title: Biharis

text: Bihar is home to two UNESCO World Heritage Sites, the Mahabodhi temple at Bodh Gaya where the Buddha attained nirvana and the Buddhist monastic university of Nalanda. Until at least the 13th century, there was still a significant number of Buddhists in Bihar who mainly followed the Mahayana and Vajrayana schools until they were assimilated into Hinduism. However many village temples still retain idols of the Buddha and Bodhisattvas.


title: Biharis

text: The founder of Sur Empire, Sher Shah Suri was born in Sasaram, a city in the state of Bihar in present-day India into a Pashtun family. During the period of Islamic rule, much of Bihar was under the sway of local Zamindars or chieftains who maintained their own armies and territories. These chieftains retained much of their power until the arrival of the British East India Company.


title: Biharis

text: Many academics including Dirk Kolff and Walter Hauser have noted that Bihar has a history of armed activism among its peasantry. For centuries, Purbiya soldiers from Western Bihar have long served as soldiers in the armies of Kings in Western regions of India. Mughal sources also record that many peasant soldiers were recruited from Northern parts of Bihar (Tirhut).


title: Biharis

text: In late nineteenth and early twentieth century, the middle peasant castes like Koeri, Kurmi and Yadav, also got recruitment in the British Indian Army as soldiers. According to William Pinch, specially after 1898, the social resurgence and claim for higher status in the social hierarchy, attracted the peasant communities towards the military service.


title: Biharis

text: The Bihari Soldiers of British army played a major role in the Indian Rebellion of 1857 against the British following the suppression of the uprising, British authorities decided not to recruit troops from Bihar. Then they decided to recruit troops from Sikh and Muslim Communities of the Punjab.


title: Biharis

text: This martial heritage continued into the late 20th century with the formation of private armies or "senas" that were formed to maintain the interests of specific castes.


title: Biharis

text: The traditional dress of Bihari people includes the dhoti-mirjai (a modified form of the flowing jama) or the kurta (replacing the older chapkan which is a robe fastened on the right or on the left) for men and Saree for women. In everyday life women wear saree or Salwar kameez. The saree is worn in "Seedha Aanchal" style traditionally. Nevertheless, Western shirts and trousers are becoming popular among both the rural and urban male population. And Salwar-Kameez for women in urban Bihar. Jewellery such as rings for men and bangles for women are popular. However, there are some traditional Bihari jewelries like "Chhara", "Hansuli", "Kamarbandh", etc.


title: Biharis

text: Hindi is the official language of the State. Maithili (61 million speakers including Bajjika dialect which has 11 million speakers in India), and Urdu are other recognised languages of the state. Unrecognised languages of the state are Bhojpuri (60 million), Angika (30 million) and Magahi (20 million). Bhojpuri and Magahi are sociolinguistically a part of the Hindi Belt languages fold, thus they were not granted official status in the state.The number of speakers of the Bihari languages is difficult to count because of unreliable sources. In the urban region, most educated speakers of the language name Hindi as their language because this is what they use in formal contexts and believe it to be the appropriate response because of unawareness. The uneducated and the rural population of the region regards Hindi as the generic name for their language.


title: Biharis

text: Despite the large number of speakers of Bihari languages, they have not been constitutionally recognized in India, except Maithili which is recognised under the Eighth Schedule of the Constitution of India. Hindi is the language used for educational and official matters in Bihar. These languages was legally absorbed under the subordinate label of Hindi in the 1961 Census. Such state and national politics are creating conditions for language endangerment.


title: Biharis

text: The first success for spreading Hindi occurred in Bihar in 1881, when Hindi displaced Urdu as the sole official language of the province. In this struggle between competing Hindi and Urdu, the potential claims of the three large mother tongues in the region – Bhojpuri, Maithili and Magahi were ignored. After independence Hindi was again given the sole official status through the Bihar Official Language Act, 1950. Urdu became the second official language in the undivided State of Bihar on 16 August 1989. Bihar also produced several eminent Urdu writers including Sulaiman Nadvi, Manazir Ahsan Gilani, Abdul Qavi Desnavi, Paigham Afaqui, Jabir Husain, Sohail Azimabadi, Hussain Ul Haque, Dr. Shamim Hashimi, Wahab Ashrafi etc.


title: Biharis

text: Bihar has produced a number of writers of Hindi, including Raja Radhika Raman Singh, Shiva Pujan Sahay, Divakar Prasad Vidyarthy, Ramdhari Singh 'Dinkar', Ram Briksh Benipuri, Phanishwar Nath 'Renu', Gopal Singh "Nepali" and Baba Nagarjun. Mahapandit Rahul Sankrityayan, the great writer and Buddhist scholar, was born in U.P. but spent his life in the land of Buddha, i.e., Bihar. Hrishikesh Sulabh and Neeraj Singh (from Ara) are the prominent writer of the new generation. They are short story writer, playwright and theatre critic. Arun Kamal and Aalok Dhanwa are the well-known poets. Different regional languages also have produced some prominent poets and authors. Sharat Chandra Chattopadhyay, who is among the greatest writers in Bengali, resided for some time in Bihar. Upamanyu Chatterjee also hails from Patna in Bihar. Devaki Nandan Khatri, who rose to fame at the beginning of the 20th century on account of his novels such as "Chandrakanta" and "Chandrakanta Santati", was born in Muzaffarpur, Bihar. Vidyapati Thakur is the most renowned poet of Maithili (c. 14–15th century). Satyapal Chandra has written many English bestseller novels and he is one of India's emerging young writer.


title: Biharis

text: The 2011 Census of India indicated that Scheduled Castes constituted 15% of Bihar's 10.4 crores population. The census identified 21 of 23 Dalit sub-castes as "Mahadalits". The "Mahadalit" community consists of the following sub-castes: Bantar, Bauri, Bhogta, Bhuiya, Chaupal, Dabgar, Dom (Dhangad), Ghasi, Halalkhor, Hari (Mehtar, Bhangi), Kanjar, Kurariar, Lalbegi, Musahar, Nat, Pan (Swasi), Rajwar, Turi, Dhobi, Chamar and Dusadh. The Paswan caste was initially left out of the Mahadalit category, to the consternation of Ram Vilas Paswan. Scheduled Tribes constituted around 1.3% of the Bihari population. They include the Gond, Santhal and Tharu communities. There are about 130 Extremely Backward Castes (EBCs) in Bihar.


title: Biharis

text: According to the 2011 census, 82.7% of Bihar's population practiced Hinduism, while 16.9% followed Islam.


