title: McDonnell Douglas Phantom in UK service

text: In the 1970s the RN was developing what was known as the "Through Deck Cruiser", a 20,000-ton ship with a full-length flight deck intended to embark a squadron of large anti-submarine warfare helicopters. Almost as soon as the first ship, , was ordered, another specification was added to the design: as well as the helicopters, a small squadron of STOVL aircraft would form part of the air group to act as a deterrent to long-range reconnaissance aircraft. This concept initially dated back to 1963, when the prototype Hawker Siddeley P.1127 Short Take-Off and Vertical Landing (STOVL) aircraft undertook initial landings aboard "Ark Royal", while three years later pre-production Hawker Siddeley Kestrel (which subsequently became the Harrier), conducted a series of extensive trials from , which proved the concept of using vertical landing aircraft aboard carriers. As a result, a navalised version of the Harrier was developed. Over the life of the design process, the Sea Harrier's air defence role was augmented by responsibility for reconnaissance and maritime strike missions. In March 1980, 14 months after 892 Naval Air Squadron was decommissioned and its Phantoms turned over to the RAF, 800 Naval Air Squadron was formed as the first operational Sea Harrier squadron.


title: McDonnell Douglas Phantom in UK service

text: Sir Sydney Camm, the Chief Designer at Hawker for many years, once said that no British aircraft could be considered a success until it was able to match the capabilities of the Phantom. In the RAF and RN, it was the direct replacement in squadron service for a total of four different aircraft types, comprising nine separate variants. In turn, the Phantom was replaced in squadron service by three different aircraft (see table):


title: McDonnell Douglas Phantom in UK service

text: The below list details aircraft that were placed on display after service with the Royal Air Force or Royal Navy. The remaining aircraft were either lost in crashes or scrapped following withdrawal.


title: McDonnell Douglas Phantom in UK service

text: In October 2019, the British Phantom Aviation Group announced plans to restore two of the remaining Phantoms not on public display, with the aim of finding display locations for them. In partnership with the 74 Squadron Association, the BPAG obtained ZE360, a Phantom F.3 stored at Manston in Kent, and one of only two remaining examples, with the ultimate goal of displaying it in its original RAF markings. The other planned restoration is of XT597, one of the two pre-production FG.1 aircraft that was used for its entire career by the A&AEE. Upon restoration, this will form part of the BPAG's collection.


title: McDonnell Douglas Phantom in UK service

text: The F.3 retained a high degree of American equipment, and was longer, lighter, and faster at altitude. The FG.1 and FGR.2 were broadly identical, with the only significant difference, aside from those already stated, being the ability of the FGR.2 to carry the dedicated reconnaissance pod built by EMI and containing the following:


title: McDonnell Douglas Phantom in UK service

text: The RAF operated the Phantom from a number of bases in the UK, Germany and the Falkland Islands during its operational service, while the RN initially based its Phantom units at its main air station at Yeovilton; following the disbanding of the FAA's dedicated training squadron, its sole operational Phantom squadron was subsequently moved to take up residence at the RAF's base at Leuchars.


title: Amit Shah (actor)

text: Amit Shah was born in Enfield, England. Shah's parents were originally from Kenya, and his grandparents from Gujarat, India. His father is an accountant, and his mother is a health-food shop manager. Shah was cast as the lead in a school play at the age of 16. He read drama at Staffordshire University and then went on to train at the London Academy of Music and Dramatic Art in West London. In 2003 he was given permission by the principal to graduate early so that he could begin rehearsals for "Bombay Dreams", a West-End musical produced by Andrew Lloyd Webber.


title: Amit Shah (actor)

text: In 2006, Shah was offered a part in "The Royal Hunt of the Sun" at the National Theatre; the same part that Derek Jacobi played in the original production in 1964. He stayed on at the National Theatre to perform three plays, including "The Alchemist", directed by Nicholas Hytner for which he was nominated for an Ian Charleson Award. He also portrayed a principal role in "The Man of Mode", alongside Tom Hardy, Rory Kinnear and Hayley Atwell.


title: Amit Shah (actor)

text: Shah has starred in a variety of television shows since 2006. His most notable roles include Sunny in BBC One's "Hospital People", Fred in Channel 4's "Crashing", and Torque in "The Witcher" for Netflix.


title: Amit Shah (actor)

text: Shah's first major part in a feature film was in 2014 for "The Hundred-Foot Journey" in which he starred alongside Helen Mirren and Om Puri. He has since been cast in "Johnny English Strikes Again", "Ordinary Love", and "Last Christmas".


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Secondary metabolites, also called specialised metabolites, toxins, secondary products, or natural products, are organic compounds produced by any lifeform, e.g. bacteria, fungi, animals, or plants, which are not directly involved in the normal growth, development, or reproduction of the organism. Instead, they generally mediate ecological interactions, which may produce a selective advantage for the organism by increasing its survivability or fecundity. Specific secondary metabolites are often restricted to a narrow set of species within a phylogenetic group. Secondary metabolites often play an important role in plant defense against herbivory and other interspecies defenses. Humans use secondary metabolites as medicines, flavourings, pigments, and recreational drugs.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: The term secondary metabolite was first coined by Albrecht Kossel, a 1910 Nobel Prize laureate for medicine and physiology in 1910. 30 years later a Polish botanist Friedrich Czapek described secondary metabolites as end products of nitrogen metabolism.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Secondary metabolites commonly mediate antagonistic interactions, such as competition and predation, as well as mutualistic ones such as pollination and resource mutualisms. Usually, secondary metabolites are confined to a specific lineage or even species, though there is considerable evidence that horizontal transfer across species or genera of entire pathways plays an important role in bacterial (and, likely, fungal) evolution. Research also shows that secondary metabolism can affect different species in varying ways. In the same forest, four separate species of arboreal marsupial folivores reacted differently to a secondary metabolite in eucalypts. This shows that differing types of secondary metabolites can be the split between two herbivore ecological niches. Additionally, certain species evolve to resist secondary metabolites and even use them for their own benefit. For example, monarch butterflies have evolved to be able to eat milkweed ("Asclepias") despite the presence of toxic cardiac glycosides. The butterflies are not only resistant to the toxins, but are actually able to benefit by actively sequestering them, which can lead to the deterrence of predators.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Plants are capable of producing and synthesizing diverse groups of organic compounds and are divided into two major groups: primary and secondary metabolites. Secondary metabolites are metabolic intermediates or products which are not essential to growth and life of the producing plants but rather required for interaction of plants with their environment and produced in response to stress. Their antibiotic, antifungal and antiviral properties protect the plant from pathogens. Some secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids protect plants from UV damage. The biological effects of plant secondary metabolites on humans have been known since ancient times. The herb "Artemisia annua" which contains Artemisinin, has been widely used in Chinese traditional medicine more than two thousand years ago. Plant secondary metabolites are classified by their chemical structure and can be divided into four major classes: terpenes, phenylpropanoids (i.e. phenolics), polyketides, and alkaloids.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Terpenes constitute a large class of natural products which are composed of isoprene units. Terpenes are only hydrocarbons and terpenoids are oxygenated hydrocarbons. The general molecular formula of terpenes are multiples of (CH) where 'n' is number of linked isoprene units. Hence, terpenes are also termed as isoprenoid compounds. Classification is based on the number of isoprene units present in their structure. Some terpenoids (i.e. many sterols) are primary metabolites. Some terpenoids that may have originated as secondary metabolites have subsequently been recruited as plant hormones, such as gibberellins, brassinosteroids, and strigolactones.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Phenolics are a chemical compound characterized by the presence of aromatic ring structure bearing one or more hydroxyl groups. Phenolics are the most abundant secondary metabolites of plants ranging from simple molecules such as phenolic acid to highly polymerized substances such as tannins. Classes of phenolics have been characterized on the basis of their basic skeleton.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Alkaloids are a diverse group of nitrogen-containing basic compounds. They are typically derived from plant sources and contain one or more nitrogen atoms. Chemically they are very heterogeneous. Based on chemical structures, they may be classified into two broad categories:


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Many alkaloids affect the central nervous system of animals by binding to neurotransmitter receptors.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Glucosinolates are secondary metabolites that include both sulfur and nitrogen atoms, and are derived from glucose, an amino acid and sulfate.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: An example of a glucosinolate in plants is Glucoraphanin, from broccoli ("Brassica oleracea" var. "italica").


