title: Mel Harris

text: In 1985, shortly before her 1986 acting debut, Harris appeared as a regular contestant on the Dick Clark-hosted syndicated game show "The $100,000 Pyramid", credited as Mel Kennedyher third husband's surname. She returned to the game show in 1991, as a celebrity on the John Davidson-hosted show, with a clip of her win in 1985 shown in a flashback.


title: Mel Harris

text: Harris made her television debut in 1986, with a small role as a character's girlfriend in an episode of "Alfred Hitchcock Presents". After appearances in a single episode each of three other series over 1986–1987, Harris had her first starring role, as Hope Murdoch Steadman in the ABC drama series "Thirtysomething" (1987–1991). The series received critical acclaim during its run, with Harris was nominated for a Golden Globe Award for Best Actress – Television Series Drama in 1990. She directed one episode during the final season.


title: Mel Harris

text: In 1989, Harris played real-life victim Madge Oberholtzer in the miniseries "Cross of Fire". In the 1990s, Harris had many leading roles in made-for-TV movies and miniseries, include "The Burden of Proof" (1992), "Ultimate Betrayal" (1994) and "The Women of Spring Break" (1995). From 1996 to 1998, she starred with Jere Burns in the NBC sitcom "Something So Right". The series was cancelled after two seasons.


title: Mel Harris

text: Harris has appeared in a number of television series in 2000s, including "Touched by an Angel", "Stargate SG-1", "The West Wing", "JAG", "House", and "Criminal Minds". In 2007, she was a regular cast member in the MyNetworkTV limited-run serial "Saints & Sinners". At that time, she began working as a writer. She was executive producer and creator of 2012 ABC drama pilot "Scruples" based on the 1978 novel by Judith Krantz. After a six-year hiatus, Harris returned to television in 2013, appearing in the two episodes of "". In 2016, Harris starred in the first season of Hulu drama series "Shut Eye", and from 2017 to 2018 had a recurring role in the Bravo comedy series "Imposters".


title: Mel Harris

text: In January 2020, ABC ordered a sequel for "Thirtysomething", with Harris set to return alongside original co-stars Ken Olin, Patricia Wettig, and Timothy Busfield. In June 2020, ABC decided not to move forward with the sequel.


title: Mel Harris

text: Harris made her film debut playing a female leading role in the 1987 action film "" starring Rutger Hauer. During the time that she was appearing on "Thirtysomething", she also starred in the horror film "Cameron's Closet" (1988) and action comedy "K-9" (1989). That same year, "Harper's Bazaar" named her one of "America's 10 Most Beautiful Women".


title: Mel Harris

text: She co-starred in the 1992 psychological horror-thriller film "Raising Cain", and the following year played the leading role in the thriller film "Suture". Other film credits include "The Pagemaster" (1994), "Hangman's Curse" (2003), and "The Lodger" (2009).


title: Mel Harris

text: Harris has been married six times. She was married to David Silbergeld from 1978 to 1979; Brian Kilcommons from 1980 to 1982; photographer David Hume Kennerly from 1983 to 1988 (with whom she had son Byron); actor Cotter Smith from 1988 to 1996 (with whom she had daughter Madeline); and investment banker Michael Toomey from 2001 to 2006. She has been married to screenwriter and producer Bob Brush since 2009.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: The assassination of Boris Nemtsov, a Russian politician opposed to the government of Vladimir Putin, occurred in central Moscow on Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge at 23:31 local time on 27 February 2015. An unknown assailant fired seven or eight shots from a Makarov pistol. Four of them hit Boris Nemtsov in the head, heart, liver and stomach, killing him almost instantly. He died hours after appealing to the public to support a march against Russia's war in Ukraine. Nemtsov's Ukrainian partner Anna Duritskaya survived the attack as its sole eyewitness.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: The assassination was met with worldwide condemnation and concern for the situation of the Russian opposition. Russian authorities also condemned the murder and vowed to conduct a thorough investigation.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: On 8 March 2015, Russian authorities charged Anzor Gubashev and Zaur Dadaev, both originating from the Northern Caucasus, with involvement in the crime. According to Russian authorities, Dadaev confessed to involvement in the murder. He later retracted his statement, on the grounds that it was extracted under torture. Three more suspects were arrested around the same time and, according to Russian media, another suspect blew himself up in Grozny when Russian police forces surrounded his apartment block.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Nemtsov was shot and killed crossing the Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge near the Kremlin walking home after a meal out, in the company of Anna Duritskaya (), a 23-year-old Ukrainian model who had been his girlfriend for two and a half years. She witnessed Nemtsov's killing, but was not physically harmed herself. TV Tsentr's video of the bridge at the time of the murder shows that it occurred as a municipal utility vehicle was passing by Nemtsov and a person is seen escaping from the scene in a white or grey automobile.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: The Russian newspaper "Kommersant" reported that at the time of the murder all the security cameras in the area were switched off for maintenance. The only video of the incident was obtained from the video feed camera of TV Tsentr studio, from a long distance. At the time of the killing, the camera was blocked by a stopped municipal vehicle. The killing happened the day before Nemtsov was due to lead the opposition march "Vesna" (), a street demonstration organised to protest against economic conditions in Russia and against the war in Ukraine.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: The killer was apparently waiting for Nemtsov on a side stairway leading to the bridge. At least six shots were fired, four of which hit Nemtsov; one wound was fatal. The "Kommersant" sources reported that the killer used either a standard Makarov pistol or an IZh gas pistol modified for use with lethal ammunition. According to a witness, "a young man named Viktor M., who followed Nemtsov", the killer was a man of height, short haircut, medium build, dressed in jeans and a brown sweater.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Russian President Vladimir Putin took "personal control" of the investigation into Nemtsov's assassination. He instructed the Investigative Committee, Ministry of Internal Affairs, and the Federal Security Service to create a single team to investigate the assassination of Nemtsov. The investigation team was headed by Igor Krasnov, who had previously investigated an attempt on the life of Anatoly Chubais and the murders of Stanislav Markelov and Anastasia Baburova.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: The team was supervised by the head of the Investigative Committee in Moscow, general Alexander Drymanov. Drymanov had also supervised the investigation against Nadezhda Savchenko, the second trial against Mikhail Khodorkovsky and Platon Lebedev, as well as the charges of genocide during the Russo-Georgian War against Georgian military.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: During the night following the assassination, Nemtsov's apartment on Malaya Ordynka street was searched and all documents and materials related to his business and political activities were confiscated. Opposition media raised concerns that this was done to retrieve a draft report on Russian involvement in the war in Donbass, announced by Nemtsov shortly before his death. Partial information on the report's contents were later revealed by Nemtsov's friends.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: On 28 February, a white Lada Priora car possibly belonging to the assassin(s) was found abandoned. Russian state media reported that the car had a number-plate originating in the Republic of Ingushetia, although initial witnesses had stated that the white car involved in the shooting did not have any license plates. An underwater search in the Moscow River for a discarded weapon led to nothing being recovered. A cash reward of 3 million rubles (~43,000 euros) was offered for any information leading to the arrest and conviction of the killer.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Duritskaya, having testified before the investigative team, returned to Ukraine on 2 March. Because of reported threats to her life, the Prosecutor General of Ukraine Viktor Shokin provided Duritskaya with state protection.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: By 3 March, the official investigation concluded that Nemtsov had been tracked from 11:00 am when he met Duritskaya in Sheremetyevo Airport. Nemtsov had been followed by three alternating cars en route from the airport to the city. At 23:22, the group of killers was ordered to move to the assigned spot, when Nemtsov and Duritskaya left the GUM café. At 23:29, the car with the assailant turned around under the Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge and approached the stairs leading to the bridge. At 23:30, the assailant walked upstairs onto the bridge and moved towards Nemtsov and Duritskaya. Having walked past them, he turned around and fired at Nemtsov's back.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: After the assailant got into the car, the vehicle moved from the bridge to Bolotnaya Street, then to Bolshoy Kamenny Bridge, Mokhovaya Street and Tverskaya Street towards Okhotny Ryad. The car then turned to Bolshaya Dmitrovka before disappearing in local traffic. The car in which the assailant had escaped was later found and identified as a grey ZAZ Chance. On 10 March, Moskovskij Komsomolets published alleged CCTV photos of the suspects' vehicle, suggesting that they were following Nemtsov since September 2014, long before the Charlie Hebdo shooting.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: On 7 March 2015, the head of the Federal Security Service Alexander Bortnikov announced the arrest of two suspects, Anzor Gubashev and Zaur Dadaev (), both originating from the Northern Caucasus. Russian media reported Zaur Dadaev had served in the Sever battalion of the Kadyrovtsy, while Anzor Gubashev had worked as a security guard for a Moscow hypermarket. According to other sources, the latter is an employee of a private security firm.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Both are from Ingushetia, but for many years had been living outside the North Caucasus Republic. They are related. They were formally charged on 8 March. Dadaev confessed to the crime, but Gubashev denied any involvement.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Three other people were detained as suspects, but not charged. All of them claimed that they were innocent. Russian media reported that another man blew himself up with a hand grenade in Grozny when police came to arrest him.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Zaur Dadaev, a former second-in-command to the leader of the Sever battalion, Alibek Delimkhanov (the brother of Adam Delimkhanov and cousin of Ramzan Kadyrov), confessed that he had decided to kill Nemtsov because of his criticism of Islam and the President of the Chechen Republic Ramzan Kadyrov, according to Russian media. Dadaev apparently stated in his confession that his immediate manager during preparation of the murder was someone named Ruslik, who provided him with 5 million rubles, a ZAZ Chance car, and a gun. Investigators suspect that Ruslik is Ruslan Mukhudinov. Ruslan Mukhudinov's whereabouts are unknown, though he was placed on an international wanted list.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Ruslan Geremeev was a suspect in the case. Ruslan Geremeev was the head of a battalion Sever unit Zaur Dadayev served in, a subordinate of Alimbek Delimkhanov and a nephew of Suleiman Geremeev, a member of Federation Council of Russia. After the murder, Ruslan Geremeev was under protection in the Chechen republic and later probably left Russia for the United Arab Emirates. At the end of April 2015, Ruslan Gereemev was reportedly officially assigned a status of a suspect.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Commenting on the events, President of the Chechen Republic Ramzan Kadyrov said that he knew Dadaev as one of the bravest warriors who had fought in the Russian-Chechen Kadyrovtsy regiment since its creation. Dadaev had been awarded the Order of Courage, the Medal for Courage and further awards by the Chechen Republic. He also stated that Dadaev was deeply religious and greatly offended by "Charlie Hebdo"s publishing of the Muhammad cartoons and Nemtsov's support for the French cartoonists.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: However, the Kadyrovtsy were a secular unit fighting against radical Islamists and according to Dadaev's mother, her son had never mentioned "Charlie Hebdo". She stated that her son was not a "strong believer" in Islam, and had in fact fought against Islamists ("Wahhabis") previously. Ilya Yashin called the theory that the murder was motivated by offense against Islam and the official line of inquiry by the Kremlin "more than absurd".