title: Biharis

text: The politics of Bihar is influenced by caste and religion based consciousness to a large extent. The upper castes dominated the politics and political parties till 1967. But after 1967, the resurgence of middle castes took place and the castes like Koeri, Yadav and Kurmi replaced the upper castes in political scenario. Some Dalit caste like Paswan and Chamar also performed well in politics, Bhola Paswan Shastri and Ram Sundar Das were former Chief Ministers from respective caste and Jagjivan Ram became Deputy Prime Minister and first Labour Minister of India. Since 1990, the Politics of Bihar is dominated by regional political parties like Janata Dal (United) and Rashtriya Janata Dal, while a number of small parties like Rashtriya Jan Jan Party, Plural party, Rashtriya Lok Samta Party and Jan Adhikar Party are also active.


title: Biharis

text: In 1923, a special session of the Congress took place in Delhi. During this session, an issue of sitting arrangement came up whereby the delegates from Bihar were not given seats in the front row. Maghfoor Ahmad Ajazi registered his objection to this discriminatory arrangement after which Bihari delegates were also given appropriate seats. His protest was admittedly on the issue of self-respect of the Biharis.


title: Biharis

text: According to social scientist Dr. Shaibal Gupta, the beating of students from Bihar in Mumbai in October 2008 has consolidated Bihari sub-nationalism.


title: Kinder Joy

text: Kinder Joy (formerly known as Kinder Merendero in Italy and Bahrain) is a candy made by Italian confectionery company Ferrero as part of its Kinder brand of products. It has plastic egg-shaped packaging that splits into two; one half contains layers of cocoa and milk cream, and the other half contains a toy and a spoon on top of the wrapper. Kinder Joy was first launched in Italy in 2001 and was sold in 170 countries.


title: Kinder Joy

text: Kinder Joy is a brand within the Kinder line of chocolate products sold by Ferrero. It has a plastic egg-shaped package with a tab to open it into two halves. One sealed half contains layers of cocoa and milk-flavoured creams topped with two cocoa wafer spheres, to be eaten with an included spoon. The other half contains a toy. , Kinder Joy is produced in Poland, India, South Africa, Ecuador, Cameroon, and China.


title: Kinder Joy

text: Ferrero launched Kinder Joy in Italy in 2001. It has been sold in Spain since 2004, in Germany since May 2006 and in China and India since 2007. It was launched in Australia and the United States in 2018.


title: Kinder Joy

text: In 2011, Ferrero opened a factory in Baramati, India, to make the eggs, in addition to other products including Tic Tacs. In 2015, the company opened its first factory in China in the Xiaoshan District of Hangzhou, which produced Kinder Joy as its first manufacturing line. Kinder Joy was one of the highest selling candy products in the Chinese market and had received Nielsen China’s Breakthrough Innovation Award.


title: Kinder Joy

text: Kinder Joy became available in Ireland in 2015. In November 2015, Ferrero announced that it would sell the eggs in the United Kingdom, starting in December 2015.


title: Kinder Joy

text: In May 2017, it was announced that Kinder Joy would be launched in the United States in 2018, as a similar product by Kinder, Kinder Surprise, is banned in the U.S. by a federal law. Specifically, the Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act bans all food products that contain non-nutritive objects embedded within them.


title: Regimental Sgt. Zippo

text: Regimental Sgt. Zippo is the thirty-first studio album by English musician Elton John. Originally recorded in 1967 and 1968, it remained unreleased until Record Store Day of June 2021, when the mono version was issued on vinyl. In early July 2022, the album saw a broader release in stereo vinyl and stereo/mono CD.


title: Regimental Sgt. Zippo

text: "Regimental Sgt. Zippo" was recorded between November 1967 and May 1968. For the sessions, John worked with musicians who were either his or his manager Steve Brown's associates, including guitarist Caleb Quaye and drummer Roger Pope (both members of the band Hookfoot at the time), and bassist Tony Murray (from the Troggs). The project was eventually shelved in favour of what would become John's debut album, "Empty Sky" (1969).


title: Regimental Sgt. Zippo

text: According to John's collaborator Bernie Taupin, the album's trippy sound was "a tip of the hat to "Sgt. Pepper". It certainly proved that we were hanging on the coattails of things that were currently popular – things like 'A Whiter Shade of Pale' were in vogue at that particular point in time. I think, in a way, I was literally trying to be part of a gang."


title: Regimental Sgt. Zippo

text: Plastic Penny—which featured drummer Nigel Olsson, who would become a full-fledged member of John's band in the 1970s—covered "Turn to Me" in 1969.


title: Regimental Sgt. Zippo

text: "Regimental Sgt. Zippo" was eventually released, 53 years after its inception, on 12 June 2021 for Record Store Day, as a mono vinyl-only release limited to 7,000 copies. It was released on compact disc on 8 July 2022, featuring both mono and stereo mixes of the complete album, along with a stereo vinyl version.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: Ramon Laguarta (born 1963) is a Spanish businessman who is the chairman and chief executive officer of PepsiCo. He became CEO on 3 October 2018 after Indra Nooyi stepped down. He is the sixth CEO in the company's history and the first Spanish CEO of a large American multinational company.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: Laguarta graduated with bachelor's and master's degrees in business administration from ESADE Business School in Barcelona in 1985. In 1986 he received a master's degree in international management from the Thunderbird School of Global Management.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: Before joining PepsiCo he worked at Chupa Chups, a candy company based in Spain known for its lollipops. Laguarta joined PepsiCo in January 1996. His first role was in the company's European business, and in 2014 became the CEO of the entire Europe and Sub-Saharan Africa (ESSA) sector. While working in Europe, Laguarta helped lead the acquisition in 2010 of Russian dairy and juice company Wimm-Bill-Dann, a deal valued at $5.4 billion, the company's second largest acquisition after its purchase of Quaker Oats in 2001.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: Laguarta was named president of PepsiCo in September 2017. He oversaw PepsiCo's Global Category Groups, its Global Operations, Corporate Strategy and Public Policy & Government Affairs functions. As a result of the promotion, he moved to the United States.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: Laguarta was unanimously voted in as PepsiCo's next CEO on 6 August 2018, the same day Indra Nooyi announced she was stepping down. He officially took over the role on 3 October 2018 and became Chairman of the Board of Directors on 1 February 2019. Laguarta has been working at PepsiCo for over 20 years, his previous roles including CEO for Europe Sub-Saharan Africa, president for the PepsiCo Eastern Europe Region, commercial Vice President for PepsiCo Europe, general manager for Iberia Snacks and Juices and General Manager for Greece Snacks. Since becoming CEO of PepsiCo, Laguarta established three priorities to lead the company: Accelerating the company's rate of organic revenue growth; becoming a stronger company; and becoming a better company.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: As part of making PepsiCo a better company, Laguarta has been tasked with implementing a new purpose behind PepsiCo's sustainability agenda: helping to build a more sustainable food system. Under his leadership, the company is focusing its efforts and goals around agriculture, water usage, plastics, products, climate change and human rights.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: This includes the company's effort to reduce absolute greenhouse gas emissions by at least 20 percent for their entire value chain over a 2015 baseline (roughly 30-35 million metric tons of GHG), as well as their goals by 2025 to make 100% of their packaging recyclable, compostable, or biodegradable and use 25% recycled plastic content in all plastic packaging. Laguarta has also led attempts to reduce waste by acquiring SodaStream. Through the expansion of SodaStream's business, the need for an estimated 67 billion plastic bottles will be avoided through 2025.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: In addition to being a member of the PepsiCo Board of Directors, Ramon also currently serves as a director of Visa Inc. He also currently serves as the Co-Chair of the World Economic Forum's Board of Stewards for the Food Systems Initiative.