title: Secondary metabolite

text: The two most commonly known terpenoids are artemisinin and paclitaxel. Artemisinin was widely used in Traditional Chinese medicine and later rediscovered as a powerful antimalarial by a Chinese scientist Tu Youyou. She was later awarded the Nobel Prize for the discovery in 2015. Currently, the malaria parasite, "Plasmodium falciparum", has become resistant to artemisinin alone and the World Health Organization recommends its use with other antimalarial drugs for a successful therapy. Paclitaxel the active compound found in Taxol is a chemotherapy drug used to treat many forms of cancers including ovarian cancer, breast cancer, lung cancer, Kaposi sarcoma, cervical cancer, and pancreatic cancer. Taxol was first isolated in 1973 from barks of a coniferous tree, the Pacific Yew.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Morphine and codeine both belong to the class of alkaloids and are derived from opium poppies. Morphine was discovered in 1804 by a German pharmacist Friedrich Sertürnert. It was the first active alkaloid extracted from the opium poppy. It is mostly known for its strong analgesic effects, however, morphine is also used to treat shortness of breath and treatment of addiction to stronger opiates such as heroin. Despite its positive effects on humans, morphine has very strong adverse effects, such as addiction, hormone imbalance or constipation. Due to its highly addictive nature morphine is a strictly controlled substance around the world, used only in very severe cases with some countries underusing it compared to the global average due to the social stigma around it.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Codeine, also an alkaloid derived from the opium poppy, is considered the most widely used drug in the world according to World Health Organization. It was first isolated in 1832 by a French chemist Pierre Jean Robiquet, also known for the discovery of caffeine and a widely used red dye alizarin. Primarily codeine is used to treat mild pain and relief coughing although in some cases it is used to treat diarrhea and some forms of irritable bowel syndrome. Codeine has the strength of 0.1-0.15 compared to morphine ingested orally, hence it is much safer to use. Although codeine can be extracted from the opium poppy, the process is not feasible economically due to the low abundance of pure codeine in the plant. A chemical process of methylation of the much more abundant morphine is the main method of production.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Atropine is an alkaloid first found in "Atropa belladonna", a member of the nightshade family. While atropine was first isolated in the 19th century, its medical use dates back to at least the fourth century B.C. where it was used for wounds, gout, and sleeplessness. Currently atropine is administered intravenously to treat bradycardia and as an antidote to organophosphate poisoning. Overdosing of atropine may lead to atropine poisoning which results in side effects such as blurred vision, nausea, lack of sweating, dry mouth and tachycardia.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Resveratrol is a phenolic compound of the flavonoid class. It is highly abundant in grapes, blueberries, raspberries and peanuts. It is commonly taken as a dietary supplement for extending life and reducing the risk of cancer and heart disease, however there is no strong evidence supporting its efficacy. Nevertheless, flavonoids are in general thought to have beneficial effects for humans. Certain studies shown that flavonoids have direct antibiotic activity. A number of in vitro and limited in vivo studies shown that flavonoids such as quercetin have synergistic activity with antibiotics and are able to suppress bacterial loads.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Digoxin is a cardiac glycoside first derived by William Withering in 1785 from the foxglove "(Digitalis)" plant. It is typically used to treat heart conditions such as atrial fibrillation, atrial flutter or heart failure. Digoxin can, however, have side effects such as nausea, bradycardia, diarrhea or even life-threatening arrhythmia.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: The three main classes of fungal secondary metabolites are: polyketides, nonribosomal peptides and terpenes. Although fungal secondary metabolites are not required for growth they play an essential role in survival of fungi in their ecological niche. The most known fungal secondary metabolite is penicillin discovered by Alexander Fleming in 1928. Later in 1945, Fleming, alongside Ernst Chain and Howard Florey, received a Nobel Prize for its discovery which was pivotal in reducing the number of deaths in World War II by over 100,000.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Lovastatin was the first FDA approved secondary metabolite to lower cholesterol levels. Lovastatin occurs naturally in low concentrations in oyster mushrooms, red yeast rice, and Pu-erh. Lovastatin's mode of action is competitive inhibition of HMG-CoA reductase, and a rate-limiting enzyme responsible for converting HMG-CoA to mevalonate.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Fungal secondary metabolites can also be dangerous to humans. "Claviceps purpurea", a member of the ergot group of fungi typically growing on rye, results in death when ingested. The build-up of poisonous alkaloids found in "C. purpurea" lead to symptoms such as seizures and spasms, diarrhea, paresthesias, Itching, psychosis or gangrene. Currently, removal of ergot bodies requires putting the rye in brine solution with healthy grains sinking and infected floating.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Bacterial production of secondary metabolites starts in the stationary phase as a consequence of lack of nutrients or in response to environmental stress. Secondary metabolite synthesis in bacteria is not essential for their growth, however, they allow them to better interact with their ecological niche. The main synthetic pathways of secondary metabolite production in bacteria are; b-lactam, oligosaccharide, shikimate, polyketide and non-ribosomal pathways. Many bacterial secondary metabolites are toxic to mammals. When secreted those poisonous compounds are known as exotoxins whereas those found in the prokaryotic cell wall are endotoxins.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: An example of a bacterial secondary metabolite with a positive and negative effect on humans is botulinum toxin synthesised by "Clostridium botulinum". This exotoxin often builds up in incorrectly canned foods and when ingested blocks cholinergic neurotransmission leading to muscle paralysis or death. However, botulinum toxin also has multiple medical uses such as treatment of muscle spasticity, migraine and cosmetics use.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: Selective breeding was used as one of the first biotechnological techniques used to reduce the unwanted secondary metabolites in food, such as naringin causing bitterness in grapefruit. In some cases increasing the content of secondary metabolites in a plant is the desired outcome. Traditionally this was done using in-vitro plant tissue culture techniques which allow for: control of growth conditions, mitigate seasonality of plants or protect them from parasites and harmful-microbes. Synthesis of secondary metabolites can be further enhanced by introducing elicitors into a tissue plant culture, such as jasmonic acid, UV-B or ozone. These compounds induce stress onto a plant leading to increased production of secondary metabolites.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: To further increase the yield of SMs new approaches have been developed. A novel approach used by Evolva uses recombinant yeast S. cerevisiae strains to produce secondary metabolites normally found in plants. The first successful chemical compound synthesised with Evolva was vanillin, widely used in the food beverage industry as flavouring. The process involves inserting the desired secondary metabolite gene into an artificial chromosome in the recombinant yeast leading to synthesis of vanillin. Currently Evolva produces a wide array of chemicals such as stevia, resveratrol or nootkatone.


title: Secondary metabolite

text: With the development of recombinant technologies the "Nagoya Protocol on Access to Genetic Resources and the Fair and Equitable Sharing of Benefits Arising from their Utilization to the Convention on Biological Diversity" was signed in 2010. The protocol regulates the conservation and protection of genetic resources to prevent the exploitation of smaller and poorer countries. If genetic, protein or small molecule resources sourced from biodiverse countries become profitable a compensation scheme was put in place for the countries of origin.


title: James Toback

text: James Toback (; born November 23, 1944) is an American film director and screenwriter. His screenplay for "Bugsy" won the 1991 Los Angeles Film Critics Association award for best screenplay of the year and was nominated for both the Academy Award for best original screenplay and for the Golden Globe best screenplay award. Toback's documentary Tyson, which he directed and co-produced, was featured at the 2008 Cannes Film Festival, winning a prize in the festival's "Un Certain Regard" section. That film was nominated for best documentary awards in several United States competitions. In 2009, the San Francisco International Film Festival selected Toback for its annual Kanbar Award for excellence in screenwriting.


title: James Toback

text: Filmmaker Nicholas Jarecki examined Toback in a 2005 documentary "The Outsider: A Film about James Toback". Interspliced with a narrative tracking Toback's 2004 whirlwind creation of "When Will I Be Loved", Jarecki puts a "Who is James Toback?" question to multiple luminaries who know Toback through their collaborations in his work and in his personal life. For Toback, work and personal life sometimes blend. His first major film success was authoring "The Gambler" in 1974. It won a Golden Globe Best Actor nomination for James Caan as a compulsive gambler heavily in debt to the mob. In "The Outsider," when asked how he first met Toback, Jeff Berg, Toback's agent at that time, answered, "He walked into my office. We had never met each other and he asked for a loan of $275,000 because he had some pressing gambling obligations that had to be satisfied."


title: James Toback

text: In late 2017, the "Weinstein effect" that followed media reports of film producer Harvey Weinstein's abusive conduct with women gave rise to a flood of #MeToo revelations and allegations, and many of these named Toback.


title: James Toback

text: Toback was born and raised in Manhattan, New York City, the only child in a well-to-do Jewish household. His mother, Selma Judith (née Levy), was a president of the League of Women Voters and a moderator of political debates on NBC. His maternal grandfather, Joseph Crawford Levy, co-founded The Harry S. Truman Research Institute for the Advancement of Peace. Levy also worked with Rabbi Mordecai Kaplan to co-found the then-radical Society for the Advancement of Judaism. Toback's father, Irwin Lionel Toback, was a stockbroker and later vice president of Dreyfus Corporation.


title: James Toback

text: Toback graduated from The Fieldston School in 1963 and from Harvard College, magna cum laude, in 1966. At Harvard, he edited the undergraduate literary magazine. After college, Toback worked first as a journalist. An assignment from "Esquire" to write about football great and actor Jim Brown led to Brown's invitation to host Toback for an extended stay in Brown's Hollywood Hills home. Brown said that "along with both of us liking girls, I just like his intellect." Afterward, Toback wrote a book about his experiences as Brown's house guest: "Jim: The Author's Self-Centered Memoir of the Great Jim Brown" (1971). At the time, Toback was lecturing in the English Department at City College of New York.


title: James Toback

text: Toback credits actress and friend Lucy Saroyan, his literary agent Lynn Nesbit, and Nesbit's contact in film Mike Medavoy with getting his first film script "The Gambler" to director Karel Reisz and then to Paramount Pictures. For a year, Toback attached himself to Reisz "as his acolyte" in "the perfect mentor-protegé relationship," and he later described Reisz, who also directed "Saturday Night and Sunday Morning" and "The French Lieutenant's Woman", as "my one-man film school."


title: James Toback

text: Toback's directorial début was the 1978 film "Fingers", with Harvey Keitel cast in the lead role of Jimmy "Fingers" Angelelli. In her review of "Fingers", influential "New Yorker" film critic Pauline Kael celebrated Toback's "true moviemaking fever." Toback followed "Fingers" with "Love and Money" in 1982. He wrote and directed "Exposed" in 1983, "The Pick-up Artist" in 1987, and the documentary "The Big Bang" in 1989. "Bugsy" released two years later, with Toback's screenplay winning an Oscar nomination for best original screenplay.


title: James Toback

text: In the three decades since "Bugsy" Toback has directed seven more films, including his prize-winning "Tyson". He wrote the screenplays for all seven. Over his career, Toback's film direction has ranged from the large-scale and spectacular "Exposed" to the small-scale and single-setting "Two Girls and a Guy", one of three Toback films that cast Robert Downey Jr in a featured role. The Oldenburg International Film Festival selected Toback and his work for its 2008 "Retrospective." Other directors have since re-made two Toback films. French director Jacques Audiard's 2005 remake of "Fingers" as "The Beat That My Heart Skipped" won numerous Best Film awards. English director Rupert Wyatt re-made "The Gambler" in 2014.


