title: Polio eradication

text: There were 33 reported WPV1 paralysis cases with an onset of paralysis in 2018 – 21 in Afghanistan and 12 in Pakistan. In Pakistan, three of the cases occurred in Kohlu District in Balochistan, with eight in Khyber Pakhtunkhwa, and one in the greater Karachi area, Sindh. Viral circulation across much of the country, including several major urban areas, led to wild poliovirus detection in 20% of the year's environmental samples. The rates of parental refusal for vaccination were increasing. Polio in Pakistan resurged in the latter part of the year. Cases in Afghanistan represented two transmission clusters, one in Kandahar, Urozgan and Helmand Provinces in the south, the other in the adjacent Nuristan, Kunar and Nangarhar Provinces in the northeast, on the Pakistani border. Virus involved in several Afghanistan cases had a closest relative in Pakistan, suggesting significant trans-border spread, but the majority represented spread within Afghanistan. Some of these were caused by so-called 'orphan' strains, resulting from long undetected transmission and indicating gaps in monitoring. Different strains were largely responsible for the cases in the northeast and south of the country. In Nigeria, the third country classified as having endemic transmission, security concerns continued to limit access to some areas of the country, though migration and novel vaccination approaches would reduce the number of unreached children. The nation passed two full years without a detected wild-virus case, though elimination of WPV transmission could not be confirmed.


title: Polio eradication

text: Cases caused by vaccine-derived poliovirus were reported in seven countries, with over 100 total cases. Surveillance detected nine strains of cVDPV in 2018 in seven countries. In the Democratic Republic of the Congo, one of the outbreaks of cVDPV2 first detected in 2017 caused no additional cases, but suppression of the other two with OPV2 proved insufficient: not only did they continue, but the vaccination efforts gave rise to a novel cVDPV2 outbreak. The country experienced a total of 20 cases in 2018. Two separate cVDPV2 outbreaks in northern Nigeria produced 34 cases, as well as giving rise to 10 cases in the neighboring Niger. In Somalia, cVDPV2 continued to circulate, causing several polio cases and detected in environmental samples from as far as Nairobi, Kenya. This virus, along with newly detected cVDPV3, caused twelve total cases in the country, including one patient infected by both strains. The large number of children residing in areas inaccessible to health workers represent a particular risk for undetected cVDPV outbreaks. A cVDPV2 outbreak in Mozambique resulted in a single case. Response to the Syrian cVDPV2 outbreak continued into 2018, and virus transmission was successfully interrupted. In Papua New Guinea, a cVDPV1 strain arose, causing twenty-six polio cases across nine provinces, while a single diagnosed cVDPV1 case in neighboring Indonesia resulted from a distinct outbreak.


title: Polio eradication

text: There were 176 WPV1 paralysis cases detected in 2019: 29 in Afghanistan and 147 in Pakistan. In particular, in Pakistan the number of cases was surging. Transborder migration continued to play a role in polio transmission in the two countries. While itself problematic, this also fostered a dangerous false narrative in both nations, blaming the other for the presence and spread of polio in their own country. Environmental sampling in Pakistan showed the virus' presence in eight urban areas, a setback officials attributed primarily to vaccine refusal. Opponents to vaccination in Pakistan launched a series of attacks in April that left a vaccinator and two security men dead, while false rumors and hoax videos reporting vaccine toxicity also disrupted vaccination efforts there. Wild poliovirus of Pakistani origin also spread to Iran where it was detected in several environmental samples. Overall, the eradication efforts in Pakistan and Afghanistan have been characterized as having become a "horror show", undermined by "public suspicion, political infighting, mismanagement and security problems".


title: Polio eradication

text: In the third remaining country in which polio was classified as endemic, Nigeria, wild poliovirus has not been detected since October 2016, and levels of AFP surveillance are sufficient, even in security-compromised regions, to suggest transmission of WPV may have been interrupted. Global WPV3 eradication was certified in October 2019, the virus not having been seen since 2012.


title: Polio eradication

text: In addition to the WPV resurgence in Pakistan and Afghanistan, 2019 saw a resurgence of cVDPV, with 378 cases. The majority of cases were caused by cVDPV2 strains that were able to arise or spread as a consequence of the withdrawal of the PV2 strain from the standard vaccination regimen. Previous cVDPV2 outbreaks in Nigeria, the Democratic Republic of Congo, and Somalia continued into 2019 and spread to neighboring countries, while several countries experienced new outbreaks. In addition to eighteen reported paralysis cases in Nigeria, the cVDPV2 outbreaks there spread to Benin, Burkina Faso, Chad, Ghana, Niger, and Togo, while the virus was also detected in environmental samples from Cameroon and Ivory Coast. Somalia's continuing outbreaks caused a half-dozen cases there and in neighboring Ethiopia, with a separate Ethiopia outbreak adding one case. The Democratic Republic of the Congo had numerous new and continuing outbreaks, producing more than 80 cases, while multiple new cVDPV2 outbreaks in Angola and the Central African Republic resulted in more than a hundred cases. Individual new outbreaks of cVDPV2 also caused more than a dozen paralysis cases each in Pakistan and the Philippines, while smaller outbreaks struck Chad, China, and Zambia. A separate cVDPV1 outbreak in the Philippines also caused cases in Malaysia, where cVDPV2 of Filipino origin was also detected in environmental samples, while additional cVDPV1 outbreaks caused six cases in Myanmar and one case in Yemen.


title: Polio eradication

text: There were 140 WPV1 reported paralysis cases with onset in 2020, in Afghanistan and Pakistan. There were over 1000 reported cases caused by both continuing and novel outbreaks of cVDPV2 in twenty-four countries, and for cVDPV1, 31 cases in Yemen, two in Madagascar, and single cases in Malaysia and Mozambique. cVDPV was also detected in several additional countries with no diagnosed polio case. While in the past cVDPV outbreaks tended to remain localized, significant international spread of these strains is now being observed.


title: Polio eradication

text: In March, the GPEI announced that it had a moral imperative to redeploy some of its anti-polio resources against the COVID-19 pandemic, and recognized that the pandemic would affect its efforts at eradicating polio. They recommended that all mass vaccination efforts, both routine nationwide vaccination campaigns and cleanup vaccination targeted at outbreaks, be postponed for several months even though this risks severe detrimental effects on eradication efforts, finding themselves "caught between two terrible situations". Pakistan announced the restart of their polio vaccination campaigns in July, after their COVID numbers dropped. Subsequent statistical analysis indicated that the COVID pandemic would also result in decreases of more than 30% globally in both AFP and environmental surveillance, with only 53% of 43 priority countries meeting their surveillance targets in 2020.


title: Polio eradication

text: In June, Nigeria was removed from the list of countries with endemic wild poliovirus, leaving only Pakistan and Afghanistan. Two months later, the Africa Regional Certification Commission, an independent body appointed by the World Health Organization, declared the African continent free of wild poliovirus. This certification came after extensive assessments of the certifications of National Polio Certification Commissions (NCCs) and confirmation that at least 95% of Africa's population had been immunised. WHO Director-General Tedros Adhanom called it a "great day... but not the end of polio", as there remain major continuing outbreaks of the vaccine derived poliovirus in West Africa and Ethiopia in addition to wild cases in Afghanistan and Pakistan.


title: Polio eradication

text: Two additional challenges were a conspiracy theory circulating on social media claiming that the polio vaccine contained coronavirus, and moves by President Donald Trump of the United States to cut funding for the World Health Organization.


title: Polio eradication

text: In 2021, six cases caused by wild poliovirus were confirmed, one in Pakistan, four in Afghanistan, and one in Malawi, all caused by WPV1. Pakistan's lone case dated from January, but the virus continued to be detected in environmental samples through December, and was present in most provinces of the country during the year. The case in Malawi, the country's first in almost three decades and the first in Africa in five years, was seen as a significant setback to the eradication effort. Based on similarity to a strain last detected in Pakistan in 2019, it is thought that WPV1 has been circulating undetected in the country for some time.


title: Polio eradication

text: Almost 700 cases caused by cVDPV2 were detected in 2021 in 22 countries, over half occurring in Nigeria. Other countries with cVDPV2 cases include Afghanistan, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Congo, DRC, Eritrea, Ethiopia, Guinea, Guinea-Bissau, Liberia, Mozambique, Niger, Pakistan, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Somalia, South Sudan, Tajikistan, Ukraine, and Yemen, with the virus found in environmental samples or in those from symptom-free people in several additional African and Asian nations without reported cases. An analysis of cVDPV2 strains from 2020 and the first half of 2021 attributed them to 38 distinct emergences, representing a mix of novel strains and previously detected strains that continued to circulate, while several previously circulating strains were no longer found. For cVDPV1, 13 cases had been identified in Madagascar and 3 in Yemen. The only instances of cVDPV3 detected in the year were a single environmental sample from China and several from Israel and the adjacent occupied territories.


title: Polio eradication

text: 2021 saw a partial recovery from the challenges to monitoring brought on by the COVID pandemic, with 74% of high-priority countries meeting surveillance targets, an improvement of over 20% from the previous year.


title: Polio eradication

text: Despite previous resistance to eradication efforts, after their takeover of Afghanistan in 2021 the Taliban agreed to allow United Nations healthcare workers to carry out door-to-door vaccination nationwide for the first time in three years. They committed to allowing women to participate in the effort, and provided safety guarantees.


title: Polio eradication

text: March 2021 saw the first use of the modified nOPV2 vaccine in selected countries. This was engineered to allow vaccination against strain2 poliovirus without the frequent spawning of cVDPV2 seen with the original OPV2. Full rollout was not expected until 2023.


title: Polio eradication

text: As of 13 December, 30 cases of WPV1 polio have been recorded in 2022; endemic circulation has continued in Afghanistan and Pakistan, with two and twenty cases respectively, while eight cases have been recorded in Mozambique, the first since 1992, derived from the strain of Pakistani origin detected in Malawi in 2021. Pakistan had gone 15 months without a diagnosed WPV case before its first 2022 case, though the virus had been detected in environmental samples during the intervening period, and polio cases due to cVDPV2 had been seen in the interim.