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Russian media reported that Dadaev retracted his confession, explaining that he only confessed to avoid "what happened to Shavanov" – another suspect, who, according to the official version, blew himself up with a grenade during an arrest attempt. A member of the Kremlin's advisory council on human rights, after visiting the suspects, said that Dadaev as well as the two other suspects, Anzor and Shagid Gubashev, most likely had been tortured while in detention.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Just before his murder, Nemtsov had stated: "The contract between Kadyrov and Putin—money in exchange for loyalty—is coming to an end. Where will Mr Kadyrov's 20,000 men go? What will they demand? How will they act? When will they come to Moscow?"


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: In late June 2017, five Chechen men were found guilty by a jury in a court at Moscow for agreeing to kill Nemtsov in exchange for 15 million rubles (US$253,000). Neither the identity nor whereabouts of the person who hired them is known.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: In July 2017, Zaur Dadaev was sentenced to 20 years imprisonment by a Russian court. The other perpetrators were handed between 11 and 19 years each.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: According to Bellingcat analysis, Nemtsov was followed prior to the assassination by the same FSB team that would subsequently follow Vladimir Kara-Murza, Dmitry Bykov and Alexei Navalny before their suspected poisonings.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: At the end of October 2017, journalist David Satter published an article in the "National Review" about an unofficial public investigation of the assassination. The investigation was led by Igor Murzin, a St. Petersburg lawyer who specializes in auto accidents and the interpretation of videotape. Murzin's investigation makes claims of the official trial as being a cover-up, with real murderers never being under investigation.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: In June 2019, Parliamentary Assembly of the Council of Europe (PACE) called on the Russian authorities to re-open and continue the investigation, listing a number of what was called "serious concerns over its independence and effectiveness", and approved a report on the matter by Emanuelis Zingeris. PACE criticized the official version of the murder as "based on a severely flawed investigation and trial" and "inconsistent with the available evidence on numerous fundamental points". According to its unanimously approved resolution, alternative versions that Russian authorities have refused to explore are far more consistent with the available evidence. The Assembly invited states that have adopted Magnitsky laws to consider sanctions against those responsible for what it called "an investigation failure".


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Leonid Bershidsky of the "Bloomberg View" stated: "In recent months, Putin's propaganda machine has been vigorously inciting Russians against the 'fifth column' – those who protested against the annexation of Crimea and the Kremlin-instigated war in eastern Ukraine. Nemtsov was on every list of traitors published on the Internet and aired on state TV." In "The Daily Telegraph", Ben Judah wrote that the Kremlin "either ordered or allowed [Nemtsov's murder] to happen", saying "Nothing Boris Nemtsov did was not bugged, tailed, filmed or monitored by the secret police. It is quite simply impossible that this man could have been shot dead without the Kremlin knowing there was a plot afoot to kill him."


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Some saw parallels with the murder of Sergey Kirov in 1934. Brian Whitmore, writing for "Radio Free Europe", stated that the murder indicated the development of a "hybrid Great Terror campaign" against Putin's opposition.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: BBC News referred to an interview Nemtsov gave on 10 February, 17 days before his death, in which Russia's "Sobesednik" newspaper reported that Nemtsov said that his mother was afraid Russian President Vladimir Putin would kill him. He added that his 86-year-old mother is also afraid for the lives of Mikhail Khodorkovsky and Alexey Navalny. When asked if he himself feared for his life, Nemtsov answered, "Yes, not as strongly as my mother, but still..." After BBC News referred to the interview, on 27 February 2015, the "Sobesednik" posted an extended version of the original interview, in which Nemtsov reportedly added, "I am just joking. If I were afraid of Putin, I wouldn't be in this line of work."


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Latvian MEP Sandra Kalniete and Speaker of the Polish Senate Bogdan Borusewicz were not allowed to attend the funeral due to travel bans imposed by Russia. The travel bans bar certain EU and Western politicians from visiting Russia for their alleged "anti-Russian activities". Russia's sanctions were imposed in response to Western-led sanctions against officials close to the Kremlin for their alleged conduct during the Ukrainian Crisis.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Kalniete stated that "Since I have always taken a clear and explicit language on Russia's role in Ukraine, I had suspicions that it could happen." The president of the European Parliament, Martin Schulz, called the ban a "high affront".


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: A Russian court decided not to grant the request of Alexei Navalny, a Russian opposition leader jailed for 15 days for distributing fliers, for a temporary release to attend the funeral.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: On the morning of 28 February, the opposition party RPR-PARNAS announced a gathering on the Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge in Moscow, where Nemtsov was shot. Boris Nemtsov was an organizer of the anti-crisis and anti-war march "Vesna" ("Spring") planned on 1 March 2015. After the murder, the organizers transformed the planned march into a memorial for Nemtsov. The participants marched from Kitay-gorod to Bolshoy Moskvoretsky Bridge where Nemtsov was murdered.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: According to the organizers more than 50,000 people took part in the march, while Moscow police counted 21,000 participants. Around 50 people were arrested for disobedience to police, including Ukrainian Verkhovna Rada deputy Oleksiy Honcharenko. According to Honcharenko, he was beaten and deprived of medical and legal help while in detention. Honcharenko was released from prison the next day, but he promised to sue the Russian Ministry of Internal Affairs.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: On 1 March, simultaneous with the march in Moscow, Nemtsov memorial marches were held in Saint Petersburg (finished with a meeting on the Field of Mars), Yekaterinburg, Murmansk London and Paris. A silent one-person rotating commemoration was held in Murmansk by Irina Paykacheva, she was fined for her participation in the "unsanctioned event".


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: On 3 March, the Russian artist Lena Hades began an art marathon in memory of Nemtsov, producing portraits of him daily. She said she would stop only when the person or people who ordered Nemtsov's murder are arrested and sentenced,


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: In August 2017, an activist guarding a Nemtsov memorial, Ivan Skripnichenko, was killed by a Putin supporter.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Mourners have held an around-the-clock vigil for late Nemtsov, which into its fourth year, as of 2018.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: 10,000 to 22,000 people marched in Moscow in memory of Boris Nemtsov on 29 February 2020. 2,000 people marched in St. Petersburg, Novosibirsk, and Vladivostok.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: On 6 December 2017, Nemtsov's daughter Zhanna Nemtsova traveled from Germany, accompanied by other family members and Russian dissidents, to urge members of the Council of the District of Columbia—Washington, D.C.'s legislature—to rename a portion of the street in front of the Russian Embassy "Boris Nemtsov Plaza" in honor of her father and as a signal to Russian authorities of US disapproval of their policies and of their alleged role in Nemtsov's assassination.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: Legislation to formally make the change was co-sponsored by Council chairman Phil Mendelson, who expected the bill to be approved by Council early in 2018. On 9 January 2018, the Council unanimously approved the "Boris Nemtsov Plaza Designation Act of 2017" which authorized the renaming, effective 5 May 2018.


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: In May 2018, the square near the Russian embassy in Vilnius, Lithuania was renamed to "Boris Nemcov Square".


title: Assassination of Boris Nemtsov

text: In February 2020, the square outside the Russian embassy in Prague, Czech Republic was renamed to Boris Nemtsov Plaza.


title: Fisheye lens

text: A fisheye lens is an ultra wide-angle lens that produces strong visual distortion intended to create a wide panoramic or hemispherical image. Fisheye lenses achieve extremely wide angles of view, well beyond any rectilinear lens. Instead of producing images with straight lines of perspective (rectilinear images), fisheye lenses use a special mapping ("distortion"; for example: equisolid angle, see below), which gives images a characteristic convex non-rectilinear appearance.


title: Fisheye lens

text: The term "fisheye" was coined in 1906 by American physicist and inventor Robert W. Wood based on how a fish would see an ultrawide hemispherical view from beneath the water (a phenomenon known as Snell's window). Their first practical use was in the 1920s for use in meteorology to study cloud formation giving them the name "whole-sky lenses". The angle of view of a fisheye lens is usually between 100 and 180 degrees, although lenses covering up to 280 degrees exist (see below). Their focal lengths depend on the film format they are designed for.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Mass-produced fisheye lenses for photography first appeared in the early 1960s and are generally used for their unique, distorted appearance. For the popular 35mm film format, typical focal lengths of fisheye lenses are 8–10 mm for circular images, and 12–18 mm for diagonal images filling the entire frame. For digital cameras using smaller imagers such as ″ and ″ format CCD or CMOS sensors, the focal length of "miniature" fisheye lenses can be as short as 1–2 mm.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Fisheye lenses also have other applications, such as re-projecting images originally filmed through a fisheye lens, or created via computer-generated graphics, onto hemispherical screens. They are also used for scientific photography, such as recordings of aurora and meteors, and to study plant canopy geometry, and to calculate near-ground solar radiation. In everyday life, they are perhaps most commonly encountered as peephole door viewers to give a wide field of view.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Panoramas with fisheye distortion predate photography and the fisheye lens. In 1779, Horace Bénédict de Saussure published his downward-facing fisheye view of the Alps: "All the objects are drawn in perspective from the centre".


title: Fisheye lens

text: In 1906, Wood published a paper detailing an experiment in which he built a camera in a water-filled pail starting with a photographic plate at the bottom, a short focus lens with a pinhole diaphragm located approximately halfway up the pail, and a sheet of glass at the rim to suppress ripples in the water. The experiment was Wood's attempt "to ascertain how the external world appears to the fish" and hence the title of the paper was "Fish-Eye Views, and Vision under Water". Wood subsequently built an improved "horizontal" version of the camera omitting the lens, instead using a pinhole pierced in the side of a tank, which was filled with water and a photographic plate. In the text, he described a third "Fish-Eye" camera built using sheet brass, the primary advantages being that this one was more portable than the other two cameras, and was "absolutely leaktight". In his conclusion, Wood thought that "the device will photograph the entire sky [so] a sunshine recorder could be made on this principle, which would require no adjustment for latitude or month" but also wryly noted "the views used for the illustration of this paper savour somewhat of the 'freak' pictures of the magazines."


