title: Thermal pollution

text: When water used as a coolant is returned to the natural environment at a higher temperature, the sudden change in temperature decreases oxygen supply and affects ecosystem composition. Fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by an abrupt change in water temperature (either a rapid increase or decrease) known as "thermal shock". Warm coolant water can also have long term effects on water temperature, increasing the overall temperature of water bodies, including deep water. Seasonality effects how these temperature increases are distributed throughout the water column. Elevated water temperatures decrease oxygen levels, which can kill fish and alter food chain composition, reduce species biodiversity, and foster invasion by new thermophilic species.


title: Thermal pollution

text: In the United States about 75 to 80 percent of thermal pollution is generated by power plants. The remainder is from industrial sources such as petroleum refineries, pulp and paper mills, chemical plants, steel mills and smelters.


title: Thermal pollution

text: One of the largest contributors to thermal pollution are once-through cooling (OTC) systems which do not reduce temperature as effectively as the above systems. A large power plant may withdraw and export as many as 500 million gallons per day. These systems produce water 10°C warmer on average. For example, the Potrero Generating Station in San Francisco (closed in 2011), used OTC and discharged water to San Francisco Bay approximately 10 °C (20 °F) above the ambient bay temperature. Over 1,200 facilities in the United States use OTC systems as of 2014.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Temperatures can be taken through remote sensing techniques to continually monitor plants' pollution. This aids in quantifying each plants' specific effects, and allows for tighter regulation of thermal pollution.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Converting facilities from once-through cooling to closed-loop systems can significantly decrease the thermal pollution emitted. These systems release water at a temperature more comparable to the natural environment.


title: Thermal pollution

text: As water stratifies within man-made dams, the temperature at the bottom drops dramatically. Many dams are constructed to release this cold water from the bottom into the natural systems. This may be mitigated by designing the dam to release warmer surface waters instead of the colder water at the bottom of the reservoir.


title: Thermal pollution

text: During warm weather, urban runoff can have significant thermal impacts on small streams. As storm water passes over hot rooftops, parking lots, roads and sidewalks it absorbs some of the heat, an effect of the urban heat island. Storm water management facilities that absorb runoff or direct it into groundwater, such as bioretention systems and infiltration basins, reduce these thermal effects by allowing the water more time to release excess heat before entering the aquatic environment. These related systems for managing runoff are components of an expanding urban design approach commonly called green infrastructure.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Retention basins (stormwater ponds) tend to be less effective at reducing runoff temperature, as the water may be heated by the sun before being discharged to a receiving stream.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Elevated temperature typically decreases the level of dissolved oxygen and of water, as gases are less soluble in hotter liquids. This can harm aquatic animals such as fish, amphibians and other aquatic organisms. Thermal pollution may also increase the metabolic rate of aquatic animals, as enzyme activity, resulting in these organisms consuming more food in a shorter time than if their environment were not changed. An increased metabolic rate may result in fewer resources; the more adapted organisms moving in may have an advantage over organisms that are not used to the warmer temperature. As a result, food chains of the old and new environments may be compromised. Some fish species will avoid stream segments or coastal areas adjacent to a thermal discharge. Biodiversity can be decreased as a result.


title: Thermal pollution

text: High temperature limits oxygen dispersion into deeper waters, contributing to anaerobic conditions. This can lead to increased bacteria levels when there is ample food supply. Many aquatic species will fail to reproduce at elevated temperatures.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Primary producers (e.g. plants, cyanobacteria) are affected by warm water because higher water temperature increases plant growth rates, resulting in a shorter lifespan and species overpopulation. The increased temperature can also change the balance of microbial growth, including the rate of algae blooms which reduce dissolved oxygen concentrations.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Temperature changes of even one to two degrees Celsius can cause significant changes in organism metabolism and other adverse cellular biology effects. Principal adverse changes can include rendering cell walls less permeable to necessary osmosis, coagulation of cell proteins, and alteration of enzyme metabolism. These cellular level effects can adversely affect mortality and reproduction.


title: Thermal pollution

text: A large increase in temperature can lead to the denaturing of life-supporting enzymes by breaking down hydrogen- and disulphide bonds within the quaternary structure of the enzymes. Decreased enzyme activity in aquatic organisms can cause problems such as the inability to break down lipids, which leads to malnutrition. Increased water temperature can also increase the solubility and kinetics of metals, which can increase the uptake of heavy metals by aquatic organisms. This can lead to toxic outcomes for these species, as well as build up of heavy metals in higher trophic levels in the food chain, increasing human exposures via dietary ingestion.


title: Thermal pollution

text: In limited cases, warm water has little deleterious effect and may even lead to improved function of the receiving aquatic ecosystem. This phenomenon is seen especially in seasonal waters. An extreme case is derived from the aggregational habits of the manatee, which often uses power plant discharge sites during winter. Projections suggest that manatee populations would decline upon the removal of these discharges.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Releases of unnaturally cold water from reservoirs can dramatically change the fish and macroinvertebrate fauna of rivers, and reduce river productivity. In Australia, where many rivers have warmer temperature regimes, native fish species have been eliminated, and macroinvertebrate fauna have been drastically altered. Survival rates of fish have dropped up to 75% due to cold water releases.


title: Thermal pollution

text: When a power plant first opens or shuts down for repair or other causes, fish and other organisms adapted to particular temperature range can be killed by the abrupt change in water temperature, either an increase or decrease, known as "thermal shock".


title: Thermal pollution

text: Water warming effects, as opposed to water cooling effects, have been the most studied with regard to biogeochemical effects. Much of this research is on the long term effects of nuclear power plants on lakes after a nuclear power plant has been removed. Overall, there is support for thermal pollution leading to an increase in water temperatures. When power plants are active, short term water temperature increases correlated with electrical needs, with more cooling water release during the winter months. Water warming has also been seen to persist in systems for long periods of time, even after plants have been removed.


title: Thermal pollution

text: When warm water from power plant cooling exports enters systems, it often mixes leading to general increases in water temperature throughout the water body, including deep cooler water. Specifically in lakes and similar water bodies, stratification leads to different effects on a seasonal basis. In the summer, thermal pollution has been seen to increase deeper water temperature more dramatically than surface water, though stratification still exists, while in the winter surface water temperatures see a larger increase. Stratification is reduced in winter months due to thermal pollution, often eliminating the thermocline.


title: Thermal pollution

text: A study looking at the effect of a removed nuclear power plant in Lake Stechlin, Germany, found a 2.33°C increase persisted in surface water during the winter and a 2.04°C increase persisted in deep water during the summer, with marginal increases throughout the water column in both winter and summer. Stratification and water temperature differences due to thermal pollution seem to correlate with nutrient cycling of phosphorus and nitrogen, as oftentimes water bodies that receive cooling exports will shift toward eutrophication. No clear data has been obtained on this though, as it is difficult to differentiate influences from other industry and agriculture.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Similar to effects seen in aquatic systems due to climatic warming of water in some parts of the world, thermal pollution has also been seen to increase surface temperatures in the summer. This can lead surface water temperatures that lead to releases of warm air into the atmosphere, increasing air temperature. It therefore can be seen as a contributor to global warming. Many ecological effects will be compounded by climate change as well, as water bodies' ambient temperature rises.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Spacial and climatic factors can impact the severity of water warming due to thermal pollution. High wind speeds tend to increase the impact of thermal pollution. Rivers and large bodies of water also tend to lose the effects of thermal pollution as they progress from the source.


title: Thermal pollution

text: Rivers present a unique problem with thermal pollution. As water temperatures are elevated upstream, power plants downstream receive warmer waters. Evidence of this effect has been seen along the Mississippi River, as power plants are forced to use warmer waters as their coolants. This reduces the efficiency of the plants and forces the plants to use more water and produce more thermal pollution.


title: Taksim Square

text: Taksim Square (, ), situated in Beyoğlu in the European part of Istanbul, Turkey, is a major tourist and leisure district famed for its restaurants, shops, and hotels. It is considered the heart of modern Istanbul, with the central station of the Istanbul Metro network. Taksim Square is also the location of the Republic Monument () which was crafted by Pietro Canonica and inaugurated in 1928. The monument commemorates the 5th anniversary of the foundation of the Republic of Turkey in 1923, following the Turkish War of Independence.


title: Taksim Square

text: The square is flanked to the south by The Marmara Hotel, to the east by the Atatürk Cultural Centre, to the north by Gezi Park and to the west by Taksim Mosque. Several major roads converge on the square: Gümüşsuyu Caddesi, Cumhuriyet Caddesi, Tarlabaşı Bulvarı, İstiklal Caddesi and Sıraselviler Caddesi.


title: Taksim Square

text: The word Taksim means "division" or "distribution" in Arabic. Taksim Square was originally the point where the main water lines from the north of Istanbul were collected and branched off to other parts of the city (hence the name.) This use for the area was established by Sultan Mahmud I. The square takes its name from the Ottoman era stone reservoir which is located along one side of the square.


title: Taksim Square

text: Another significant building that once stood on the square was the 19th century Taksim Artillery Barracks ("Taksim Kışlası", which later became the Taksim Stadium), but which was demolished in 1940 during the construction works in accordance with the plans of French architect and city planner Henri Prost for Taksim Square and Taksim Gezi Park.


title: Taksim Square

text: Taksim Gezi Park is a small green park in the midst of the concrete expanse of central Istanbul. In 2013, the city municipality, wanting to rebuild the old barracks as a shopping venue on the site of the park, began forcefully removing protesters who had set up camp in the park. After news spread of the police brutality, thousands of people rallied in the Occupy Taksim movement, to stop the demolition of the park. As of 2013, the status of the demolition project was in limbo, the Justice and Development Party (AKP) government has the Police stationed in and around Taksim Square ready with riot control equipment to deter any large demonstrations.