title: Polio eradication

text: There were over 400 cases caused by cVDPV2 in the same period, in sixteen countries. In addition, 48 cases of cVDPV1 were detected in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, 18 cases in Mozambique, 13 in Madagascar, and 3 in Malawi, while one case due to cVDPV3 in an unvaccinated three-year-old was identified in Israel. Vaccine-derived viral strains were also detected in environmental samples from a number of additional countries without diagnosed cases. From February to May, traces of cVDPV2 were discovered in sewage in London, United Kingdom; no cases of polio have been reported in the UK. This led the United Kingdom to declare a "national incident". However, authorities have said that the risk to the general public is "extremely low". In the United States, the first case since 2013 was reported in Rockland County, New York. The CDC said genetic sequencing has tied the samples of polio from Rockland County to strains found in Israel and the United Kingdom.


title: Polio eradication

text: In addition to the ongoing challenges of the eradication effort, several recent circumstances raised additional concerns in 2022. In Ukraine, where cVDPV-caused polio had been detected in fall 2021, vaccination efforts had to be halted due to the Russian invasion of the country. Likewise, the effects of the COVID-19 pandemic have continued to be a cause for concern. Not only is there an increased risk of undetected outbreaks due to COVID's interference with routine health care, including disease detection and childhood vaccinations, but there is also concern that an increased fear of vaccines, caused at least in part by politicization of vaccination and by bad governance during the pandemic, may lead to a general pattern of undervaccination, including for polio. In Pakistan, a contributing factor to the resurgence of wild virus cases in the country has been threats of violence both from those with anti-vaccine sentiment and from religious extremists; a vaccination worker was assassinated in March, and a vaccinator and two accompanying police officers providing security for a door-to-door vaccination campaign were murdered in June.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk (, ) is a city and the administrative center of Tomsk Oblast in Russia, located on the Tom River. Population:


title: Tomsk

text: Founded in 1604, Tomsk is one of the oldest cities in Siberia. The city is a notable educational and scientific center with six state universities consisting of over 100,000 students, including Tomsk State University, the oldest university in Siberia.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk originated with a decree by Tsar Boris Godunov in 1604 after , the Tatar duke of , asked for the Tsar's protection against Kirghiz bandits. The Tsar sent 200 Cossacks under the command of and Gavriil Ivanovich Pisemsky to construct a fortress on the bank of the Tom River, overlooking what would become the city of Tomsk. Toian ceded the land for the fortress to the Tsar.


title: Tomsk

text: In 1804, the Imperial Russian government selected Tomsk as the seat of the new Tomsk Governorate, which would include the modern cities of Novosibirsk, Kemerovo, and Krasnoyarsk, as well as the territories now in Eastern Kazakhstan. The new status brought development and the city grew quickly.


title: Tomsk

text: The discovery of gold in 1830 brought further development to Tomsk in the 19th century; however, when in the 1890s the Trans-Siberian Railway bypassed the city in favor of the village of Novonikolayevsk (Novosibirsk), development began to move south to connect with the railway. In time, Novosibirsk would surpass Tomsk in importance.


title: Tomsk

text: In the mid-19th century one fifth of the city's residents were exiles. However, within a few years, the city reinvented itself as the educational center of Siberia with the establishment of Tomsk State University, founded in 1880, and Tomsk Polytechnic University, founded in 1896. By World War II, every twelfth resident of the city was a student, giving rise to the city's nickname, the "Siberian Athens".


title: Tomsk

text: After the October Revolution of 1917, the city became a notable center of the White movement, led by Anatoly Pepelyayev and Maria Bochkareva, among others. After the victory of the Red Army in the 1920s, Soviet authorities incorporated Tomsk into the West Siberian Krai and later into Novosibirsk Oblast.


title: Tomsk

text: Like many Siberian cities, Tomsk became the new home for many factories relocated out of the war zone from 1941. The resulting growth of the city led the Soviet government to establish the new Tomsk Oblast, with Tomsk serving as the administrative center.


title: Tomsk

text: During the Cold War, Tomsk became one of many designated closed cities, which outsiders and, in particular, foreigners, could not visit. In 1949 matters went a stage further with the establishment of a secret city, known as "Tomsk-7" (or sometimes simply as "Postbox 5") north-west of Tomsk; the new settlement became the home of the Tomsk Nuclear Plant (subsequently renamed the Sibirskaya Nuclear Power Plant), the Soviet Union's first industrial-scale nuclear-power station. Tomsk-7 received municipal status in 1956 and was renamed Seversk in 1992.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk serves as the administrative center of the oblast and, within the framework of administrative divisions, it also serves as the administrative center of Tomsky District, even though it is not a part of it. As an administrative division, it is, together with seven rural localities, incorporated separately as Tomsk City Under Oblast Jurisdiction—an administrative unit with the status equal to that of the districts. As a municipal division, Tomsk City Under Oblast Jurisdiction is incorporated as Tomsk Urban Okrug.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk has a humid continental climate (Köppen climate classification "Dfb") barely escaping a subarctic classification. The annual average temperature is . Winters are severe and lengthy, and the lowest recorded temperature was in January 1931. However, the average temperature in January is between and . The average temperature in July is . The total annual rainfall is . In 2006, Tomsk experienced what might have been its first recorded winds of hurricane force, which toppled trees and damaged houses.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk is governed by a mayor and a 33-member Duma. The current mayor, appointed in 2013, is Ivan Klyayn, a member of The United Russia party.


title: Tomsk

text: Of the 33 members, 16 are elected from the eight double mandate districts while 17 are chosen from party lists.


title: Tomsk

text: In the October 2005 local elections, United Russia was expected to cruise to a solid victory; however, the Pensioners Party put up a strong showing. The final count was (proportional representation):


title: Tomsk

text: In 2020, supporters of Alexei Navalny won at least 16 seats in Tomsk's 37-seat city council while the pro-Putin United Russia party secured no more than 11 seats.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk consumes more electric energy than it produces. The bulk of the city's electric and thermal energy is produced by the GRES-2 (281 MWt) and TEC-3 (140 MWt) powerplants, belonging to Tomskenergo Inc. Tomsk supplements its energy needs with electricity generated at Seversk.


title: Tomsk

text: A large number of educational institutions in the city have contributed to making Tomsk a major center for Russia's IT industry. Tomsk was one of the first cities in Russia to gain access to the Internet, which became available in the early 1990s owing to grants received by universities and scientific cooperation. Tomsk has a number of prominent institutions of higher education, including:


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk is a small railway center that is situated on the Tayga—Bely Yar line (Tomsk branch) of the Trans-Siberian Railway.


title: Tomsk

text: The main line of the Trans-Siberian railway, built in 1896, passes south of Tomsk and bypasses Tomsk. Access from Tomsk to the Trans-Siberian railway is available via the town of Tayga. A regional rail line links Tomsk with Tayga.


title: Tomsk

text: The Tomsk Railway existed as an independent entity until 1961. At the present time, the Tomsk line belongs to the West-Siberian Railway, branch of Russian Railways Corp. Trains link Tomsk to Anapa, Asino, Barnaul, Bely Yar, Moscow, Novokuznetsk, Novosibirsk, Sochi, and Tayga.


title: Tomsk

text: The majority of inner-city and suburban transportation is provided by "marshrutkas" (routed taxis) and minibuses (mostly manufactured by PAZ, and serving about forty routes).


title: Tomsk

text: Additionally, the city has eleven proper bus routes, eight trolleybus lines (built in 1967), and five tram lines (constructed in 1949). Private taxis are also readily available.


title: Tomsk

text: The city is served by Bogashevo Airport, which offers both domestic and international flights. Located 20 kilometers from the city center, the airport was renovated in 2013. The airport is home to offices for S7 Airlines, Aeroflot, Ural Airlines, Turukhan Airlines, NordStar Airlines, RusLine, Red Wings Airlines, ALROSA, and UTair Aviation.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk has many local cultural institutions including several drama theaters, as well as a children's theater and a puppet theater. Major concert venues in the city include the Conservatory Concert hall and the Tomsk Palace of Sport. The city also boasts cultural centers dedicated to German, Polish and Tatar languages and culture.


title: Tomsk

text: One of the city's prominent theaters was destroyed in an act of terrorism in 1905. The Korolevsky Theater (built in 1884–85) was being used by a group of communist revolutionaries when the theater was attacked and set on fire by members of the Black Hundred, a hard-line nationalist organization. Those who escaped the flames were gunned down by Black Hundred members waiting outside the theater. Estimates put the number of casualties between 200 and 1000.


title: Tomsk

text: There are a number of museums in Tomsk devoted to various subjects, most notably art, local history and wood carving. There is also a Museum of Oppression, housed in a former KGB dungeon. Tomsk State University has a number of small museums with exhibits on archaeology, paleontology, zoology, as well as a herbarium and a botanical garden


title: Tomsk

text: As in many other cities in the former Soviet Union, the revolutionary government destroyed a number of old churches in the city including two that had existed since the 17th century. However, Tomsk managed to save some of its churches by transforming them into machine shops, warehouses, archives, and even residential buildings. Since the end of the communist era some of the churches have been renovated and returned to their congregations.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk is well known for its intricate "gingerbread" decoration of traditional wooden houses in the area. However, the number of old homes in this style is decreasing due to redevelopment or some of them catching fire, as the structures have little to no fire protection.


title: Tomsk

text: Trud (Labor) Stadium, in central Tomsk is the base for matches with the FC Tom Tomsk, the city's professional football club. The team's 2004 promotion to the Russian Premier League gave local fans a chance to see some of the nation's best teams play at the city's own stadium.


title: Tomsk

text: Tomsk has many local media outlets including the "" television station, shut down by the authorities and turned into an internet TV medium, the radio stations "Radio Siberia" and "Echo of Moscow in Tomsk" along with several newspapers ("Tomskaya Nedelya, Krasnoye Znamya" and "Vechernii Tomsk").


title: Tomsk

text: In April 2006 Tomsk received international media attention as the venue of a major summit on economic cooperation, held in the city between Russian President Vladimir Putin and German Chancellor Angela Merkel.


title: History of smallpox

text: The history of smallpox extends into pre-history. Genetic evidence suggests that the smallpox virus emerged 3,000 to 4,000 years ago. Prior to that, similar ancestral viruses circulated, but possibly only in other mammals, and possibly with different symptoms. Only a few written reports dating from about 500 AD to 1000 AD are considered reliable historical descriptions of smallpox, so understanding of the disease prior to that has relied on genetics and archaeology. However, during the 2nd millennium AD, especially starting in the 16th century, reliable written reports become more common. The earliest physical evidence of smallpox is found in the Egyptian mummies of people who died some 3,000 years ago. Smallpox has had a major impact on world history, not least because indigenous populations of regions where smallpox was non-native, such as the Americas and Australia, were rapidly and greatly reduced by smallpox (along with other introduced diseases) during periods of initial foreign contact, which helped pave the way for conquest and colonization. During the 18th century the disease killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year, including five reigning monarchs, and was responsible for a third of all blindness. Between 20 and 60% of all those infected—and over 80% of infected children—died from the disease.