title: Fisheye lens

text: W.N. Bond described an improvement to Wood's apparatus in 1922 which replaced the tank of water with a simple hemispheric glass lens, making the camera significantly more portable. The focal length depended on the refractive index and radius of the hemispherical lens, and the maximum aperture was approximately 50; it was not corrected for chromatic aberration and projected a curved field onto a flat plate. Bond noted the new lens could be used to record cloud cover or lightning strikes at a given location. Bond's hemispheric lens also reduced the need for a pinhole aperture to ensure sharp focus, so exposure times were also reduced.


title: Fisheye lens

text: In 1924, Robin Hill first described a lens with 180° coverage that had been used for a cloud survey in September 1923 The lens, designed by Hill and R. & J. Beck, Ltd., was patented in December 1923. The Hill Sky Lens is now credited as the first fisheye lens. Hill also described three different mapping functions of a lens designed to capture an entire hemisphere (stereographic, equidistant, and orthographic). Distortion is unavoidable in a lens that encompasses an angle of view exceeding 125°, but Hill and Beck claimed in the patent that stereographic or equidistant projection were the preferred mapping functions. The three-element, three-group lens design uses a highly divergent meniscus lens as the first element to bring in light over a wide view followed by a converging lens system to project the view onto a flat photographic plate.


title: Fisheye lens

text: The Hill Sky Lens was fitted to a whole sky camera, typically used in a pair separated by for stereo imaging, and equipped with a red filter for contrast; in its original form, the lens had a focal length of and cast an image in diameter at 8. Conrad Beck described the camera system in an article published in 1925. At least one has been reconstructed.


title: Fisheye lens

text: In 1932, the German firm Allgemeine Elektricitäts-Gesellschaft AG (AEG) filed for a patent on the Weitwinkelobjektiv (wide-angle lens), a 5-element, 4-group development of the Hill Sky Lens. Compared to the 1923 Hill Sky Lens, the 1932 Weitwinkelobjektiv featured two diverging meniscus elements ahead of the stop and used a cemented achromatic group in the converging section. Miyamoto credits Dr Hans Schulz with the design of the Weitwinkelobjektiv. The basic patented design was produced for cloud recording as a 17 mm 6.3 lens, and the artist known as Umbo used the AEG lens for artistic purposes, with photographs published in a 1937 issue of "Volk und Welt".


title: Fisheye lens

text: The AEG Weitwinkelobjektiv formed the basis of the later Fish-eye-Nikkor 16 mm 8 lens of 1938, which was used for military and scientific (cloud cover) purposes. Nikon, which had a contract to supply optics to the Imperial Japanese Navy, possibly gained access to the AEG design under the Pact of Steel. After the war, the lens was mated to a medium format camera and was produced in slightly modified form (focal length increased slightly to 16.3 mm) as the "Sky-image Recording Camera" in March 1957 for the Japanese government, followed by a commercial release as the Nikon Fisheye Camera (also known as the "Nikon Sky Camera" or "Nikon Cloud Camera") in September 1960, which had a retail price of . The revised lens created a circular image in diameter and covered a complete hemispherical field of 180°. Only 30 examples of the Nikon Fisheye Camera were manufactured, and of those, 18 were sold to customers, mainly in the United States; Nikon likely destroyed the remaining stock to avoid tax penalties. A photograph of pole vaulter Bob Gutowski taken by the Fisheye Camera was published in "Life" in 1957.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Also in 1938, Robert Richter of Carl Zeiss AG patented the 6-element, 5-group Pleon lens, which was used for aerial surveillance during World War II. The converging rear group of the Pleon was symmetrical, reminiscent of the 4-element Topogon design, also designed by Richter for Zeiss in 1933. Testing on a captured lens after the war showed the Pleon provided an equidistant projection to cover a field of approximately 130°, and negatives were printed using a special rectifying enlarger to eliminate distortion. The Pleon had a focal length of approximately 72.5 mm with a maximum aperture of 8 and used a plano-concave front element in diameter; the image on the negative was approximately in diameter.


title: Fisheye lens

text: At approximately the same time that Schulz was developing the Weitwinkelobjektiv at AEG, at Zeiss was developing the Sphaerogon, which was also designed to encompass a 180° field of view. Unlike the Weitwinkelobjektiv, Merté's Sphaerogon was not limited to medium format cameras; prototype versions of the Sphaerogon were constructed for the Contax I miniature format camera. The first prototype Sphaerogon lenses constructed had a maximum aperture of 8, but later examples were computed half a stop faster, to 6.8. Several prototype examples of Sphaerogon lenses were recovered as part of the Zeiss Lens Collection seized by the Army Signal Corps as war reparations in 1945; the collection, which the Zeiss firm had retained as a record of their designs, was later documented by Merté, the former head of optical computation for CZJ, working under Signal Corps officer Edward Kaprelian.


title: Fisheye lens

text: The Nikon Fisheye Camera was discontinued in September 1961, and Nikon subsequently introduced the first regular production fisheye lens for miniature cameras in 1962, the Fish-eye-Nikkor 8 mm 8, which required the reflex mirror on its Nikon F and Nikkormat cameras to be locked up prior to mounting the lens. Prior to the early 1960s, fisheye lenses were used primarily by professional and scientific photographers, but the advent of the fisheye for the 35 mm format increased its popular use. The Nikkor 8 mm 8 has a field of view of 180° and uses 9 elements in 5 groups; it has a fixed focus and built-in filters intended for black-and-white photography. Research indicates that fewer than 1,400 lenses were built.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Nikon subsequently released several more milestone circular fisheye lenses in Nikon F mount through the 1960s and 70s:


title: Fisheye lens

text: Meanwhile, other Japanese manufacturers were developing the so-called "full-frame" or diagonal fisheyes, which captured approximately a 180° field of view across the diagonal of the film frame. The first such diagonal fisheye was the Fish-eye Takumar 18 mm 11, released by Pentax (Asahi Optical) in 1962, followed by the slightly faster UW Rokkor-PG 18 mm 9.5 from Minolta in 1966. Both of these were reflex-viewing and fixed-focus. Both Pentax and Minolta followed up with faster lenses with variable focus in 1967 (Super Fish-eye-Takumar 17 mm 4) and 1969 (Rokkor-OK 16 mm 2.8), respectively. The 16 mm Rokkor was later adopted by Leica as the Fisheye-Elmarit-R (1974) and then converted to autofocus (1986) for the Alpha system. , the same basic optical design is still sold as the Sony SAL16F28.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Unlike rectilinear lenses, fisheye lenses are not fully characterised by focal length and aperture alone. Angle of view, image diameter, projection type, and sensor coverage all vary independently of these.


title: Fisheye lens

text: In a circular fisheye lens, the image circle is "inscribed in" the film or sensor area; in a diagonal ("full-frame") fisheye lens, the image circle is "circumscribed around" the film or sensor area. This implies that using a fisheye lens for a different format than it was intended for is easy (as opposed to a rectilinear lens), and may change its characteristic.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Further, different fisheye lenses map ("distort") images differently, and the manner of distortion is referred to as their mapping function. A common type for consumer use is "equisolid angle."


title: Fisheye lens

text: Although there are digital fisheye effects available both in-camera and as computer software, neither can extend the angle of view of the original images to the very large one of a true fisheye lens.


title: Fisheye lens

text: The focal length is determined by the angular coverage, the specific mapping function used, and the required dimensions of the final image. Focal lengths for popular amateur camera sizes are computed as:


title: Fisheye lens

text: The first types of fisheye lenses developed were "circular" — lenses which took in a 180° hemisphere and projected it as a circle within the film frame. By design, circular fisheye lenses thus cover a smaller image circle than rectilinear lenses designed for the same sensor size. The corners of a circular fisheye image will be completely black. This blackness is different from the gradual vignetting of rectilinear lenses and sets on abruptly.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Some circular fisheyes were available in orthographic projection models for scientific applications. These have a 180° "vertical," horizontal and diagonal angle of view.


title: Fisheye lens

text: For APS and m43 cameras, several lenses have emerged that retain a 180° field of view on a crop body. The first of these was the Sigma 4.5mm. Sunex also makes a 5.6mm fisheye lens that captures a circular 185° field of view on a 1.5x Nikon and 1.6x Canon DSLR cameras.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Nikon produced a 6 mm circular fisheye lens for 35 mm film that was initially designed for an expedition to Antarctica. It featured a 220° field of view, designed to capture the entire sky and surrounding ground when pointed straight up. This lens is no longer manufactured, and is used nowadays to produce interactive virtual-reality images such as QuickTime VR and IPIX. Because of its very wide field of view, it is very large — weighing , having a diameter of , a length of and an angle of view of 220 degrees. It dwarfs a regular 35 mm SLR camera and has its own tripod mounting point, a feature normally seen in large long-focus or telephoto lenses to reduce strain on the lens mount. The lens is extremely rare.


title: Fisheye lens

text: More recently, the Japanese manufacturer Entaniya offers several fisheye lenses with angles of view up to 250° on 35 mm full frame, and up to 280° on smaller sensors (see list below). In 2018, Venus Optics introduced a 210° fisheye lens for the Micro Four Thirds system.


title: Fisheye lens

text: The 8 mm and 7.5 mm circular fisheye lenses made by Nikon have proven useful for scientific purposes because of their equidistant (equiangular) projection, in which distance along the radius of the circular image is proportional to the zenith angle.


title: Fisheye lens

text: As fisheye lenses gained popularity in general photography, camera companies began manufacturing fisheye lenses with an enlarged image circle to cover the entire rectangular film frame. They are called diagonal, or sometimes "rectangular" or "full-frame", fisheyes. (This was well before digital photography, so the use of the term "full frame" with respect to fisheyes has nothing to do with the use of the term to designate a digital sensor measuring 36x24 mm).


title: Fisheye lens

text: The angle of view produced by diagonal fisheyes only measures 180° "from corner to corner": they have a 180° "diagonal" angle of view (AOV), while the horizontal and vertical angles of view will be smaller. For an equisolid angle 15 mm full-frame fisheye, the horizontal AOV will be 147°, and the vertical AOV will be 94°.