title: James Toback

text: Toback's films have drawn a mixed response. Many if not most of the films deal with gambling, danger, sex, and death, topics that Toback's cast members examine through intense heady dialog, in a story often punctuated by violence and sometimes leavened by humor.


title: James Toback

text: Film executive Richard Albarino is quoted as saying of Toback, "He never wrote or made anything he hadn't experienced first. He can't write fiction; he can only write diaries and dramatize them."


title: James Toback

text: Owen Gleiberman, chief film critic for "Variety", called Toback's 2017 "An Imperfect Murder" "a thrift-shop psychological X-ray that demands to be taken on its own Tobackian terms. But even on those terms, it spends too much time telling us things that it should be showing us."


title: James Toback

text: Critic Roger Ebert, who panned "The Pick-up Artist" but praised Toback's other films, said of Toback that as a director, "He's alive. He's in your face. He's trying. He's trying to do something amazing. And to see somebody trying to do that even if they don't always succeed is much more interesting than to see somebody who is not even trying to do it in the first place."


title: James Toback

text: Shortly after the October 2017 news revelations of film producer Harvey Weinstein's sex abuse crimes, many women, galvanized into the #MeToo movement, came forward to accuse other luminaries in the arts and entertainment industries. The "Los Angeles Times" reported that 38 women had accused Toback of sexual misconduct. Months later, the number of accusers contacting the "Times" had grown to nearly 400. Five allegations were presented to authorities as potential crimes. Los Angeles prosecutors dismissed them all, citing statutes of limitations. In 2022, New York state suspended for one year its statute of limitations on filing sexual misconduct complaints. The suspension unleashed a wave of new accusations, including at least one lawsuit naming Toback.


title: James Toback

text: Toback and his wife Stephanie Kempf, married since 1992, live in New York. Kempf had edited Toback's first documentary "The Big Bang" in 1989. They have one son. Toback had an early and brief first marriage to Consuelo Sarah Churchill Vanderbilt Russell, the granddaughter of John Spencer-Churchill, 10th Duke of Marlborough.


title: Roz Kelly

text: Roz Kelly (born Rosiland Schwartz on July 29, 1942) is an American actress, perhaps best known for playing Arthur "Fonzie" Fonzarelli's (Henry Winkler) girlfriend Carol "Pinky" Tuscadero on the television series "Happy Days".


title: Roz Kelly

text: Before "Happy Days", Roz Kelly worked as a staff photographer for "New York Magazine", where she took pictures of both unknowns and celebrities, including Jimi Hendrix, Soupy Sales, Andy Warhol, Cream, Leonard Cohen, Neil Diamond, and photographer Diane Arbus.


title: Roz Kelly

text: On "Happy Days", Kelly played Carol "Pinky" Tuscadero, the older sister of Leather Tuscadero (played by singer Suzi Quatro). Carol insisted on being called "Pinky," and usually dressed in attire to match. Pinky was slated to be Fonzie's long-term girlfriend after her initial appearances in episodes 64–66; commercials for the next season even began promoting the character. When discord occurred among Kelly, the cast, and producers, her character was dropped; she was only mentioned briefly in two later episodes.


title: Roz Kelly

text: Beyond "Happy Days", Kelly reprised her Pinky role on the first episode of the short-lived 1977 "Happy Days" spin-off, "Blansky's Beauties". She had a small but memorable role in the television thriller "Curse of the Black Widow" (1977), and portrayed Diane Sullivan in the slasher film "New Year's Evil" (1981). Kelly also appeared in guest roles on "Starsky & Hutch", "The Paul Lynde Halloween Special", "Baretta", "Kojak", "The Love Boat", "The Dukes of Hazzard", "Charlie's Angels", and "Fantasy Island". Her role in "Starsky & Hutch" was created when star Paul Michael Glaser (Starsky) planned to quit at the start of the third season, with Kelly's character, Officer Linda Baylor, intended to fill his place. However, Glaser was persuaded to stay, and Kelly's character appeared in three episodes, "Fatal Charm," “Las Vegas Strangler,” and “Death Notice.” Her role as Pinky Tuscadero was heavily promoted by ABC when the 1976 fall season began. She was billed as Roz "Pinky Tuscadero" Kelly for her appearance on "The Paul Lynde Halloween Special" in late October and appeared on "Match Game PM" the following week and later on "Hollywood Squares".


title: Roz Kelly

text: Kelly also played roles in films such as "Greetings" (1968), "The Owl and the Pussycat" (1970), "You've Got to Walk It Like You Talk It or You'll Lose That Beat" (1971) and "Full Moon High" (1981), and had a voice role in the 1981 animated musical "American Pop".


title: Roz Kelly

text: Kelly appeared as a guest on "The Jenny Jones Show" in an episode titled "Whatever Happened to Your Favorite Television Stars?"


title: Roz Kelly

text: On November 29, 1998, she was arrested for firing a 12-gauge shotgun into the living room window of a neighbor's house after a car alarm woke her up; she also shot the neighbor's car and another car nearby. The neighbor was not home at the time. Pleading no contest to the charge of firing into the house, she received three years' felony probation on October 20, 2000. She was also ordered to receive psychiatric counseling and pay restitution as ordered by the probation department.


title: Roz Kelly

text: On October 27, 2000, she was sentenced to 120 days in jail after pleading "no contest" to charges stemming from an August 20, 2000, arrest for hitting a man with her cane. She was given credit for the 98 days that she had already spent in jail awaiting sentencing, thus avoiding having to spend any more time in jail.


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: A prisoner in the Vatican (; ) or prisoner of the Vatican described the situation of the Pope with respect to Italy during the period from the capture of Rome by the armed forces of the Kingdom of Italy on 20 September 1870 until the Lateran Treaty of 11 February 1929. Part of the process of Italian unification, the city's capture ended the millennium-old temporal rule of the popes over central Italy and allowed Rome to be designated the capital of the new nation. Although the Italians did not occupy the territories of Vatican Hill delimited by the Leonine walls and offered the creation of a city-state in the area, the Popes from Pius IX to Pius XI refused the proposal and described themselves as prisoners of the new Italian state.


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: As nationalism swept the Italian Peninsula in the 19th century, efforts to unify Italy were blocked in part by the Papal States, which ran through the middle of the peninsula and included the ancient capital of Rome. The Papal States were able to fend off efforts to conquer them largely through the pope's influence over the leaders of stronger European powers such as France and Austria. When Italian troops entered Rome, the Italian government reportedly intended to let the pope keep the part of Rome on the Vatican hill west of the Tiber, called Leonine City due to its walls built by Pope Leo IV, a small remaining Papal State, but Pius IX refused. One week after entering Rome, the Italian troops had taken the entire city save for the territories of Vatican Hill; the inhabitants of Rome then voted to join Italy (those living in the Vatican were allowed to vote outside of the Leonine walls).


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: For the next 59 years, the popes refused to leave the Vatican in order to avoid any appearance of accepting the authority wielded by the Italian government over Rome as a whole. During this period, popes also refused to appear at Saint Peter's Square or at the balcony of St. Peter's Basilica facing it. Popes granted the "Urbi et Orbi" blessings from a balcony facing a courtyard, or from inside the basilica, and papal coronations were instead held at the Sistine Chapel. The period ended in 1929, when the Lateran Treaty created the modern state of Vatican City.


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: The 13 May 1871 Italian Law of Guarantees, passed eight months after the capture of Rome, was an attempt to solve the problem by making the pope a subject of the Kingdom of Italy, not an independent sovereign, while guaranteeing him certain honours similar to those given to the king and the right to send and receive ambassadors.


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: The popes—Pius IX (died 1878) and his successors Leo XIII (reigned 1878–1903), St Pius X (1903–14), Benedict XV (1914–22) and (from 1922 until the issue was resolved in 1929) Pius XI—refused to accept this unilateral decision, which, they felt, could be reversed by the same power that granted it, and which did not ensure that their decisions would be clearly seen to be free from interference by a political power. They claimed that total sovereignty was needed so that a civil government would never attempt to interfere in the governance of the universal Roman Church. Therefore, even after the Law of Guarantees, Pope Pius IX and his successors up to and including Pius XI decided not to leave the Palace of the Vatican, so as not to submit to the authority of the Italian State. As a result of the crisis, Pope Pius IX excommunicated the King of Italy.


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: Especially in the strongly Roman Catholic rural areas of Italy, there was great tension between Church and State. The newly unified Kingdom of Italy did not recognise the validity of Church weddings, while the Church maintained that the Kingdom was illegitimate and Church weddings were sufficient before God.


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: Following the fall of Rome, most countries continued to accredit diplomatic representatives to the Holy See, seeing it as an entity of public international law with which they desired such relations, while they withdrew their consuls, whose work had been connected instead with the temporal power of the papacy, which was now ended. However, no diplomatic relations existed between the Holy See and the Italian state.