title: Ramon Laguarta

text: Laguarta speaks English, Catalan, Spanish, French, German and Greek. He is married with three children.


title: Mise en abyme

text: In Western art history, mise en abyme (; also mise en abîme) is a formal technique of placing a copy of an image within itself, often in a way that suggests an infinitely recurring sequence. In film theory and literary theory, it refers to the technique of inserting a story within a story. The term is derived from heraldry and literally means "placed into abyss". It was first appropriated for modern criticism by the French author André Gide.


title: Mise en abyme

text: A common sense of the phrase is the visual experience of standing between two mirrors, seeing as a result an infinite reproduction of one's image. Another is the Droste effect, in which a picture appears within itself, in a place where a similar picture would realistically be expected to appear. That is named after the 1904 Droste cocoa package, which depicts a woman holding a tray bearing a Droste cocoa package, which bears a smaller version of her image.


title: Mise en abyme

text: In the terminology of heraldry, the "abyme" or "abisme" is the center of a coat of arms. The term "mise en abyme" (also called inescutcheon) then meant “put/placed in the center”. It described a coat of arms that appears as a smaller shield in the center of a larger one (see Droste effect).


title: Mise en abyme

text: A complex example of "mise en abyme" is seen in the coat of arms of the United Kingdom for the period 1816–1837, as used by King George III. The crown of Charlemagne is placed "en abyme" within the escutcheon of Hanover, which in turn is "en abyme" within the arms of England, Scotland, and Ireland.


title: Mise en abyme

text: While art historians working on the early-modern period adopted this phrase and interpreted it as showing artistic "self awareness", medievalists tended not to use it. Many examples, however, can be found in the pre-modern era, as in a mosaic from the Hagia Sophia dated to the year 944. To the left, Justinian I offers the Virgin Mary the Hagia Sophia, which contains the mosaic itself. To the right, Constantine I offers the city of Constantinople (now known as Istanbul), which itself contains the Hagia Sophia.


title: Mise en abyme

text: More medieval examples can be found in the collection of articles "Medieval mise-en-abyme: the object depicted within itself", in which Jersey Ellis conjectures that the self-references sometimes are used to strengthen the symbolism of gift-giving by documenting the act of giving on the object itself. An example of this self-referential gift-giving appears in the Stefaneschi Triptych in the Vatican Museum, which features Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi as the giver of the altarpiece.


title: Mise en abyme

text: In Western art history, "mise en abyme" is a formal technique in which an image contains a smaller copy of itself, in a sequence appearing to recur infinitely; "recursion" is another term for this. The modern meaning of the phrase originates with the author André Gide who used it to describe self-reflexive embeddings in various art forms and to describe what he sought in his own work. As examples, Gide cites both paintings such as "Las Meninas" by Diego Velázquez and literary forms such as William Shakespeare's use of the "play within a play" device in "Hamlet", where a theatrical company presents a performance for the characters that illuminates a thematic aspect of the play itself. This use of the phrase "mise en abyme" was picked up by scholars and popularized in the 1977 book "Le récit spéculaire. Essai sur la mise en abyme" by Lucien Dällenbach.


title: Mise en abyme

text: "Mise en abyme" occurs in a text when there is a reduplication of images or concepts referring to the textual whole. "Mise en abyme" is a play of signifiers within a text, of sub-texts mirroring each other. This mirroring can attain a level where meaning may become unstable and, in this respect, may be seen as part of the process of deconstruction. The film-within-a-film, where a film contains a plot about the making of a movie, is an example of "mise en abyme". The film being made within the film refers, through its "mise en scène", to the real film being made. The spectator sees film equipment, stars getting ready for the take, crew sorting out the various directorial needs. The narrative of the film within the film may directly reflect the one in the real film. An example is "La Nuit américaine" (1973) by François Truffaut.


title: Mise en abyme

text: In film, the meaning of "mise en abyme" is similar to the artistic definition, but also includes the idea of a "dream within a dream". For example, a character awakens from a dream and later discovers that they are still dreaming. Activities similar to dreaming, such as unconsciousness and virtual reality, also are described as "mise en abyme". This is seen in the film "eXistenZ" where the two protagonists never truly know whether or not they are out of the game. It also becomes a prominent element of Charlie Kaufman's "Synecdoche, New York" (2008). More recent instances can be found in the films Inland Empire (2007) and "Inception" (2010). Classic filmic examples include the snow globe in "Citizen Kane" (1941) which provides a clue to the film's core mystery, and the discussion of Edgar Allan Poe's written works (particularly "The Purloined Letter") in the Jean-Luc Godard film "Band of Outsiders" (1964).


title: Mise en abyme

text: In literary criticism, "mise en abyme" is a type of frame story, in which the core narrative may be used to illuminate some aspect of the framing story. The term is used in deconstruction and deconstructive literary criticism as a paradigm of the intertextual nature of language, that is, of the way language never quite reaches the foundation of reality because it refers in a frame-within-a-frame way, to other language, which refers to other language, and so forth.


title: Mise en abyme

text: In comedy, "Mise en abyme" can be seen with The Harold, an improvisation cycle with reoccurring themes, popularized by Del Close in his book "Truth in Comedy."


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The Saab 29 "Tunnan, colloquially Flygande tunnan or just Tunnan" (, "The barrel"), is a Swedish fighter that was designed and manufactured by Saab in the late 1940s. It was the second turbojet-powered combat aircraft to be developed in Sweden, the first being the Saab 21R, and it was the first Western European fighter to be produced with a swept wing post World War II, only being preceded in Western Europe as a whole by the Me 262 built during the war. Despite its rotund appearance, from which its name is derived, the J 29 was fast and agile and served effectively in both fighter and fighter-bomber roles into the 1970s.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: Sweden had fallen behind the rapid technical progress being made elsewhere, and Saab needed to catch up in terms of aerodynamics and jet propulsion. Accordingly, project "JxR" was initiated in late 1945 and requirements were drawn up in October 1945. A pair of proposals were presented by the Saab design team, led by Lars Brising. The first of these, codenamed R 101, nicknamed "cigarren" (the cigar) due to its shape, bore a strong resemblance to the American Lockheed P-80 Shooting Star. The second design, which was chosen, was the barrel-shaped design, codenamed R 1001, which proved to be both faster and more agile.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The R 1001 concept had a straight wing, but after the engineers obtained German swept-wing research data, it was given a 25 degree sweep. Information on swept-wings came through Switzerland and included drawings for the Messerschmitt P.1101, P.1110, P.1111 and P.1112. SAAB's project manager, Frid Wänström, collected these documents in 1945 from Messerschmitt engineers who escaped to Switzerland at the end of the War. Among them were engineer and aerodynamicist Hermann Behrbohm, who joined Saab's J 29 team. These clearly indicated delta and swept-wing designs were "reducing drag dramatically as the aircraft approached the sound barrier."