title: Fisheye lens

text: One of the first diagonal fisheye lenses to be mass-produced was the Nikon Fisheye-Nikkor F 16mm 3.5, made in the early 1970s.


title: Fisheye lens

text: To obtain the same effect on digital cameras with smaller sensors, shorter focal lengths are required. Nikon makes a 10.5 mm fisheye for their APS DX SLRs. Several other companies make "full frame", i.e. diagonal, fisheyes for APS and m43 cameras, see next paragraph.


title: Fisheye lens

text: An intermediate between a diagonal and a circular fisheye consists of a circular image optimised for the "width" of the film format rather than the "height". As a result, on any non-square film format, the circular image will be cropped at the top and bottom, but still show black edges on the left and right. This format is called a "portrait" fisheye; historically, it has been rather rare - only the 12 mm f/8 Accura lens (see list below) directly follows the portrait principle. Today however, a portrait fisheye effect is easily achieved by using a fisheye lens intended for full coverage of a smaller sensor format, like an APS diagonal fisheye on a 35 mm full frame camera, or an m43 diagonal fisheye on APS.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Miniature digital cameras, especially when used as security cameras, often tend to have fisheye lenses to maximize coverage. Miniature fisheye lenses are designed for small-format CCD/CMOS imagers commonly used in consumer and security cameras. Popular image sensor format sizes used include ", ", and ". Depending on the active area of the image sensor, the same lens can form a circular image on a larger image sensor (e.g. "), and a full frame on a smaller one (e.g. ").


title: Fisheye lens

text: The APS-C image sensor used in Canon cameras is , or on the diagonal, which is slightly smaller than the sensor size used by other popular manufacturers of cameras with APS-C sensors, such as Fuji, Minolta, Nikon, Pentax, and Sony. The other common APS-C sensors range from on the long dimension and on the shorter side, for a diagonal between .


title: Fisheye lens

text: The subject is placed in the image by the lens according to the "mapping function" of the lens. The mapping function gives formula_1, the position of the object from the center of the image, as a function of formula_2, the focal length, and formula_3, the angle from the optical axis. formula_3 is measured in radians.


title: Fisheye lens

text: Other mapping functions (for example Panomorph Lenses) are also possible for enhancing the off-axis resolution of fisheye lenses.


title: Fisheye lens

text: With appropriate software, the curvilinear images produced by a fisheye lens can be remapped to a conventional rectilinear projection. Although this entails some loss of detail at the edges of the frame, the technique can produce an image with a field of view greater than that of a conventional rectilinear lens. This is particularly useful for creating panoramic images.


title: Fisheye lens

text: All types of fisheye lenses bend straight lines. Aperture angles of 180° or more are possible only with large amounts of barrel distortion.


title: Caro Emerald

text: Caroline Esmeralda van der Leeuw (born 26 April 1981), known for the project Caro Emerald, is a Dutch pop and jazz singer who mainly performs in English. Active since 2007, she rose to prominence in 2009 with the debut single, "Back It Up". The follow-up single, "A Night Like This", topped charts in the Netherlands.


title: Caro Emerald

text: The debut Caro Emerald album, "Deleted Scenes from the Cutting Room Floor," was released on 29 January 2010. By August 2010, the album had spent its 30th week at number one in the Dutch album charts, setting an all-time record and beating Michael Jackson's "Thriller" by one week. "Deleted Scenes from the Cutting Room Floor" became the biggest selling album of 2010 in the Netherlands with over 350,000 copies to date. Worldwide, approximately 2 million copies have been sold to date. On 3 October 2010, Emerald was awarded the Dutch music prize Edison Award for Best Female Artist. In 2013, she released a second studio album titled "The Shocking Miss Emerald". The album entered at number one in the Dutch and United Kingdom album charts and sold over 600,000 copies.


title: Caro Emerald

text: Caroline Esmeralda van der Leeuw was born on 26 April 1981, in Amsterdam, the Netherlands to a Dutch father and an Aruban mother. She started singing lessons at age 12 with James Gilloffo in Amsterdam and joined a girl vocal group, Les Elles, under his guidance. Following high school, she trained as a jazz vocalist at the Amsterdam Conservatory, graduating in 2005.


title: Caro Emerald

text: In early 2007, Dutch producer Jan van Wieringen invited van der Leeuw to sing the vocal on a track he was producing with producer/songwriter David Schreurs. The song, "Back It Up", had been written by Schreurs and Canadian songwriter Vince Degiorgio and was based around a hip-hop beat created by Robin Veldman and Jan van Wieringen. Van der Leeuw's jazzy vocal was considered a "perfect match" for the new song.


title: Caro Emerald

text: The demo was pitched to various publishers and labels but without result. The demo then reached public notice around the world online and radio stations started playing the song.


title: Caro Emerald

text: Degiorgio, Schreurs, van Wieringen and van der Leeuw realised their sound had potential and started working on a conceptual studio album with van der Leeuw as "starring artist". Writing began in the summer of 2008 using the mix of "Back It Up", 1940s to 1950s jazz, easy listening, orchestral Latin, combined with infectious beats as a model. Adopting a sample based approach but with live instrumentation, the writing sessions drew from a wide range of influences including jazz organist Jackie Davis, exotica composer Martin Denny, mambo king Perez Prado, 1920s to 1930s jazz, and van der Leeuw's own vocal inspirations of The Andrews Sisters, Billie Holiday and Sarah Vaughan. Their usual method would be for Schreurs to create the ideas and backing tracks, and then get together with top line writer and lyricist Degiorgio to write the songs. Van der Leeuw co-wrote several songs on the album, and van Wieringen co-created the tracks for "The Other Woman" and "Dr Wanna Do". Schreurs and Degiorgio are credited as "Creative Directors".


title: Caro Emerald

text: After record labels either refused or failed to sign the project, Schreurs set up their own label, Grandmono. "Back It Up" was released as debut single on 6 July 2009. The song gained airplay and popularity overnight and listed in the Dutch Top 40 for 12 weeks, peaking at No. 12. It became the most played song on 3FM in 2009.


title: Caro Emerald

text: Emerald's debut album, "Deleted Scenes from the Cutting Room Floor," was released on 28 January 2010 in The Netherlands by Grandmono. It entered at #1 in the Album Charts and stayed there for weeks. By August 2010, the album had been #1 for 27 weeks, beating Michael Jackson's chart record for "Thriller" (26 weeks #1 in 1983). The album returned to #1, spending a total of 30 non-consecutive weeks on top spot of the Dutch Albums Chart.


title: Caro Emerald

text: The album reached double platinum (>100,000 copies) status in the Netherlands on 5 July 2010. It reached triple platinum in August 2010, four times platinum (200,000) in November 2010, and sextuple platinum (>300,000 copies) in December 2011. "Deleted Scenes from the Cutting Room Floor" was removed from the Dutch charts after 104 weeks due to a rule providing albums can't spend >2 years on the charts. Upon re-entry, the album climbed back to #8.


title: Caro Emerald

text: The album's second single, "A Night Like This", was released in December 2009. It was listed in the Dutch Charts for 26 weeks peaking at #1 in January 2010. It was the most played song in The Netherlands in 2010.


title: Caro Emerald

text: In 2011, "Deleted Scenes from the Cutting Room Floor" was released throughout Europe with great commercial success. It became a hit in the UK (1× platinum with sales exceeding 360,000, 8 weeks top 10 peaking at No. 4), Germany (1× platinum with sales exceeding 280,000, peaking at No. 5 and Platinum single for "A Night Like This" with sales exceeding 340,000), Poland (6× platinum with sales exceeding 60,000), Italy (Gold Single for "Back it Up"), and Austria (No. 1 with "A Night Like This"). In the UK, all six singles and the entire album were A-listed by BBC Radio 2. Over 1,400,000 albums have been sold in Europe.


title: Caro Emerald

text: The cinematic sound of the project resulted in frequent use in TV series, movies and advertising. Selected credits include "The Playboy Club", a brand campaign by Martini, "2 Days in New York", "The Secret Circle", Wind Mobile, "Strictly Come Dancing", "Dancing with the Stars", "The Vampire Diaries", "Agent Carter", Nestlé, Ferrero Rocher, Wrigley and Disney Nature film "Chimpanzee".


title: Caro Emerald

text: Due to its exceptional success, the album was included in an episode of the Dutch version of "Classic Albums" in April 2012.


title: Caro Emerald

text: In January 2011, Emerald won the Popprijs 2010 for Best Dutch Pop Act of 2010. In early 2012, Emerald won a Goldene Kamera for Best Musik International and an Echo Award for Best Newcomer International.


title: Caro Emerald

text: In April 2013, the second Caro Emerald studio album "The Shocking Miss Emerald" was released. It included the singles "Tangled Up" and "Liquid Lunch". The album went to #1 in the UK album chart. She performed in the UK at The BBC Radio Theatre; it was broadcast on BBC Radio 2 and BBC Red Button.


title: Caro Emerald

text: On 29 June 2014, she played the opening music set on the pyramid stage at the Glastonbury Festival 2014.


title: Caro Emerald

text: In March 2017, Emerald released an exotica inspired EP, "Emerald Island". It was released to accompany the Emerald Island Tour.


title: Caro Emerald

text: On 23 August 2022, Caro was revealed as the voice behind new act "The Jordan". Her debut album, "‘Nowhere Near The Sky’", will be released on February 10, 2023 via Cooking Vinyl. The first three singles from the album are "’You Don’t Even Know Me’", "’Dancing Naked in the Sun’", and "’The Room’".


title: Michelle Phan

text: Michelle Phan (born April 11, 1987) is an American beauty YouTuber. She is the founder and owner of the multimillion-dollar cosmetics line EM Cosmetics.


title: Michelle Phan

text: Michelle Phan was born on April 11, 1987, in Boston, Massachusetts. Both her parents were of Vietnamese origin. Phan has an elder brother and younger half-sister. According to Phan, her biological father left the family when she was young. Her mother remarried but eventually left Phan's step-father after years of abuse. Phan, her brother, and her half-sister followed their mother to Tampa, Florida, where she attended Tampa Bay Technical High School.


title: Michelle Phan

text: Phan attended Ringling College of Art and Design but dropped out due to financial issues. In March 2014, Phan received her Honorary Doctorate of Arts degree from Ringling.