title: Taksim Square

text: Taksim is a main transportation hub and a popular destination for both tourists and residents of Istanbul. İstiklal Caddesi (Independence Avenue), a long pedestrian shopping street, ends at this square, and a nostalgic tram runs from the square along the avenue, ending near the Tünel (1875) which is the world's second-oldest subway line after London's Underground (1863). In addition to serving as the main transfer point for the municipal bus system, Taksim Square is also the terminus of the Hacıosman-4. Levent-Taksim-Yenikapı subway line of the Istanbul Metro.


title: Taksim Square

text: Taksim's position was given an extra boost on June 29, 2006, when the new Kabataş-Taksim Funicular line F1 connecting the Taksim Metro station with the Kabataş tramway station and Seabus port was opened, allowing people to ascend to Taksim in just 110 seconds.


title: Taksim Square

text: Surrounding Taksim Square are numerous travel agencies, hotels, restaurants, pubs, and international fast food chains such as Pizza Hut, McDonald's, Subway, and Burger King. It is also home to some of Istanbul's grandest hotels including the InterContinental, the Divan, and The Marmara Hotel. Taksim used to be a favourite location for public events such as parades, New Year celebrations, and other social gatherings, although since 2016 permission has rarely been given for such gatherings.


title: Taksim Square

text: Atatürk Cultural Center ("Atatürk Kültür Merkezi"), a multi-purpose concert hall and cultural centre reopened after renovation in 2021, is also located in Taksim Square. It faces the Taksim Square Mosque which also opened 2021.


title: Taksim Square

text: Following many other violent incidents, all protests and demonstrations were banned and today police units maintain a round-the-clock presence to prevent any incidents. It is many years since either May Day or New Year's Day events were permitted to take place in the square, with much of the surrounding area usually fenced off for the day and the Metro station often closed to prevent people gathering.


title: Taksim Square

text: In 2013, protests took place in Taksim in opposition to the reconstruction of the Ottoman era Taksim Military Barracks (demolished in 1940 to create Gezi Park) and a shopping centere on the site of Gezi Park. In the early morning of May 31, police forces moved in on the demonstrators and people sleeping in tents, and tried to disperse them with tear gas, pepperspray and water cannons.


title: Taksim Square

text: The demonstrators criticized Prime Minister (now President) Recep Tayyip Erdoğan for his uncompromising stance on this controversial issue and for the Turkish police's excessive use of force against the demonstrators.


title: Taksim Square

text: The large number of trees in the forests of northern Istanbul that were cut down to provide access to the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge (Third Bosphorus Bridge) and the new Istanbul International Airport (the world's largest airport) were other factors that triggered the Gezi Park protests. According to official Turkish government data, a total of 2,330,012 trees have been cut down to make way for the airport and its road connections; while a further 381,096 trees were cut down to make way for the highways leading to the Yavuz Sultan Selim Bridge.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Rosewood is a 1997 American historical drama film directed by John Singleton, inspired by the 1923 Rosewood massacre in Florida, when a white mob killed black people and destroyed their town. In a major change, it stars Ving Rhames as an outsider who comes into Rosewood and inspires residents to self-defense, wielding his pistols in a fight. The supporting cast includes Don Cheadle as Sylvester Carrier, a resident who was a witness, defender of his family and victim of the riot; and Jon Voight as John Wright, a sympathetic white store owner who lives in Rosewood. The three characters become entangled in an attempt to save people from racist White people attacking the blacks of Rosewood.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Despite generally favorable reviews the film was not a commercial success, and was unable to recoup its $17 million budget at the box office. The film was entered into the 47th Berlin International Film Festival.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Mann is a mysterious World War I veteran who is scouting out land to buy. He comes to the town of Rosewood, a small and predominantly black town in Florida. Rosewood is home to the Carriers, an upwardly mobile black family, led by a matriarch, Aunt Sarah and her proud, headstrong son, Sylvester. Mann soon meets Beulah "Scrappie" Carrier, Sylvester's young cousin and the two quickly fall in love.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Aunt Sarah works as a housekeeper for James Taylor and his wife, Fanny, a white couple who lives in the white side of Rosewood. Fanny, who has a history of cheating her husband, has a rendezvous with her lover while her husband is at work. Fanny argues with her lover, who ends up beating her. Aunt Sarah and her granddaughter, Lee Ruth, overhear the argument and the subsequent beating but do not intervene. A distraught Fanny, despairing of explaining her injuries to her husband, leaves her house and calls for help. She then tells several townspeople that she has been beaten by a black man. The white residents readily believe Fanny's claim. Hearing of an escaped black convict named Jesse Hunter, a posse from Sumner and nearby towns goes to Rosewood to investigate. The black residents of Rosewood are quickly targeted by a white mob, including men from out of state and members of the Ku Klux Klan.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: As a stranger, Mann is afraid that he will be accused of attacking Fanny and lynched. He plans to leave town over the protests of several Rosewood residents who have met in church to discuss plans to defend their community. Outside the church, Mann clashes with John Wright, a Navy Spanish American War veteran and the owner of a general store, one of the few white residents of Rosewood. Wright is also engaging in a torrid extramarital affair with Sylvester's cousin, Jewel; Mann leaves.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: When the posse arrives at the Carrier home, Aunt Sarah attempts to placate the angry crowd. When she announces that Fanny Taylor's attacker had been a white man, someone in the crowd shoots her and she dies of her injuries. The posse comes and Sylvester shoots and kills two of its members. The posse falls back and a shootout erupts. After Aunt Sarah's murder, the posse attacks Rosewood. Mann is on his way out of town when he witnesses the lynching of Sam Carter, the blacksmith. Changing his mind about leaving, Mann returns to Rosewood to fight alongside the residents. Some decent white men who live in Rosewood help black Rosewood residents escape. Railroad conductors smuggle people out of town on trains. Wright asks the train conductors to pick up the women and children while his wife hides several other African-Americans in their home. Other whites attempt to stop the violence with no success.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: The posse swells in number. Believing that James Carrier held information about the escaped convict, they seek him out. After making an unsuccessful attempt to intervene on James' behalf, Wright reluctantly allows Sheriff Walker to take Carrier into custody because the officer said he only wanted to question him. When Carrier says he doesn't have any information, he is immediately shot by one of the members of the mob. Wright gets upset and the mob accuses him of being soft on blacks.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: The violence escalates and spills out into neighboring towns. When the posse gets to the border of Alachua County, a group of armed deputized white men and a sheriff block the roads and turn them back. Surviving members of the Carrier family eventually escape on a train, which had been arranged by Wright. Scrappie and Mann finally share a kiss before Mann departs with Sylvester. The two plan to meet up later. After the violence dies down, James Taylor confronts his wife, Fanny. He realizes that Fanny has lied to him about the true cause of her injuries and had affairs with other men, after being told by the sheriff and the townspeople. Officially the final death toll was eight people, two white and six black. Other accounts by survivors and several African-American newspapers estimated a higher death toll.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Minnie Lee Langley, a survivor, served as a source for the set designers, and Arnett Doctor, son of a survivor, was hired as a consultant. Recreated sets of the towns of Rosewood and Sumner were built in Central Florida, far away from Levy County, where the events took place. The film version, written by screenwriter Gregory Poirier, created a character named Mann, who enters Rosewood as a type of reluctant Western-style hero. Composites of historic figures were used as characters, and the film offers the possibility of a happy ending.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Asked about why he decided to tackle this subject, Singleton said: "I had a very deep—I wouldn't call it fear—but a deep contempt for the South because I felt that so much of the horror and evil that black people have faced in this country is rooted here ... So in some ways this is my way of dealing with the whole thing." The production spent $11.7 million filming in Central Florida, with Singleton saying it accounted for 70% of the film's budget.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: On Rotten Tomatoes the film holds an approval rating of 87% based on 55 reviews, with an average rating of 7.1/10. The site's critics consensus reads: "In some respects, "Rosewood" struggles to present a full picture of the real-life tragedy it dramatizes, but it remains a harrowing depiction of racial violence." Metacritic assigned the film a weighted average score of 71 out of 100, based on 20 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Roger Ebert gives the film 3.5 stars out of 4, stating that "... What makes it more is the way it shows how racism breeds and feeds, and is taught by father to son. ... it's not easily summarized in ads and does not obviously appeal to either blacks (since it documents such a depressing chapter) or whites (depicted as murderous or ineffectual). Perhaps it will appeal to people looking for a well-made film that tells a gripping, important story. Now there's a notion."


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Stanley Crouch of "The New York Times" described "Rosewood" as Singleton's finest work, writing, "Never in the history of American film had Southern racist hysteria been shown so clearly. Color, class and sex were woven together on a level that Faulkner would have appreciated."


title: Rosewood (film)

text: E.R. Shipp in "The New York Times" suggests that Singleton's youth and his background in California contributed to his willingness to take on the story of Rosewood. She notes Singleton's rejection of the image of blacks as victims and portrayal of "an idyllic past in which black families are intact, loving and prosperous, and a black superhero who changes the course of history when he escapes the noose, takes on the mob with double-barreled ferocity and saves many women and children from death". Shipp commented on Singleton's creating a fictional account of Rosewood events, saying that the film "assumes a lot and then makes up a lot more". The film version alludes to many more deaths than the highest counts by eyewitnesses. Journalist Gary Moore, who reported the events in 1982, breaking open decades of silence, believed that Singleton's creating Mann, an outside character who inspires the citizens of Rosewood to fight back, was condescending to survivors. He also criticized the inflated death toll, saying the film was "an interesting experience in illusion".


title: Rosewood (film)

text: In retrospect, Gregory Poirier, who wrote the film said: “Rosewood didn’t do much box office. The reviews were generally good, and Siskel and Ebert raved about it, but John [Singleton] was right; it was in many ways too difficult to watch, a chapter of American


title: Rosewood (film)

text: Director John Singleton said:“People say it's violent. I don't think it is, and certainly not as violent as it was being there. I wanted to make you feel you were there. But then maybe Americans are afraid of it because of their own racial problems. They're all fucked up over race, you know.“


title: Brinkmanship

text: Brinkmanship (or brinksmanship) is the practice of trying to achieve an advantageous outcome by pushing dangerous events to the brink of active conflict. The maneuver of pushing a situation with the opponent to the brink succeeds by forcing the opponent to back down and make concessions rather than risk engaging in a conflict that would no longer be beneficial to either side. That might be achieved through diplomatic maneuvers, by creating the impression that one is willing to use extreme methods rather than concede. The tactic occurs in international politics, foreign policy, labor relations, contemporary military strategy (by involving the threat of nuclear weapons), terrorism, and high-stakes litigation.