title: History of smallpox

text: During the 20th century, it is estimated that smallpox was responsible for 300–500 million deaths. In the early 1950s an estimated 50 million cases of smallpox occurred in the world each year. As recently as 1967, the World Health Organization estimated that 15 million people contracted the disease and that two million died in that year. After successful vaccination campaigns throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, the WHO certified the global eradication of smallpox in December 1979. Smallpox is one of two infectious diseases to have been eradicated, the other being rinderpest, which was declared eradicated in 2011.


title: History of smallpox

text: It has been suggested that smallpox was a major component of the Plague of Athens that occurred in 430 BCE, during the Peloponnesian Wars, and was described by Thucydides.


title: History of smallpox

text: Galen's description of the Antonine Plague, which swept through the Roman Empire in 165–180 CE, indicates that it was probably caused by smallpox. Returning soldiers picked up the disease in Seleucia (in modern Iraq), and brought it home with them to Syria and Italy. It raged for fifteen years and greatly weakened the Roman empire, killing up to one-third of the population in some areas. Total deaths have been estimated at 5 million.


title: History of smallpox

text: A second major outbreak of disease in the Roman Empire, known as the Plague of Cyprian (251–266 CE), was also either smallpox or measles. The Roman empire stopped growing as a consequence on these two plagues, according to historians like Theodore Mommsen. Although some historians believe that many historical epidemics and pandemics were early outbreaks of smallpox, contemporary records are not detailed enough to make a definite diagnosis.


title: History of smallpox

text: Around 400 CE, an Indian medical book recorded a disease marked by pustules and boils, saying "the pustules are red, yellow, and white and they are accompanied by burning pain … the skin seems studded with grains of rice." The Indian epidemic was thought to be punishment from a god, and the survivors created a goddess, Sitala, as the anthropomorphic personification of the disease. Smallpox was thus regarded as possession by Sitala. In Hinduism the goddess Sitala both causes and cures high fever, rashes, hot flashes and pustules. All of these are symptoms of smallpox.


title: History of smallpox

text: Most of the details about the epidemics are lost, probably due to the scarcity of surviving written records from the Early Middle Ages. The first incontrovertible description of smallpox in Western Europe occurred in 581 CE, when Bishop Gregory of Tours provided an eyewitness account describing the characteristic symptoms of smallpox. Waves of epidemics wiped out large rural populations. The establishment of the disease in Europe was of special importance, for this served as the endemic reservoir from which smallpox spread to other parts of the world, as an accompaniment of successive waves of European exploration and colonization.


title: History of smallpox

text: The Japanese smallpox epidemic of 735–737 is believed to have killed as much as one-third of Japan's population.


title: History of smallpox

text: The clearest description of smallpox from pre-modern times was given in the 9th century by the Persian physician, Muhammad ibn Zakariya ar-Razi, known in the West as "Rhazes", who was the first to differentiate smallpox from measles and chickenpox in his "Kitab fi al-jadari wa-al-hasbah" ("The Book of Smallpox and Measles").


title: History of smallpox

text: Smallpox was a leading cause of death in the 18th century. Every seventh child born in Russia died from smallpox. It killed an estimated 400,000 Europeans each year in the 18th century, including five reigning European monarchs. Most people became infected during their lifetimes, and about 30% of people infected with smallpox died from the disease, presenting a severe selection pressure on the resistant survivors.


title: History of smallpox

text: In northern Japan, Ainu population decreased drastically in the 19th century, due in large part to infectious diseases like smallpox brought by Japanese settlers pouring into Hokkaido.


title: History of smallpox

text: The Franco-Prussian War triggered a smallpox pandemic of 1870–1875 that claimed 500,000 lives; while vaccination was mandatory in the Prussian army, many French soldiers were not vaccinated. Smallpox outbreaks among French prisoners of war spread to the German civilian population and other parts of Europe. Ultimately, this public health disaster inspired stricter legislation in Germany and England, though not in France.


title: History of smallpox

text: In 1849 nearly 13% of all Calcutta deaths were due to smallpox. Between 1868 and 1907, there were approximately 4.7 million deaths from smallpox in India. Between 1926 and 1930, there were 979,738 cases of smallpox with a mortality of 42.3%.


title: History of smallpox

text: Smallpox is exogenous to Africa. One of the oldest records of what may have been an encounter with smallpox in Africa is associated with the elephant war circa AD 568 CE, when after fighting a siege in Mecca, Ethiopian troops contracted the disease which they carried with them back to Africa.


title: History of smallpox

text: Arab ports in Coastal towns in Africa likely contributed to the importation of smallpox into Africa, as early as the 13th century, though no records exist until the 16th century. Upon invasion of these towns by tribes in the interior of Africa, a severe epidemic affected all African inhabitants while sparing the Portuguese. Densely populated areas of Africa connected to the Mediterranean, Nubia and Ethiopia by caravan route likely were affected by smallpox since the 11th century, though written records do not appear until the introduction of the slave trade in the 16th century.


title: History of smallpox

text: The enslavement of Africans continued to spread smallpox to the entire continent, with raiders pushing farther inland along caravan routes in search of people to enslave. The effects of smallpox could be seen along caravan routes, and those who were not affected along the routes were still likely to become infected either waiting to be put onboard or on board ships.


title: History of smallpox

text: Smallpox in Angola was likely introduced shortly after Portuguese settlement of the area in 1484. The 1864 epidemic killed 25,000 inhabitants, one third of the total population in that same area. In 1713, an outbreak occurred in South Africa after a ship from India docked at Cape Town, bringing infected laundry ashore. Many of the settler European population suffered, and whole clans of the Khoisan people were wiped out. A second outbreak occurred in 1755, again affecting both the white population and the Khoisan. The disease spread further, completely eradicating several Khosian clans, all the way to the Kalahari desert. A third outbreak in 1767 similarly affected the Khoisan and Bantu peoples. But the European colonial settlers were not affected nearly to the extent that they were in the first two outbreaks, it has been speculated this is because of variolation. Continued enslavement operations brought smallpox to Cape Town again in 1840, taking the lives of 2500 people, and then to Uganda in the 1840s. It is estimated that up to eighty percent of the Griqua tribe was exterminated by smallpox in 1831, and whole tribes were being wiped out in Kenya up until 1899. Along the Zaire river basin were areas where no one survived the epidemics, leaving the land devoid of human life. In Ethiopia and the Sudan, six epidemics are recorded for the 19th century: 1811–1813, 1838–1839, 1865–1866, 1878–1879, 1885–1887, and 1889–1890.


title: History of smallpox

text: After first contacts with Europeans and Africans, some believe that the death of 90–95% of the native population of the New World was caused by Old World diseases. It is suspected that smallpox was the chief culprit and responsible for killing nearly all of the native inhabitants of the Americas. For more than 200 years, this disease affected all new world populations, mostly without intentional European transmission, from contact in the early 16th century until possibly as late as the French and Indian Wars (1754–1767).


title: History of smallpox

text: In 1519 Hernán Cortés landed on the shores of what is now Mexico and what was then the Aztec Empire. In 1520 another group of Spanish arrived in Mexico from Hispaniola, bringing with them the smallpox which had already been ravaging that island for two years. When Cortés heard about the other group, he went and defeated them. In this contact, one of Cortés's men contracted the disease. When Cortés returned to Tenochtitlan, he brought the disease with him.


title: History of smallpox

text: Soon, the Aztecs rose up in rebellion against Cortés and his men. Outnumbered, the Spanish were forced to flee. In the fighting, the Spanish soldier carrying smallpox died. Cortés would not return to the capital until August 1521. In the meantime smallpox devastated the Aztec population. It killed most of the Aztec army and 25% of the overall population. The Spanish Franciscan Motolinia left this description: "As the Indians did not know the remedy of the disease…they died in heaps, like bedbugs. In many places it happened that everyone in a house died and, as it was impossible to bury the great number of dead, they pulled down the houses over them so that their homes become their tombs." On Cortés's return, he found the Aztec army's chain of command in ruins. The soldiers who still lived were weak from the disease. Cortés then easily defeated the Aztecs and entered Tenochtitlán. The Spaniards said that they could not walk through the streets without stepping on the bodies of smallpox victims.


title: History of smallpox

text: The effects of smallpox on Tahuantinsuyu (or the Inca empire) were even more devastating. Beginning in Colombia, smallpox spread rapidly before the Spanish invaders first arrived in the empire. The spread was probably aided by the efficient Inca road system. Within months, the disease had killed the Incan Emperor Huayna Capac, his successor, and most of the other leaders. Two of his surviving sons warred for power and, after a bloody and costly war, Atahualpa become the new emperor. As Atahualpa was returning to the capital Cuzco, Francisco Pizarro arrived and through a series of deceits captured the young leader and his best general. Within a few years smallpox claimed between 60% and 90% of the Inca population, with other waves of European disease weakening them further. A handful of historians argue that a disease called Bartonellosis might have been responsible for some outbreaks of illness, but this opinion is in the scholarly minority. The effects of Bartonellosis were depicted in the ceramics of the Moche people of ancient Peru.


title: History of smallpox

text: Even after the two largest empires of the Americas were defeated by the virus and disease, smallpox continued its march of death. In 1561, smallpox reached Chile by sea, when a ship carrying the new governor Francisco de Villagra landed at La Serena. Chile had previously been isolated by the Atacama Desert and Andes Mountains from Peru, but at the end of 1561 and in early 1562, it ravaged the Chilean native population. Chronicles and records of the time left no accurate data on mortality but more recent estimates are that the natives lost 20 to 25 percent of their population. The Spanish historian Marmolejo said that gold mines had to shut down when all their Indian labor died. Mapuche fighting Spain in Araucanía regarded the epidemic as a magical attempt by Francisco de Villagra to exterminate them because he could not defeat them in the Arauco War.


title: History of smallpox

text: In 1633 in Plymouth, Massachusetts, the Native Americans were struck by the virus. As it had done elsewhere, the virus wiped out entire population groups of Native Americans. It reached Mohawks in 1634, the Lake Ontario area in 1636, and the lands of the Iroquois by 1679.