title: Michelle Phan

text: In 2005, Phan had a personal blog in which she discussed different makeup tutorials and received requests for further instruction. She began posting tutorial vlogs on Xanga under the username "Ricebunny" and then began posting on YouTube in May 2007.


title: Michelle Phan

text: BuzzFeed featured two of Phan's "How To Get Lady Gaga's Eyes" makeup tutorials in 2009 and 2010, which helped them go viral and brought her over a million subscribers. In 2010, Lancôme made Phan their official video make-up artist after she featured some of their products in her videos, making her the company's first Vietnamese-American spokesperson.


title: Michelle Phan

text: In 2011, Phan co-founded MyGlam, a monthly beauty product subscription service. It launched in September 2012 and has since been renamed Ipsy. Ipsy is a sponsor of the Generation Beauty conference. Phan became a YouTube advertising partner and launched FAWN, a YouTube MCN (multi-channel network), in 2012.


title: Michelle Phan

text: On August 15, 2013, L'Oreal launched a new cosmetic line called EM Cosmetics by Michelle Phan, dedicating the brand to her mother. In April 2015, Phan bought L'Oreal's share of EM Cosmetics through Ipsy, which she confirmed on her Instagram in December 2016; she later acquired the company from Ipsy and relaunched it in April 2017. During this time, Phan also resigned from Ipsy in order to focus on EM Cosmetics.


title: Michelle Phan

text: In May 2014, Phan announced her partnership with Endemol Beyond USA to build a talent network to feature people from YouTube and create content for millennials. The ICON network, dedicated to "beauty, lifestyle and entertainment," launched in March 2015 online and on television via Roku. In September 2014, Phan partnered with Cutting Edge Group to launch Shift Music Group. Phan published a book with Random House in October 2014, titled "Make Up: Your Life Guide to Beauty, Style, and Success -- Online and Off".


title: Michelle Phan

text: In 2015, Phan was named to the "Inc." 30 under 30 and "Forbes" 30 under 30 lists. The same year, she raised $100 million to value the company Ipsy at over $500 million.


title: Michelle Phan

text: In 2019, Phan returned to posting on YouTube after a three-year hiatus. The video was titled, "Hello :)."


title: Michelle Phan

text: In 2021, Phan provided the voice of Blackberry Cookie, a character in the video game "", which was uncredited in-game.


title: Michelle Phan

text: Phan's sister-in-law is fellow beauty YouTuber Promise Phan. The two have collaborated on each other's channels throughout the years.


title: Michelle Phan

text: Phan abruptly went on hiatus from YouTube in 2015. On June 1, 2017, Phan posted her first video since the hiatus explaining why she took her break. Phan cited legal troubles, the failure of EM Cosmetics' initial launch, and her issues with self-image as what lead her to decide to take a break. She continued her hiatus until officially returning to YouTube in September 2019.


title: Michelle Phan

text: In July 2014, Ultra Records sued Phan in the United States District Court for Los Angeles for copyright infringement relating to the music used in her YouTube videos. Ultra sought up to $150,000 in damages per infringement for up to 50 instances of alleged infringement, for a total of up to $7.5 million. Phan's representatives stated that she had received permission from Ultra to use the music, and Phan filed a countersuit against Ultra Records on September 18, 2014, in the United States District Court for the Central District of California. In August 2015, both suit and countersuit were dropped when both parties agreed to settle out of court. The terms of the agreement were not made public.


title: Reply (TV series)

text: Reply () is a South Korean anthology television series directed by Shin Won-ho with teleplay by Lee Woo-jung that premiered in 2012 on cable network tvN. It revolves around a group of friends, as the timeline moves back and forth between their past and present selves.


title: Reply (TV series)

text: The series received acclaim from critics for its performances and soundtrack in addition to being a well-researched production full of humor and heart. It has also recorded consistent high audience ratings with "Reply 1988" peaking at 18.8% nationwide, making it the (currently fourth) highest rated drama in Korean cable television history.


title: Reply (TV series)

text: Set in 1997, the drama centers around a female high school student Shi Won, who idolizes boyband H.O.T. and her 5 high school friends in Busan. As the timeline moves back and forth between their past as 18-year-old high schoolers in 1997 and their present as 33-year-olds at their high school reunion dinner in 2012, one couple will announce that they're getting married.


title: Reply (TV series)

text: Set in 1994, six university students from various provincial areas live together at a boarding house in Sinchon, Seoul, run by a couple with a daughter named Na Jung. The timeline moves back and forth between the past in 1994 and the present in 2013, making the viewers guess who will become Na Jung's husband among the male characters. The series follows the pop culture events that happened between 1994 and the years that follow, including the emergence of seminal K-pop group Seo Taiji and Boys and the Korean Basketball League.


title: Reply (TV series)

text: Set in the year 1988, it revolves around five friends and their families living in the same neighborhood of Ssangmun-dong, Dobong District, Northern Seoul.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: ZAZ Zaporozhets () was a series of rear-wheel-drive superminis (city cars in their first generation) designed and built from 1958 at the ZAZ factory in Soviet Ukraine. Different models of the Zaporozhets, all of which had an air-cooled engine in the rear, were produced until 1994. Since the late 1980s, the final series, 968M, was replaced by the cardinally different ZAZ-1102 Tavria hatchback, which featured a front-wheel drive and a more powerful water-cooled engine.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The name "Zaporozhets" translates into a Cossack of the Zaporizhian Sich or а man from Zaporizhzhia or the Zaporizhzhia Oblast.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: Zaporozhets is still well known in many former Soviet states. Like the Volkswagen Beetle or East Germany's Trabant, the Zaporozhets was destined to become a "people's car" of the Soviet Union, and as such it was the most affordable vehicle of its era. At the same time, it was rather sturdy and known for its excellent performance on poor roads. Another important advantage of the Zaporozhets was its ease of repair. The car's appearance gave birth to several nicknames that became well known across the Soviet Union: "horbatyi" ("hunchback", owing to ZAZ-965's insect-like form; although ZAZ factory workers never used this nickname), "malysh" (), "ushastyi" ("big-eared", due to 966 and 968's round air intakes on each side of the car to cool the rear-mounted engine), "zapor" ("constipation"), "mylnitsa" ("soap-box", for ZAZ-968M, lacking "ears" and producing a more box-like appearance).


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: Numerous special versions of the Zaporozhets were produced, equipped with additional sets of controls that allowed operating the car with a limited set of limbs, and were given for free or with considerable discounts to disabled people, especially war veterans - similar to SMZ-series microcars. These mobility cars would at times take up to 25% of ZAZ factory output.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The ZAZ 965 was a city car produced from 1960 to 1963. Design of a car accessible to the public, and one in part taking the place of the soon to be discontinued Moskvitch 401, began in 1956. Following the growing trend of city cars (then accounting for between 25% and 40% of all European car sales), the minister in charge of "Minavtroprom" (the Soviet automotive ministry) Nikolay Strokin selected the new Fiat 600 as the model to follow. However, despite being visually similar to the Fiat, the ZAZ was in fact a completely different car.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The first prototype, the Moskvich-444, was designed by MZMA in October 1957; it used the same glass for front and rear windows. Its ground clearance, on wheels, was . The prototype was first powered by a flat twin-cylinder MD-65 engine provided by the Irbitskiy Motorcycle Plant, which was "totally unsuited": it produced only and lasted only between major overhauls. As a result, a search for another engine was begun, and the success of the VW Type 1's boxer led to a preference for an air-cooled engine, which NAMI (the National Automobile Institute) had on the drawing board. "Minavtroprom", however, preferred a rear-mounted V4, the NAMI-G, which had the additional advantage of being developed for the LuAZ-967. As a result, it had characteristics not common for automobile engines, including a magnesium alloy engine block. (This engine, the MeMZ 965, would be built by the Melitopolski Motor Plant, MeMZ.) It had the drawback of needing to have the rear of the car redesigned to fit, as well as needing a new rear suspension. The influence of the LuAZ designers led to the introduction of independent suspension on all four wheels. Its front doors open in a manner like suicide doors, partly to make it more accessible to the disabled.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: One of the primary differences was that the engine, which featured a V4 layout in place of the Fiat's inline-four, was air-cooled. The Zaporozhets also featured bigger wheels and front suspension on torsion bars. In 1958, the government ordered production of the car in the reformed ZAZ factory, under its final designation ZAZ-965. All further production of the car was carried out there.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The new car was approved for production at the MeMZ factory 28 November 1958, changing the name to ZAZ (Zaporizhzhia Automobile Building Plant) to reflect the new profile. The Zaporizhzhia factory was supplemented with the Mikoyan Diesel-Building Factory in Melitopol, which was part of the "Soyuzdiesel" combinat.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The first car, dubbed the ZAZ-965 Zaporozhets, was delivered 12 June 1959, was approved 25 July 1960, and entered production 25 October. The Zaporozhets was priced at 1,800 redenominated roubles.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: There was also a car-derived van model for the Soviet post office, the 965S, with right-hand drive and blanked-off windows.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The 965A was an improvement on the 965 and was produced from November 1962 to May 1969. In total, 322,106 units of the 965 were produced.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: It was powered by a MeMZ 965 rear-mounted, air-cooled OHV V4 engine, partially of aluminium design, producing . From November 1966 some cars were fitted with the slightly more powerful MeMZ-965A engine. The 965's modest engine output has given ground to an urban joke that it was used as a starter motor in Soviet tanks.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: As Soviet drivers were expected to do much of the servicing themselves, and auto workshops were in short supply anyway, the engine's 90° V4 layout proved more practical, especially in harsh winter conditions. The higher centre of gravity of the engine also provided superior traction on steep slopes, though this advantage, which was also continued in later models, came at the expense of the car's infamous lack of cornering stability.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The 965A also had its versions for the disabled (ZAZ-965B, AB, AR), as well as a more luxurious export variant ZAZ-965AE Yalta.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: Despite low prestige of those cars, they have shown an unbeaten accessibility and popularity among the Soviets, becoming the "car for pensioners and intellectuals". They were the cheapest Soviet-made cars. Quite a large number of them were produced in variants for disabled people, with modified steering.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: Between November 1966 and May 1969 the 965A and its successor, the ZAZ966, were produced concurrently.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The 965 also inspired the 1962 prototype NAMI 086, named "Sputnik" (Fellow Traveller), with a vee-twin (half an MeMZ 965), electromagnetic clutch and four-speed transmission. Fitted with four-wheel independent suspension and weighing just , intended for use by the disabled, it was never built.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The ZAZ KD of 1969 was also based on the 965, fitted with a glassfibre body, giving it a weight of only 500 kg and a top speed of on just . It was never produced in quantity, either.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The second generation of the Zaporozhets was a series of subcompact cars, production starting of the 966 in November 1966, although the prototype was first demonstrated in 1961. It had a completely restyled bodywork (done entirely by ZAZ), no longer resembling the Fiat 600 and arguably similar to the Chevrolet Corvair, Hillman Imp or the NSU Prinz. This was an effort to cure some of the 965's issues, such as torsion bars that lost tension, suicide doors, and engine overheating and noise. The engine was the MeMZ 966A. A radio was standard equipment. The price had inched up, too, from 1,800 roubles at the 965's debut to 2,200 by 1969.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: While featuring a larger two-door notchback saloon body, it still featured an air-cooled V4 engine and featured more prominent air intakes – the so-called "ears", although a decorative chrome grille was also present. The car's rear suspension was also replaced. The 966 started out as the simpler ZAZ-966V (ЗАЗ-966В in Cyrillic) with the engine from the 965A, which was also featured on all later models. Much like the 965A, the 966V was also produced in several special variants for the disabled (VR, VB, VB2 - until January 1973). It was produced in tandem with the 965 from November 1966 to May 1969.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: ZAZ launched an upgraded 966B in 1968, powered by a new MeMZ 968 V4, while the 966A-powered model became the 966-1 which was only ever produced in small numbers. The 966B, weighing in at , was heavier than the earlier model, but faster, reaching .