title: Brinkmanship

text: The term is chiefly associated with US Secretary of State, John Foster Dulles, from 1953 to 1956 during the Eisenhower administration. Dulles sought to deter aggression by the Soviet Union by warning that the cost might be massive retaliation against Soviet targets.


title: Brinkmanship

text: Brinkmanship is the ostensible escalation of threats to achieve one's aims. The word was probably coined by the American politician Adlai Stevenson in his criticism of the philosophy described as "going to the brink" during an interview with US Secretary of State John Foster Dulles during the Eisenhower administration. In the article written in "Life" magazine by the correspondent James R. Shepley, Dulles defined his policy of brinkmanship in these terms: "The ability to get to the verge without getting into the war is the necessary art." During the Cold War, it was used as a policy by the United States to coerce the Soviet Union into backing down militarily. Eventually, the threats involved might become so huge as to be unmanageable, at which point, both sides are likely to back down. That was the case during the Cold War, since the escalation of threats of nuclear war, if carried out, were likely to lead to mutual assured destruction (MAD).


title: Brinkmanship

text: Thomas Schelling defined brinkmanship as "manipulating the shared risk of war." The essence of such a crisis is that it leads neither side to be in full control of events, which creates a serious risk of miscalculation and escalation.


title: Brinkmanship

text: For brinkmanship to be effective, both sides continuously escalate their threats and actions. However, a threat is ineffective unless it is credible, and, at some point, an aggressive party may have to prove its commitment to action.


title: Brinkmanship

text: The chance of things sliding out of control is often used in itself as a tool of brinkmanship, because it can provide credibility to an otherwise incredible threat. During the Cold War, the Cuban Missile Crisis was an example of opposing leaders, US President John F. Kennedy and Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev, continually issuing warnings with increasing force about impending nuclear exchanges without necessarily validating their statements. The pioneering game theorist Thomas Schelling called that "the threat that leaves something to chance."


title: Brinkmanship

text: Brinkmanship was an effective tactic during the Cold War because neither side of the conflict could contemplate mutual assured destruction in a nuclear war. The nuclear deterrence of both sides threatened massive destruction on each other. Ultimately, brinkmanship worsened the relationship between the Soviets and the Americans.


title: Brinkmanship

text: In the spectrum of the Cold War, the concept of brinkmanship involved the West and the Soviet Union using tactics of fear and intimidation as strategies to make the opposing side back down. Each faction pushed dangerous situations to the brink, with the intention of making the other back down in matters of international politics and foreign policy and obtaining concessions. Nevertheless, in the Cold War both parties were confronted with devastating consequences since the threats of nuclear war were unmanageable in any situation.


title: Brinkmanship

text: By escalating threats of nuclear war and massive retaliation, both parties had to respond with more force. The principle of the tactic was that neither party would prefer to yield to the other, but one of them would simply have to yield, or the outcome would be the worst possible for both of them.


title: Brinkmanship

text: The problem, however, was that yielding would result in being labelled as the weaker side. During the Cold War, both the Soviets and the Americans had a reputation to uphold to their populations and also to their neighboring countries and allies.


title: Brinkmanship

text: That made brinkmanship utterly risky since if neither country budged, the only way to avoid mutually assured destruction was to compromise. The British philosopher, mathematician, and intellectual Bertrand Russell compared it to the game of chicken:


title: Brinkmanship

text: Since the nuclear stalemate became apparent, the governments of East and West have adopted the policy which Mr. Dulles calls 'brinksmanship.' This is a policy adapted from a sport which, I am told, is practiced by some youthful degenerates. This sport is called 'Chicken!'.


title: Brinkmanship

text: The Soviet Union and the West spent nearly 50 years on the brink of war. During conflicts like the Cuban Missile Crisis, tensions escalated to the point that it seemed as if the Cold War would turn into an actual nuclear war. Brinkmanship was one of the steps prior to the point that war would actually break out.


title: Brinkmanship

text: In a conflict between two nations that were so ideologically opposed, drastic policies such as brinkmanship seemed to be the only way to come to any sense of agreement. Both the Americans and the Soviets maintained strict policies not to respond immediately to military threats. However, by making the possibility of a war more and more likely, both nations were able to make significant progress in discussions and peace.


title: Brinkmanship

text: US President Dwight D. Eisenhower's New Look Policy reverted to the older notion that the Soviet Union could be contained if Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev was still assumed to be aiming at further expanding Soviet influence. The tactic was supposed to isolate the Soviet Union so that communism would not spread but would collapse in on itself.


title: Brinkmanship

text: To enforce the tactic, the Americans made alliances with many countries that were considered to be vulnerable to the Soviets' sphere of influence. The Soviets were now known to have nuclear weapons and so both superpowers were on a more even playing field. To combat this problem, Eisenhower threatened to use all of the American arsenal if the Soviets took offensive measures.


title: Brinkmanship

text: That was a bold move as it established the stakes to be extremely high, as the action could cause massive destruction for both sides. The threat caused an increase and a buildup of tension, with neither side wanting to pull the trigger on the other for fear of the other's reaction.


title: Brinkmanship

text: Flexible response was a defense strategy executed by US President John F. Kennedy in 1961. Its aim was to address skepticism that the Kennedy administration held towards Eisenhower's New Look: specifically its policy of massive retaliation. Flexible response required mutual deterrence at tactical, strategic, and conventional levels and bestowing upon the United States the ability to respond to aggression across the spectrum of symmetrical conventional warfare and nuclear warfare.


title: Brinkmanship

text: Flexible response required the continuous presence of substantial conventional forces. The forces were to serve both to deter and to fight limited wars. Kennedy hoped to deter all wars, regardless of their nature. Although Eisenhower and Dulles wanted to achieve goals similar to those of Kennedy, both were more concerned with cost. To avoid both escalation and humiliation, Kennedy highlighted the importance of adequate flexibility and disregarded cost. Prior to nuclear war, Kennedy wished to increase the range of available options. He also believed that the European allies should contribute more to their own defense. Fundamentally, the notion of flexible response was to "increase the ability to confine the response to non-nuclear weapons."


title: Brinkmanship

text: The Korean War was a military conflict between the South Korea and North Korea that started on June 25, 1950. Although armed hostilities ended with the Korean Armistice Agreement on July 27, 1953, the ceasefire was not a treaty under international law and so a technical state of war remains. The United States led the UN coalition supporting South Korea, while the Soviet Union and People's Republic of China supported North Korea. The Korean War was the first armed conflict and proxy war of the Cold War and escalated tensions between the West and the East. In September 1949, the Soviets tested their first atomic bomb, which made a limited war virtually impossible.


title: Brinkmanship

text: Fears of communism had risen after the Second Red Scare, led by Wisconsin US Senator Joseph McCarthy, indirectly calling for a policy to limit Communist Threat: NSC 68. In accordance with NSC 68, a report that stated that all communist activities were controlled by Soviet Premier Joseph Stalin, and it called for military and economic aid to any country deemed to be resisting Communist threats, the Americans sent troops to South Korea after it was invaded by the North on June 25, 1950. That contradicted the report, in that the United States was once again at war (the report stated that the United States should avoid war), but US President Harry S. Truman feared a domino effect and wanted to prevent the spread of communism:


title: Brinkmanship

text: If we let Korea down, the Soviets will keep right on going and swallow up one piece of Asia after another... If we were to let Asia go, the Near East would collapse and no telling what would happen in Europe... Korea is like the Greece of the Far East. If we are tough enough now, if we stand up to them like we did in Greece three years ago, they won't take any more steps.


title: Brinkmanship

text: The Soviets boycotted the UN Security Council because the Americans had refused the entry of the People's Republic of China into the United Nations. The UN, supported by the United States, freely passed a resolution requesting military action against North Korea. Led by General Douglas MacArthur, the UN Forces arrived along with the US Forces on July 1, 1950. Truman believed that the North Korean atomic threat was "a threat based on contingency planning to use the bomb, rather than the faux pas so many assume it to be" and so did not use brinkmanship but also continuously opted for limited war. His beliefs in ceasefire and peacekeeping between the North and the South were cause for great conflict with MacArthur, who sought total war. MacArthur believed that the United States should take the opportunity to wipe out communism permanently before it grew stronger by using all of its weapons such as turning the war into nuclear war. MacArthur was dismissed as a result of his continuous defiance to Truman and other superiors on April 11, 1951, after he sent an ultimatum to the Chinese Army without consent of Truman.


title: Brinkmanship

text: As the historian Bruce Cumings noted, the Korean War heightened the Cold War and brought both nations closer to a nuclear war. The United States wanted to ensure that the United Nations would succeed, unlike the League of Nations, and wanted to show off its power to the world and to exhibit that it could still tame the communist threat, which was now also present in Asia. Similarly, the Soviet Union wanted to demonstrate its newly built military strength to the United States.


title: Brinkmanship

text: Between 1950 and 1961, "the refugee flow continued at a rate of 100,000 to 200,000 annually" with people moving from the East to the West. The economic conditions were better in West Berlin than in East Berlin and so attracted more young workers.


title: Brinkmanship

text: Trying to find a way to stop the people from moving, East German President Walter Ulbricht pressured the Soviet Union to help with Berlin and emigration. Khrushchev wanted the Western Allies to leave Berlin or sign a separate peace treaty with East Germany. He feared that West Germany would economically and politically overwhelm East Germany and in turn undermine the Warsaw Pact, which the Soviet Union dominated.