title: History of smallpox

text: A particularly virulent sequence of smallpox outbreaks took place in Boston, Massachusetts. From 1636 to 1698, Boston endured six epidemics. In 1721, the most severe epidemic occurred. The entire population fled the city, bringing the virus to the rest of the Thirteen Colonies.


title: History of smallpox

text: During the siege of Fort Pitt, as recorded in his journal by sundries trader and militia Captain, William Trent, on June 24, 1763, dignitaries from the Delaware tribe met with Fort Pitt officials, warned them of "great numbers of Indians" coming to attack the fort, and pleaded with them to leave the fort while there was still time. The commander of the fort refused to abandon the fort. Instead, the British gave as gifts two blankets, one silk handkerchief and one linen from the smallpox hospital, to two Delaware Indian delegates. The dignitaries were met again later and they seemingly hadn't contracted smallpox. A relatively small outbreak of smallpox had begun spreading earlier that spring, with a hundred dying from it among Native American tribes in the Ohio Valley and Great Lakes area through 1763 and 1764. The effectiveness of the biological warfare itself remains unknown, and the method used is inefficient compared to respiratory transmission and these attempts to spread the disease are difficult to differentiate from epidemics occurring from previous contacts with colonists, as smallpox outbreaks happened every dozen or so years.


title: History of smallpox

text: In the late 1770s, during the American Revolutionary War, smallpox returned once more and killed thousands. Peter Kalm in his "Travels in North America", described how in that period, the dying Indian villages became overrun with wolves feasting on the corpses and weakened survivors. During the 1770s, smallpox killed at least 30% of the Northwestern Native Americans, killing tens of thousands. The smallpox epidemic of 1780–1782 brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the Plains Indians. This epidemic is a classic instance of European immunity and non-European vulnerability. It is probable that the Indians contracted the disease from the 'Snake Indians' on the Mississippi. From there it spread eastward and northward to the Saskatchewan River. According to David Thompson's account, the first to hear of the disease were fur traders from the Hudson's House on October 15, 1781. A week later, reports were made to William Walker and William Tomison, who were in charge of the Hudson and Cumberland Hudson's Bay Company posts. By February, the disease spread as far as the Basquia Tribe. Smallpox attacked whole tribes and left few survivors. E. E. Rich described the epidemic by saying that "Families lay unburied in their tents while the few survivors fled, to spread the disease." After reading Tomison's journals, Houston and Houston calculated that, of the Indians who traded at the Hudson and Cumberland houses, 95% died of smallpox. Paul Hackett adds to the mortality numbers suggesting that perhaps up to one half to three quarters of the Ojibway situated west of the Grand Portage died from the disease. The Cree also suffered a casualty rate of approximately 75% with similar effects found in the Lowland Cree. By 1785 the Sioux Indians of the great plains had also been affected. Not only did smallpox devastate the Indian population, it did so in an unforgiving way. William Walker described the epidemic stating that "the Indians [are] all Dying by this Distemper … lying Dead about the Barren Ground like a rotten sheep, their Tents left standing & the Wild beast Devouring them."


title: History of smallpox

text: In 1799, the physician Valentine Seaman administered the first smallpox vaccine in the United States. He gave his children a smallpox vaccination using a serum acquired from Edward Jenner, the British physician who invented the vaccine from fluid taken from cowpox lesions. Though vaccines were misunderstood and mistrusted at the time, Seaman advocated their use and, in 1802, coordinated a free vaccination program for the poor in New York City.


title: History of smallpox

text: By 1832, the federal government of the United States established a smallpox vaccination program for Native Americans.


title: History of smallpox

text: In 1900 starting in New York City, smallpox reared its head once again and started a sociopolitical battle with lines drawn between the rich and poor, white and black. In populations of railroad and migrant workers who traveled from city to city the disease had reached an endemic low boil. This fact did not bother the government at the time, nor did it spur them to action. Despite the general acceptance of the germ theory of disease, pioneered by John Snow in 1849, smallpox was still thought to be mostly a malady that followed the less-distinct guidelines of a "filth" disease, and therefore would only affect the "lower classes".


title: History of smallpox

text: The last major smallpox epidemic in the United States occurred in Boston, Massachusetts throughout a three-year period, between 1901 and 1903. During this three-year period, 1596 cases of the disease occurred throughout the city. Of those cases, nearly 300 people died. As a whole, the epidemic had a 17% fatality rate.


title: History of smallpox

text: Those who were infected with the disease were detained in quarantine facilities in the hopes of protecting others from getting sick. These quarantine facilities, or pesthouses, were mostly located on Southampton Street. As the outbreak worsened, men were also moved to hospitals on Gallop's Island. Women and children were primarily sent to Southampton Street. Smallpox patients were not allowed in regular hospital facilities throughout the city, for fear the sickness would spread among the already sick.


title: History of smallpox

text: A reflection of the previous outbreak that occurred in New York, the poor and homeless were blamed for the sickness's spread. In response to this belief, the city instructed teams of physicians to vaccinate anyone living in inexpensive housing.


title: History of smallpox

text: In an effort to control the outbreak, the Boston Board of Health began voluntary vaccination programs. Individuals could receive free vaccines at their


title: History of smallpox

text: workplaces or at different stations set up throughout the city. By the end of 1901, some 40,000 of the city's residents had received a smallpox vaccine. However, despite the city's efforts, the epidemic continued to grow. In January 1902, a door-to-door vaccination program was initiated. Health officials were instructed to compel individuals to receive vaccination, pay a $5 fine, or face 15 days in prison. This door-to-door program was met by some resistance as some individuals feared the vaccines to be unsafe and ineffective. Others felt compulsory vaccination in itself was a problem that violated an individual's civil liberties.


title: History of smallpox

text: This program of compulsory vaccination eventually led to the famous "Jacobson v. Massachusetts" case. The case was the result of a Cambridge resident's refusal to be vaccinated. Henning Jacobson, a Swedish immigrant, refused vaccination out of fear it would cause him illness. He claimed a previous smallpox vaccine had made him sick as a child. Rather than pay the five dollar fine, he challenged the state's authority on forcing people to receive vaccination. His case was lost at the state level, but Jacobson appealed the ruling, and so, the case was taken up by the Supreme Court. In 1905 the Supreme Court upheld the Massachusetts law: it was ruled Jacobson could not refuse the mandatory vaccination.


title: History of smallpox

text: In Canada, between 1702 and 1703, nearly a quarter of the population of Quebec city died due to a smallpox epidemic.


title: History of smallpox

text: There is evidence that smallpox reached the Philippine islands from the 4th century onwards – linked possibly to contact between South East Asians and Indian traders.


title: History of smallpox

text: During the 18th century, there were many major outbreaks of smallpox, driven possibly by increasing contact with European colonists and traders. There were epidemics, for instance, in the Sultanate of Banjar (South Kalimantan), in 1734, 1750–51, 1764–65 and 1778–79; in the Sultanate of Tidore (Moluccas ) during the 1720s, and in southern Sumatra during the 1750s, the 1770s and in 1786.


title: History of smallpox

text: Smallpox was externally brought to Australia. The first recorded outbreak, in April 1789, about 16 months after the arrival of the First Fleet, devastated the Aboriginal population. Governor Arthur Phillip said that about half of the Aboriginal people living around Sydney Cove died during the outbreak. Some later estimates have been higher, though precise figures are hard to determine, and Professors Carmody and Hunter argued in 2014 that the figure was more like 30%. There is an ongoing debate, with links to the "History wars", concerning two main rival theories about how smallpox first entered the continent. (Another hypothesis suggested that the French brought it in 1788, but the timeline does not fit.) The central hypotheses of these theories suggest that smallpox was transmitted to Indigenous Australians by either:


title: History of smallpox

text: In 1914, Dr J. H. L. Cumpston, director of the Australian Quarantine Service tentatively put forward the hypothesis that smallpox arrived with British settlers. Cumpston's theory was most forcefully reiterated by the economic historian Noel Butlin, in his book "Our Original Aggression" (1983). Likewise David Day, in "Claiming a Continent: A New History of Australia" (2001), suggested that members of Sydney's garrison of Royal Marines may have attempted to use smallpox as a biological weapon in 1789. However, in 2002, historian John Connor stated that Day's theory was "unsustainable". That same year, theories that smallpox was introduced with settlers, deliberately or otherwise, were contested in a full-length book by historian Judy Campbell: "Invisible Invaders: Smallpox and Other Diseases in Aboriginal Australia 1780-1880" (2002). Campbell consulted, during the writing of her book, Frank Fenner, who had overseen the final stages of a successful campaign by the World Health Organization (WHO) to eradicate smallpox. Campbell argued that scientific evidence concerning the viability of variolous matter (used for inoculation) did not support the possibility of the disease being brought to Australia on the long voyage from Europe. Campbell also noted that there was no evidence of Aboriginal people ever having been exposed to the variolous matter, merely speculation that they may have been. Later authors, such as Christopher Warren, and Craig Mear continued to argue that smallpox emanated from the importation of variolous matter on the First Fleet. Warren (2007) suggested that Campbell had erred in assuming that high temperatures would have sterilised the British supply of smallpox. H. A. Willis (2010), in a survey of the literature discussed above, endorsed Campbell's argument. In response, Warren (2011) suggested that Willis had not taken into account research on how heat affects the smallpox virus, cited by the WHO. Willis (2011) replied that his position was supported by a closer reading of Frank Fenner's report to the WHO (1988) and invited readers to consult that report online.


title: History of smallpox

text: The rival hypothesis, that the 1789 outbreak was introduced to Australia by visitors from Makassar, came to prominence in 2002, with Judy Campbell's book "Invisible Invaders". Campbell expanded upon the opinion of C. C. Macknight (1986), an authority on the interaction between indigenous Australians and Makassans. Citing the scientific opinion of Fenner (who wrote the foreword to her book) and historical documents, Campbell argued that the 1789 outbreak was introduced to Australia by Makassans, from where it spread overland. Nevertheless, Michael Bennett in a 2009 article in "Bulletin of the History of Medicine", argued that imported "variolous matter" may have been the source of the 1789 epidemic in Australia. In 2011, Macknight re-entered the debate, declaring: "The overwhelming probability must be that it [smallpox] was introduced, like the later epidemics, by [Makassan] trepangers on the north coast and spread across the continent to arrive in Sydney quite independently of the new settlement there". Warren (2013) disputed this, on the grounds that: there was no suitable smallpox in Makassar before 1789; there were no trade routes suitable for transmission to Port Jackson; the theory of a Makassan source for smallpox in 1789 was contradicted by Aboriginal oral tradition; and, the earliest point at which there was evidence of smallpox entering Australia with Makassan visitors was around 1824. Public health expert Mark Wenitong, a Kabi Kabi man, and John Maynard, Emeritus professor of Aboriginal History at the University of Newcastle agree that this is highly unlikely, with the added obstacle of very low population density between the north coast and Sydney Cove.