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: Nicknamed "Zapo" in the Eastern Bloc, the 966 was also popular in Western Europe, including some Scandinavian countries and France. Some markets swapped the original engine for a Renault unit.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The ZAZ-968 and its modifications were produced from 1971 to 1980. It featured the same MeMZ 968 V4 as the ZAZ 966, but the exterior design was slightly modernized. The most obvious alteration was replacing the fake chrome grille in the car's front with a horizontal chrome decoration. Among other changes was a less austere dashboard and better front brakes. The 968 was discontinued in 1978, having been produced simultaneously with the newer 968A since 1973, which was produced until 1980. It introduced new safety measures, including a new steering wheel and a plastic dashboard instead of the earlier metal one. The 968A also had its variants for the disabled (the ZAZ-968R, B, B2, AB, and AB2) with the engine.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: Toward the end of 1974, the up-market 968A debuted, surviving until 1979. Among its improvements was a padded dash, energy-absorbing (collapsing) steering column, and seats from the VAZ-2101. The export 968E (destined mostly for the Eastern Bloc) had headlights modified to meet international standards, a safety glass windscreen, and an anti-theft steering lock.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: In 1979, the 968 series was replaced by the modernized 968M. Prototyped in 1977, it had the "ears" removed and replaced much of the chrome exterior with black plastic. Its interior design was also upgraded, featuring a closed-space glove compartment and a slightly more modern dashboard. It was offered with either the MeMZ 968E (, carbureted, low-compression for 76-octane fuel); 968GE (, dual carburettor); or the MeMZ 968BE (, 8.4:1 compression, for 93-octane). Instead of the side-mounted "ears", the hood lid and rear quarter panels were louvered.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: The 968M was the last Zaporozhets model and also spent the most time in production, spanning a career from 1979 to 1 June 1994. Some of its special variants include the ZAZ-968MB2, for drivers who had only one foot, the ZAZ-968MB for drivers who had no feet.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: Among the export variants produced by ZAZ were ZAZ-965E, ZAZ-965AE, ZAZ-966E, ZAZ-968E, and ZAZ-968AE, which had improved features compared to vehicles made for the home market. Depending on target markets, commercial names "Jalta" or "Eliette" were used for these models.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: In total, 3,422,444 Zaporozhets vehicles were manufactured and powered by air-cooled engines from the Melitopol factory from 1960 to 1994.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: In the 2011 animated feature film, "Cars 2", Vladimir Trunkov, Petrov Trunkov, Lubewig, and Tolga Trunkov are based on the ZAZ-968 Zaporozhets.


title: ZAZ Zaporozhets

text: In the 1963 Soviet romantic comedy, "Three Plus Two", the ZAZ-965 with plate number 18-15-лдг is featured in numerous scenes throughout the movie and is even referred to directly in the script as "A tin can of the Zaporozhets system"


title: Council of Ephesus

text: The Council of Ephesus was a council of Christian bishops convened in Ephesus (near present-day Selçuk in Turkey) in AD 431 by the Roman Emperor Theodosius II. This third ecumenical council, an effort to attain consensus in the church through an assembly representing all of Christendom, confirmed the original Nicene Creed, and condemned the teachings of Nestorius, Patriarch of Constantinople, who held that the Virgin Mary may be called the "Christotokos", "Christ-bearer" but not the "Theotokos", "God-bearer". It met in June and July 431 at the Church of Mary in Ephesus in Anatolia.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Nestorius' doctrine, Nestorianism, which emphasized the distinction between Christ's human and divine natures and argued that Mary should be called "Christotokos" (Christ-bearer) but not "Theotokos" (God-bearer), had brought him into conflict with other church leaders, most notably Cyril, Patriarch of Alexandria. Nestorius himself had requested the Emperor to convene the council, hoping that it would prove his orthodoxy; the council in fact condemned his teachings as heresy. The council declared Mary as "Theotokos" (Mother of God).


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Nestorius' dispute with Cyril had led the latter to seek validation from Pope Celestine I, who offered his support for Cyril to request that Nestorius recant his position or face excommunication. Nestorius pleaded with the Eastern Roman Emperor Theodosius II to call a council in which all grievances could be aired, hoping that he would be vindicated and Cyril condemned.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Approximately 250 bishops were present. The proceedings were conducted in a heated atmosphere of confrontation and recriminations and created severe tensions between Cyril and Theodosius II. Nestorius was decisively outplayed by Cyril and removed from his see, and his teachings were officially anathematized. This precipitated the Nestorian Schism, by which churches supportive of Nestorius, especially in the Persian Empire of the Sassanids, were severed from the rest of Christendom and became known as Nestorian Christianity, or the Church of the East, whose present-day representatives are the Assyrian Church of the East, the Ancient Church of the East, the Chaldean Syrian Church, and the Chaldean Catholic Church (which restored communion with Rome). Nestorius himself retired to a monastery, later recanting his Nestorian position.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: John McGuckin cites the "innate rivalry" between Alexandria and Constantinople as an important factor in the controversy between Cyril of Alexandria and Nestorius. However, he emphasizes that, as much as political competition contributed to an "overall climate of dissent", the controversy cannot be reduced merely to the level of "personality clashes" or "political antagonisms". According to McGuckin, Cyril viewed the "elevated intellectual argument about christology" as ultimately one and the same as the "validity and security of the simple Christian life".


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Even within Constantinople, some supported the Roman-Alexandrian and others supported the Nestorian factions. For example, Pulcheria supported the Roman-Alexandrian popes while the emperor and his wife supported Nestorius.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Contention over Nestorius' teachings, which he developed during his studies at the School of Antioch, largely revolved around his rejection of the long-used title "Theotokos" ("Carrier of God") for the Virgin Mary. Shortly after his arrival in Constantinople, Nestorius became involved in the disputes of two theological factions, which differed in their Christology.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: McGuckin ascribes Nestorius' importance to his being the representative of the Antiochene tradition and characterizes him as a "consistent, if none too clear, exponent of the longstanding Antiochene dogmatic tradition." Nestorius was greatly surprised that what he had always taught in Antioch without any controversy whatsoever should prove to be so objectionable to the Christians of Constantinople. Nestorius emphasized the dual natures of Christ, trying to find a middle ground between those who emphasized the fact that in Christ God had been born as a man, and insisted on calling the Virgin Mary "Theotokos" (Greek: Θεοτόκος, "God-bearer"), and those that rejected that title because God as an eternal being could not have been born. Nestorius suggested the title "Christotokos" ("Χριστοτόκος", "Christ-bearer"), but this proposal did not gain acceptance on either side.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Nestorius tried to answer a question considered unsolved: "How can Jesus Christ, being part man, not be partially a sinner as well, since man is by definition a sinner since the Fall?" To solve that he taught that Mary, the mother of Jesus gave birth to the incarnate Christ, not the divine Logos who existed before Mary and indeed before time itself. The Logos occupied the part of the human soul (the part of man that was stained by the Fall). But wouldn't the absence of a human soul make Jesus less human? Nestorius rejected this proposition, answering that, because the human soul was based on the archetype of the Logos, only to become polluted by the Fall, Jesus was "more" human for having the Logos and not "less". Consequently, Nestorius argued that the Virgin Mary should be called "Christotokos", Greek for "Carrier of Christ", and not "Theotokos", Greek for "Carrier of God".