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: According to Jasper Ridley, at the 1867 Congress of Peace in Geneva, Giuseppe Garibaldi referred to "that pestilential institution which is called the Papacy" and proposed giving "the final blow to the monster". This was a reflection of the bitterness that had been generated by the struggle against Pope Pius IX in 1849 and 1860, and it was in sharp contrast to the letter that Garibaldi had written to the pope from Montevideo in 1847, before those events.


title: Prisoner in the Vatican

text: The stand-off was ended on 11 February 1929, when the Lateran Pacts created a new microstate, that of Vatican City, and opened the way for diplomatic relations between Italy and the Holy See. The Holy See in turn recognised the Kingdom of Italy, with Rome as its capital, thus ending the situation whereby the popes had felt constrained to remain within the Vatican. Subsequently, the popes resumed visiting their cathedral, the Archbasilica of Saint John Lateran, situated on the opposite side of the city of Rome, and to travel regularly to their summer residence at Castel Gandolfo, from Rome.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: The palmaris longus is a muscle visible as a small tendon located between the flexor carpi radialis and the flexor carpi ulnaris, although it is not always present. It is absent in about 14 percent of the population; this number can vary in African, Asian, and Native American populations, however. Absence of the palmaris longus does not have an effect on grip strength. The lack of palmaris longus muscle does result in decreased pinch strength in fourth and fifth fingers. The absence of palmaris longus muscle is more prevalent in females than males.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: The palmaris longus muscle can be seen by touching the pads of the fourth finger and thumb and flexing the wrist. The tendon, if present, will be visible in the midline of the anterior wrist.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: Palmaris longus is a slender, elongated, spindle shaped muscle, lying on the medial side of the flexor carpi radialis. It is widest in the middle, and narrowest at the proximal and distal attachments.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: It arises mainly from the medial epicondyle of the humerus via the common flexor tendon. It also takes origin from the adjacent intermuscular septa and from the antebrachial fascia.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: It ends in a slender, flattened tendon, which passes over the upper part of the flexor retinaculum and inserts onto the central part of the flexor retinaculum and lower part of the palmar aponeurosis. Frequently, it sends a tendinous slip to the short muscles of the thumb.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: The palmaris longus muscle is a variable muscle. The most common variation is its absence. Several "in vivo" and "in vitro" studies have documented the prevalence or absence of the PL tendon in different ethnic groups. Between 5.5 and 24% of Caucasian populations (European and North American) and 4.6 to 26.6% of Asian populations (Chinese, Japanese, Indian, Turkish, Malaysian) have been reported to lack the PL tendon.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: There are also variations related to its form. It may be tendinous above and muscular below; or it may be muscular in the center with a tendon above and below; or it may present two muscular bundles with a central tendon; or finally it may consist solely of a tendinous band. The muscle may be double, or missing entirely. Slips of origin from the coronoid process or from the radius have been seen. Partial or complete insertion into the fascia of the forearm, into the tendon of the flexor carpi ulnaris and pisiform bone, into the scaphoid, and into the muscles of the little finger have been observed.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: The palmaris longus muscle is the most popular for use in tendon grafts for the wrist due to the length and diameter of the palmaris longus tendon, and the fact that it can be used without producing any functional deformities. When a tendon becomes ruptured in the wrist, the palmaris longus tendon may be removed from the flexor retinaculum and grafted to take the place of the ruptured tendon. The tendons most commonly replaced or supplemented by the palmaris longus tendon when ruptured are the long flexors of the fingers and the flexor pollicis longus tendon.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: The palmaris longus muscle itself is a weak flexor, and provides no substantial flexing force that would inhibit movement in the wrist if its tendon were cut and moved elsewhere. The palmaris longus may contribute and assist in thumb abduction movements; an action necessary to open the hand. If the palmaris longus muscle is not available for harvesting in an individual, the anatomically homologous plantaris muscle in the leg may be taken instead. Using the patient’s own tendon is advantageous, as it does not introduce foreign material into the body.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: Of the known anatomical variants of the palmaris longus, the reverse belly of the palmaris longus may be localized within the carpal tunnel producing symptoms of carpal tunnel syndrome. Knowledge of this variation is important to prevent unnecessary carpal tunnel release surgery, in which the median nerve compression may remain unresolved due to the presence of this palmaris longus variant.


title: Palmaris longus muscle

text: The evolutionary interpretation of the muscle's absence is that humans inherited the muscle through common descent, and numerous animals that humans share a common ancestor with (such as the orangutan) still actively employ the muscle. Close primate relatives (such as the chimpanzee and gorilla) also do not actively employ the muscle, and hence they also demonstrate the same variability. The common descent principle suggests that at some stage our ancestors employed the muscle actively. The thumb apparatus (and particularly the thenar muscle group) then started developing in the hominin branch, and consequently the "Palmaris longus" became vestigial. As there is no apparent evolutionary pressure (positive or negative) concerning the muscle, it has remained largely unaffected by evolutionary processes.


title: Glow stick

text: A glow stick, also known as a light stick, chem light, light wand, light rod, and rave light, is a self-contained, short-term light-source. It consists of a translucent plastic tube containing isolated substances that, when combined, make light through chemiluminescence. The light cannot be turned off and can be used only once. The used tube is then thrown away. Glow sticks are often used for recreation, such as for events, camping, outdoor exploration, and concerts. Glow sticks are also used for light in military and emergency services applications. Industrial uses include marine, transportation, and mining.


title: Glow stick

text: Bis(2,4,5-trichlorophenyl-6-carbopentoxyphenyl)oxalate, trademarked "Cyalume", was invented in 1971 by Michael M. Rauhut, of American Cyanamid, based on work by Edwin A. Chandross of Bell Labs.


title: Glow stick

text: Other early work on chemiluminescence was carried out at the same time, by researchers under Herbert Richter at China Lake Naval Weapons Center.


title: Glow stick

text: Several US patents for glow stick-type devices were issued in 1973-74. A later 1976 patent recommended a single glass ampoule that is suspended in a second substance, that when broken and mixed together, provide the chemiluminescent light. The design also included a stand for the signal device so it could be thrown from a moving vehicle and remain standing in an upright position on the road. The idea was this would replace traditional emergency roadside flares and would be superior, since it was not a fire hazard, would be easier and safer to deploy, and would not be made ineffective if struck by passing vehicles. This design, with its single glass ampoule inside a plastic tube filled with a second substance that when bent breaks the glass and then is shaken to mix the substances, most closely resembles the typical glow stick sold today.


title: Glow stick

text: In the early 1980s the majority of glow sticks were produced in Novato, California by Omniglow Corp. Omniglow completed a leveraged buyout of American Cyanamid's chemical light division in 1994 and became the leading supplier of glow sticks worldwide until going out of business in 2014. Most glow sticks seen today are now made in China.


title: Glow stick

text: Glow sticks are waterproof, do not use batteries, consume no oxygen, generate no or negligible heat, produce neither spark nor flame, can tolerate high pressures such as those found under water, are inexpensive, and are reasonably disposable. This makes them ideal as light sources and light markers by military forces, campers, spelunkers, and recreational divers.


title: Glow stick

text: Glowsticking is the use of glow sticks in dancing. They are frequently used for entertainment at parties (in particular raves), concerts, and dance clubs. They are used by marching band conductors for evening performances; glow sticks are also used in festivals and celebrations around the world. Glow sticks also serve multiple functions as toys, readily visible night-time warnings to motorists, and luminous markings that enable parents to keep track of their children. Another use is for balloon-carried light effects. Glow sticks are also used to create special effects in low light photography and film.


title: Glow stick

text: The "Guinness Book of Records" recorded the world's largest glow stick was cracked at tall. It was created by the University of Wisconsin–Whitewater's Chemistry Department to celebrate the school's sesquicentennial, or 150th birthday in Whitewater, Wisconsin and cracked on 9 September 2018.


title: Glow stick

text: Glow sticks are used for outdoor recreation, often used at night for marking. Scuba divers use diving-rated glow sticks to mark themselves during night dives, and then can turn off bright diving lights. This is done to enable visibility of bioluminescent marine organisms, which cannot be seen while a bright dive light is illuminated. Glow sticks are used on backpacks, tent pegs, and on jackets during overnight camping expeditions. Often, glow sticks are recommended as an addition to survival kits.


title: Glow stick

text: There are specific industrial uses of glow sticks, which are often used as a light source in circumstances where electric lighting and LEDs are not best suited. For example, in the mining industry, glow sticks are required for emergency evacuation in the case of a gas leak. Use of an electric light source in this case may cause an unintended explosion. Chemiluminescence, the type of light used in glow sticks, is a "cold-light" and does not use electricity, and will not cause a gas leak to ignite.


title: Glow stick

text: Glow sticks are also used worldwide in the marine industry, often used as fishing lures in long-line, recreational, and commercial fishing, as well as for personnel safety.


title: Glow stick

text: Glow sticks are used by militaries, and occasionally also police tactical units, as light sources during night operations or close-quarters combat in dark areas. They are also used to mark secured areas or objects of note. When worn, they can be used to identify friendly soldiers during nighttime operations.


title: Glow stick

text: Glow sticks are used by police, fire, and emergency medical services as light sources, similar to their military applications. Often, emergency rescue crews will hand out glow sticks in order to keep track of people at night, who may not have access to their own lighting. Glow sticks are sometimes attached to life vests and lifeboats on passenger and commercial vessels, to ensure night time visibility.


title: Glow stick

text: Glow sticks are often part of emergency kits to provide basic lighting and provide ease of identification in dark areas. They can be found in emergency lighting kits in buildings, public transportation vehicles, and subway stations.


title: Glow stick

text: Glow sticks emit light when two chemicals are mixed. The reaction between the two chemicals is catalyzed by a base, usually sodium salicylate. The sticks consist of a tiny, brittle container within a flexible outer container. Each container holds a different solution. When the outer container is flexed, the inner container breaks, allowing the solutions to combine, causing the necessary chemical reaction. After breaking, the tube is shaken to thoroughly mix the components.


title: Glow stick

text: The glow stick contains two chemicals, a base catalyst, and a suitable dye (sensitizer, or fluorophor). This creates an exergonic reaction. The chemicals inside the plastic tube are a mixture of the dye, the base catalyst, and diphenyl oxalate. The chemical in the glass vial is hydrogen peroxide. By mixing the peroxide with the phenyl oxalate ester, a chemical reaction takes place, yielding two moles of phenol and one mole of peroxyacid ester (1,2-dioxetanedione). The peroxyacid decomposes spontaneously to carbon dioxide, releasing energy that excites the dye, which then relaxes by releasing a photon. The wavelength of the photon—the color of the emitted light—depends on the structure of the dye. The reaction releases energy mostly as light, with very little heat. The reason for this is that the reverse [2 + 2] photocycloadditions of 1,2-dioxetanedione is a forbidden transition (it violates Woodward–Hoffmann rules) and cannot proceed through a regular thermal mechanism.