title: History of smallpox

text: A quite separate third theory, endorsed by the pathologist Dr G.E. Ford, with support from the academics Curson, Wright and Hunter, holds that the deadly disease was not smallpox but the far more infectious chickenpox, to which the Eora Aboriginal peoples had no resistance.


title: History of smallpox

text: John Carmody, then at the University of Sydney School of Medical Sciences, suggested in 2010 that the epidemic was far more likely to have been chickenpox, as none of the European colonists were threatened by it, as he would have expected to happen. However Wenitong and Maynard continue to believe that there is strong evidence that it was smallpox.


title: History of smallpox

text: Another major outbreak was observed in 1828–30, near Bathurst, New South Wales. A third epidemic occurred in the Northern Territory and northern Western Australia from the mid-1860s, until at least 1870.


title: History of smallpox

text: Elsewhere in the Pacific, smallpox killed many indigenous Polynesians. Nevertheless, Alfred Crosby, in his major work, "" (1986) showed that in 1840 a ship with smallpox on it was successfully quarantined, preventing an epidemic amongst Māori of New Zealand. The only major outbreak in New Zealand was a 1913 epidemic, which affected Māori in northern New Zealand and nearly wiped out the Rapa Nui of Easter Island ("Rapa Nui"), was reported by Te Rangi Hiroa (Dr Peter Buck) to a medical congress in Melbourne in 1914.


title: History of smallpox

text: The whaler ship "Delta" brought smallpox to the Micronesian island of Pohnpei on 28 February 1854. The Pohnpeians reacted by first feasting their offended spirits and then resorted hiding. The disease eventually wiped out more than half the island's population. The deaths of chiefs threw Pohnpeian society into disarray, and the people started blaming the God of the Christian missionaries. The Christian missionaries themselves saw the epidemic as God's punishment for the people and offered the natives inoculations, though often withheld such treatment from the priests. The epidemic abated in October 1854.


title: History of smallpox

text: Early in history, it was observed that those who had contracted smallpox once were never struck by the disease again. Thought to have been discovered by accident, it became known that those who contracted smallpox through a break in the skin in which smallpox matter was inserted received a less severe reaction than those who contracted it naturally. This realization led to the practice of purposely infecting people with matter from smallpox scabs in order to protect them later from a more severe reaction. This practice, known today as variolation, was first practiced in China in the 10th century. Methods of carrying out the procedure varied depending upon location. Variolation was the sole method of protection against smallpox other than quarantine until Edward Jenner's discovery of the inoculating abilities of cowpox against the smallpox virus in 1796. Efforts to protect populations against smallpox by way of vaccination followed for centuries after Jenner's discovery. Smallpox has since been completely eradicated since 1979, because of the mass vaccination efforts of the World Health Organization.


title: History of smallpox

text: The word variolation is synonymous with inoculation, insertion, en-grafting, or transplantation. The term is used to define insertion of smallpox matter, and distinguishes this procedure from vaccination, where cowpox matter was used to obtain a much milder reaction among patients.


title: History of smallpox

text: The practice of variolation (also known as inoculation) first came out of East Asia. First writings documenting variolation in China appear around 1500. Scabs from smallpox victims who had the disease in its mild form would be selected, and the powder was kept close to body temperature by means of keeping it close to the chest, killing the majority of the virus and resulting in a more mild case of smallpox. Scabs were generally used when a month old, but could be used more quickly in hot weather (15–20 days), and slower in winter (50 days). The process was carried out by taking eight smallpox scabs and crushing them in a mortar with two grains of "Uvularia grandiflora" in a mortar. The powder was administered nasally through a silver tube that was curved at its point, through the right nostril for boys and the left nostril for girls. A week after the procedure, those variolated would start to produce symptoms of smallpox, and recovery was guaranteed. In India, where the European colonizers came across variolation in the 17th century, a large, sharp needle was dipped into the pus collected from mature smallpox sores. Several punctures with this needle were made either below the deltoid muscle or in the forehead, and then were covered with a paste made from boiled rice. Variolation spread farther from India to other countries in south west Asia, and then to the Balkans.


title: History of smallpox

text: In 1713, Lady Mary Wortley Montagu's brother died of smallpox; she too contracted the virus two years later at the age of twenty-six, leaving her badly scarred. When her husband was made ambassador to Ottoman Empire, she accompanied him to Constantinople. It was here that Lady Mary first came upon variolation. Two Greek women made it their business to engraft people with pox that left them un-scarred and unable to catch the pox again. In a letter, she wrote that she intended to have her own son undergo the process and would try to bring variolation into fashion in England. Her son underwent the procedure, which was performed by Charles Maitland, and survived with no ill effects. When an epidemic broke out in London following her return, Lady Mary wanted to protect her daughter from the virus by having her variolated as well. Maitland performed the procedure, which was a success. The story made it to the newspapers and was a topic for discussion in London salons. Princess Caroline of Wales wanted her children variolated as well but first wanted more validation of the operation. She had both an orphanage and several convicts variolated before she was convinced. When the operation, performed by the King's surgeon, Claudius Amyand, and overseen by Maitland, was a success, variolation got the royal seal of approval and the practice became widespread. When the practice of variolation set off local epidemics and caused death in two cases, public reaction was severe. Minister Edmund Massey, in 1772, called variolation dangerous and sinful, saying that people should handle the disease as the biblical figure Job did with his own tribulations, without interfering with God's test for mankind. Lady Mary still worked at promoting variolation but its practice waned until 1743.


title: History of smallpox

text: Robert and Daniel Sutton further revived the practice of variolation in England by advertising their perfect variolation record, maintained by selecting patients who were healthy when variolated and were cared for during the procedure in the Sutton's own hygienic hospital. Other changes that the Suttons made to carrying out the variolation process include reducing and later abolishing the preparatory period before variolation was carried out, making more shallow incisions to distribute the smallpox matter, using smallpox matter collected on the fourth day of the disease, where the pus taken was still clear, and recommending that those inoculated get fresh air during recovery. The introduction of the shallower incision reduced both complications associated with the procedure and the severity of the reaction. The prescription of fresh air caused controversy about Sutton's method and how effective it was in reality when those inoculated could walk about and spread the disease to those that had never before experienced smallpox. It was the Suttons who introduced the idea of mass variolation of an area when an epidemic broke out as means of protection to the inhabitants in that location.


title: History of smallpox

text: News of variolation spread to the royal families of Europe. Several royal families had themselves variolated by English physicians claiming to be specialists. Recipients include the family of Louis XV following his own death of smallpox, and Catherine the Great, whose husband had been horribly disfigured by the disease. Catherine the Great was variolated by Thomas Dimsdale, who followed Sutton's method of inoculation.


title: History of smallpox

text: In France, the practice was sanctioned until an epidemic was traced back to an inoculation. After this instance, variolation was banned within city limits. These conditions caused physicians to move just outside the cities and continue to practice variolation in the suburbs.


title: History of smallpox

text: Edward Jenner was variolated in 1756 at age eight in an inoculation barn in Wotton-under-Edge, England. At this time, in preparation for variolation children were bled repeatedly and were given very little to eat and only given a diet drink made to sweeten their blood. This greatly weakened the children before the actual procedure was given. Jenner's own inoculation was administered by a Mr. Holbrow, an apothecary. The procedure involved scratching the arm with the tip of a knife, placing several smallpox scabs in the cuts and then bandaging the arm. After receiving the procedure, the children stayed in the barn for several weeks to recover. First symptoms occurred after one week and usually cleared up three days later. On average, it took a month to fully recover from the encounter with smallpox combined with weakness from the preceding starvation.


title: History of smallpox

text: At the age of thirteen, Jenner was sent to study medicine in Chipping Sodbury with Daniel Ludlow, a surgeon and apothecary, from 1762 to 1770 who had a strong sense of cleanliness which Jenner learned from him. During his apprenticeship, Jenner heard that upon contracting cowpox, the recipient became immune to smallpox for the remainder of their life. However, this theory was dismissed because of several cases proving that the opposite was true.


title: History of smallpox

text: After learning all he could from Ludlow, Jenner apprenticed with John Hunter in London from 1770 to 1773. Hunter was a correspondent of Ludlow's, and it is likely that Ludlow recommended Jenner to apprentice with Hunter. Hunter believed in deviating from the accepted treatment and trying new methods if the traditional methods failed. This was considered unconventional medicine at the time and had a pivotal role in Jenner's development as a scientist.


title: History of smallpox

text: After two years of apprenticeship, Jenner moved back to his hometown of Berkeley in Gloucestershire, where he quickly gained the respect of both his patients and other medical professionals for his work as a physician. It was during this time that Jenner revisited the connection between cowpox and smallpox. He began investigating dairy farms in the Gloucestershire area looking for cowpox. This research was slow going as Jenner often had to wait months or even years before cases of cowpox would again return to the Gloucestershire area. During his study, he found that cowpox was actually several diseases that were similar in nature but were distinguishable through slight differences, and that not all versions had the capacity to make one immune from smallpox upon contraction.


title: History of smallpox

text: Through his study, he incorrectly deduced that smallpox and cowpox were all the same disease, simply manifesting themselves differently in different animals, eventually setting back his research and making it difficult to publish his findings. Though Jenner had seen cases of people becoming immune to smallpox after having cowpox, too many exceptions of people still contracting smallpox after having had cowpox were arising. Jenner was missing crucial information which he later discovered in 1796. Jenner hypothesized that in order to become immune to smallpox using cowpox, the matter from the cowpox pustules must be administered at maximum potency; else it was too weak to be effective in creating immunity to smallpox. He deduced that cowpox was most likely to transfer immunity from smallpox if administered at the eighth day of the disease.