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: To make the wing as thin as possible, the undercarriage retracted into the fuselage, rather than the wings. Wind tunnel testing at the Swedish Royal University of Technology and by the National Aeronautical Research Institute also influenced its aerodynamics. These tests determined the required fuselage form to ensure it could attain the targeted critical Mach number, as well as supporting the use of a straight-through airflow to maximize thrust. Automatically locking leading edge slots, interconnected with the flaps, were also deemed necessary for lateral stability during take-off and landing. To further verify the swept wing, a Saab Safir was modified with a full-scale wing as the Saab 201. The finalized design, incorporating the new information was drawn up in January 1946.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The original powerplant was to have been the de Havilland Goblin turbojet, however, in December 1945, the more powerful de Havilland Ghost became available. This was ideal as not only was the Ghost set up for a circular air intake, its diameter would fit within the planned fuselage. Following negotiations between de Havilland and Saab, the Ghost engine was selected to power the type.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: Despite early doubts for the supply of an equivalent to the American 75S aluminium alloy, Svenska Metallverken was able to manufacture it, although significantly larger sections were used than typical for aircraft construction. The structure employed heavy frames and stressed skin to meet conflicting requirements on space, strength, rigidity and accessibility.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The Swedish Air Force requested verification of the performance and a production plan for the project in February 1946. In Autumn 1946, the Swedish Air Force formally ordered three prototypes, with the type designation "J 29".


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: Static testing of the full-scale mock-up revealed problems with pressure cabin leaks, and aileron behavior. A hydraulic system was installed to solve the latter issue. However theses delayed the first flight until after the hoped for date of 1 August 1948.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The first flight by a "Saab 29" prototype was on 1 September 1948, was made by S/L 'Bob' Moore, who was later the first managing director of Saab GB, UK. A problem with the landing gear affected the expected top speed of the aircraft. Following the flight, Moore described the aircraft as "on the ground an ugly duckling – in the air, a swift." Because of the shape of its fuselage, the Saab J 29 quickly received the nickname "Flygande Tunnan" ("The Flying Barrel"), or "Tunnan" ("The Barrel") for short. While not appreciated by SAAB, its short form was eventually adopted officially.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: Four prototypes were built for the test program. The first two lacked armament, carrying heavy test equipment in their place instead. The third was armed with four cannons. Air brakes on the fuselage and on the wings behind the rear spar and both conventional and combined aileron/flap arrangements were tested. Flight tests revealed that the J 29 prototypes could exceed the maximum Mach number for which they had been designed and flight performance figures were typically in excess of predicted values.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: Production commenced In 1948 and in May 1951, Bråvalla Wing (F 13) received the first production aircraft.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The J 29A fighter was the first model to enter service, and was followed by the J 29B and J 29E fighters, and finally the afterburner-equipped J 29F fighter, which was the final variant built. There was also a dedicated reconnaissance variant, the S 29C. Between 1950 and 1956, 661 Tunnans were completed, the largest production run for any Saab aircraft.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The Saab 29 Tunnan was the first Swedish aircraft to be specifically designed to use jet propulsion. Sweden's first jet fighter, the Saab 21R, had been modified from the piston-engined Saab 21. It is a small, chubby aircraft with a single round air intake in the nose, with the pilot under a bubble canopy directly above the air intake duct on the upper-forward section of the fuselage. It has a very thin mid-mounted moderately swept two-spar wing which is a single structure attached to the fuselage by four bolts. The undercarriage is hydraulically operated, and was designed to be suitable for use from rough airstrips. To improve pilot survivability, the Tunnan used an ejection seat Saab developed in 1943, with an explosive jettisoning system for the canopy.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The Tunnan is powered with a single de Havilland Ghost turbojet which have a top speed in excess of , better performance than Sweden's de Havilland Vampires. The engine was bolted to the fuselage at three points and a special trolley was used to remove the engine for maintenance. The final version had an afterburner, the first successful one used with a British jet engine.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: Improvements were made to the wing to incorporate a dog-tooth leading edge, raising the critical Mach number. From 1963 onwards, all frontline J 29Fs were equipped with AIM-9 Sidewinder infrared-seeking air-to-air missiles.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The J 29 was fast and agile, and set the world speed record on a closed circuit in 1954 at 977 km/h (607.05 mph). Two S 29C (reconnaissance variant) additionally set an international speed record of 900.6 km/h (559.4 mph) over a closed-circuit course in 1955.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The crash record in early service was poor, mainly due to the inexperience with swept-winged aircraft and the lack of a two-seat, dual control Tunnan trainer variant: this meant that Swedish fighter pilots could only be trained using two seat variants of the de Havilland Vampire (a straight-winged jet), before going solo in a Tunnan. 99 pilots were killed during military practice flights in Sweden.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: In May 1967, the fighter versions of the Tunnan was retired from combat service; however, a number of aircraft were retained and reconfigured for use as countermeasures trainers and for target towing duties into the 1970s. In August 1976, the last official military flight was performed at the Swedish Air Force's 50th anniversary air show.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: On 27 January 1961, the Swedish Government authorized the Air Board to sell 15 J 29F Tunnans to Saab for restoration and resale to the Austrian Air Force. In 1962, the sale of a further 15 J 29F aircraft to Austria was authorized. This second batch was modified so a camera pod could be installed in the port side of the nose of each aircraft, which required the removal of two cannons. The interchangeable camera pod could be exchanged in roughly 30 minutes, and the cameras could be redirected in flight from the cockpit. Due to the limitations of the 1955 Austrian State Treaty, these were never armed with air-to-air missiles. The Tunnan remained in Austrian Air Force service until 1972.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: On 20 October 1964 at 9:48 a.m., two Austrian J 29Fs took off from the base in Linz (they belonged to the 2. Jagdbomber Staffel, the first Bu. No. 29559 "E" was piloted by Sergeant Johan Kemetinger, the second Bu. No. 29627 "L" was piloted by Staff Sergeant Alfred Erdler). In bad weather and a radio beacon mix-up, the pilots "smoked" and crossed the airspace of the then Czechoslovakia. Due to the bad weather, they could not even be intercepted by the emergency pair, who had to stay at the airport. The Austrian pilots thus got deep into the interior of the country and after finding that they had fuel for about the last 2 minutes of the flight, the pilots, believing that the field on which they landed was solid enough, landed in a field in the area of the village of Orech in the Prague-West district. Coincidentally, just a few kilometres from the civilian Prague-Ruzyně airport. One machine lost its landing gear on landing, the other overturned on a ditch, the pilot was trapped and had to be rescued by people working in the field. Both pilots were returned to their homeland after two days. The planes followed them later by rail.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The Tunnan was the first Swedish jet aircraft to see combat. In response to an appeal by the United Nations (UN) for military support in September 1961, an initial force of five J 29Bs organized as the F 22 Wing of the Swedish Air Force, were stationed in the Republic of Congo as Sweden's contribution to a UN peacekeeping mission (ONUC). They were subsequently reinforced by four more J 29Bs and two S 29C photo reconnaissance Tunnans in 1962. The J 29s were the only combat aircraft operated on behalf of the UN. The Tunnans received "UN" identifying markings on their fuselages.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: Most missions involved attacking ground targets with cannons and unguided rockets but no aircraft were lost in action despite heavy ground fire. The consensus of the crews and foreign observers was that the Tunnan's capabilities were exceptional. Their secessionist adversaries used a few Fouga Magisters and other aircraft with no air combat capabilities.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: Swedish pilots refused some requests for close air support to ground troops, reasoning that the risk of civilian casualties was too high. In November 1962 the Swedish air commander refused a direct order to destroy the secessionist's Fouga Magisters since they were unarmed.