title: Glow stick

text: By adjusting the concentrations of the two chemicals and the base, manufacturers can produce glow sticks that glow either brightly for a short amount of time or more dimly for an extended length of time. This also allows glow sticks to perform satisfactorily in hot or cold climates, by compensating for the temperature dependence of reaction. At maximum concentration (typically found only in laboratory settings), mixing the chemicals results in a furious reaction, producing large amounts of light for only a few seconds. The same effect can be achieved by adding copious amounts of sodium salicylate or other bases. Heating a glow stick also causes the reaction to proceed faster and the glow stick to glow more brightly for a brief period. Cooling a glow stick slows the reaction a small amount and causes it to last longer, but the light is dimmer. This can be demonstrated by refrigerating or freezing an active glow stick; when it warms up again, it will resume glowing. The dyes used in glow sticks usually exhibit fluorescence when exposed to ultraviolet radiation—even a spent glow stick may therefore shine under a black light.


title: Glow stick

text: The light intensity is high immediately after activation, then exponentially decays. Leveling of this initial high output is possible by refrigerating the glow stick before activation.


title: Glow stick

text: A combination of two fluorophores can be used, with one in the solution and another incorporated to the walls of the container. This is advantageous when the second fluorophore would degrade in solution or be attacked by the chemicals. The emission spectrum of the first fluorophore and the absorption spectrum of the second one have to largely overlap, and the first one has to emit at shorter wavelength than the second one. A downconversion from ultraviolet to visible is possible, as is conversion between visible wavelengths (e.g., green to orange) or visible to near-infrared. The shift can be as much as 200 nm, but usually the range is about 20–100 nm longer than the absorption spectrum. Glow sticks using this approach tend to have colored containers, due to the dye embedded in the plastic. Infrared glow sticks may appear dark-red to black, as the dyes absorb the visible light produced inside the container and reemit near-infrared.


title: Glow stick

text: On the other hand, various colors can also be achieved by simply mixing several fluorophores within the solution to achieve the desired effect. These various colors can be achieved due to the principles of additive color. For example, a combination of red, yellow, and green fluorophores is used in orange light sticks, and a combination of several fluorescers is used in white light sticks.


title: Glow stick

text: In glow sticks, phenol is produced as a byproduct. It is advisable to keep the mixture away from skin and to prevent accidental ingestion if the glow stick case splits or breaks. If spilled on skin, the chemicals could cause slight skin irritation, swelling, or, in extreme circumstances, vomiting and nausea. Some of the chemicals used in older glow sticks were thought to be potential carcinogens. The sensitizers used are polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons, a class of compounds known for their carcinogenic properties.


title: Glow stick

text: Dibutyl phthalate, a plasticizer sometimes used in glow sticks (and many plastics), has raised some health concerns. It was put on California's list of suspected teratogens in 2006. Glow stick liquid contains ingredients that can act as a plasticizer, softening plastics onto which it leaks. Diphenyl oxalate can sting and burn eyes, irritate and sting skin and can burn the mouth and throat if ingested.


title: Glow stick

text: Researchers in Brazil, concerned about waste from glowsticks used in fishing in their country, published a study in 2014 on this topic. It measured the secondary reactions that continue within used glow sticks, toxicity to cells in culture, and chemical reactions with DNA "in vitro." The authors found "high toxicity" of light stick solutions, and evidence of reactivity with DNA. They concluded that light stick solutions "are hazardous and that the health risks associated with exposure have not yet been properly evaluated."


title: Glow stick

text: Glow sticks also contribute to the plastic waste problem, as glow sticks are single-use and made from plastic. Additionally, since the inner vial is often made from glass and the chemicals inside are dangerous if improperly handled, the plastic used for glow sticks is non-recoverable by recycling services, so glow sticks are categorized as non-recyclable waste.


title: Glow stick

text: By the 2020s, work was being done to create safer glow sticks and alternatives. Canadian company Nyoka Design Labs developed glow stick alternatives. The Light Wand is biodegradable and glows with bioluminescence, rather than the chemiluminescence. The LUMI is a reusable and non-toxic alternative that glows with phosphorescence and is chemically and biologically inert.


title: Revolution Radio

text: Revolution Radio is the twelfth studio album by American rock band Green Day, released on October 7, 2016 through Reprise Records. A self-produced effort, it marked their first release since guitarist Jason White returned to his original role as a touring member, after having been an official band member from 2012 to early 2016. White subsequently did not participate in the recording sessions. It is their first album since 2009’s "21st Century Breakdown" not to be produced by longtime producer Rob Cavallo. It is also their first album since 2000's "Warning" to not carry a parental advisory label, although the track "Youngblood" features profanity.


title: Revolution Radio

text: Three singles were released from the album; "Bang Bang", "Still Breathing", and "Revolution Radio". The album received generally positive reviews from music critics, appeared on multiple year-end lists, and sold 95,000 first-week album-equivalent units in the US to debut at number one on the "Billboard" 200. "Revolution Radio" also debuted at number one in the United Kingdom, Ireland, Italy, Canada, and New Zealand.


title: Revolution Radio

text: Work on what would become "Revolution Radio" began in 2014, following the 99 Revolutions Tour, in support of "¡Uno!", "¡Dos!", and "¡Tré!" (2012).


title: Revolution Radio

text: After acknowledging that the trilogy of albums had "absolutely no direction to them" and were an attempt at being "prolific for the sake of it," lead singer and guitarist Billie Joe Armstrong claimed that the record is "not so much a makeover as a make under." The lead single, "Bang Bang," described by Armstrong is about "the culture of mass shooting that happens in America mixed with narcissistic social media."


title: Revolution Radio

text: Prior to the recording sessions, Jason White chose not to participate and he demoted himself back to being a touring member. The album's lead single, "Bang Bang", premiered on August 11, 2016. Prior to the album's release, its title track, "Revolution Radio", and "Still Breathing" were released on September 9 and September 23, respectively. On the album's release date, the official lyric video for "Youngblood" was uploaded on the band's website. On October 12, a lyric video for the song "Ordinary World" was released. On October 19, another lyric video was released, for the song "Say Goodbye". On November 7, a music video was released for "Still Breathing", the second official single from the album. On January 16, a lyric video was released for "Troubled Times". "Revolution Radio" was released as the third single on May 16, 2017. On September 8, a lyric video for the song "Too Dumb to Die" was released. The album's final track "Ordinary World" was featured in the 2016 film of the same name, which starred Armstrong. On December 13, 2018, an official music video for "Youngblood" was released with the caption "Merry Xmas 2018" on the band's YouTube channel.


title: Revolution Radio

text: "Revolution Radio" received positive reviews from music critics. At Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, the album has an average score of 72 out of 100, which indicates "generally favorable reviews" based on 29 reviews.


title: Revolution Radio

text: Aaron Burgess at "Alternative Press" observed, "It's the first time in years Green Day haven't had all the answers. But as a statement on how it really feels to fight, it's the closest to the truth they've ever gotten." Gwilym Mumford of "The Guardian" stated "[after their last few albums] the band have decided to get back to basics: "Revolution Radio" is their most focused work in years. Lead single Bang Bang sets the tone, with a caustic consideration of the fame-hungry psychosis of a mass shooter."