title: History of smallpox

text: On May 14, 1796, he performed an experiment in which he took pus from a sore of a cowpox-infected milkmaid named Sarah Nelmes, and applied it to a few small scratches on the arm of an eight-year-old boy who had never before contracted either smallpox or cowpox, named James Phipps. Phipps recovered as expected. Two months later, Jenner repeated the procedure using matter from smallpox, observing no effect. Phipps became the first person to become immune to smallpox without ever actually having the disease. He was variolated many more times over the course of his life to prove his immunity.


title: History of smallpox

text: When the next cowpox epidemic broke out in 1798, Jenner conducted a series of inoculations using cowpox, all of them successful including on his own son Robert. Because his findings were revolutionary and lacked in evidence, the Royal Society (of which Jenner was a member) refused to publish his findings. Jenner then rode to London and had his book "An Inquiry into the Causes and Effects of the Variolæ Vaccinæ" published by Sampson Low's firm in June 1798. The book was an instant bestseller among the elite in London salons, in the medical establishment and among the ladies and gentlemen of the enlightenment.


title: History of smallpox

text: Knowledge of the ability of cowpox to provide immunity from smallpox was present in England before Jenner's discovery. In 1774, a cattle dealer named Benjamin Jesty had successfully inoculated his wife and three sons using cowpox. This was before Jenner discovered the immunization capabilities of cowpox. However, Jesty simply performed the procedure; he did not take the discovery any further by inoculating his family with smallpox matter to see if there would be a reaction or perform any other trials. Jenner was the first to prove the effectiveness of vaccination with cowpox using scientific experimentation.


title: History of smallpox

text: Benjamin Franklin, who had lost his own son to smallpox in 1736, made the suggestion to create a pamphlet to distribute to families explaining how to inoculate their children themselves, so as to eliminate cost as the factor in the decision to choose to inoculate children. William Heberden, a friend of Franklin's and an English physician, followed through with Franklin's idea, printing 2000 pamphlets in 1759 which were distributed by Franklin in America.


title: History of smallpox

text: An American physician, John Kirkpatrick, upon his visit to London in 1743, told of an instance where variolation stopped an epidemic in Charleston, South Carolina, in 1738, where 800 people were inoculated and only eight deaths occurred. His account of the success of variolation in Charleston helped to play a role in the revival of its practice in London. Kirkpatrick also advocated inoculating patients with matter from the sores of another inoculated person, instead of using matter from the sore of a smallpox victim, a procedure that Maitland had been using since 1722.


title: History of smallpox

text: Taterapox (which infects rodents) and camelpox are the closest relatives to smallpox, and share the same common ancestor with smallpox about 4,000 years ago. It is not clear exactly when during this period Variola first infected humans. Cowpox, horsepox, and monkeypox are more distantly related. All of these viruses share a common ancestor about 10,000 years ago. All of these viruses belong to the genus Orthopoxvirus.


title: Koel Mallick

text: Koel Mallick (born Rukmini Mallick on 28 April 1982) is an Indian actress who appears in Bengali films. She is the daughter of actor Ranjit Mallick and Deepa Mallick. She made her film debut in "Nater Guru" (2003).


title: Koel Mallick

text: Koel was born in Kolkata to Bengali film actor Ranjit Mallick and Deepa Mallick, of Kolkata's notable Mallick "Bari" of Bhowanipore (i.e., the Mallick family, which is closely associated with the powerful Barat and Gupta families), known for its Durga Puja. Koel did her schooling from Modern High School for Girls, and completed a BSc (honors) in psychology from the Gokhale Memorial Girls' College, an affiliated college of the University of Calcutta.


title: Koel Mallick

text: Mallick's screen debut was in "Nater Guru" – opposite Jeet. "Nater Guru" was a "runaway success" at the box office. The film, released in 2003, marked Mallick's entry into Tollywood. She also won her first award for Best Actor in Leading Role Female from 4th Tele Cine Awards 2004 for Nater Guru. "Nater Guru", which has Jeet in the male lead, sees Mallick playing the role of a 23-year-old girl named Monica. Since the release of "Nater Guru" the pair has worked together often, appearing in eleven films.


title: Koel Mallick

text: In 2004, she starred in "Debipaksha", "Shudhu Tumi", "Badsha The King" and "Bandhan". While the first two performed poorly at the box office, "Bandhan" was a huge success in Bengal and was a blockbuster at the box office. It was also the highest grossing Bengali film of 2004.


title: Koel Mallick

text: In 2005, Mallick appeared in "Shubhodrishti", "Manik", "Yuddho" and "Chore Chore Mastuto Bhai". In 2005, Koel Mallick entered the Odia film industry for the first time. In her first Odia film, Koel acted opposite the superstar of the Odia film industry, Anubhav Mohanty. She appeared in "Yuddho" opposite actors Mithun Chakraborty and Debashree Roy. The film recorded an initial collection of 12 million (12 million) in its first week. In 2006, she took on a more serious role in "MLA Fatakeshto" in which she played a reporter. She also starred in the Bengali remake of "Love Story", the 2008 film "Love".


title: Koel Mallick

text: Mallick made her television debut with Zee Bangla's first Mahalaya in the year 2007 as Devi Mahisasuramardini and her various avatars. She also appeared in Didi No. 1 in year 2010 as a celebrity contestant. She also host her first talk-show "Katha O Kahini". The show went on to the channel Star Jalsha. In 2013 Koel was on TV again as a celebrity judge in the Bengali version of "Jhalak Dikhhla Jaa" along with renowned Bollywood choreographer Remo D'Souza. The show aired on ETV Bangla. She also starred in Dance Bangla Dance Junior as a Judge and in Season 11 as a celebrity judge. She was also seen in Zee Bangla's various reality shows like Rannaghor, Dadagiri Unlimited, Didi No. 1


title: Koel Mallick

text: She and Jeet was also seen as a guest in Star Jalsha serial Sansar Sukher Hoy Romonir Gune for the promotion of the movie 100% Love. Mallick has also appeared on the popular soap Bojhena Se Bojhena which is also aired on STAR Jalsha. Apart from these, she played the role of Devi Mahisasurmardini in Mahalaya. Zee Bangla telecasted its first Mahalaya in 2007 and she played the role of Devi Mahisasurmardini for the first time in Zee Bangla Mahalaya 2007. So she is the first Mahisasurmardini of Zee Bangla Mahalaya.


title: Koel Mallick

text: Mallick has endorsed a variety of multi-national brands and has done television commercials for TVS Motor Company, Fair & Lovely, Panasonic, Vaseline etc.


title: Koel Mallick

text: Koel Mallick married Nispal Singh (Rane) on 1 February 2013. They had been in a relationship for seven years before that, but both of them had decided to keep their relationship away from the glamour world of Tollywood. On 1 February 2020 she announced on Instagram that she is expecting her first child. On 5 May 2020, at 05:00am, Mallick gave birth to a baby boy.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The M102 is a light, towable 105 mm howitzer used by the United States Army in the Vietnam War, the First Gulf War, and the Iraq War.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The M102 105 mm howitzer is used in air mobile (helicopter), attack plane, and light infantry operations. The weapon carriage is lightweight welded aluminum, mounted on a variable recoil mechanism. The weapon is manually loaded and positioned, and can be towed by a 2-ton truck or High Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicle (HMMWV), can be transported by UH-60 Black Hawk helicopters, or can be dropped by parachute with airborne units. When emplaced, the howitzer's high volume of fire compensates in large measure for the lower explosive weight of the projectile compared to the Army's 155 mm and 8-inch howitzers. Since 1964, the Army acquired 1,150 M102 towed howitzers. The weapon is being replaced by the M119-series 105 mm howitzer.


title: M102 howitzer

text: Units were initially equipped with the M101A1 howitzer, virtually the same 105 mm howitzer that had been used to support U.S. forces since World War II. In 1966 a new 105 mm towed howitzer, the M102, was received in Vietnam. The first M102s were issued to the 1st Battalion, 21st Field Artillery, in March 1966. Replacement of the old howitzers continued steadily over the next four years.


title: M102 howitzer

text: Many of the more seasoned artillerymen did not want the old cannon replaced. Over the years they had become familiar with its every detail and were confident that it would not disappoint them in the clutch. These experienced artillerymen could offer some seemingly convincing reasons why the M101 was still the superior weapon: its waist-high breech made it easier to load; it had higher ground clearance when in tow; but most important, it was considerably less expensive than the M102. Their arguments, however, were futile.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The new M102 was substantially lighter, weighing little more than whereas the M101A1 weighed approximately ; as a result, more ammunition could be carried during heliborne operations, and a 3/4-ton truck rather than a 2½-ton truck was its prime mover for ground operations. Another major advantage of the M102 was that it could be traversed a full 6,400 mils; the M101A1 had a limited on-carriage traverse, which required its trails (stabilizing legs) to be shifted if further traverse was necessary. The M102 fires the same semi-fixed ammunition as the M101, but its longer barrel (32 calibres versus 22 calibres on M101) allows a slightly higher muzzle velocity and thus enhanced firing range. A low silhouette made the new weapon a more difficult target for the enemy, an advantage that far outweighed the disadvantage of being somewhat less convenient to load.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The 105 mm howitzer M102 is a lightweight towed weapon, which has a very low silhouette when in the firing position. The M102 howitzer fires a projectile of semifixed ammunition and at charge 7 will fire 11,500 meters. It has a muzzle velocity of . The maximum rate of fire is 10 rounds per minute for the first 3 minutes, with a sustained rate of 3 rounds per minute.


title: M102 howitzer

text: A roller tire attached to the trail assembly of the M102 permits the weapon to be rotated 6,400 mils (360 degrees) around a firing platform, which provides the pivot for the weapon. It can be elevated from −89 mils (−5 degrees) to a maximum of 1,333 mils (75 degrees). The panoramic telescope has a four power, fixed focus optical system, with 178 mils field of view. It contains dry nitrogen gas to retard fogging and condensation. The parallax shield used during boresighting protects the lens.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The trails are made of aluminum alloy. They are a single box trail in wishbone shape, and serve three purposes: mobility; stability; and stowage of section equipment. The lunette is the towing pintle that allows the weapon to be connected to the vehicle. When towing, vehicle has a fixed or seized tow pintle; remove the lock plate located under the lunette. The drawbar has two positions: lowered for travel and raised for firing. There are two lifting brackets to connect slings to when the howitzer is being lifted by helicopter. A third bracket is located on front yoke. The carriage handles are used by crew members to lifting and shifting the howitzer during loading, unloading, and emplacing the howitzer.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The firing platform attaches to the howitzer lower carriage by using a socket and a locking handle. The eight holes are for the stakes needed to stake the howitzer in position. Platform stakes are issued in three sizes. There are four stakes issued for use in frozen or rocky terrain, and are normally issued only where needed, such as extremely cold areas. There are eight stakes issued, and are used for hard packed ground. Four stakes are issued for use in soft ground.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The first production versions were displayed with a muzzle brake, most likely to allow long range 105 mm rounds to be fired, but was discontinued before shipment to Vietnam.