title: Saab 29 Tunnan

text: The only aircraft lost was by a high-ranking officer who crashed during an aborted takeoff for a test flight. When ONUC ended in 1964, some of the Swedish aircraft were deliberately destroyed at their base, as they were no longer needed in Sweden, having been superseded by later variants, and the cost of returning them wasn't justified.


title: The War Zone

text: The War Zone is a 1999 British drama film written by Alexander Stuart, directed by Tim Roth in his directorial debut, and starring Ray Winstone, Tilda Swinton, Lara Belmont, and Freddie Cunliffe. The film is based on Stuart's 1989 novel of the same name and takes a blunt look at incest and sexual violence in an English family.


title: The War Zone

text: 15-year-old Tom is upset after his family moves from London to a rural house in Devon. He misses his friends, and family dynamics are strange. His Mum is in the late stages of pregnancy, his Dad is in the home-furniture industry. Tom and his 18-year-old sister Jessie are unusually close to each other, and everyone helps Mum during her pregnancy.


title: The War Zone

text: One night, Mum goes into labour and Dad drives the whole family to the hospital. The car crashes, but nobody is badly injured and a baby girl is born while Mum is trapped in the car. They all go to the hospital to get stitched up and they see Mum and the baby happy. Later, while coming home from shopping with Mum, Tom complains he doesn't know anybody, but she assures him he will make friends. When they arrive home, Tom enters the house through the back door and something catches his attention.


title: The War Zone

text: Tom confronts Jessie and asks about what he saw: Dad and Jessie, naked in a bathtub together. Jessie acts as if nothing happened, but he is adamant about what he witnessed. The family goes out to the pub, and Jessie introduces Tom to her boyfriend Nick, who drives Jessie and Tom down to the beach. They engage in awkward conversation before Jessie and Nick disappear, leaving Tom alone by the fire. The parents are furious with them for staying out all night without telling them, and Mum must restrain Dad from harming Jessie. Later, Tom tells Jessie that he suspects that her and Dad's behavior has been ongoing. Jessie neither confirms nor denies this, causing Tom to lash out in anger.


title: The War Zone

text: Later, Dad tells them he is going for a run. Full of suspicion and armed with a video camera, Tom follows Dad and Jessie into an old war bunker near the beach. Filming through a hole in the wall, he witnesses Dad sodomizing Jessie against her will. Tom walks off and, devastated, throws the camera into the sea.


title: The War Zone

text: Tom accuses Jessie of being sick because of her actions with their father. Jessie lets him burn her breast with a lighter to make him feel better, but this satisfies neither and he tells her it must stop. Later she takes Tom on a trip to London to see a friend, Carol, who attempts to seduce him at Jessie's behest, but stops when she walks in on them.


title: The War Zone

text: One night, Tom is woken up by Mum, who tells him they must urgently go to the hospital because the baby is unwell. Jessie drives Tom home from the hospital, leaving Dad with Mum and the baby. When they get home they see Lucy, who offers Jessie comfort if she needs it. Lucy appears to know something that the viewer doesn't. Later, Tom decides to cycle back to the hospital, where he sees baby Alice, and when Mum comes in they see blood in her nappy. He tells Mum never to let Dad near the baby and not to trust him, but leaves before she can respond.


title: The War Zone

text: When Tom returns home, Dad tells him that Mum called from the hospital and confronts him, saying he's lying, and Tom says he is telling the truth, whereupon Dad attacks him physically, saying that Tom is breaking up the family and that he will put Tom into care. Jessie is crying throughout, arms over her head covering her ears. Dad then leaves to see Mum.


title: The War Zone

text: Tom and Jessie lie next to each other in bed and Jessie thanks him for standing up to Dad. Tom and Jessie enter Dad's room after he returns. He continues to deny his behaviour and claims that Tom is making things up because he misses London, is unhappy, and is putting ideas into Jessie's head. Jessie backs Tom up, but is upset by Dad's continued gaslighting.


title: The War Zone

text: As Dad blusters, Tom realises that he will not change. He stabs Dad in the stomach with a kitchen knife. Dad screams in pain on the floor. Tom and Jessie watch him gasping and bleeding on the floor and then Tom runs from the house to go to the bunker. Jessie follows him there and comforts him silently. Tom asks what they will do now. He walks over and closes the door to the bunker.


title: The War Zone

text: "The War Zone" was given a limited theatrical release in 12 cinemas in the United States and earned $254,441.


title: The War Zone

text: "The War Zone" received mainly positive reviews. It has a score of 84% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 31 reviews with an average rating of 7.4 out of 10. The site's critics' consensus states: "With the well-acted "The War Zone", debuting director Tim Roth finds moments of beauty in a tale of stark horror -- and marks himself as a talent to watch behind the camera." The film also has a score of 68 out of 100 based on 21 critics on Metacritic indicating "Generally favorable reviews".