title: Revolution Radio

text: "Revolution Radio" debuted at number one on the US "Billboard" 200 with 95,000 album-equivalent units, of which 90,000 were album sales. The album also debuted at number one in the UK, Ireland, Italy, and New Zealand. The album had first-week units of 30,880 in the UK, 29,470 of which were from album sales. The album charted at number 10 in the US in its second week with 21,000 units. The album sold 118,000 copies in the first three weeks in the US.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: The Laws of Cricket is a code which specifies the rules of the game of cricket worldwide. The earliest known code was drafted in 1744 and, since 1788, it has been owned and maintained by its custodian, the Marylebone Cricket Club (MCC) in London. There are currently 42 Laws (always written with a capital "L") which outline all aspects of how the game is to be played. MCC has re-coded the Laws six times, the seventh and latest code being released in October 2017. The 2nd edition of the 2017 Code came into force on 1 April 2019. The first six codes prior to 2017 were all subject to interim revisions and so exist in more than one version.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: MCC is a private club which was formerly cricket's official governing body, a role now fulfilled by the International Cricket Council (ICC). MCC retains copyright in the Laws and only the MCC may change the Laws, although usually this is only done after close consultation with the ICC and other interested parties such as the Association of Cricket Umpires and Scorers. Cricket is one of the few sports in which the governing principles are referred to as "Laws" rather than as "rules" or "regulations". In certain cases, however, regulations to supplement and/or vary the Laws may be agreed for particular competitions as required. Those applying to international matches (referred to as "playing conditions") can be found on the ICC's website.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: The origin of cricket is uncertain and it was first definitely recorded at Guildford in the 16th century. It is believed to have been a boys' game at that time but, from early in the 17th century, it was increasingly played by adults. Rules as such existed and, in early times, would have been agreed orally and subject to local variations. Cricket in the late 17th century became a betting game attracting high stakes and there were instances of teams being sued for non-payment of wagers they had lost.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: In July and August 1727, two matches were organised by stakeholders Charles Lennox, 2nd Duke of Richmond and Alan Brodrick, 2nd Viscount Midleton. References to these games confirm that they drew up Articles of Agreement between them to determine the rules that must apply in their contests. The original handwritten articles document drawn up by Richmond and Brodrick has been preserved. It is among papers which the West Sussex Record Office (WSRO) acquired from Goodwood House in 1884.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: This is the first time that rules are known to have been formally agreed, their purpose being to resolve any problems between the patrons during their matches. The concept, however, was to attain greater importance in terms of defining rules of play as, eventually, these were codified as the "Laws of Cricket". The Articles are a list of 16 points, many of which are easily recognised despite their wording as belonging to the modern "Laws of Cricket", for example: (a) a Ball caught, the Striker is out; (b) when a Ball is caught out, the Stroke counts nothing; (c) catching out behind the Wicket allowed.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: Points that differ from the modern Laws (use of "italics" is to highlight the differences only): (a) the wickets shall be pitched at "twenty three yards" distance from each other; (b) that "twelve" Gamesters shall play on each side; (c) the Batt Men for every one they count are to "touch the Umpire's Stick"; (d) no Player shall be deemed out by any Wicket put down, "unless with the Ball in Hand". In modern cricket: (a) the pitch is 22 yards long; (b) the teams are eleven-a-side; (c) runs were only completed if the batsman touched the umpire's stick (which was probably a bat) and this practice was eventually replaced by the batsman having to touch the ground behind the popping crease; (d) run outs no longer require the ball to be in hand.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: The earliest known code of Laws was enacted in 1744 but not actually printed, so far as it is known, until 1755. They were possibly an upgrade of an earlier code and the intention must have been to establish a universal codification. The Laws were drawn up by the "noblemen and gentlemen members of the London Cricket Club", which was based at the Artillery Ground, although the printed version in 1755 states that "several cricket clubs" were involved, having met at the "Star and Garter" in Pall Mall.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: The 1744 Laws do not say the bowler must roll (or skim) the ball and there is no mention of prescribed arm action so, in theory, a pitched delivery would have been legal, though potentially controversial. Underarm pitching is believed to have begun in the early 1760s when the Hambledon Club was rising to prominence. The modern straight bat was introduced as a consequence, replacing the old "hockey stick" bat which was good for hitting a ball on the ground but not for addressing a ball on the bounce.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: In 1771, an incident on the field of play led to the creation of a new Law which remains extant. In a match between Chertsey and Hambledon at Laleham Burway, the Chertsey all-rounder Thomas White used a bat that was the width of the wicket. There was no rule in place to prevent this action and so all the Hambledon players could do was register a formal protest which was signed by Thomas Brett, Richard Nyren and John Small, the three leading Hambledon players. As a result, it was decided by the game's lawmakers that the maximum width of the bat must be four and one quarter inches; this was included in the next revision of the Laws and it remains the maximum width.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: On Friday, 25 February 1774, the Laws were revised by a committee meeting at the "Star and Garter". Chaired by Sir William Draper, the members included prominent cricket patrons the 3rd Duke of Dorset, the 4th Earl of Tankerville, Charles Powlett, Philip Dehany and Sir Horatio Mann. The clubs and counties represented were Kent, Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex, Middlesex and London.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: The main innovation was the introduction of leg before wicket (lbw) as a means of dismissal. The practice of stopping the ball with the leg had arisen as a negative response to the pitched delivery. As in 1744, there is nothing about the bowler's delivery action. The maximum width of the bat was confirmed following the incident in 1771.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: As in 1744, the 1774 code asserted that "the stumps must be twenty-two inches, the bail six inches long". There were only two stumps then, with a single bail. At the Artillery Ground on 22 & 23 May 1775, a lucrative single wicket match was played between Five of Kent (with Lumpy Stevens) and Five of Hambledon (with Thomas White). Kent batted first and made 37 to which Hambledon replied with 92, including 75 by John Small. In their second innings, Kent scored 102, leaving Hambledon a target of 48 to win. Small batted last of the Hambledon Five and needed 14 more to win when he went in. He duly scored the runs and Hambledon won by 1 wicket but a great controversy arose afterwards because, three times in the course of his second innings, Small was beaten by Lumpy only for the ball to pass through the two-stump wicket each time without hitting the stumps or the bail. As a result of Lumpy's protests, the middle stump was introduced, although it was some years before its use became universal.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: MCC was founded in 1787 and immediately assumed responsibility for the Laws, issuing a new version on 30 May 1788 which was called "The LAWS of the NOBLE GAME of CRICKET as revised by the Club at St. Mary-le-bone". The third Law stated: "The stumps must be twenty-two inches out of the ground, the bail six inches in length". These were the overall dimensions and the requirement for a third stump was unspecified, indicating that its use was still not universal.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: The 1788 code is much more detailed and descriptive than the 1774 code but, fundamentally, they are largely the same. The main difference was in the wording of the lbw Law. In 1774, this said that the batsman is out if, "with design", he prevents the ball hitting the wicket with his leg. In 1788, the "with design" clause was omitted and a new clause was introduced that the ball must have pitched straight. Also in 1788, protection of the pitch was first included in the Laws. By mutual consent between the teams, the pitch could be rolled, watered, covered and mown during a match and the use of sawdust was authorised. Previously, pitches were left untouched during a match.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: MCC has revised the Laws periodically, usually within the same code, but at times they have decided to publish an entirely new code:


title: Laws of Cricket

text: Changes to the Laws did not always coincide with the publication of a new code and some of the most important changes were introduced as revisions to the current code and, therefore, each code has more than one version.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: Starting on 1 October 2017, the current version of the Laws are the "Laws of Cricket 2017 Code" which replaced the 6th Edition of the "2000 Code of Laws". Custodianship of the Laws remains one of MCC's most important roles. The ICC still relies on MCC to write and interpret the Laws, which are the responsibility of MCC's Laws sub-committee. The process in MCC is that the sub-committee prepares a draft which is passed by the main committee. Certain levels of cricket, however, are subject to playing conditions which can differ from the Laws. At international level, playing conditions are implemented by the ICC; at domestic level by each country's board of control.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: Starting from the third edition of the 2017 version of the code, the term "batter" was substituted from the term "batsman", to make the laws use gender-neutral terminology.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: The first 12 Laws cover the players and officials, basic equipment, pitch specifications and timings of play. These Laws are supplemented by Appendices B, C and D (see below).


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 1: The players". A cricket team consists of eleven players, including a captain. Outside of official competitions, teams can agree to play more than eleven-a-side, though no more than eleven players may field.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 2: The umpires". There are two umpires, who apply the Laws, make all necessary decisions, and relay the decisions to the scorers. While not required under the Laws of Cricket, in higher level cricket a third umpire (located off the field, and available to assist the on-field umpires) may be used under the specific playing conditions of a particular match or tournament.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 4: The ball". A cricket ball is between 8.81 and 9 inches (22.4 cm and 22.9 cm) in circumference, and weighs between 5.5 and 5.75 ounces (155.9g and 163g) in men's cricket. A slightly smaller and lighter ball is specified in women's cricket, and slightly smaller and lighter again in junior cricket (Law 4.6). Only one ball is used at a time, unless it is lost, when it is replaced with a ball of similar wear. It is also replaced at the start of each innings, and may, at the request of the fielding side, be replaced with a new ball, after a minimum number of overs have been bowled as prescribed by the regulations under which the match is taking place (currently 80 in Test matches). The gradual degradation of the ball through the innings is an important aspect of the game.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 5: The bat". The bat is no more than in length, no more than wide, no more than deep at its middle and no deeper than at the edge. The hand or glove holding the bat is considered part of the bat. Ever since the ComBat incident, a highly publicised marketing attempt by Dennis Lillee, who brought out an aluminium bat during an international game, the Laws have provided that the blade of the bat must be made of wood.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 6: The pitch". The pitch is a rectangular area of the ground long and wide. The Ground Authority selects and prepares the pitch, but once the game has started, the umpires control what happens to the pitch. The umpires are also the arbiters of whether the pitch is fit for play, and if they deem it unfit, with the consent of both captains can change the pitch. Professional cricket is almost always played on a grass surface. However, in the event a non-turf pitch is used, the artificial surface must have a minimum length of and a minimum width of .