title: M102 howitzer

text: While the M102 is no longer in active use by the United States Army, having been replaced by the M119, it is still in use by the National Guard. The M102 was last deployed to combat in 2004 by the 1st Battalion, 206th Field Artillery, Arkansas Army National Guard. Seventeen M102 howitzers were deployed to Camp Taji, Iraq. The 1-206th FA provided fire and conducted counter-fire missions in support of 39th BCT operations, an element of the 1st Cavalry Division. The 1-206th scavenged spare parts from nine M102 howitzers that were located in the Camp Taji Boneyard. These howitzers were allegedly captured by the Iraqi Army during the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The M102 is also used on the United States Air Force's Lockheed AC-130 gunship. The M102 105 mm cannon was modified to be fired from the left rear side door of the AC-130. To accommodate the cannon, the rear side-firing 40 mm guns were replaced by the radome that formerly had been installed in the door cavity. That change provided enough space for the 105 mm gun to be mounted in the doorway in place of the radome. The gun was first used in the later stages of the Vietnam War and is still used in the AC-130U gunship. The latest AC-130J Ghostrider gunship was not originally planned to include the 105 mm, but designed with enough spare power and room to mount it at some later point. The Air Force decided to include it in January 2015, starting installation on the third aircraft, then having the first two be retrofitted when guns become available; M102s will be pulled off retiring AC-130Us and put into the AC-130Js.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The M102 is used in extremely limited roles by the United States Marine Corps, primarily for firing salutes.


title: M102 howitzer

text: The Malaysian Army used the M102 during Malaysia's second communist insurgency (1968–1988) to bombard insurgent positions on the Malaysia-Thailand border. The guns were transported by helicopter to remote firing positions. All Malaysian M102s have now been decommissioned and are only used for firing salute.


title: Rocky road (ice cream)

text: Rocky road ice cream is a chocolate flavored ice cream. Though there are variations from the original flavor, it traditionally comprises chocolate ice cream, nuts, and whole or diced marshmallows. According to one source, the flavor was created in March 1929 by William Dreyer in Oakland, California when he cut up walnuts and marshmallows with his wife's sewing scissors and added them to his chocolate ice cream in a manner that reflected how his partner Joseph Edy's chocolate candy creation incorporated walnuts and marshmallow pieces. Later, the walnuts would be replaced by pieces of toasted almond. After the Wall Street Crash of 1929, Dreyer and Edy gave the flavor its current name "to give folks something to smile about in the midst of the Great Depression. " Alternatively, Fentons Creamery in Oakland claims that William Dreyer based his recipe on a Rocky Road-style ice cream flavor invented by his friend, Fentons' George Farren, who blended his own Rocky Road-style candy bar into ice cream; however, Dreyer substituted almonds for walnuts.


title: Rocky road (ice cream)

text: The original Rocky Road ice cream used chocolate ice cream with no chocolate chip pieces. By blending numerous ingredients such as chocolate ice cream, nuts, and marshmallows, the rocky road flavor was one of the first types to mix in the materials together. This style was developed by Dreyer's lead chemical engineer and dairy chef Noah Holladay and proved difficult to produce due to the nature of freezing and preserving various mixed ingredients. Over the years after the inception of the flavor, many companies would try to imitate or mix in other ingredients such as various nuts, fruits, and toppings, but the original combination proved to be the most popular.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: Manto is a 2018 Indian biographical drama film based on the life of the prominent Urdu author Saadat Hasan Manto, written and directed by Nandita Das. The film stars Nawazuddin Siddiqui in the title character of Indo-Pakistani, author and writer Saadat Hasan Manto. Tahir Raj Bhasin plays the 1940s Hindi film superstar Shyam Chadda. Shyam was Manto's friend, confidant, and inspiration for a number of stories. Rasika Dugal plays the role of Manto's wife, Safia. "Manto" is based on the 1940s post-Independence period of India. Manto earned seven nominations at 64th Filmfare Awards including Best Film Critics, Best Actor Critics for Siddiqui.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: The poster of the film was unveiled at the 2017 Cannes Film Festival. Das made a short film titled "In Defence of Freedom", also starring Nawazuddin in the main role, and was released on YouTube on 23 March 2017. The film premiered at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival and released in Indian theatres on 21 September 2018. It was made as a prelude to the feature film. The film has multiple producers such as HP Studios, Filmstoc, and Viacom 18 Motion Pictures.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: Bombay, 1946: Amidst the freedom struggle against the British Empire and the forewarning of India being partitioned, Saadat Hasan Manto, a well-established short story writer works in the glittering world of the Bombay film industry as a scriptwriter. Although Manto has a tenuous relationship with the Progressive Writers’ Association, many of its members are his close friends, including the feminist writer, Ismat Chughtai. They are both acquitted from the charge of obscenity for their respective works. Manto has many admirers and friends in the film industry. The closest is Shyam Chadda, a charming budding actor and Ashok Kumar, a famous actor, director and producer. But, his biggest supporter and the unwavering pillar of strength is his wife, Safia.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: Soon after, India gains independence on 15 August 1947 and the new nation of Pakistan is born. Safia leaves for Lahore to attend her sister's wedding. Despite flaring Hindu-Muslim tensions, Manto decides to stay back in his beloved city of Bombay. One day, Shyam, on hearing that his family was forced to flee Pakistan because of a Muslim mob attack, tells Manto in anger: "I could have even killed you." Shocked and anguished, a non-practicing Muslim, Manto suddenly becomes conscious of his religious identity and the vulnerabilities that come with it. He impulsively makes the unimaginable decision of moving to Pakistan.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: Lahore, 1948: A melancholic city full of refugees, forsaken property, and burnt buildings becomes Manto's new home. He is left grappling with a growing sense of isolation and a deep sense of betrayal. As he struggles to come to terms with his new reality, he spirals into a state of perpetual drunkenness. Though Safia continues to stand by him, their marriage begins to feel the strain. Relentless and long-drawn court trials alleging obscenity in his story Thanda Gosht (literal meaning: Cold Meat) take a severe toll on his health and finances. His statement in defense of literature and free speech is met with conviction. Despite this, he continues to pen some of his sharpest and most courageous works.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: His compulsions to write and drink are in direct conflict with his desire to see his family - his wife and two daughters, happy and secure. His failing health makes him hallucinate. Unable to see his family suffer any longer, he finally admits himself into the alcohol rehabilitation center at Lahore Mental Hospital.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: The main narrative is seamlessly interspersed with five of his poignant stories. The last one being his most famous story - Toba Tek Singh. Manto begins the story with, "two or three years after Partition, it occurred to the governments of India and Pakistan to exchange their lunatics like they had exchanged their criminals. The Muslim lunatics in India were to be sent to Pakistan and the Hindu lunatics in Pakistani asylums were to be handed over to India." The Sikh protagonist, who has vowed to remain standing until he finds his village, lies in death in no-man's land, between the two nations. Manto's predicament is not too different.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: Saadat Hasan Manto's (1912-1955) short stories set during the devastating partition of the Indian subcontinent were his defining works. These irreverent, unflinching but deeply humane stories, earned him the wrath of the British Indian government and later of Pakistan. The stories were deemed obscene by the courts and he spent his last years fighting legal battles to defend his right to write. Today, his work is seen by both scholars and the reading public as one of the most authentic and independent accounts of the human tragedy of those years.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: In November 2015, it was reported that Nandita Das had approached actor Irrfan Khan to play the leading role in her film Manto. Nandita said that, "Irrfan fits the role to the T as he speaks fluent Urdu, looks a lot like Manto and, above all, is a wonderful actor. He has read a lot of Manto himself and is influenced by him." In May 2016, during the 69th Cannes Film Festival Nandita announced that Nawazuddin Siddiqui had been finalized for the central role of Manto in her next film. Nandita said that, "I have had Nawazuddin in mind from the very outset, but in India, economics always interferes with art and there was pressure on me to cast a more mainstream star."


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: The film was shot on various locations across Mumbai and the lahore portions were shot in the village called Vaso (Nadiad) in Gujarat. The shooting continued for 41 days before reaching its endpoint in July 2017.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: It was selected to compete in the Un Certain Regard section at the 2018 Cannes Film Festival. The official teaser of the film was released on 12 May 2018. The trailer of film was released on 14 August 2018.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: The music of the film is composed by Sneha Khanwalkar and Raftaar while the lyrics have been penned by Dibakar Banerjee, Simaab Akbarabadi, Meeraji, Faiz Ahmed Faiz, Raftaar and Saadat Hasan Manto. The first song of the film titled as "Nagri Nagri" sung by Shankar Mahadevan was released 31 August 2018. The album released by Zee Music Company on 9 September 2018.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: Nandita Das had asked Khanwalkar not to use any electronic music. Moreover, the composer was asked to compose songs from poems of 1940s and 50s. Three poems were chosen for this. The song "Ban Titli" was made by the composer for a Dibakar Banerjee-project which was cancelled.


title: Manto (2018 film)

text: Vipin Nair of "The Hindu" gave the soundtrack 4/5, calling it a "whopper" soundtrack and wishing it was longer.


title: Elano

text: Elano Blumer (born 14 June 1981), known as Elano, is a Brazilian football manager and former player who played as an attacking midfielder.


title: Elano

text: Known for his accurate passing and precise set pieces, Elano started his senior career at Santos, and spent six years in Europe in the service of Shakhtar Donetsk, Manchester City and Galatasaray. He returned to Santos in 2011, and later joined fellow league teams Grêmio and Flamengo, before signing for Chennaiyin of the Indian Super League as their marquee player. In 2015, after finishing the season as league top scorer, Elano rejoined Santos for a third spell.


title: Elano

text: Elano earned 50 caps for the Brazil national team between 2004 and 2011, scoring nine goals. He represented the nation at their triumphs in the 2007 Copa América and the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup, and also played at the 2010 FIFA World Cup and the 2011 Copa América. After retiring, he became a manager in 2020.