title: The War Zone

text: Roger Ebert of the "Chicago Sun-Times" gave the film four out of four stars and wrote "Unsurprisingly, "The War Zone" affects viewers much more powerfully than a simple morality tale might. It is not simply about the evil of incest, but about its dynamic, about the way it does play upon guilt and shame, and address old and secret wounds. ... Roth is one of the best actors now working, and with this movie he reveals himself as a director of surprising gifts. I cannot imagine "The War Zone" being better directed by anyone else, even though Ingmar Bergman and Ken Loach come to mind. Roth and his actors, and Stuart's screenplay, understand these people and their situation down to the final nuance, and are willing to let silence, timing and visuals reveal what dialogue would cheapen. Not many movies bring you to a dead halt of sorrow and empathy. This one does."


title: The War Zone

text: Emanuel Levy wrote in "Variety" that "Unlike most actors-turned-directors, Roth doesn't commit the mistake of letting his cast indulge in big, theatrical scenes with long monologues and mega-close-ups. Under his guidance, Seamus McGarvey's luminous camera observes the family from the right distance – neither too close nor too detached – allowing viewers to watch and make up their own minds about the tangled web of relationships. As discerning as Roth's helming is, pic's overall impact largely depends on its superb ensemble and perfect casting. Special kudos go to newcomers Cunliffe and Belmont, who, despite a lack of acting experience, render multi-shaded performances that always ring true. Winstone is terrifyingly explosive as Dad. In a quiet role that's a departure from her previous work, Swinton shines as Mum, a woman so preoccupied with her baby that she's unaware of the crises tearing apart her family. Boasting first-rate production values and resplendent from first frame to last, "The War Zone" is a gem of a movie."


title: The War Zone

text: James Berardinelli wrote ""The War Zone" is a devastating motion picture; it's the kind of movie that stuns an audience so absolutely that they remain paralyzed in their seats through the end credits. In his handling of the material, Roth shows more ability than many accomplished, veteran filmmakers. He paints Devon as a grim, rainy place where darkness and grayness are always encroaching upon the light. Roth deals with the story in a way that does not insult the viewer's intelligence. There is much ambiguity to be found here."