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Nestorius believed that no union between the human and divine was possible. If such a union of human and divine occurred, Nestorius believed that Christ could not truly be consubstantial with God and consubstantial with us because he would grow, mature, suffer and die (which Nestorius argued God cannot do) and also would possess the power of God that would separate him from being equal to humans.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: According to McGuckin, several mid-twentieth-century accounts have tended to "romanticise" Nestorius; in opposition to this view, he asserts that Nestorius was no less dogmatic and uncompromising than Cyril, and that he was clearly just as prepared to use his political and canonical powers as Cyril or any of the other hierarchs of the period.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Nestorius's opponents charged him with detaching Christ's divinity and humanity into two persons existing in one body, thereby denying the reality of the Incarnation. Eusebius, a layman who later became the bishop of the neighbouring Dorylaeum was the first to accuse Nestorius of heresy, but his most forceful opponent was Patriarch Cyril of Alexandria. Cyril argued that Nestorianism split Jesus in half and denied that he was both human and divine.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Cyril appealed to Pope Celestine I, charging Nestorius with heresy. The Pope agreed and gave Cyril his authority to serve a notice to Nestorius to recant his views within ten days or else be excommunicated. Before acting on the Pope's commission, Cyril convened a synod of Egyptian bishops which condemned Nestorius as well. Cyril then sent four suffragan bishops to deliver both the Pope's commission as well as the synodal letter of the Egyptian bishops. Cyril sent a letter to Nestorius known as "The Third Epistle of Saint Cyril to Nestorius." This epistle drew heavily on the established Patristic Constitutions and contained the most famous article of Alexandrian Orthodoxy: "The Twelve Anathemas of Saint Cyril." In these anathemas, Cyril excommunicated anyone who followed the teachings of Nestorius. For example, "Anyone who dares to deny the Holy Virgin the title "Theotokos" is Anathema!" Nestorius however, still would not repent.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: McGuckin points out that other representatives of the Antiochene tradition such as John of Antioch, Theodoret and Andrew of Samosata were able to recognize "the point of the argument for Christ's integrity" and concede the "ill-advised nature of Nestorius' immoveability." Concerned at the potential for a negative result at a council, they urged Nestorius to yield and accept the use of the title "Theotokos" when referring to the Virgin Mary.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: For example, John of Antioch wrote to Nestorius urging him to submit to the Pope's judgment and cease stirring up controversy over a word that he disliked (Theotokos) but which could be interpreted as having an orthodox meaning especially in light of the fact that many saints and doctors of the church had sanctioned the word by using it themselves. John wrote to Nestorius, "Don't lose your head. Ten days! It will not take you twenty-four hours to give the needed answer... Ask advice of men you can trust. Ask them to tell you the facts, not just what they think will please you... You have the whole of the East against you, as well as Egypt." Despite this advice from his colleagues, Nestorius persisted in maintaining the rightness of his position.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: On 19 November, Nestorius, anticipating the ultimatum which was about to be delivered, convinced Emperor Theodosius II to summon a general council through which Nestorius hoped to convict Cyril of heresy and thereby vindicate his own teachings. Theodosius issued a Sacra calling for the metropolitan bishops to assemble in the city of Ephesus, which was a special seat for the veneration of Mary, where the "theotokos" formula was popular. Each bishop was to bring only his more eminent suffragans. The date set by the Emperor for the opening of the council was Pentecost (7 June) 431.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: McGuckin notes that the vagueness of the Sacra resulted in wide variations of interpretation by different bishops. In particular, the vastness of John of Antioch's ecclesiastical territory required a lengthy period to notify and gather his delegates. Because the overland trip from Antioch to Ephesus was long and arduous, John composed his delegation of his metropolitan bishops who were restricted to bring no more than two suffragans each. By doing so, he minimized the number who would have to travel to Ephesus.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Neither of the emperors attended the council. Theodosius appointed Count Candidian as the head of the imperial palace guard to represent him, to supervise the proceedings of the Council, and to keep good order in the city of Ephesus. Despite Nestorius' agenda of prosecuting Cyril, Theodosius intended for the council to focus strictly on the christological controversy. He thus gave Candidianus strict directions to remain neutral and not to interfere in the theological proceedings. It is generally assumed that Candidian initially maintained his neutrality as instructed by the emperor and only gradually became more biased towards Nestorius. McGuckin, however, suggests that Candidian may have favored Nestorius from the start.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Celestine sent Arcadius and Projectus, to represent himself and his Roman council; in addition, he sent the Roman priest, Philip, as his personal representative. Cyril Patriarch of Alexandria was president of the council. Celestine had directed the papal legates not to take part in the discussions, but to give judgment on them.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Bishops arrived in Ephesus over a period of several weeks. While waiting for the other bishops to arrive, they engaged in informal discussions characterized as tending to "exasperate rather than heal their differences". The metropolitan of Ephesus, Memnon, was already present with his 52 bishops. Nestorius and his 16 bishops were the first to arrive shortly after Easter. As archbishop of the imperial city of Constantinople, he traveled with a detachment of troops who were under the command of Count Candidian. McGuckin notes that the troops were not there to serve as Nestorius' bodyguard but to support Candidian in his role as the emperor's representative. However, McGuckin theorizes that Candidian's progressive abandonment of neutrality in favor of Nestorius may have created the perception that Candidian's troops were, in fact, there to support Nestorius. Candidian ordered all monks and lay strangers to leave the city; he further instructed the bishops not to leave on any pretext until the council was concluded. Several sources comment that the purpose of this injunction was to prevent bishops from leaving the council to appeal to the emperor directly.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: According to McGuckin, Memnon, as bishop of Ephesus, commanded the "fervent and unquestioned loyalty" of the local populace and thus could count on the support of local factions to counterbalance the military might of Candidian's troops. In view of the verdict of Rome against Nestorius, Memnon refused to have communion with Nestorius, closing the churches of Ephesus to him.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Cyril brought with him 50 bishops, arriving only a few days before Pentecost. There were very few bishops representing the West, as the papal representatives would not arrive until July. The Palestinian delegation of 16 bishops and Metropolitan Flavian of Philippi arrived 5 days after the date that had been set for opening the council, and aligned themselves with Cyril.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: At this point, Cyril announced his intention to open the council; however, Candidian enjoined him from doing so on the grounds that the Roman and Antiochean delegations had not arrived yet. Cyril initially acceded to Candidian's injunction knowing that he could not legally convene a council without the official reading of the Emperor's Sacra.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: A number of bishops, who were undecided between Nestorius and Cyril, did not want to give Cyril, as one party in the dispute, the right to chair the meeting and decide the agenda; however, they began to take Cyril's side for various reasons.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Various circumstances including a detour necessitated by flooding as well as sickness and death of some of the delegates seriously delayed John of Antioch and his bishops. It was rumored that John might be delaying his arrival in order to avoid participating in a council which was likely to condemn Nestorius as a heretic.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Two weeks after the date set for the council, John and the bulk of his Syrian group (42 members) had not yet appeared. At this point, Cyril formally opened the council on Monday 22 June by enthroning the Gospels in the centre of the church, as a symbol of Christ's presence among the assembled bishops.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Despite three separate summons, Nestorius refused to acknowledge Cyril's authority to stand in judgment of him and considered the opening of the council before the arrival of the Antiochene contingent as a "flagrant injustice". The 68 bishops who opposed opening the council entered the church in protest, arriving with Count Candidian who declared that the assembly was illegal and must disperse. He urged Cyril to wait four more days for the Syrian delegation to arrive. However, since even the bishops opposed to opening the council were now present, Cyril maneuvered Candidian by means of a ruse to read out the text of the Emperor's decree of convocation, which the assembly then acclaimed as recognition of its own legality.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: When John of Antioch and his Syrian bishops finally reached Ephesus five days after the council, they met with Candidian who informed them that Cyril had begun a council without them and had ratified Celestine's conviction of Nestorius as a heretic. Angered at having undertaken such a long and arduous journey only to have been pre-empted by actions taken by Cyril's council, John and the Syrian bishops held their own Council with Candidian presiding. This council condemned Cyril for espousing the Arian, Apollinarian and Eunomian heresies and condemned Memnon for inciting violence. The bishops at this council deposed both Cyril and Memnon. Initially, the emperor concurred with the actions of John's council but eventually withdrew his concurrence.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: The second session was held in Memnon's episcopal residence. Philip, as papal legate, opened the proceedings by commenting that the present question regarding Nestorius had already been decided by Pope Celestine as evidenced by his letter, which had been read to the assembled bishops in the first session. He indicated that he had a second letter from Celestine which was read to the bishops now in attendance. The letter contained a general exhortation to the council, and concluded by saying that the legates had instructions to carry out what the pope had decided on the question and expressed Celestine's confidence that the council would agree. The bishops indicated their approval by acclaiming Celestine and Cyril. Projectus indicated that the papal letter enjoined the council to put into effect the sentence pronounced by Celestine. Firmus, the Exarch of Caesarea in Cappadocia, responded that the pope's sentence had already been carried out in the first session. The session closed with the reading of the pope's letter to the emperor.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Having read the Acts of the first session, the papal legates indicated that all that was required was that the council's condemnation of Nestorius be formally read in their presence. When this had been done, the three legates each confirmed the council's actions, signing the Acts of all three sessions. The council sent a letter to Theodosius indicating that the condemnation of Nestorius had been agreed upon not only by the bishops of the East meeting in Ephesus but also of the bishops of the West who had convened at a synod in Rome convened by Celestine. The bishops asked Theodosius to allow them to go home since so many of them suffered from their presence at Ephesus.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: At the fourth session, Cyril and Memnon presented a formal protest against John of Antioch for convening a separate conciliabulum. The council issued a summons for him to appear before them, but he would not even receive the envoys who were sent to serve him the summons.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Next day the fifth session was held in the same church. John had set up a placard in the city accusing the synod of the Apollinarian heresy. He was again cited, and this was counted as the third canonical summons. He paid no attention. In consequence the council suspended and excommunicated him, together with thirty-four bishops of his party, but refrained from deposing them. Some of John's party had already deserted him, and he had gained only a few. In the letters to the emperor and the pope which were then dispatched, the synod described itself as now consisting of 210 bishops. The long letter to Celestine gave a full account of the council, and mentioned that the pope's decrees against the Pelagians had been read and confirmed.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: At this session, the bishops approved Canon 7 which condemned any departure from the creed established by the First Council of Nicaea, in particular an exposition by the priest Charisius. According to a report from Cyril to Celestine, Juvenal of Jerusalem tried and failed to create for himself a patriarchate from the territory of the Antiochene patriarchate in which his see lay. He ultimately succeeded in this goal twenty years later at the Council of Chalcedon.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: At this session, the council approved the claim of the bishops of Cyprus that their see had been anciently and rightly exempt from the jurisdiction of Antioch. The council also passed five canons condemning Nestorius and Caelestius and their followers as heretics and a sixth one decreeing deposition from clerical office or excommunication for those who did not accept the Council's decrees.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: The Council denounced Nestorius' teaching as erroneous and decreed that Jesus was one person (hypostasis), and not two separate persons, yet possessing both a human and divine nature. The Virgin Mary was to be called Theotokos, a Greek word that means "God-bearer" (the one who gave birth to God).


