicals beginning with John Wilkes called for reform of the system. In 1780, a draft programme of reform was drawn up by Charles James Fox and Thomas Brand Hollis and put forward by a sub-committee of the electors of Westminster. This included calls for the six points later adopted by the Chartists.


title: Parliament of Great Britain

text: The American War of Independence ended in defeat for a foreign policy that sought to prevent the thirteen American colonies from breaking away and forming their own independent nation, something which George III had fervently advocated, and in March 1782 the king was forced to appoint an administration led by his opponents which sought to curb royal patronage. In November of 1783, he took the opportunity to use his influence in the House of Lords to defeat a bill to reform the Honourable East India Company, dismissed the government of the day, and appointed William Pitt the Younger to form a new government. Pitt had previously called for Parliament to begin to reform itself, but he did not press for long for reforms the king did not like. Proposals Pitt made in April 1785 to redistribute seats from the "rotten boroughs" to London and the counties were defeated in the House of Commons by 248 votes to 174.


title: Parliament of Great Britain

text: In the wake of the French Revolution of 1789, Radical organisations such as the London Corresponding Society sprang up to press for parliamentary reform, but as the French Revolutionary Wars developed the government took extensive repressive measures against feared domestic unrest aping the democratic and egalitarian ideals of the French Revolution and progress toward reform was stalled for decades.