title: Brinkmanship

text: On November 10, 1958, Khrushchev delivered a speech in which he demanded that the Western Powers pulled out of Western Berlin within six months. Furthermore, Khrushchev declared that East Germany was to take control of all communication lines and so West Berlin would be accessible only with East German permission. Interpreting Khrushchev's speech as an ultimatum, the United States, France, and the United Kingdom declined and said that they would remain in West Berlin.


title: Brinkmanship

text: In 1959, the Big Four powers held a conference in Geneva in which the foreign ministers attempted to negotiate an agreement on Berlin. However, the conference did not do much other than open up talks between the Soviet Union and United States. The Soviets wanted Western powers out of West Berlin in an attempt to reunify Berlin. The United States refused to give up West Berlin. In 1961, Khrushchev met with Kennedy and they continued to solve the issue on Berlin. Again, Khrushchev sent an ultimatum to the United States, asking them to leave West Berlin. As a result, Kennedy increased military and defense expenditures.


title: Brinkmanship

text: On August 13, 1961, Ulbricht had ordered barbed wire between East and West Berlin. The barbed wire was later changed to cement walls. This prevented the movement between the two sides. The division between the two Berlins was known as the Berlin Wall. The United States heavily condemned the Berlin Wall and responded by placing troops on the West German side. The actions were followed by Soviet Union, which placed its troops and tanks on the East German side. That led to the iconic image of tanks facing each other at "Checkpoint Charlie," which symbolized the division of the eastern and the western parts of Germany.


title: Brinkmanship

text: Any action taken by either side's had the possibility of resulting in a nuclear war between the Soviets and the Americans. As a result, in the summer of 1961, Kennedy met with Khrushchev in Vienna to try to find a solution for the problem of Berlin. Kennedy suggested Khrushchev to remove the Soviet troops, and the American troops would then be removed. However, no solution was found since neither side was ready to make concessions. The conference ended with Khrushchev issuing another ultimatum to the United States that gave six months to get out of Berlin. As a result, Kennedy refused to back down and instead prepared for military action, which led to further military escalation by Khrushchev.


title: Brinkmanship

text: A prime example of brinkmanship during the Cold War was the Cuban Missile Crisis (1962), a 13-day conflict between the United States, the Soviet Union, and Cuba. Both superpowers were armed with nuclear weapons and practiced brinkmanship during the conflict. The Cuban Missile Crisis was not only the closest that the Americans and the Soviets came to an armed conflict but also the "closest the world has come to [a full-scale] nuclear war."


title: Brinkmanship

text: The crisis was caused by the placement of Soviet nuclear weapons in Cuba, an island that was within the US sphere of influence and launching distance. That was arguably an act of brinkmanship by the Soviets to intimidate the US with weapons within the region. The US responded to the presence of the weapons by blockading Cuba. The Cuban blockade was also an act of brinkmanship since the Americans, instead of succumbing to the pressure from the Soviets, decided to see how the Soviets would react to the Americans stopping their vessels from entering Cuba.


title: Brinkmanship

text: The US was building up its missiles, with President Eisenhower issuing the National Defense Education Act in 1958, an attempt to close the missile gap with the Soviets. It gave funds to US. schools to start researching more so that the US military could catch up with the Soviet's technology. Eisenhower also started NASA from NACA, several research laboratories, and parts of the Army Ballistic Missile Agency: see Creation of NASA.


title: Brinkmanship

text: The détente was essentially a stilling of the waters between the Americans and the Soviets. It was started by US President Richard Nixon and his National Security Advisor, Henry Kissinger. It continued until 1980 and the start of the second phase of the Cold War. It focused on a philosophical deepening of American foreign policy to adjust to the changing international order, as opposed to the Kennedy and Johnson administrations, which had been too single-minded in their pursuit of victory in Vietnam. That move away from focusing solely on military buildup heralded 12 years in which the world experienced a kind of peace by the decreased tensions between the Americans and the Soviets.


title: Brinkmanship

text: Ronald Reagan was inaugurated as US president on January 20, 1981. His idea of nuclear relations was, from the outset, very different from détente's goal of stability. He effectively ended the previously-accepted agreement of mutually assured destruction by almost immediately increasing the pace of the buildup of American arms to an unprecedented rate. Besides the buildup of conventional arms, military technology was improved. With the introduction of the stealth bomber and neutron bomb, the US again began to pull away from the Soviet Union. The most pivotal of them was the Strategic Defense Initiative - later called 'Star Wars' because of its improbability - which simultaneously brought the Americans to the brink of war against the Soviets, as the SDI nullified the idea of MAD, and also induced arms talks between Reagan and Mikhail Gorbachev, Soviet leader.


title: Brinkmanship

text: The 2017–2018 North Korean nuclear crisis has been described as a representation of brinkmanship between US President Donald Trump and the North Korean leader Kim Jong-Un. The nuclear crisis was followed by a peace process, which saw mixed results.


title: Asia Artist Awards

text: Asia Artist Awards (; abbreviated AAA) is an awards ceremony organized by South Korea-based business newspaper "Money Today" and its global media brands StarNews and MTN. This honors the outstanding achievements and international contributions of Asian artists in television, film and music. The inaugural ceremony was held on November 16, 2016, at Kyung Hee University's Hall of Peace in Seoul, and was broadcast live via satellite across Asia.


title: Asia Artist Awards

text: The 6th edition of the awards ceremony took place on December 2, 2021 at KBS Arena, Seoul. It was hosted by Leeteuk and Jang Won-young.


title: Hoxhaism

text: Hoxhaism () is a variant of anti-revisionist Marxism–Leninism that developed in the late 1970s due to a split in the anti-revisionist movement, appearing after the ideological dispute between the Chinese Communist Party and the Party of Labour of Albania in 1978. The ideology is named after Enver Hoxha, a notable Albanian communist leader, who served as the First Secretary of the Party of Labour.


title: Hoxhaism

text: Hoxhaism demarcates itself by a strict defense of the legacy of Joseph Stalin, the organization of the Soviet Union under Stalinism, and fierce criticism of virtually all other communist groupings as revisionist—it defines currents such as Eurocommunism as anti-communist movements.


title: Hoxhaism

text: Critical of the United States, the Soviet Union, China, and Yugoslavia, Enver Hoxha labeled the latter three "social imperialist" and condemned the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in 1968, before withdrawing Albania from the Warsaw Pact in response. Hoxhaism asserts the right of nations to pursue socialism by different paths, dictated by the conditions in those countries, although Hoxha personally held the view that Titoism was "anti-Marxist" in overall practice.


title: Hoxhaism

text: The Albanians succeeded in ideologically winning over a large share of anti-revisionists, mainly in Latin America (such as the Popular Liberation Army and the Marxist–Leninist Communist Party of Ecuador as well as the Revolutionary Communist Party of Brazil), but they also had a significant international following in general.


title: Hoxhaism

text: Following the fall of the People's Socialist Republic of Albania in 1991, the Hoxhaist parties grouped themselves around an international conference founded in 1994 and the publication "Unity and Struggle".