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: The Battle of Vittorio Veneto was fought from 24 October to 3 November 1918 (with an armistice taking effect 24 hours later) near Vittorio Veneto on the Italian Front during World War I. After having thoroughly defeated Austro-Hungarian troops during the defensive Battle of the Piave River, the Italian army launched a great counter-offensive: the Italian victory marked the end of the war on the Italian Front, secured the dissolution of the Austro-Hungarian Empire and contributed to the end of the First World War just one week later. The battle led to the capture of over 5,000 artillery pieces and over 350,000 Austro-Hungarian troops, including 120,000 Germans, 83,000 Czechs and Slovaks, 60,000 South Slavs, 40,000 Poles, several tens of thousands of Romanians and Ukrainians, and 7,000 Austro-Hungarian loyalist Italians and Friulians.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: When the battle was fought in November 1918, the nearby city was called simply Vittorio, named in 1866 for Vittorio Emanuele II, monarch from 1861 of the newly created Kingdom of Italy. The engagement, the last major battle in the war (1915–1918) between Italy and Austria-Hungary, was generally referred to as the Battle of Vittorio Veneto, i.e. 'Vittorio in the Veneto region'. The city's name was officially changed to Vittorio Veneto in July 1923.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: During the Battle of Caporetto, from 24 October to 9 November 1917, the Italian Army suffered over 300,000 casualties (dead, injured and captured) and was forced to withdraw, causing the replacement of the Italian Supreme Commander Luigi Cadorna with General Armando Diaz. Diaz reorganized the troops, blocked the enemy advance by implementing defense in depth and mobile reserves, and stabilized the front-line around the Piave River.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: In June 1918, a large Austro-Hungarian offensive, aimed at breaking the Piave River defensive line and delivering a decisive blow to the Italian Army, was launched. The Austro-Hungarian Army tried on one side to force the Tonale Pass and enter Lombardy, and on the other side to make two converging thrusts into central Venetia, the first one southeastward from the Trentino, and the second one southwestward across the lower Piave. The whole offensive, which became known as the Battle of the Piave River ended in a heavy defeat for the imperial army, with the Austro-Hungarians losing 11,643 killed, 80,852 wounded and 25,547 captured.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: After the Battle of the Piave, General Armando Diaz abstained from offensive action until Italy would be ready to strike with success assured. In the offensive he planned, three of the five armies lining the front from the Monte Grappa sector to the Adriatic end of the Piave were to drive across the river toward Vittorio Veneto, so as to cut communications between the two Austrian armies opposing them.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: Allied forces totaled 57 infantry divisions, including 52 Italian, three British (23rd, 7th and 48th), two French (23rd and 24th), and the 332nd US Infantry Regiment, along with supporting arms. The Austro-Hungarian army had 46 infantry divisions and six cavalry divisions, but both sides were ravaged by influenza and malaria and the Austrians only had 6,030 guns to 7,700 Allied.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: The Italian armies in the mountains were merely to hold the front line and follow up the enemy when it retreated. The task of opening the attack and taking on the strongest positions fell to the Fourth Army (Lieutenant-General Gaetano Giardino) on the Grappa. The Twelfth Army, consisting of one French and three Italian divisions, was commanded by the English-speaking Lieutenant-General Enrico Caviglia and he had under his command the Tenth Army (Lieutenant-General Lord Cavan) to protect his right flank. Lord Cavan's army consisted of two British and two Italian divisions, and they too were expected to cross the Piave by breaking the Austrian defenses at Papadopoli Island. The Third Army was simply to hold the lower Piave and cross the river when enemy resistance was broken. The Ninth Army, which contained two Italian divisions as well as the 6th Czechoslovak Division (consisting of former POWs captured by the Italians), and the 332nd US Infantry Regiment, was held in reserve. The Allies had 600 aircraft (93 Anglo-French, including four RAF squadrons) to gain complete air superiority in the final offensive.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: As night fell on 23 October, leading elements of Lord Cavan's Tenth Army were to force a crossing at a point where there were a number of islands. Cavan had decided to seize the largest of these – the Grave di Papadopoli – in preparation for the full-scale assault on the far bank. The plan was for two battalions from the 22nd Brigade of the British 7th Division to occupy the northern half of Papadopoli, while the Italian 11th Corps took the southern half. The British troops detailed for the night attack were the 2/1 Honourable Artillery Company (an infantry battalion despite the title) and the 1/ Royal Welch Fusiliers. These troops were helpless to negotiate such a torrent as the Piave and relied upon boats propelled by the 18th "Pontieri" under the command of Captain Odini of the Italian engineers. On the misty night of the 23rd, the Italians rowed the British forces across with a calm assurance and skill which amazed many of those who were more frightened of drowning than of fighting the Austrians. For the sake of silence, the HAC used only their bayonets until the alarm was raised, and soon seized their half of the island. The Italian assault on the south of Papadopoli was driven off by heavy machine-gun fire. Nevertheless, the Austrians surrendered the island by the end of the night.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: In the early hours of 24 October, the anniversary of the beginning of the Battle of Caporetto, "Comando Supremo" launched the splintering attack on Monte Grappa designed to draw in the Austro-Hungarian reserves. At 03:00 the right wing of the Italian Fourth Army began a barrage to give time for its men to move into position. At 05:00 the rest of the artillery joined in. The infantry began to struggle up the steep slopes and secondary peaks which the Austrians had held for so long. The flooding of the Piave prevented two of the three central armies from advancing simultaneously with the third; but the latter, under the command of Earl Cavan, after seizing Papadopoli Island farther downstream, won a foothold on the left bank of the river on 27 October. In the evening, the Allies had covered so much ground that they were over-extended and vulnerable to a counter-attack. The Italian Tenth Army maintained its ground and established a bridgehead deep and broad. The British captured 3,520 prisoners and 54 guns. Svetozar Boroević von Bojna, the Austro-Hungarian commander, ordered a counter-attack on the Italian bridgeheads on the same day, but his troops refused to obey orders, a problem confronting the Austrians from that time on, and the counter-attack failed. The first days of the battle involved heavy artillery dueling between the two sides, which were fairly evenly matched in firepower, with the Italians possessing 7,700 guns to the Austro-Hungarians' 6,000. From 24 to 31 October alone, the Italian artillery fired 2,446,000 shells.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: On 28 October, a group of Czechs declared Bohemia's independence from Austria-Hungary. The next day, another group purporting to represent the eventual South Slavs proclaimed their independence, and on 31 October, the Hungarian Parliament proclaimed their withdrawal from the union, officially dissolving the Austro-Hungarian state. On 28 October, under these new political and military conditions, the Austro-Hungarian high command ordered a general retreat.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: On 29 October, the Italian Eighth Army pushed on towards Vittorio Veneto, which its advance guard of lancers and "Bersaglieri" cyclists entered on the morning of the 30th. The Italian Third Army forced a crossing of the lower Piave, while raids in the mountains disclosed that the Austrians were withdrawing there. Reserves, including the 332nd US Infantry Regiment poured over the Piave behind the Italian Tenth Army.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: Vittorio Veneto was seized the next day by the Italian Eighth Army, which was already pushing on to the Tagliamento river. Trieste was taken by an amphibious expedition on 3 November. The Italian Eighth Army troops which had managed to cross the Piave were only able to communicate with the west bank by using swimmers. The swimmers were furnished by one of the most elite assault units in Italian history – the Arditi Corps, the "Caimani del Piave" ("Caimans of the Piave"). Eighty-two had been recruited by Captain Remo Pontecorvo Bacci. These specialized troops were created after analyzing the mistakes the year before at Caporetto. Carrying a "resolza" knife and two hand grenades, they were trained to remain in the powerful currents of the icy Piave for up to 16 hours; 50 died in the river during the campaign, a casualty rate of over 60%. The Italian Twelfth Army, commanded by French General Jean Graziani, continued to advance, supported on the right by the Eighth Army.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: At dawn on the 31st, the Italian Fourth Army resumed the offensive on Monte Grappa and this time was able to advance beyond the old Austrian positions towards Feltre. In the mountains and on the plain, the Allied armies pushed on until an armistice was arranged. Austria-Hungary lost about 30,000 killed and wounded and 300,000 prisoners (50,000 by 31 October; 100,000 by 1 November; 300,000 by 4 November). The Italians suffered during the 10 days' struggle 37,461 casualties (dead and wounded) – 24,507 of them on Monte Grappa. British casualties were 2,139, while the French lost 778 men.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: The Armistice of Villa Giusti was signed on 3 November at 15:20, to become effective 24 hours later, at 15:00 on 4 November.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: The Austrian command ordered its troops to cease hostilities on 3 November. Following the signing of the armistice, Austrian General Weber informed his Italian counterparts that the Imperial army had already laid down its weapons, and asked to cease combat immediately and to stop any further Italian advance. The proposal was sharply rejected by the Italian General Badoglio, who threatened to stop all negotiations and to continue the war. General Weber repeated the request. Even before the order to cease hostilities, the Imperial Army had already started to collapse, beginning a chaotic retreat. Italian troops continued their advance until 3 p.m. on 4 November. The occupation of all Tyrol, including Innsbruck, was completed in the following days.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: Under the terms of the Austrian-Italian Armistice of Villa Giusti, Austria-Hungary's forces were required to evacuate not only all territory occupied since August 1914 but also South Tirol, Tarvisio, the Isonzo Valley, Gorizia, Trieste, Istria, western Carniola, and Dalmatia. All German forces should be expelled from Austria-Hungary within 15 days or interned, and the Allies were to have free use of Austria-Hungary's internal communications. They were also obliged to allow the transit of the Entente armies, to reach Germany from the South. Beginning in November 1918, the Italian Army with 20,000–22,000 soldiers occupied Innsbruck and all North Tyrol.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: The battle marked the end of the First World War on the Italian front and secured the end of the Austro-Hungarian empire. As mentioned above, on 31 October Hungary officially left the personal union with Austria. Other parts of the empire had declared independence, notably what later became Yugoslavia. The surrender of their primary ally was another major factor in the German Empire's decision that they could no longer continue the war. On 30 October the Wilhelmshaven mutiny erupted, shortly afterwards the German Revolution of 1918–1919 started to spread from Kiel. Less than a week after the Austro-Hungarians, the Germans requested an armistice.


title: Battle of Vittorio Veneto

text: German chief-of-staff Erich Ludendorff, a prominent World War I figure, stressed the importance of the battle, claiming that its outcome prompted the collapse of the Austro-Hungarian monarchy, "dragging Germany in its fall". German historian Ernst Nolte contended that Vittorio Veneto was "an encounter which had merely given the coup de grace to the abandoned army of an already crumbling state."


title: Modern immigration to the United Kingdom

text: Since 1945, immigration to the United Kingdom, controlled by British immigration law and to an extent by British nationality law, has been significant, in particular from the Republic of Ireland and from the former British Empire, especially India, Bangladesh, Pakistan, the Caribbean, South Africa, Nigeria, Ghana, Kenya, and Hong Kong. Since the accession of the UK to the European Communities in the 1970s and the creation of the EU in the early 1990s, immigrants relocated from member states of the European Union, exercising one of the European Union's Four Freedoms. In 2021, since Brexit came into effect, previous EU citizenship's right to newly move to and reside in the UK on a permanent basis does not apply anymore. A smaller number have come as asylum seekers (not included in the definition of immigration) seeking protection as refugees under the United Nations 1951 Refugee Convention.


text: About 70% of the population increase between the 2001 and 2011 censuses was due to foreign-born immigration. 7.5 million people (11.9% of the population at the time) were born overseas, although the census gives no indication of their immigration status or intended length of stay.