title: Elano

text: Elano began his career with Guarani of Campinas in São Paulo state. After a short spell with Limeira's Internacional, he joined Santos in 2001. He made his senior debut for the latter on 21 January 2001, coming on as a substitute for Deivid in a 1–0 Campeonato Paulista home win against former club Guarani. His first goal for the club came on 28 April, the equalizer in a 5–1 away routing of Mogi Mirim.


title: Elano

text: Elano subsequently established himself a started at "Peixe", and played alongside Robinho, Diego and Alex. He soon gained a reputation as a talented goalscoring midfielder, forming part of the Santos side, which won the Campeonato Brasileiro in 2004 by scoring a career-best 22 goals. Three years at Santos produced 34 goals and earned the player a transfer to the Ukrainian side Shakhtar Donetsk on 1 February 2005.


title: Elano

text: Although he was not a regular in his first season in Ukraine, Elano went on to establish his credentials as a key player and exceptional form saw him become the first player from the Ukrainian Premier League to represent the Brazil national team, when he was called up for the Brazil–Norway game on 16 August 2006.


title: Elano

text: On 2 August 2007, Manchester City paid £8 million for Elano, who signed a four-year contract. He made his debut on the opening day of the season against West Ham United, providing the cross for the opening goal. He played in his first Manchester derby against Manchester United on 19 August 2007. Elano also revealed how he enjoyed his new life in Manchester, describing the city as beautiful, and how the weather suited him better than that which he experienced in Ukraine. He also admitted surprise at the tempo of football in the Premier League.


title: Elano

text: He was assigned with the squad number 11, previously allocated to Darius Vassell, who switched to the number 12 shirt.


title: Elano

text: On 29 September, Elano scored his first goal for City in a 3–1 win over Newcastle United. He added two more goals on eight days later in Manchester City's 3–1 win over Middlesbrough, one from open play about 25 yards out, and the other a curling free-kick from just outside the penalty area. He continued his good form by scoring the only goal in a match against Birmingham City and converting a late penalty in the League Cup victory at Bolton Wanderers. On 2 January 2008, he scored the first goal of 2008 at St James' Park in Manchester City's 2–0 victory over Newcastle. Two weeks later, in the FA Cup third round, Elano scored the winning goal as Manchester City knocked West Ham out of the competition and progressed to the fourth round. On 2 February, Elano got his fifth yellow card of the season when they played against Arsenal, a week earlier, which meant he could not play in the 2–1 victory over rivals Manchester United. Towards the end of March and beginning of April 2008, Elano scored three penalties against Birmingham City (3–1 defeat) and Sunderland (2–1 victory), as well as against Bolton in the second round of the League Cup.


title: Elano

text: His performances at the end of the 2007–08 season pleased the then manager Sven-Göran Eriksson, who claimed that the "Real Elano is Back". Elano proved himself to be highly versatile, playing in many positions for Manchester City throughout the 2007–08 season, including full-back in the 3–1 home win against Portsmouth. Elano finished the season with a goal in the 8–1 defeat at Middlesbrough on the last day of the Premier League season. His first season saw him score ten goals and as many assists in all competitions.


title: Elano

text: Elano had a fairly quiet pre-season to 2008–09, returning a bit later due to international duty. He had a good performance in the 1–0 friendly win over Milan on 9 August 2008, creating many chances with his dominant free role in midfield, and continued his good form with a successful penalty in the 4–2 loss at Aston Villa. He followed up with two goals in the 3–0 home win against West Ham, making him joint top scorer with Gabriel Agbonlahor at the end of matchday two of the Premier League. However, with the high-profile return of Shaun Wright-Phillips and the transfer of his fellow Brazilian Robinho to the club in the early part of the 2008–09 season, there was doubt as to whether he would maintain his dominant midfield position at the club. During Robinho's first match for the club, a 3–1 defeat against Chelsea, Elano was on the bench and was not called on to the pitch. He played a left-central midfield role in Mark Hughes' new look side, requiring him to act as a support between left-back Javier Garrido and forward Robinho.


title: Elano

text: He scored a goal from 25 yards out against Omonia on 2 October 2008 to help Manchester City qualify into the group stages of the UEFA Cup. After mixed performances off the bench, he continued his 100% penalty record with a goal from the spot with one in the UEFA Cup quarter-final match with Hamburger SV on 16 April 2009, another three days later in the 4–2 win over West Bromwich Albion, and then again in a 3–1 victory over Blackburn Rovers on 2 May.


title: Elano

text: Elano joined Galatasaray on 30 July 2009, signing a four-year contract with the Turkish club. He was greeted at the airport by over 1,300 fans. Elano took the number 9 shirt, previously belonging to Hakan Şükür. He made his debut on 20 August 2009 in a UEFA Europa League play-off game against Estonian side Levadia Tallinn, coming on as a substitute in the 69th minute. He scored his first goal for the club on his home Süper Lig debut against Kayserispor on 23 August 2009, scoring a fantastic left-foot goal from 28 yards.


title: Elano

text: Elano rejoined former club Santos on 30 November 2010 for a €2.9 million transfer deal. Galatasaray will also receive 50% of the transfer profit (the revenue minus €2.9 million) should Santos sell him to another club on or before 31 December 2012 for higher than €2.9 million. On 19 January 2011, Santos announced that the club sold 20% economic rights for future transfer revenue to an investment group, Terceira Estrela Investimentos S/A (TEISA) for R$ 1.56 million, or 20% cost that Santos paid (R$7.8 million). It is because Santos bought Elano for €2.9 million (R$6.6 million) plus R$1.2 million tax. On his return to Brazilian football, he was top scorer of the 2011 Campeonato Paulista alongside the Corinthians striker Liédson, with 11 goals.


title: Elano

text: On 8 July 2012, it was announced that Elano would join Grêmio. After being swapped for striker Ezequiel Miralles, he signed a three-year contract with the Porto Alegre-based club.


title: Elano

text: Elano had a brief spell at Flamengo in 2014, joining the club on loan from Grêmio in January; he stayed until August, when the deal was canceled by the Rio de Janeiro-based club.


title: Elano

text: The midfielder returned to Grêmio following his departure from Flamengo, but his return did not last, as his contract was terminated by mutual consent on 22 August 2014.


title: Elano

text: On 20 September 2014, Elano signed for Chennaiyin in the Indian Super League (ISL)'s debut season. He signed for a three-month contract for US$1 million through the club's technical partner and CEO of Kshatriya Sports Prashant Agarwal. He qualified as the marquee player of the franchise and scored from a free kick on his debut at FC Goa, in a 2–1 victory on 15 October 2014, making him the first marquee player to score in the ISL. With two goals — a penalty and a free kick — and two assists in Chennaiyin's 5–1 win over Mumbai City on 28 October, he topped the ISL scoring chart with five goals in four games. He finished the season as the league's top scorer with eight goals, but also spent time back in Brazil for recuperation following an injury suffered against Pune City.


title: Elano

text: On 6 January 2015, it was reported that Elano was now a free agent and that he would be pursuing a move back to Brazil.


title: Elano

text: On 13 January 2015, Elano agreed to a short-term deal with Santos, returning to the club for a third spell. He debuted in his third spell on 1 February, coming on as a second-half substitute for Thiago Ribeiro in a 3–0 home win against Ituano. In May, he renewed his contract for a further season.


title: Elano

text: On 17 June 2015, however, Elano agreed to a loan back to former club Chennaiyin in the Indian Super League, again as their marquee player. During his second season with the team, Elano helped Chennaiyin win the ISL championship, defeating Goa 3–2 on 20 December 2015. However, following the final, Elano was involved in controversy in which he was arrested by the Goan police for allegedly assaulting Goa co-owner Dattaraj Salgaocar. Elano was released after spending the night with the Goan police before returning to Brazil the next day. Following the incident, Elano plead his innocence while video of the altercation between him and Salgaocar showed Elano trying to calm the situation down instead of trying to start a conflict. In the end, Elano was not charged by the AIFF, the Indian Super League organizers, or the Goan police. In August 2016, it was revealed that when selling his stake in FC Goa, one of the conditions of Salgaocar was that Elano would not be able to return to the Indian Super League for at least two seasons.


title: Elano

text: Returning to "Peixe" in January 2016, Elano appeared rarely for the club. On 24 November of that year, he announced his upcoming retirement from professional football after the expiration of his contract in December, becoming Dorival Júnior's assistant manager for the 2017 campaign.


title: Elano

text: Elano's last professional match occurred on 11 December 2016, as he came on for Lucas Lima in a 1–0 home win against América Mineiro. He ended his career with 322 matches and 68 goals only for Santos.


title: Elano

text: Elano was capped for Brazil in the 2004 CONMEBOL Men Pre-Olympic Tournament in January 2004. His full international debut came in October 2004, and he has since earned 50 caps, and scoring nine goals. He scored his first two international goals in the 2006 friendly 3–0 win against Argentina on 3 September at the Emirates Stadium, London.


title: Elano

text: In 2007, Elano participated in the Copa América, playing four games for Brazil, including the final against Argentina, during which he assisted a goal before being substituted out due to injury.


title: Elano

text: On 19 November 2008, Elano scored in the 6–2 victory over Portugal in a friendly. Elano scored his sixth international goal against Italy with an all set up by his former Santos and Manchester City teammate Robinho, who went on to score Brazil's second goal. Elano then set up the match-winning goal for Lúcio, completing a stunning second-half comeback in the final of the 2009 FIFA Confederations Cup against the United States, helping the "Seleção" win a third trophy in the competition.


title: Elano

text: On 14 November 2009, Elano made an assist in a friendly against England. Nilmar ran between two defenders to head a long pass from Elano past goalkeeper Ben Foster and score the winning goal in a 1–0 victory.


title: Elano

text: On 15 June 2010, Elano scored Brazil's second goal against North Korea in their first game of the 2010 FIFA World Cup in the 72nd minute. He also scored a goal against the Ivory Coast in the 62nd minute of Brazil's second game but was substituted minutes later with an injury after a very heavy challenge. He did not play for the rest of the tournament due to that injury.


title: Elano

text: Elano was part of the Brazilian squad at the 2011 edition of Copa América in Argentina. He was called in as a substitute in two group stage matches: Brazil–Venezuela and Brazil–Paraguay.