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The 2013 season was the Seattle Seahawks' 38th in the National Football League (NFL) and their fourth under head coach Pete Carroll. With the Seahawks tenth win in the eleventh week of the season, the team secured double-digit victories in consecutive seasons for the first time in franchise history. Their 13–3 regular season record is tied with the 2005 season for the best in franchise history. Seattle’s defense in 2013 is regarded by many to be one of the best in NFL history.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: Seattle entered the 2013 season at 17/2 odds to win Super Bowl XLVIII, just short of the Denver Broncos and San Francisco 49ers at 6/1. This was despite placing second in the NFC West and dropping its divisional round game against the Atlanta Falcons the previous year. The Seahawks were, by power ranking, ranked the strongest team by an NFL.com analyst before the season and by ESPN analysts after the regular season. The defense led the league in points allowed (231), yards allowed (4,378), and takeaways (39), the first team to lead all three categories since the 1985 Chicago Bears. Their +186 point differential is the best in franchise history.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The Seahawks clinched the NFC's No. 1 seed and homefield advantage throughout the playoffs with their 13–3 record. The Seahawks defeated the New Orleans Saints 23–15 in the Divisional round and the San Francisco 49ers 23–17 in the NFC Championship. In Super Bowl XLVIII, they defeated the Denver Broncos 43–8 for their first Super Bowl victory in franchise history. Of Seattle's thirteen wins, eight of them were decided by eleven points or more, with their season-best margin being a 45-17 win against the Jaguars. There were eight instances of the Seahawks allowing two touchdowns or less. The 2013 Seahawks' 14.4 points allowed per game in the regular season is the lowest in franchise history.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The Seattle Seahawks kicked off their 2013 campaign with a hard-fought, ugly win over the Carolina Panthers, 12–7. This game marked Russell Wilson's first 300-yard passing game, and Cam Newton's worst career performance, posting 125 yards through the air, a career low.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The first quarter was scoreless, with both sides exchanging a couple of punts. On their third possession of the game, in the second quarter, Seattle drove into the red zone, capping it with a Stephen Hauschka 27-yard field goal. Carolina responded immediately, taking advantage of a couple of Seattle penalties and some big runs by DeAngelo Williams. Cam Newton hit Steve Smith for a 3-yard TD. Seattle responded with a drive to around the Carolina 27 yard line, but Charles Godfrey sacked Russell Wilson and stripped the football, which Carolina recovered. So the first half ended 7–3, in favor of Carolina.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The second half began with a defensive battle. Hauschka made a 40-yard field goal, after a drive that lasted over 4 minutes, cutting the lead to 7–6. After forcing Carolina to punt midway through the fourth quarter, Seattle's offense produced its finest drive of the day. A couple of Russell Wilson passes, followed by a Robert Turbin 15-yard scamper, set up Seattle at the Panthers' 43 yard line. Russell Wilson overthrew receiver Stephen Williams on first down, but on second down and 10, using exactly the same play, Wilson connected with second-year man Jermaine Kearse for a 43-yard score, with 10 minutes left to play. They failed on the two-point conversion however, so Seattle clung to a 12–7 lead. DeAngelo Williams made some big runs. Inside the Seattle 35 yard line, Williams took off for 24 yards and looked like he was going to score, but Earl Thomas caused him to fumble inside the 10 yard line.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: In week 2, the Seahawks took on their division rivals, the San Francisco 49ers. Prior to the season, NFL analysts rated this rivalry as the top upcoming rivalry, as well as the top rivalry of the decade. Both teams proved that point, when they had an arms race in the off-season, Seattle picking up Percy Harvin and San Francisco picking Anquan Boldin in the off-season, among others. Last season, the teams were 1–1 against each other, Seattle being the better team, as they blew out the Niners 42–13 in the last meeting in Seattle, coincidentally, also on Sunday Night Football. It was also a day that Russell Wilson and Colin Kaepernick appeared to bet an eyebrow, with the loser shaving his eyebrow; this was later revealed to be a publicity stunt. Finally, it was a day where former Seahawk Shaun Alexander would raise the 12th man flag.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The game began quietly though, as both sides failed to establish a rhythm. The game was delayed midway through the first quarter due to lightning in the vicinity of the stadium, the second such case in the 2013 season (Ravens-Broncos kickoff game in week 1 was the first). After getting back onto the field, the 49ers blocked a Seahawks punt and got the ball in Seattle territory. However, Seattle claimed a whistle was heard from the crowd, which confused the linemen and the punter. That claim was later justified by NBC analyst Cris Collinsworth. The Niners took advantage and drove to the Seattle 10-yard line. However, on third down, Earl Thomas intercepted a Colin Kaepernick pass, and Seattle regained possession. A few plays later, Russell Wilson was intercepted by rookie Eric Reid, and the tug of war continued into the second quarter.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: All was quiet until midway through the second quarter, where fullback Bruce Miller was caught holding in the endzone, the result of which was a safety, and a Seattle 2–0 lead. Later on, defensive end Cliff Avril strip sacked Kaepernick and K. J. Wright recovered for Seattle, the result of which was a Stephen Hauschka 30-yard field goal. Halftime came with a small 5–0 Seahawks lead. The game was pretty dark and messy at that point, the only bright side being Seattle running back Marshawn Lynch.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: In the third quarter, the Seahawks came out roaring. On third and 12, Wilson connected with receiver Doug Baldwin for a 51-yard gain to inside the 49ers 25 yard line. A few plays later, Lynch took it to the house on a 14-yard run, 12–0 Seattle. The 49ers responded with a drive to the Seattle 6-yard line, capped of by Phil Dawson 21-yard field goal, that included a 28-yard scramble by Kaepernick, 12–3 Seahawks. However, that would be it for the Niners, and the third quarter.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: In the fourth quarter, the Seahawks demolished the Niners on all phases of play. It started with Wilson hitting Lynch for a 7-yard score on third down. A few plays into the Niners next drive, Kaepernick was intercepted by Richard Sherman, who took it to the 49ers 25-yard line. That resulted in a 37-yard Hauschka field goal. On the ensuing Niners drive, Kaepernick was intercepted again, this time by safety Kam Chancellor, who had signed a contract extension earlier in the year. Lynch scored on a 2-yard run on the next play. Seattle led 29–3. The 49ers fumbled the ensuing kickoff, and Seattle recovered.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: Seattle won, in convincing style, silencing any critics. The 12th man also broke a Guinness world record, for the loudest outdoor stadium. Yet again, Seattle dominated on SNF, and Pete Carroll improved to 3–4 overall against the Niners, and 2–3 against bitter rival Jim Harbaugh. Seattle was now 2–0, and still unbeaten at home.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The Seahawks entered week 3 on top of the NFC to take on the Jacksonville Jaguars who were on the opposite end of the AFC. This game did not garner much attention, considering the fact that it was a "best vs worst" game. However, that didn't change Seattle's positive "1–0" mentality to the game.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: Seattle opened up the game with a punt. After forcing a Jacksonville three and out, on a drive which included a Clinton McDonald sack, Russell Wilson marched the Seahawks right down the field, on a drive that included a 27-yard run by Marshawn Lynch, and on third and goal from the 1-yard line, hit tight end Zach Miller for a touchdown, and an early 7–0 lead.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: Picking up from where they left off in the first quarter, Seattle took their first drive of the second quarter, where Wilson connected with Miller for a 4-yard touchdown pass, the duo's second of the day. After a Stephen Hauschka 21-yard field goal on the next drive, the game got quiet until the Jaguars final drive of the half, where Chad Henne was intercepted by linebacker Bobby Wagner, with under a minute left to play. Wilson then made some beautiful completions to receivers Golden Tate and Sidney Rice in lightning fast succession, the latter of whom caught an 11-yard pass for a touchdown with 10 seconds left on the clock, to send Seattle up 24–0 at the half.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: On the Seahawks first drive of the second half, they picked up were they left off, as Wilson hit rice for a 23-yard score, marking Wilson's fourth TD pass of the day, tying a career-high, and putting the Hawks up 31–0. On the ensuing drive, however, Wilson was picked off by linebacker Paul Posluszny, who returned it to the Seattle 2-yard line, where Jaguars RB Maurice Jones-Drew punched it in on the next play, 31–7 Seattle. That was the last time Wilson touched the ball. Backup Tarvaris Jackson took over and drove Seattle to the Jaguars 35-yard line, not missing a single completion on the drive. He then threw a TD pass to Doug Baldwin, adding to the lead, 38–7 Seattle.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: Seattle then shut its system off, which allowed Henne to hit receiver Cecil Shorts III for a couple of long completions on the Jaguars next couple of drives, racking up 10 points, including a fourth-quarter run by Jordan Todman, his first career TD, 38–17 Seattle. Jackson led the Seahawks downfield, scoring on a 5-yard scramble, re-establishing a big lead, 45–17.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: Seattle started 3–0 for the first time since 2006, and the first time in the Pete Carroll era. Seattle is still unbeaten at home, with a 10–0 record including last year.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The Seahawks led 3-0 after the first quarter, but the Texans scored 20 unanswered points in the second quarter, building a 20-3 halftime lead. However, the Seahawks outscored the Texans 17-0 in the third and fourth quarters. With less than three minutes to go, and the Texans leading 20-13, Matt Schaub's pass on 3rd down was picked off by Richard Sherman and returned 58 yards for a pick six, allowing the Seahawks to tie the game and force overtime. The Seahawks would go on to win the game in overtime by a final score of 23-20. With the win, the Seahawks would open the season with a 4-0 record for the first time in franchise history.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: This would be the first meeting between quarterbacks Russell Wilson and Andrew Luck, who were both selected in the 2012 NFL Draft. Though Wilson and the Seahawks maintained a lead throughout the first three quarters, Luck led the Colts back, taking the lead and never letting go in the 4th. It would be the first loss for the Seahawks in the season, dropping their record to 4-1. The Colts punted and the Seahawks drove down the field and scored a field goal to go up 3-0. After another Indy three-and-out, Russell Wilson threw a 10-yard touchdown pass to Golden Tate to take a 10-0 lead. Then another Indy punt was blocked and bounced out of the endzone to extend the lead to 12-0. Seattle punted to Indy when Andrew Luck threw a 73-yard touchdown to T.Y. Hilton to make the score 12-7. Seattle drove into field goal range but a 48-yard field goal was blocked and returned for a touchdown by the Colts. Indy led 14-12 until Wilson found Jermaine Kearse to give Seattle a 19-14 lead. Luck led the Colts downfield and they kicked a field goal to make it 19-17 at the half. Seattle kicked another field goal to make it 22-17. Indianapolis fumbled and led to a 25-17 Seahawks lead. Luck then found Hilton in the endzone but the two-point-conversion failed leaving the score at 25-23. Seattle then kicked a 4th field goal to extend their lead to 28-23. Indy scored a touchdown to make it 31-28 and then a field goal to make it 34-28 final.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: Following their loss to the Colts, the Seahawks returned to CenturyLink field to host the Tennessee Titans. The Seahawks allowed a field goal from Titans kicker Rob Bironas, but a second quarter touchdown from running back Marshawn Lynch caused the Seahawks to retake the lead. The Seahawks attempted to extend their lead at the end of the quarter with a field goal. With usual holder Jon Ryan in the locker room with a potential injury, reserve safety Chris Maragos was asked to hold the ball for the field goal attempt. Maragos however fumbled the snap, which was recovered by Titans special teamer Jason McCourty and run back 77 yards for a touchdown. The Seahawks then entered halftime behind 7-10.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: During the 3rd quarter, the Seahawks held the Titans scoreless while scoring a field goal of their own, tying the game. An additional field goal during the 4th put the Seahawks ahead again. On the first play of the next drive, Fitzpatrick threw an interception to Seahawks cornerback Richard Sherman. The Seahawks capitalized by with another touchdown from Lynch. The Seahawks would only allow another field goal from the Titans, and the win brought their record to 5-1.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: Playing on Thursday Night Football, the Seahawks easily defeated their division rival behind quarterback Russell Wilson's 235 passing yards, running back Marshawn Lynch's 91 running yards, and two interceptions from secondary members Brandon Browner and Earl Thomas.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The Seahawks defeated the Rams 14-9 in a Monday Night Football thriller. The Rams were successful at limiting the Seahawks offense, holding running back Marshawn Lynch to a season low of only 23 yards and sacking quarterback Russell Wilson seven times. After holding the Rams to a field goal in the first quarter, the Seahawks went ahead with a 2-yard touchdown pass to Golden Tate.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The Rams responded in the third quarter with another field goal, cutting down the Seahawks' lead to 1. After an incomplete pass to Jermaine Kearse on the first play of the next drive, Wilson threw an 80-yard touchdown to Golden Tate. It was the longest play of either player's career. On his way towards the end zone, Tate turned and sarcastically waved towards Rams safety Rodney McLeod. Though the touchdown would count, the Seahawks would be penalized for taunting during the kickoff. Carroll chastised Tate after the penalty occurred, and Tate was fined $7,875 after the game.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: After the Seahawks allowed an additional Rams field goal, the game came down to the final drive. The Rams, in possession of the ball with 5:42 left in the game, managed to drive the ball all the way to the 6 yard line with less than 1:20 left on the clock. A missed throw from Rams quarterback Kellen Clemens and a 4-yard run from Rams running back Daryl Richardson allowed the Rams a 3rd and Goal at the 2-yard line, but a defensive offsides call on Seahawks defensive end Chris Clemons cut the distance in half. The Seahawks stopped an additional run from Richardson, and Rams head coach Jeff Fisher called a timeout with only 4 seconds left in the game. Seahawks cornerback Brandon Browner successfully defended Clemens's final pass towards Brian Quick, sealing the Seahawks victory and bringing their record to 7-1.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The top-ranked Seahawks hosted the winless Tampa Bay Buccaneers in what many believed would be a blowout. However, the Buccaneers marched to a 21-0 lead during the 2nd quarter, which included a trick play from running back Mike James. Despite giving up a field goal later in the game, the Seahawks came roaring back, tying the game during the fourth quarter and forcing overtime. The Seahawks narrowly avoided a loss with a 27-yard field goal from Stephen Hauschka.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: This was a rematch of the NFC Divisional matchup from the 2012 postseason. The Seahawks jumped out to a 23-3 halftime lead and never looked back, routing the Falcons 33-10. The Seahawks won their fifth consecutive game as their record improved to 9-1.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: At the beginning of this game, Doug Baldwin flew the Philippines flag in memory of the victims of Typhoon Yolanda. Free agent signee Percy Harvin saw his first minutes of playing time of the season during the game, incidentally against the team that drafted him. He would catch one pass for 17 yards and return one kickoff for 58 yards. The Seahawks entered the bye week with a 10-1 record, the best in the NFL at the time.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: The Seahawks dominated from start to finish, routing the Saints 34-7. The Seahawks won their 7th consecutive game as their record improved to 11-1. They became the first team to clinch a berth for the 2013 postseason.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: In week 14 the Seahawks traveled out of their stadium to San Francisco where they took a loss to the 49ers. Russell Wilson was intercepted to end the game and continued the Seahawks' losing streak in Candlestick Park in which they last won in 2008. It was their last appearance at Candlestick, as the 49ers moved to Levi's Stadium for the 2014 season.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: With the loss, the Seahawks' record dropped into 11-2. This would be the last time they lost to the 49ers until 2018.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: In what many pundits dubbed a "Super Bowl dress rehearsal", the Seahawks faced the New York Giants at MetLife Stadium, where the Super Bowl would be held at the end of the season. The Legion of Boom intercepted Giants quarterback Eli Manning five times and held the team scoreless throughout the entire game.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: In Seattle's first loss at home since the 2011 season, the team record dropped to 12-3. Amazingly, this would also be Russell Wilson's first home loss in football since his college season with North Carolina State University.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: With the win, the Seahawks' record improved to 13-3 as they clinched the NFC West and the NFC's #1 seed. The Seahawks would hold homefield advantage for the entirety of the 2013 postseason.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: This was the Seahawks' first conference Championship game appearance since 2005 and only the third ever for the franchise, after 2005 and 1983. The Seahawks overcame a 10-3 deficit at the end of the half and finished strong, outscoring San Francisco 20-7 in the 2nd half. With Seattle leading 20-17 in the 4th quarter, Colin Kaepernick tried to rally his team, but fumbled once and threw 2 interceptions in the final three drives in the game for San Francisco. In the fourth quarter, NaVorro Bowman suffered a major knee injury on a tackle and forced fumble near the goal line, but the 49ers forced another fumble on the next play on 4th down. On the second play following fumble recovery, Kaepernick threw an interception to Kam Chancellor. Kaepernick again had the 49ers in position to try for a win, but his pass to Michael Crabtree in the end zone was deflected by Richard Sherman and intercepted by Malcolm Smith, locking up the win for Seattle.