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 7: The creases". This Law sets out the dimensions and locations of the creases. The bowling crease, which is the line the stumps are in the middle of, is drawn at each end of the pitch so that the three stumps at that end of the pitch fall on it (and consequently it is perpendicular to the imaginary line joining the centres of both middle stumps). Each bowling crease should be in length, centred on the middle stump at each end, and each bowling crease terminates at one of the return creases. The popping crease, which determines whether a batter is in his ground or not, and which is used in determining front-foot no-balls (see Law 21), is drawn at each end of the pitch in front of each of the two sets of stumps. The popping crease must be in front of and parallel to the bowling crease. Although it is considered to have unlimited length, the popping crease must be marked to at least on either side of the imaginary line joining the centres of the middle stumps. The return creases, which are the lines a bowler must be within when making a delivery, are drawn on each side of each set of the stumps, along each sides of the pitch (so there are four return creases in all, one on either side of both sets of stumps). The return creases lie perpendicular to the popping crease and the bowling crease, either side of and parallel to the imaginary line joining the centres of the two middle stumps. Each return crease terminates at one end at the popping crease but the other end is considered to be unlimited in length and must be marked to a minimum of from the popping crease. Diagrams setting out the crease markings can be found in Appendix C.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 8: The wickets". The wicket consists of three wooden stumps that are tall. The stumps are placed along the bowling crease with equal distances between each stump. They are positioned so that the wicket is wide. Two wooden bails are placed on top of the stumps. The bails must not project more than above the stumps, and must, for men's cricket, be long. There are also specified lengths for the barrel and spigots of the bail. There are different specifications for the wickets and bails for junior cricket. The umpires may dispense with the bails if conditions are unfit (i.e. it is windy so they might fall off by themselves). Further details on the specifications of the wickets are contained in Appendix D to the Laws.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 9: Preparation and maintenance of the playing area". When a cricket ball is bowled it almost always bounces on the pitch, and the behaviour of the ball is greatly influenced by the condition of the pitch. As a consequence, detailed rules on the management of the pitch are necessary. This Law contains the rules governing how pitches should be prepared, mown, rolled, and maintained.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 10: Covering the pitch". The pitch is said to be 'covered' when the groundsmen have placed covers on it to protect it against rain or dew. The Laws stipulate that the regulations on covering the pitch shall be agreed by both captains in advance. The decision concerning whether to cover the pitch greatly affects how the ball will react to the pitch surface, as a ball bounces differently on wet ground as compared to dry ground. The area beyond the pitch where a bowler runs so as to deliver the ball (the 'run-up') should ideally be kept dry so as to avoid injury through slipping and falling, and the Laws also require these to be covered wherever possible when there is wet weather.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 11: Intervals". There are intervals during each day's play, a ten-minute interval between innings, and lunch, tea and drinks intervals. The timing and length of the intervals must be agreed before the match begins. There are also provisions for moving the intervals and interval lengths in certain situations, most notably the provision that if nine wickets are down, the lunch and tea interval are delayed to the earlier of the fall of the next wicket and 30 minutes elapsing.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 12: Start of play; cessation of play". Play after an interval commences with the umpire's call of "Play", and ceases at the end of a session with a call of "Time". The last hour of a match must contain at least 20 overs, being extended in time so as to include 20 overs if necessary.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 13: Innings". Before the game, the teams agree whether it is to be one or two innings for each side, and whether either or both innings are to be limited by time or by overs. In practice, these decisions are likely to be laid down by Competition Regulations, rather than pre-game agreement. In two-innings games, the sides bat alternately unless the follow-on (Law 14) is enforced. An innings is closed once ten batsmen are dismissed, no further batsmen are fit to play, the innings is declared or forfeited by the batting captain, or any agreed time or overs limit has expired. The captain winning the toss of a coin decides whether to bat or to bowl first.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 14: The follow-on". In a two innings match, if the side batting second scores substantially fewer runs than the side which batted first, then the side that batted first can require their opponents to bat again immediately. The side that enforced the follow-on has the chance to win without batting again. For a game of five or more days, the side batting first must be at least 200 runs ahead to enforce the follow-on; for a three- or four-day game, 150 runs; for a two-day game, 100 runs; for a one-day game, 75 runs. The length of the game is determined by the number of scheduled days play left when the game actually begins.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 15: Declaration and forfeiture". The batting captain can declare an innings closed at any time when the ball is dead, and may also forfeit an innings before it has started.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 16: The result". The side which scores the most runs wins the match. If both sides score the same number of runs, the match is tied. However, the match may run out of time before the innings have all been completed; in this case, the match is drawn.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 17: The over". An over consists of six balls bowled, excluding wides and no-balls. Consecutive overs are delivered from opposite ends of the pitch. A bowler may not bowl two consecutive overs.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 18: Scoring runs". Runs are scored when the two batsmen run to each other's end of the pitch. Several runs can be scored from one ball.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 19: Boundaries". A boundary is marked around the edge of the field of play. If the ball is hit into or past this boundary, four runs are scored, or six runs if the ball doesn't hit the ground before crossing the boundary.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 20: Dead ball". The ball comes into play when the bowler begins his run up, and becomes dead when all the action from that ball is over. Once the ball is dead, no runs can be scored and no batsmen can be dismissed. The ball becomes dead for a number of reasons, most commonly when a batter is dismissed, when a boundary is hit, or when the ball has finally settled with the bowler or wicketkeeper.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 21: No ball". A ball can be a no-ball for several reasons: if the bowler bowls from the wrong place; or if he straightens his elbow during the delivery; or if the bowling is dangerous; or if the ball bounces more than once or rolls along the ground before reaching the batter; or if the fielders are standing in illegal places. A no-ball adds one run to the batting team's score, in addition to any other runs which are scored off it, and the batter can't be dismissed off a no-ball except by being run out, hitting the ball twice, or obstructing the field.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 22: Wide ball". An umpire calls a ball "wide" if, in his or her opinion, the ball is so wide of the batter and the wicket that he could not hit it with the bat playing a normal cricket shot. A wide adds one run to the batting team's score, in addition to any other runs which are scored off it, and the batter can't be dismissed off a wide except by being run out or stumped, by hitting his wicket, or obstructing the field.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 23: Bye and leg bye". If a ball that is not a wide passes the striker and runs are scored, they are called byes. If a ball hits the striker but not the bat and runs are scored, they are called leg-byes. However, leg-byes cannot be scored if the striker is neither attempting a stroke nor trying to avoid being hit. Byes and leg-byes are credited to the team's but not the batter's total.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 24: Fielders' absence; Substitutes". In cricket, a substitute may be brought on for an injured fielder. However, a substitute may not bat, bowl or act as captain. The original player may return if he has recovered.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 25: Batter's innings; Runners" A batter who becomes unable to run may have a runner, who completes the runs while the batter continues batting. (The use of runners is not permitted in international cricket under the current playing conditions.) Alternatively, a batter may retire hurt or ill, and may return later to resume his innings if he recovers.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 26: Practice on the field". There may be no batting or bowling practice on the pitch during the match. Practice is permitted on the outfield during the intervals and before the day's play starts and after the day's play has ended. Bowlers may only practice bowling and have trial run-ups if the umpires are of the view that it would waste no time and does not damage the ball or the pitch.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 27: The wicket-keeper". The keeper is a designated player from the bowling side allowed to stand behind the stumps of the batter. They are the only fielder allowed to wear gloves and external leg guards.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 28: The fielder". A fielder is any of the eleven cricketers from the bowling side. Fielders are positioned to field the ball, to stop runs and boundaries, and to get batsmen out by catching or running them out.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 29: The wicket is down". Several methods of dismissal occur when the wicket is put down. This means that the wicket is hit by the ball, or the batter, or the hand in which a fielder is holding the ball, and at least one bail is removed; if both bails have already been previously removed, one stump must be removed from the ground.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 30: Batter out of his/her ground". The batsmen can be run out or stumped if they are out of their ground. A batter is in his ground if any part of him or his bat is on the ground behind the popping crease, and the other batter was not already in that ground. If both batter are in the middle of the pitch when a wicket is put down, the batter closer to that end is out.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 31: Appeals". If the fielders believe a batter is out, they may ask the umpire "How's That?" before the next ball is bowled. The umpire then decides whether the batter is out. Strictly speaking, the fielding side must appeal for all dismissals, including obvious ones such as bowled. However, a batter who is obviously out will normally leave the pitch without waiting for an appeal or a decision from the umpire.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: Laws 32 to 40 discuss the various ways a batter may be dismissed. In addition to these 9 methods, a batter may retire out, which is covered in Law 25. Of these, caught is generally the most common, followed by bowled, leg before wicket, run out and stumped. The other forms of dismissal are very rare.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 32: Bowled". A batter is out if his wicket is put down by a ball delivered by the bowler. It is irrelevant whether the ball has touched the bat, glove, or any part of the batter before going on to put down the wicket, though it may not touch another player or an umpire before doing so.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 33: Caught". If a ball hits the bat or the hand holding the bat and is then caught by the opposition within the field of play before the ball bounces, then the batter is out.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 34: Hit the ball twice". If a batter hits the ball twice, other than for the sole purpose of protecting his wicket or with the consent of the opposition, he is out.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 35: Hit wicket". If, after the bowler has entered his delivery stride and while the ball is in play, a batter puts his wicket down by his bat or his body he is out. The striker is also out hit wicket if he puts his wicket down by his bat or his body in setting off for a first run. "Body" includes the clothes and equipment of the batter .


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 36: Leg Before Wicket (LBW)". If the ball hits the batter without first hitting the bat, but would have hit the wicket if the batter was not there, and the ball does not pitch on the leg side of the wicket, the batter will be out. However, if the ball strikes the batter outside the line of the off-stump, and the batter was attempting to play a stroke, he is not out.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 37: Obstructing the field". If a batter willfully obstructs the opposition by word or action or strikes the ball with a hand not holding the bat, he is out. If the actions of the non-striker prevent a catch taking place, then the striker is out. "Handled the Ball" was previously a method of dismissal in its own right.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 38: Run out". A batter is out if at any time while the ball is in play no part of his bat or person is grounded behind the popping crease and his wicket is fairly put down by the opposing side.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 39: Stumped". A batter is out when the wicket-keeper (see Law 27) puts down the wicket, while the batter is out of his crease and not attempting a run.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 40: Timed out". An incoming batter must be ready to face a ball (or be at the crease with his partner ready to face a ball) within 3 minutes of the outgoing batter being dismissed, otherwise the incoming batter will be out.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 41: Unfair play". There are a number of restrictions to ensure fair play covering: changing the condition of the ball; distracting the batsmen; dangerous bowling; time-wasting; damaging the pitch. Some of these offences incur penalty runs, others can see warnings and then restrictions on the players.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Law 42: Players' conduct". The umpires shall penalise unacceptable conduct based on the severity of the actions. Serious misconduct can see a player sent from field; lesser offences, a warning and penalty runs.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Appendix A: Definitions". A set of definitions / clarifications of phrases not otherwise defined within the Laws.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Appendix B: The bat (Law 5)". Specifications on the size and composition of the bat use in the game.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Appendix C: The pitch (Law 6) and creases (Law 7)". Measurements and diagrams explaining how the pitch is marked out.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Appendix D: The wickets (Law 8)". Measurements and diagrams explaining the size and shape of the wickets.


title: Laws of Cricket

text: "Appendix E: Wicket-keeping gloves". Restrictions on the size and design of the gloves worn by the wicket-keeper.


title: 2022 Supersport World Championship

text: The 2022 Supersport World Championship was the twenty-sixth season of the Supersport World Championship, the twenty-fourth held under this name. The championship was won by Dominique Aegerter at the Mandalika round.