title: Council of Ephesus

text: The Council declared it "unlawful for any man to bring forward, or to write, or to compose a different (ἑτέραν) Faith as a rival to that established by the holy Fathers assembled with the Holy Ghost in Nicæa". It quoted the Nicene Creed as adopted by the First Council of Nicaea in 325, not as added to and modified by the First Council of Constantinople in 381.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Although some scholars, such as Norman Cohn and Peter Toon, have suggested that the Council of Ephesus rejected premillennialism, this is a misconception, and there is no evidence of the Council making any such declaration.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: The bishops at Cyril's council outnumbered those at John of Antioch's council by nearly four to one. In addition, they had the agreement of the papal legates and the support of the population of Ephesus who supported their bishop, Memnon.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: However, Count Candidian and his troops supported Nestorius as did Count Irenaeus. The emperor had always been a firm supporter of Nestorius, but had been somewhat shaken by the reports of the council. Cyril's group was unable to communicate with the emperor because of interference from supporters of Nestorius both at Constantinople and at Ephesus. Ultimately, a messenger disguised as a beggar was able to carry a letter to Constantinople by hiding it in a hollow cane.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Although Emperor Theodosius had long been a staunch supporter of Nestorius, his loyalty seems to have been shaken by the reports from Cyril's council and caused him to arrive at the extraordinary decision to ratify the depositions decreed by both councils. Thus, he declared that Cyril, Memnon, and John were all deposed. Memnon and Cyril were kept in close confinement. But in spite of all the efforts of the Antiochene party, the representatives of the envoys whom the council was eventually allowed to send, with the legate Philip, to the Court, persuaded the emperor to accept Cyril's council as the true one. Seeing the writing on the wall and anticipating his fate, Nestorius requested permission to retire to his former monastery. The synod was dissolved in the beginning of October, and Cyril arrived amid much joy at Alexandria on 30 October. Pope Celestine had died on July 27 but his successor, Sixtus III, gave papal confirmation to the council's actions.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: The events created a major schism between the followers of the different versions of the council, which was only mended by difficult negotiations. The factions that supported John of Antioch acquiesced in the condemnation of Nestorius and, after additional clarifications, accepted the decisions of Cyril's council. However, the rift would open again during the debates leading up to the Council of Chalcedon.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: Persia had long been home to a Christian community that had been persecuted by the Zoroastrian majority, which had accused it of Roman leanings. In 424, the Persian Church declared itself independent of the Byzantine and all other churches, in order to ward off allegations of foreign allegiance. Following the Nestorian Schism, the Persian Church increasingly aligned itself with the Nestorians, a measure encouraged by the Zoroastrian ruling class. The Persian Church became increasingly Nestorian in doctrine over the next decades, furthering the divide between Christianity in Persia and in the Roman Empire. In 486 the Metropolitan of Nisibis, Barsauma, publicly accepted Nestorius' mentor, Theodore of Mopsuestia, as a spiritual authority. In 489 when the School of Edessa in Mesopotamia was closed by Byzantine Emperor Zeno for its Nestorian teachings, the school relocated to its original home of Nisibis, becoming again the School of Nisibis, leading to a wave of Nestorian immigration into Persia. The Persian patriarch Mar Babai I (497–502) reiterated and expanded upon the church's esteem for Theodore, solidifying the church's adoption of Nestorianism.


title: Council of Ephesus

text: In 1994, the Common Christological Declaration between the Catholic Church and the Assyrian Church of the East marked the resolution of a dispute between those two churches that had existed since the Council of Ephesus. They expressed their common understanding of doctrine concerning the divinity and humanity of Christ, and recognized the legitimacy and rightness of their respective descriptions of Mary as, on the Assyrian side, "the Mother of Christ our God and Saviour", and, on the Catholic side, as "the Mother of God" and also as "the Mother of Christ".


title: Jnana yoga

text: Jnana yoga (), also known as the jnana marga (), is one of the three classical paths ("margas") for moksha (liberation) in Hinduism, which emphasizes the "path of knowledge", also known as the "path of self-realization". The other two are karma yoga (path of action, "karma-mārga") and bhakti yoga (path of loving devotion to a personal god, "bhakti-mārga"). Modern interpretations of Hindu texts have yielded systems, techniques and formulations such as raja yoga and kriya yoga.


title: Jnana yoga

text: The "jñāna yoga" is a spiritual practice that pursues knowledge with questions such as "who am I, what am I" among others. The practitioner studies usually with the aid of a guru, meditates, reflects, and reaches liberating insights on the nature of one's own Self (Atman, soul) and its relationship to the metaphysical concept called Brahman in Hinduism. The "jñāna-mārga" ideas are discussed in ancient and medieval era Hindu scriptures and texts such as the "Upanishads" and the "Bhagavad Gita".


title: Jnana yoga

text: Jñāna, sometimes transcribed as "gyaan", means "knowledge" in Sanskrit. The root jñā- is cognate to English "know", as well as to the Greek γνώ- (as in γνῶσις "gnosis"). Its antonym is "ajñāna" "ignorance".


title: Jnana yoga

text: "Jnana" is knowledge, which refers to any cognitive event that is correct and true over time. It particularly refers to knowledge inseparable from the total experience of its object, especially about reality (non-theistic schools) or supreme being (theistic schools). In Hinduism, it is knowledge which gives Moksha, or spiritual liberation while alive (jivanmukti) or after death (videhamukti). According to Bimal Matilal, "jnana yoga" in Advaita Vedanta connotes both primary and secondary sense of its meaning, that is "self-consciousness, awareness" in the absolute sense and relative "intellectual understanding" respectively.


title: Jnana yoga

text: According to Jones and Ryan, "jnana" in "jnana yoga" context is better understood as "realization or gnosis", referring to a "path of study" wherein one knows the unity between self and ultimate reality called Brahman in Hinduism. This explanation is found in the ancient Upanishads and the Bhagavad Gita.


title: Jnana yoga

text: Jñāna yoga is the path towards attaining "jnana". It is one of the three classical types of yoga mentioned in Hindu philosophies, the other two being karma yoga and bhakti. In modern classifications, classical yoga, being called Raja yoga, is mentioned as a fourth one, an extension introduced by Swami Vivekananda.


title: Jnana yoga

text: Of the three different paths to liberation, "jnana marga" and "karma marga" are the more ancient, traceable to Vedic era literature. All three paths are available to any seeker, chosen based on inclination, aptitude and personal preference, and typically elements of all three to varying degrees are practiced by many Hindus.


title: Jnana yoga

text: Classical yoga emphasizes the practice of dhyana (meditation), and this is a part of all three classical paths in Hinduism, including "jñāna yoga". The path of knowledge is intended for those who prefer philosophical reflection and it requires study and meditation.


title: Jnana yoga

text: Jnana yoga encourages its adepts to think and speak of themselves in the third person as a way to distance themselves from the Ego and detach their eternal self (atman) from the body related one (maya).


title: Jnana yoga

text: In the Upanishads, "'jnana yoga" aims at the realization of the oneness of the individual self (Atman) and the ultimate Self (Brahman). These teachings are found in the early Upanishads. According to Chambliss, the mystical teachings within these Upanishads discuss "the way of knowledge of the Self", a union, the realization that the Self (Atman) and the Brahman are logical.


title: Jnana yoga

text: The teachings in the Upanishads have been interpreted in a number of ways, ranging from non-theistic monism to theistic dualism. In former, rituals are not necessary and a path of introspection and meditation is emphasized for the correct knowledge ("jnana") of self. In latter, it is the full and correct knowledge of a Vishnu avatar or Shiva or Shakti (Goddess) that is emphasized. In all its various interpretations, the paths are not necessarily mutually exclusive. A "Jnana yogi" may also practice "Karma yoga" or "Bhakti yoga" or both, and differing levels of emphasis.


title: Jnana yoga

text: According to Robert Roeser, the precepts of "Jnana yoga" in Hinduism were likely systematized by about 500 BCE, earlier than "Karma yoga" and "Bhakti yoga".


title: Jnana yoga

text: In the Bhagavad Gita, "jnana yoga" is also referred to as "buddhi yoga" and its goal is self-realization. The text considers "jnana marga" as the most difficult, slow, confusing for those who prefer it because it deals with "formless reality", the "avyakta". It is the path that intellectually oriented people tend to prefer.


title: Jnana yoga

text: The chapter 4 of the "Bhagavad Gita" is dedicated to the general exposition of "jnana yoga", while chapters 7 and 16 discuss its theological and axiological aspects. Krishna says that jñāna is the purest, and a discovery of one's Atman:


title: Jnana yoga

text: The Advaita philosopher Adi Shankara gave primary importance to jñāna yoga for the "knowledge of the absolute" (Brahman), while the Vishishtadvaita commentator Ramanujar regarded knowledge only as a condition of devotion.


title: Jnana yoga

text: Classical Advaita Vedanta emphasises the path of Jnana Yoga to attain moksha. It consists of fourfold attitudes, or behavioral qualifications:


title: Jnana yoga

text: "Jnanayoga" for Advaitins consists of three practices: "sravana" (hearing), "manana" (thinking) and "nididhyasana" (meditation). This three-step methodology is rooted in the teachings of chapter 4 of the "Brihadaranyaka Upanishad":


title: Jnana yoga

text: These practices, with the help of a guru are believed to lead to correct knowledge, which destroys "avidya", psychological and perceptual errors related to Atman and Brahman.


title: Jnana yoga

text: Both the theistic and monistic streams of Shaivism include "jnana yoga" ideas, along with those related to "karma yoga", and in the case of Saiva Siddhanta ideas related to "bhakti yoga". The Shaivism traditions do not consider renunciation necessary for practicing jnana yoga, leaving ascetic yogi lifestyle optional. Spirituality can be pursued along with active life ("karma"), according to Shaiva traditions, and it believes that this does not hinder ones ability to journey towards self (Shiva within) realization. The traditions dwell into this integration of karma yoga with jnana yoga, such as by ranking daily behavior and activity that is done by choice and when not necessary as higher in spiritual terms than activity that is impulsive or forced.


title: Jnana yoga

text: The methodology of sravana, manana and nididhyasana similar to Advaita Vedanta are also found in various traditions of Shaivism. However, "nistha" or "samadhi" is sometimes added in Shaiva methodology. The meditational aspects of Shaivism focus on the nirguna form of Supreme Reality (Shiva).


title: Jnana yoga

text: The "Pancharatra" (agama) texts of Vaishnavism, along with its Bhagavata (Krishna, Rama, Vishnu) tradition, are strongly influenced by "jnana yoga" ideas of the Upanishads. However, Vaishnavism also incorporates Bhakti yoga concepts of loving devotion to the divine Supreme personally selected by the devotee, in saguna form, both in silent meditational and musical expressive styles.


title: Jnana yoga

text: The aim of jnana yoga in Vaishnavism differs from that in other schools. Advaita, for example, considers jnana yoga as the path to nondual self-knowledge and moksha. Vaishnavism, in contrast, considers it a condition of devotion.