title: 2013 Seattle Seahawks season

text: In dominating fashion, the Seahawks would win their first championship in the history of the franchise. This was also the first football team since the 1990 Buffalo Bills to not have any players on the roster with Super Bowl experience. It was Seattle's first major championship in 35 years since the 1979 Seattle SuperSonics. Linebacker Malcolm Smith would end up earning the Super Bowl MVP award for his 69-yard interception, 1 fumble recovery, and 6 tackles.


title: Same-origin policy

text: In computing, the same-origin policy (SOP) is an important concept in the web application security model. Under the policy, a web browser permits scripts contained in a first web page to access data in a second web page, but only if both web pages have the same "origin". An origin is defined as a combination of URI scheme, host name, and port number. This policy prevents a malicious script on one page from obtaining access to sensitive data on another web page through that page's Document Object Model.


title: Same-origin policy

text: This mechanism bears a particular significance for modern web applications that extensively depend on HTTP cookies to maintain authenticated user sessions, as servers act based on the HTTP cookie information to reveal sensitive information or take state-changing actions. A strict separation between content provided by unrelated sites must be maintained on the client-side to prevent the loss of data confidentiality or integrity.


title: Same-origin policy

text: It is very important to remember that the same-origin policy applies only to scripts. This means that resources such as images, CSS, and dynamically-loaded scripts can be accessed across origins via the corresponding HTML tags (with fonts being a notable exception). Attacks take advantage of the fact that the same origin policy does not apply to HTML tags.


title: Same-origin policy

text: The concept of same-origin policy was introduced by Netscape Navigator 2.02 in 1995, shortly after the introduction of JavaScript in Netscape 2.0. JavaScript enabled scripting on web pages, and in particular programmatic access to the Document Object Model (DOM).


title: Same-origin policy

text: The policy was originally designed to protect access to the DOM, but has since been broadened to protect sensitive parts of the global JavaScript object.


title: Same-origin policy

text: All modern browsers implement some form of the same-origin policy as it is an important security cornerstone. The policies are not required to match an exact specification but are often extended to define roughly compatible security boundaries for other web technologies, such as Microsoft Silverlight, Adobe Flash, or Adobe Acrobat, or for mechanisms other than direct DOM manipulation, such as XMLHttpRequest.


title: Same-origin policy

text: The algorithm used to calculate the "origin" of a URI is specified in RFC 6454, Section 4. For absolute URIs, the origin is the triple {scheme, host, port}. If the URI does not use a hierarchical element as a naming authority (see , Section 3.2) or if the URI is not an absolute URI, then a globally unique identifier is used. Two resources are considered to be of the same origin if and only if all these values are exactly the same.


title: Same-origin policy

text: To illustrate, the following table gives an overview of typical outcomes for checks against the URL "<nowiki>http://www.example.com/dir/page.html</nowiki>".


title: Same-origin policy

text: Unlike other browsers, Internet Explorer does not include the port in the calculation of the origin, using the Security Zone in its place.


title: Same-origin policy

text: The same-origin policy protects against reusing authenticated sessions across origins. The following example illustrates a potential security risk that could arise without the same-origin policy. Assume that a user is visiting a banking website and doesn't log out. Then, the user goes to another site that has malicious JavaScript code that requests data from the banking site. Because the user is still logged in on the banking site, the malicious code could do anything the user could do on the banking site. For example, it could get a list of the user's last transactions, create a new transaction, etc. This is because, in the original spirit of a world wide web, browsers are required to tag along authentication details such as session cookies and platform-level kinds of the Authorization request header to the banking site based on the domain of the banking site.


title: Same-origin policy

text: The bank site owners would expect that regular browsers of users visiting the malicious site do not allow the code loaded from the malicious site access the banking session cookie or platform-level authorization. While it is true that JavaScript has no direct access to the banking session cookie, it could still send and receive requests to the banking site with the banking site's session cookie. Same Origin Policy was introduced as a requirement for security-minded browsers to deny read access to responses from across origins, with the assumption that the majority of users choose to use compliant browsers. The policy does not deny writes. Counteracting the abuse of the write permission requires additional CSRF protections by the target sites.


title: Same-origin policy

text: In some circumstances, the same-origin policy is too restrictive, posing problems for large websites that use multiple subdomains. At first, a number of workarounds such as using the fragment identifier or the codice_1 property were used to pass data between documents residing in different domains. Modern browsers support multiple techniques for relaxing the same-origin policy in a controlled manner:


title: Same-origin policy

text: Netscape Navigator briefly contained a taint checking feature. The feature was experimentally introduced in 1997 as part of Netscape 3. The feature was turned off by default, but if enabled by a user it would allow websites to attempt to read JavaScript properties of windows and frames belonging to a different domain. The browser would then ask the user whether to permit the access in question.


title: Same-origin policy

text: If two windows (or frames) contain scripts that set domain to the same value, the same-origin policy is relaxed for these two windows, and each window can interact with the other. For example, cooperating scripts in documents loaded from orders.example.com and catalog.example.com might set their codice_2 properties to “example.com”, thereby making the documents appear to have the same origin and enabling each document to read properties of the other. Setting this property implicitly sets the port to null, which most browsers will interpret differently from port 80 or even an unspecified port. To assure that access will be allowed by the browser, set the document.domain property of both pages.


title: Same-origin policy

text: The other technique for relaxing the same-origin policy is standardized under the name Cross-Origin Resource Sharing (CORS). This standard extends HTTP with a new Origin request header and a new Access-Control-Allow-Origin response header. It allows servers to use a header to explicitly list origins that may request a file or to use a wildcard and allow a file to be requested by any site. Browsers such as Firefox 3.5, Safari 4 and Internet Explorer 10 use this header to allow the cross-origin HTTP requests with XMLHttpRequest that would otherwise have been forbidden by the same-origin policy.


title: Same-origin policy

text: Another technique, cross-document messaging allows a script from one page to pass textual messages to a script on another page regardless of the script origins. Calling the postMessage() method on a Window object asynchronously fires an "onmessage" event in that window, triggering any user-defined event handlers. A script in one page still cannot directly access methods or variables in the other page, but they can communicate safely through this message-passing technique.