title: 2022 Supersport World Championship

text: Following a large overhaul of rules allowing larger-capacity engines, some new manufacturers and models will be eligible. Ducati will return to the series with their Panigale V-twin, two MV models and Triumph three cylinders will rejoin the series with the Street Triple RS, to combat the dominance of Japanese manufacturers Yamaha and Kawasaki.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Kōfu is the capital and largest city of Yamanashi Prefecture, with other major cities including Kai, Minamiarupusu, and Fuefuki. Yamanashi Prefecture is one of only eight landlocked prefectures, and the majority of the population lives in the central Kōfu Basin surrounded by the Akaishi Mountains, with 27% of its total land area being designated as Natural Parks. Yamanashi Prefecture is home to many of the highest mountains in Japan, and Mount Fuji, the tallest mountain in Japan and cultural icon of the country, is partially located in Yamanashi Prefecture on the border with Shizuoka Prefecture.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: As in most other Japanese regions, prehistoric society in Yamanashi progressed through the hunting, fishing and gathering stage of the Jōmon period, then the rice-producing stage of the Yayoi period and subsequent village and regional formation. The Maruyama and Choshizuka Kofun (earthen burial mounds) located on Sone Hill of Nakamichi Town (Southern Kōfu) are believed to have been built from the end of the 4th century. From these remains it can be assumed that the people of Sone Hill had great influence.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Among the many Kaigenji generations, those of the Takeda, Ogasawara, and Nanbu families were particularly prosperous. During the Sengoku period of the 16th century, Takeda Shingen attained the status of daimyō and built Tsuzuji Mansion and the Yōgai Castle in Kōfu. From this base, he attempted to unify and control Japan.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: After Takeda's death in 1582, Kai-no-Kuni came under the control of the Oda and Toyotomi clans before being subsumed into the Tokugawa shogunate during the Edo period. Beneath the Edo shogunate, the Kōfu clan (based in Kuninaka, or Central and Western Yamanashi) and the Yamura clan (based in Gunnai, or Eastern Yamanashi) were formed, but in 1724 the area came under the direct control of the Shogunate. With the development of the Kōshū Kaidō (highway) and Fuji River transport, goods, materials and culture flowed into the region.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: By the mid-19th century, the contradictions of military government and clan system caused stability to erode and resistance to erupt across Japan, paving the way for the Meiji Restoration of 1868.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: During the Boshin War, the Battle of Kōshū-Katsunuma on the 29 March 1868 was a significant battle between pro-Imperial and Tokugawa shogunate forces immediately prior to the Imperial Forces march on Edo Castle. Preceding the Kōshū-Katsunuma battle, Kōfu Castle had been captured by troops loyal to the Emperor Meiji.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: The province was renamed Kōfu Prefecture in 1869 and then Yamanashi Prefecture in 1871. The anniversary of this event on November 20, 1872, is now celebrated as Prefectural Citizen's Day in Yamanashi.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: In the early part of the Meiji period (1868–1911), industrial promotion policies furthered sericulture, silk textile production and wine making industries. In 1903, after seven years of construction, including the building of a nearly three mile long tunnel at the Sasago Pass, the Chūō Railway Line from Hachiōji and central Tokyo finally reached Kōfu. The reduced journey times to the capital and the port of Yokohama brought significant change to local industry and culture.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Agricultural production in farming communities was still on a small scale at the turn of the century and land reforms had yet to be introduced. From the 1920s however, tenancy and contract disputes between landowners and farmers in Yamanashi grew increasingly common.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: In 1926, the Minobu Railway Line connecting Kōfu with Shizuoka Prefecture opened, bringing an end to Fuji River transportation. The Koumi Line connecting Kobuchizawa to Kiyosato was opened by Japanese National Railways (JNR) in 1933, providing access to hitherto remote highland areas on the slopes of Mt. Yatsugatake in the North of the prefecture.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: The capital city, Kōfu, suffered extensive damage during a major air raid on the night of 6 July 1945. From 1945 onwards, as part of economic initiatives introduced under the post war Government of Occupation, agricultural land reforms significantly increased the number of individual farms and promoted fruit farming and viticulture throughout the prefecture. At first with limited success in 1946, but on a much more sustained basis in 1951, dairy farming, introduced by American Paul Rusch, became a feature of highland pastures surrounding the town of Kiyosato.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Small scale manufacturing industries and commerce grew at rapid speed during the expansion of the post-war Japanese economy. The 1982 opening of the Chūō Expressway also led to significant growth in service industries, transport logistics and tourism.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: In common with many similar sized cities during the 1990s, rapid growth in car ownership, out of town shopping, and improved transportation links to Tokyo, caused a drop in commercial activity and land values in the center of the prefectural capital Kōfu. To counterbalance this trend the prefectural government launched a city center revitalization plan in 2008, promoting downtown tourist attractions such as redeveloped land North of Kōfu station, Maizuru Castle Park and new residential, cultural and government office facilities.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Planned changes in transportation infrastructure also promise to significantly impact the Yamanashi economy in the coming decades; under mountains in the eastern part of the prefecture is a completed 42.8 km section of the SCMaglev test track, a section of the planned Chūō Shinkansen.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: The maglev line is designed to ultimately connect Tokyo, Nagoya, and Osaka with a station also planned to the South of Kōfu.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Central Government permission to proceed with an extension to the existing test track was granted on May 27, 2011. At the end of 2013 construction was already well advanced as far as Fuefuki.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: JR Central is considering opening a demonstration service from a new station in Kōfu by the 2020 Summer Olympics so that visitors can also ride on the experimental track through the Yamanashi mountains.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Yamanashi Prefecture is bordered by Tokyo, Kanagawa Prefecture, Saitama Prefecture, Shizuoka Prefecture, and Nagano Prefecture. The prefecture is landlocked, with high mountains surrounding the central Kōfu Basin. Mount Fuji and the Fuji Five Lakes region is located on the southern border with Shizuoka. Mount Fuji provides rain shadow effects, and as a result, the prefecture receives only about 818 mm of rainfall a year.As of April 1, 2012, 27% of the total land area of the prefecture was designated as Natural Parks, namely the Chichibu Tama Kai, Fuji-Hakone-Izu, and Minami Alps National Parks; Yatsugatake-Chūshin Kōgen Quasi-National Park; and Minami Alps Koma and Shibireko Prefectural Natural Parks.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: 78% of the prefecture is covered by forests, making it one of the most densely wooded prefectures in Japan. Land cultivated for agriculture is mainly restricted to the lower elevations of the Kōfu basin.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Yamanashi has a sizable industrial base in and around Kōfu city, with jewelry and robotics industries being particularly prominent. The headquarters of FANUC, manufacturer of factory automation systems, is based in Oshino in the south of the prefecture.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: The prefecture is also host to numerous fruit farms and vineyards. Yamanashi is one of the major fruit producing regions in Japan, being the top domestic producer of grapes, peaches, plums, as well as wine.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: In addition, roughly 40% of the mineral water bottled in Japan comes from Yamanashi, mainly from around the Southern Alps, Mount Fuji, and Mitsutōge areas. The quality of the water sources in the Southern Alps prompted Suntory Group to open the Hakushu distillery in the northern Yamanashi town of Hokuto.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Per Japanese census data, Yamanashi prefecture had negative population growth from 1950 to 1970 and again in the 21st century, with the population peaking at roughly 890,000 around the turn of the millenium.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: The natural scenery and cultural sights of Yamanashi are popular destinations for both domestic and international tourists due to the prefecture's proximity to the crowded Tokyo conurbation and ease of access by road and rail. Mount Fuji, the Fuji Five Lakes region, the highland resort region of Kiyosato, the city of Kōfu, the Senga Falls, Koshu wineries, the temple of Erin-ji in Koshu, and the Kuonji Temple at Minobu are a few of the most popular places to visit.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: The Fuji-Q Highland amusement park at Fujiyoshida with roller coasters Eejanaika, and Takabisha, the world's steepest roller coaster, is also a popular destination for day trips. It also features Do-Dodonpa, the world's fastest accelerating roller coaster. At one point, it was also the world's fastest roller coaster before Cedar Point's Top Thrill Dragster took the record in 2003.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: The natural topography of the region makes Yamanashi popular with mountaineering, hiking and climbing enthusiasts throughout the year. The highest mountain in Japan, Mount Fuji, at and the second highest mountain in Japan, Mount Kita, at are both located within Yamanashi. The Mt. Fuji summer hiking season in July and August attracts thousands of overnight hikers typically starting at the Fifth Station in the late evening and climbing through the night to witness the sunrise at the summit.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Although not as tall, Mount Minobu, a popular place for Buddhist pilgrimage, offers extensive views from the summit of the mountain. Parts of the Fuji-Hakone-Izu National Park, Chichibu-Tama-Kai National Park, and Minami Alps National Park are all located in Yamanashi.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Given the area's volcanic activity, natural hot springs, or onsens, are found in abundance. Some of the more well known are Shimobe Onsen, Isawa Onsen and Yamanami Onsen.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Ventforet Kōfu, the J2 League association football (soccer) team is based in Kōfu. The team's home ground is the Yamanashi Chuo Bank Stadium.


title: Yamanashi Prefecture

text: Since 2005 the Fujizakura Country Club in Fujikawaguchiko has also hosted the Fujisankei Classic golf tournament, an annual event on the Japan Golf Tour.


title: White House Office

text: The White House Office is an entity within the Executive Office of the President of the United States (EOP). The White House Office is headed by the White House chief of staff, who is also the head of the Executive Office of the President. The staff work for and report directly to the president, including West Wing staff and the president's senior advisers. Almost all of the White House Office staff are political appointees of the president, do not require Senate confirmation and can be dismissed at the discretion of the president. Aside from Cabinet secretaries and Supreme Court justices, whose nominations require the approval of the Senate, the President of the United States has the authority to appoint people to high-level positions within the federal government unilaterally.


title: White House Office

text: The staff of the various offices are based in the West Wing and East Wing of the White House, the Eisenhower Executive Office Building, and the New Executive Office Building. Senior staff, with high level, close contact with the President, have the title Assistant to the President. Second-level staff have the title Deputy Assistant to the President, and third-level staff have the title Special Assistant to the President. These aides oversee the political and policy interests of the president.