title: Same-origin policy

text: Since HTML codice_4 elements are allowed to retrieve and execute content from other domains, a page can bypass the same-origin policy and receive JSON data from a different domain by loading a resource that returns a JSONP payload. JSONP payloads consist of an internal JSON payload wrapped by a pre-defined function call. When the script resource is loaded by the browser, the designated callback function will be invoked to process the wrapped JSON payload.


title: Same-origin policy

text: Modern browsers will permit a script to connect to a WebSocket address without applying the same-origin policy. However, they recognize when a WebSocket URI is used, and insert an Origin: header into the request that indicates the origin of the script requesting the connection. To ensure cross-site security, the WebSocket server must compare the header data against a whitelist of origins permitted to receive a reply.


title: Same-origin policy

text: The behavior of same-origin checks and related mechanisms is not well-defined in a number of corner cases such as for pseudo-protocols that do not have a clearly defined host name or port associated with their URLs (file:, data:, etc.). This historically caused a fair number of security problems, such as the generally undesirable ability of any locally stored HTML file to access all other files on the disk, or communicate with any site on the Internet.


title: Same-origin policy

text: Lastly, certain types of attacks, such as DNS rebinding or server-side proxies, permit the host name check to be partly subverted, and make it possible for rogue web pages to directly interact with sites through addresses other than their "true", canonical origin. The impact of such attacks is limited to very specific scenarios, since the browser still believes that it is interacting with the attacker's site, and therefore does not disclose third-party cookies or other sensitive information to the attacker.


title: Same-origin policy

text: Even when same-origin policy is in effect (without being relaxed by Cross-Origin Resource Sharing), certain cross-origin computer attacks can be performed. WebRTC can be used to find out the internal IP address of a victim. If attempting to connect to a cross-origin port, responses cannot be read in face of same-origin policy, but a JavaScript can still make inferences on whether the port is open or closed by checking if the onload/onerror event fires, or if we get a timeout. This gives opportunities for cross-origin portscanning. Further, a JavaScript can even fingerprint services cross-origin by taking advantage of default files. For example, if a JavaScript loaded from the site "evil.com" attempts to open the file http://127.0.0.1/images/jenkins.png, and the onload event fires, then it can be inferred that the victim runs Jenkins on their own computer. This way, the attacker can find potentially vulnerable services for example on the internal network, even in face of same-origin policy. Should any service be vulnerable to Cross-site Request Forgery, they can even be compromised.


title: Rump Parliament

text: The Rump Parliament was the English Parliament after Colonel Thomas Pride commanded soldiers to purge the Long Parliament, on 6 December 1648, of those members hostile to the Grandees' intention to try King Charles I for high treason.


title: Rump Parliament

text: "Rump" normally means the hind end or back-side of a mammal; its use meaning "remnant" was first recorded in the above context in English in 1649.


title: Rump Parliament

text: In September 1648, at the end of the Second English Civil War, the Long Parliament was concerned with the increasing radicalism in the New Model Army. The Long Parliament began negotiations with King Charles I. The members wanted to restore the king to power, but wanted to limit the authority he had. Charles I conceded militia power, among other things, but he later admitted that it was only so he could escape. In November the negotiations began to fail, and the New Model Army seized power. Charles I was then taken into the Army's custody to await trial for treason.


title: Rump Parliament

text: The New Model Army wanted to prevent Parliament from agreeing on the Treaty of Newport to reinstate King Charles I. While Presbyterian and moderate elements within Parliament were inclined to continue negotiations, the Army was impatient with Charles. Thomas Fairfax, by issuing a command to Commissary General Ireton, organized a military coup in 1648. Ireton intended to dissolve the Long Parliament but was persuaded to purge it instead. He then ordered Colonel Thomas Pride to prevent the signing of the Treaty of Newport.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Between 6 and 12 December, Pride—supported by two regiments—prevented 231 known supporters of the treaty from entering the House, imprisoning 45 for a few days. The remaining free members then became the Rump Parliament.


title: Rump Parliament

text: When it became apparent to the leaders of the New Model Army that Parliament—then controlled by the Presbyterian faction—was ready to come to an agreement with the King that would restore him to the throne (though without effective power) and negate the power of the Army, they resolved to shatter the power of both King and Parliament. Pride's Purge brought Parliament to heel under the direct control of the Army; the remaining Commons (the Rump) then on 13 December 1648, broke off negotiations with the King. Two days later, the Council of Officers of the New Model Army voted that the King be moved from the Isle of Wight, where he was prisoner, to Windsor, "in order to the bringing of him speedily to justice". The King was brought from Windsor to London in the middle of December.


title: Rump Parliament

text: On 4 January 1649, the House of Commons passed an ordinance to set up a High Court of Justice, to try Charles I for high treason in the name of the people of England. The House of Lords rejected it, and as it did not receive Royal Assent, Charles asked at the start of his trial on 20 January in Westminster Hall, "I would know by what power I am called hither. I would know by what authority, I mean lawful authority", knowing that there was no legal answer under the constitutional arrangements of the time. He was convicted with fifty-nine commissioners (judges) signing the death warrant.


title: Rump Parliament

text: The execution of Charles I was stayed until 30 January, so that the House of Commons could pass an emergency act, the "Act prohibiting the proclaiming any person to be King of England or Ireland, or the Dominions thereof", that made it an offence to proclaim a new King, and to declare the representatives of the people, the House of Commons, as the source of all just power. The Commons voted to abolish the House of Lords on 6 February and to abolish the monarchy on 7 February; an act abolishing the kingship was formally passed by the Rump on 17 March, followed by an act to abolish the House of Lords on 19 March. The establishment of a Council of State was approved on 14 February, and on 19 May an was passed. The Treasons Act made it an offence to say that the House of Commons (without the Lords or the King) was not the supreme authority of the land.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Although an exact number is unknown, it is estimated that there were about 210 members of the Rump Parliament, or less than half the membership of the Long Parliament (470 members) before Pride's Purge. Though nine new members were admitted to the Rump Parliament, the vast majority were transferred from the Long Parliament.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Most of the membership continued to regard purged colleagues as members of parliament and remained hopeful that the excluded members would be readmitted. "The Rump did not think of itself as a corporate political entity distinct in membership, aims and character from the Long Parliament". There were a variety of reasons why people wanted to be a part of the Rump Parliament. Some members stayed in the Rump Parliament because they supported the revolutionary changes afoot, while others were there for financial advantage, civilian power, or to satisfy their relish for political activity.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Because of the varied energies within the Rump, the parliament divided into two categories, front benchers and back benchers, meaning respectively those who attended parliament regularly and those who did not. Only about one-third of the Rump Parliament became front benchers while the other two-thirds were back benchers. Within the active third of the rump, there were many family allegiances, local allegiances and most importantly, common interest groups. The majority of active rumpers could fit into one of the two common interest categories:


title: Rump Parliament

text: Although lawyers and merchants were a minority compared to the large number of rural land lords that occupied the Rump Parliament, their interest groups' energy and cohesiveness was able to largely influence Rump politics.


title: Rump Parliament

text: During the time of the Commonwealth of England (1649–1653), the Rump passed a number of acts in the areas of religion, law, and finance, as well as in commercial and colonial policy. Most of the members of the Rump wanted to promote "godliness", but also to restrict the more extreme puritan sects like the Quakers and the Ranters. An Adultery Act of May 1650 imposed the death penalty for incest and adultery and three months imprisonment for fornication; the Blasphemy Act of August 1650 was aimed at curbing extreme religious "enthusiasm". To stop extreme evangelicals from preaching, they formed a "Committee for the Propagation of the Gospel", which issued licenses to preach. To allow Puritans freedom of worship, they repealed the Elizabethan requirement of compulsory attendance at an Anglican Church. As lawyers were overrepresented in the Rump Parliament, the Rump did not respond to the popular requests made by the Levellers to change the expensive legal system.


title: Rump Parliament

text: The Rump raised revenue through the sale of Crown lands and Church property, both of which were popular. However, revenue raised through excise levies and through an Assessment Tax on land were unpopular as they affected everyone who owned property. The proceeds from confiscated Royalist estates were a valuable source of income, but it was a double-edged sword. It ingratiated Parliament to people like John Downes who were making a fortune from the business but it did nothing to heal the wounds of the Civil War.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Three acts of the parliament in 1650 and 1651 are notable in the historical development of England's commercial and colonial programs. These include the first Commission of Trade to be established by an Act of Parliament on 1 August 1650. The instructions to the named commissioners included consideration of both domestic and foreign trade, the trading companies, manufactures, free ports, customs, excise, statistics, coinage and exchange, and fisheries, but also the plantations and the best means of promoting their welfare and rendering them useful to England. This act's statesmanlike and comprehensive instructions, along with an October act prohibiting trade with pro-royalist colonies and the first Navigation Act of October 1651, formed the first definitive expression of England's commercial policy. They represent the first attempt to establish a legitimate control of commercial and colonial affairs, and the instructions indicate the beginnings of a policy which had the prosperity and wealth of England exclusively at heart.


title: Rump Parliament

text: In 1653, after learning that Parliament was attempting to stay in session despite an agreement to dissolve, and having failed to come up with a working constitution, Cromwell's patience ran out. On 20 April he attended a sitting of Parliament and listened to one or two speeches. Then he stood up and harangued the members of the Rump. This speech does not survive, but has often been paraphrased, for instance in the "Book of Days": "You have sat too long for any good you have been doing lately ... Depart, I say; and let us have done with you. In the name of God, go!" He then declared "you are no Parliament" and called in a troop of soldiers, under the command of Major-General Thomas Harrison, ordering them to clear the chamber. According to Charles Dickens in "A Child's History of England" and Hilaire Belloc, he then turned to the Speaker's Mace, the symbol of parliamentary power, declared it a "fool's bauble", and ordered the troops "here, carry it away". Cromwell's motives are uncertain, but may lie in his disapproval of Sir Henry Vane's scheme for a redistribution of constituencies that retained sitting members of Parliament and continued to fill vacancies with recruiter elections.


title: Rump Parliament

text: A more detailed record of the event is recounted by Thomas Salmon in his "Chronological Historian" (London, 1723, 106):


title: Rump Parliament

text: Salmon does not cite his own sources but the version is sufficiently detailed to suggest that he had access to descriptions of the event that were certainly current in his time, and were probably derived from eye-witness descriptions. It is therefore probably at least accurate in general tone, if not precise detail.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Within a month of the Rump's dismissal, Oliver Cromwell on the advice of Harrison and with the support of other officers in the Army, sent a request to Congregational churches in every county to nominate those they considered fit to take part in the new government. On 4 July, a Nominated Assembly, nicknamed the "Assembly of Saints" or Barebone's Parliament (named after one of its members), took on the role of more traditional English parliaments.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Richard Cromwell, the third (and eldest surviving) son of Oliver Cromwell, was appointed Lord Protector after his father's death. He called the Third Protectorate Parliament in 1659. Along with the Army, it was unable to form a stable government. After seven months, the Army removed Cromwell; on 6 May 1659, it reinstalled the Rump Parliament. The Rump Parliament issued a declaration establishing a "Commonwealth without a king, single person, or house of lords".


title: Rump Parliament

text: After a few months, divisions in the Commonwealth were settled by force of arms. On 12 October the Rump voted to declare the seven commissioners' responsibility for the Army void and appointed Charles Fleetwood commander-in-chief under the Speaker of the House. The next day on 13 October 1659 the Army in London under the command of John Lambert assisted by Charles Fleetwood excluded the Rump from Parliament by locking the doors to the Palace of Westminster and stationing armed guards outside. Lambert and Fleetwood created a 23 member Committee of Safety to govern the country in place of the Rump with General Fleetwood and Lambert directly under him, commander of the Army in England and Scotland.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Sir Arthur Haselrig appealed to other Army generals to support the Rump against Fleetwood and Lambert. Fearing anarchy because of the conflict within Parliament and the general anger at the decisions the Rump had made, General George Monck, commander-in-chief of the English army in Scotland, declared that he was ready to uphold Parliament's authority and march at the head of his army to London, holding true to a statement in his book, "Observations Upon Military and Political Affairs" in which he said he valued the stability of his nation and the power of Parliament over his own life.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Monck was also in a particularly powerful position because of his former relationship with and endorsement from Oliver Cromwell. Many imbued him with the power to affect who the next king would be. Lambert marched north against Monck in November 1659. Lambert's army began to melt away, and he was kept in suspense by Monck till his whole army deserted and he returned to London almost alone. On 24 December 1659, the chastened Fleetwood approached the Speaker, William Lenthal, asking him to recall the Rump. The same day Lenthal took possession of the Tower and appointed commissioners for its government. The Rump met again on 26 December 1659. Parliament declared Monck commander-in-chief in England as well as Scotland.


title: Rump Parliament

text: Monck marched into England in January 1660, as Lambert's supporters in the Army were cashiered and his authority crumbled. When Sir Thomas Fairfax emerged from retirement to declare his support for Monck, Army support for Monck became almost unanimous. Monck entered London in February 1660 and he allowed the Presbyterian members, 'secluded' in Pride's Purge of 1648, to re-enter parliament on 21 February 1660 on the condition that the restored Long Parliament would agree to dissolve themselves once general elections had been held. The "Long Parliament" dissolved itself on 16 March 1660, after preparing legislation for the Convention Parliament that formally invited King Charles II to be the English monarch in what has become known as the Restoration (of the House of Stuart).


title: Jamie Foreman

text: Jamie Foreman (born 25 May 1958) is an English actor best known for his roles as Duke in "Layer Cake" (2004) and Bill Sikes in Roman Polanski's "Oliver Twist" (2005).


title: Jamie Foreman

text: Foreman played opposite Ray Winstone and Kathy Burke in Gary Oldman's "Nil by Mouth" (1997) and also featured in "Elizabeth" (1998), "Gangster No. 1" (2000) and "Sleepy Hollow" (1999). He appeared in the 2006 "Doctor Who" episode "The Idiot's Lantern" and featured as a racist taxi driver in "The Football Factory" (2004). In the 2008 film "Inkheart" Foreman played Basta. He also appeared in one episode of "" in 2009.


title: Jamie Foreman

text: His recent work for BBC Radio includes the title role in "Wes Bell", directed by Matthew Broughton, and the six-part series "Hazelbeach" by David Stafford and Caroline Stafford. He also played a small role in "I'll Sleep When I'm Dead".


title: Jamie Foreman

text: In 2011, Foreman joined the cast of "EastEnders" as Derek Branning, taking over the role from Terence Beesley. It was later confirmed in 2012 that Foreman was leaving and that the character of Derek would be killed off.


title: Jamie Foreman

text: He has appeared as Lenny in numerous episodes of "Birds of a Feather". In 2015, he narrated the six-part series "Double Decker Driving School" for ITV.


title: Jamie Foreman

text: Foreman played Albert Wilson in "Home Front" radio series on BBC Radio 4, starting from in December 2015.


title: Jamie Foreman

text: Jamie Foreman is the son of Maureen Foreman and Freddie Foreman, a former south London gangster. He was married to actress Carol Harrison and they have one son, Alfie.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau (; 25 September 1968 – 12 August 2013) was the younger brother of King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands. Prince Friso was a member of the Dutch Royal Family, but because of his marriage without an Act of Consent in 2004, he lost his membership of the Dutch Royal House and was no longer in the line of succession to the throne.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: On 17 February 2012, Prince Friso was buried under an avalanche in Lech, Austria, while skiing off piste. He was taken to a hospital in Innsbruck, where he was in a critical but stable condition. According to his doctor, Wolfgang Koller, even though he was trapped for a relatively short time and hopes had originally been higher, subsequent neurological tests showed that after fifty minutes of cardiopulmonary resuscitation in moderate hypothermia, he suffered massive brain damage due to oxygen shortage. His initial coma later progressed to a minimally conscious state, and it was unclear whether he would ever regain full consciousness. On 12 August 2013, one and a half years after the accident, Prince Friso died of complications.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: Johan Friso Bernhard Christiaan David was born on 25 September 1968 at the (now the University Medical Center Utrecht) in Utrecht, Netherlands. He was the second son of Princess Beatrix and Prince Claus, and grandson of Queen Juliana of the Netherlands and Prince Bernhard. He had one older brother, current King Willem-Alexander of the Netherlands (b. 1967), and one younger brother, Prince Constantijn (b. 1969).


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: His titles at birth were Prince of the Netherlands, Prince of Orange-Nassau, and Jonkheer van Amsberg. Prince Friso was baptized on 28 December 1968 in the Dom Church in Utrecht. His godparents were Prince Harald of Norway, Johan Christian Baron von Jenisch, Herman van Roijen, Queen Juliana of the Netherlands and Christina von Amsberg.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: In 1986, he graduated from the secondary school "Eerste Vrijzinnig Christelijk Lyceum" in The Hague. From 1986 until 1988, he studied mechanical engineering at the University of California, Berkeley. From 1988 he studied at Delft University of Technology, where he obtained an engineer's degree in aeronautical engineering in 1994. From 1990 he also went to the Erasmus University Rotterdam, where he obtained an MSc degree in business economics in 1995. Subsequently he attended INSEAD (Fontainebleau, France), where he received an MBA degree in 1997.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: Prince Friso worked from 1995 to 1996 at the Amsterdam branch of the international management consultancy McKinsey. After completing an MBA-programme at INSEAD, Prince Friso worked from 1998 to 2003 as a vice president at Goldman Sachs International in London. In 2004, he became part-time co-president of TNO Space in Delft. From October 2006, Prince Friso was Managing Director in the London office of a private investment and advisory firm, Wolfensohn & Company.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: Prince Friso was a co-founder of the MRI Centre in Amsterdam and was also a founding shareholder of Wizzair, the largest low-cost airline in Eastern Europe. He was honorary chairman of the Prince Claus Fund for Culture and Development (a position he held together with his younger brother, Prince Constantijn).


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: Prior to his accident, Prince Friso was working as a chief financial officer for URENCO, a uranium enrichment company.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: On 30 June 2003, it was announced that Prince Friso was to marry Mabel Wisse Smit. The Dutch cabinet, however, did not seek permission from parliament for this marriage, a constitutional requirement if Prince Friso was to remain a member of the Dutch Royal House and in line of succession for the throne; at the time, he was second in line after his older brother, Willem-Alexander.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: The Prime Minister Jan Peter Balkenende explained that this was due to discussions with Mabel Wisse Smit in October 2003, when she had admitted that her previous statements about an alleged relationship with Klaas Bruinsma (1953–1991), a known Dutch drug baron, had not been complete and accurate. She had previously stated that she had contact for a few months with Bruinsma, but in a casual context, neither intimate nor relating to business, and that she had broken the contact on learning of Bruinsma's occupation.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: This "breach of trust" was the reason the government did not seek parliamentary permission, respecting the wishes of the couple. They nevertheless married at Oude Kerk (Delft) on 24 April 2004, and Mabel Wisse Smit became a member of the Dutch Royal Family but not a member of the Dutch Royal House.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: Considering that his elder brother King Willem-Alexander has three children, Prince Friso's exclusion from the succession was unlikely to have an effect on the monarchy in the Netherlands.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: After their marriage, Prince Friso and his wife Princess Mabel set up home in London, in the suburb of Kew.


title: Prince Friso of Orange-Nassau

text: The couple's first child, Countess Emma Luana Ninette Sophie of Orange-Nassau, "Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg", was born on 26 March 2005 in London. Their younger daughter, Countess Joanna Zaria Nicoline Milou of Orange-Nassau, "Jonkvrouwe van Amsberg", was born on 18 June 2006, also in London.