text: Provisional figures show that in 2013, 526,000 people arrived to live in the UK whilst 314,000 left, meaning that net inward migration was 212,000. The number of people immigrating to the UK increased between 2012 and 2013 by 28,000, whereas the number emigrating fell by 7,000.


text: From April 2013 to April 2014, a total of 560,000 immigrants were estimated to have arrived in the UK, including 81,000 British citizens and 214,000 from other parts of the EU. An estimated 317,000 people left, including 131,000 British citizens and 83,000 other EU citizens. The top countries represented in terms of arrivals were: China, India, Poland, the United States, and Australia.


text: In 2014, approximately 125,800 foreign citizens were naturalised as British citizens. This figure fell from around 208,000 in 2013, which was the highest figure recorded since 1962, when records began. Between 2009 and 2013, the average number of people granted British citizenship per year was 195,800. The main countries of previous nationality of those naturalised in 2014 were: India, Pakistan, the Philippines, Nigeria, Bangladesh, Nepal, China, South Africa, Poland and Somalia. The UK Government can also grant settlement to foreign nationals, which confers on them permanent residence in the UK, without granting them British citizenship. Grants of settlement are made on the basis of various factors, including employment, family formation and reunification, and asylum (including to deal with backlogs of asylum cases). The total number of grants of settlement was approximately 154,700 in 2013, compared to 241,200 in 2010 and 129,800 in 2012.


text: In comparison, migration to and from Central and Eastern Europe has increased since 2004 with the accession to the European Union of eight Central and Eastern European states, since there is free movement of labour within the EU. In 2008, the UK Government began phasing in a new points-based immigration system for people from outside of the European Economic Area.


text: According to an August 2018 publication of the House of Commons Library, several definitions for a migrant exist in United Kingdom. A migrant can be:


text: In the lead-up to World War II, many people from Germany, particularly those belonging to minorities which were persecuted under Nazi rule, such as Jews, sought to emigrate to the United Kingdom, and it is estimated that as many as 50,000 may have been successful. There were immigration caps on the number who could enter and, subsequently, some applicants were turned away. When the UK declared war on Germany, however, migration between the countries ceased.


text: Following the end of the Second World War, the British Nationality Act 1948 allowed the 800,000,000 subjects in the British Empire to live and work in the United Kingdom without needing a visa, although this was not an anticipated consequence of the Act, which "was never intended to facilitate mass migration". This migration was initially encouraged to help fill gaps in the UK labour market for both skilled and unskilled jobs, including in public services such as the newly created National Health Service and London Transport. Many people were specifically brought to the UK on ships; notably the "Empire Windrush" in 1948.


text: Commonwealth immigration, made up largely of economic migrants, rose from 3,000 per year in 1953 to 46,800 in 1956 and 136,400 in 1961. The heavy numbers of migrants resulted in the establishment of a Cabinet committee in June 1950 to find "ways which might be adopted to check the immigration into this country of coloured people from British colonial territories".


text: Although the Committee recommended not to introduce restrictions, the Commonwealth Immigrants Act was passed in 1962 as a response to public sentiment that the new arrivals "should return to their own countries" and that "no more of them come to this country". Introducing the legislation to the House of Commons, the Conservative Home Secretary Rab Butler stated that:


text: The new Act required migrants to have a job before they arrived, to possess special skills or who would meet the "labour needs" of the national economy. In 1965, to combat the perceived injustice in the case where the wives of British subjects could not obtain British nationality, the British Nationality Act 1965 was adopted. Shortly afterwards, refugees from Kenya and Uganda, fearing discrimination from their own national governments, began to arrive in Britain; as they had retained their British nationality granted by the 1948 Act, they were not subject to the later controls. The Conservative MP Enoch Powell campaigned for tighter controls on immigration which resulted in the passing of the Commonwealth Immigrants Act in 1968.


text: For the first time, the 1968 Act required migrants to have a "substantial connection with the United Kingdom", namely to be connected by birth or ancestry to a UK national. Those who did not could only obtain British nationality at the discretion of the national authorities. One month after the adoption of the Act, Enoch Powell made his Rivers of Blood speech.


text: By 1972, with the passing of the Immigration Act, only holders of work permits, or people with parents or grandparents born in the UK could gain entry – effectively stemming primary immigration from Commonwealth countries. The Act abolished the distinction between Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth entrants. The Conservative government nevertheless allowed, amid much controversy, the immigration of 27,000 individuals displaced from Uganda after the coup d'état led by Idi Amin in 1971.


text: In the 1970s, an average of 72,000 immigrants were settling in the UK every year from the Commonwealth; this decreased in the 1980s and early-1990s to around 54,000 per year, only to rise again to around 97,000 by 1999. The total number of Commonwealth immigrants since 1962 is estimated at 2,500,000.


text: The Ireland Act 1949 has the unusual status of recognising the Republic of Ireland, but affirming that its citizens are not citizens of a foreign country for the purposes of any law in the United Kingdom. This act was initiated at a time when Ireland withdrew from the Commonwealth of Nations after declaring itself a republic.


text: Following the end of the Second World War, substantial groups of people from Soviet-controlled territories settled in the UK, particularly Poles and Ukrainians. The UK recruited displaced people as so-called European Volunteer Workers in order to provide labour to industries that were required in order to aid economic recovery after the war. In the 1951 United Kingdom census, the Polish-born population of the country numbered some 162,339, up from 44,642 in 1931.


text: Indians began arriving in the UK in large numbers shortly after their country gained independence in 1947, although there were a number of people from India living in the UK even in the earlier years. More than 60,000 arrived before 1955, many of whom drove buses, or worked in foundries or textile factories. The flow of Indian immigrants peaked between 1965 and 1972, boosted in particular by Ugandan dictator Idi Amin's sudden decision to expel all 50,000 Gujarati Indians from Uganda. Around 30,000 Ugandan Asians emigrated to the UK.


text: Following the independence of Pakistan, Pakistani immigration to the United Kingdom increased, especially during the 1950s and 1960s. Many Pakistanis came to Britain following the turmoil during the partition of India and the subsequent independence of Pakistan; among them were those who migrated to Pakistan upon displacement from India, and then emigrated to the UK, thus becoming secondary migrants. Migration was made easier as Pakistan was a member of the Commonwealth of Nations. Pakistanis were invited by employers to fill labour shortages which arose after the Second World War. As Commonwealth citizens, they were eligible for most British civic rights. They found employment in the textile industries of Lancashire and Yorkshire, manufacturing in the West Midlands, and car production and food processing industries of Luton and Slough. It was common for Pakistani employees to work nightshifts and at other less-desirable hours.


text: In addition, there was a stream of migrants from East Pakistan (now Bangladesh). During the 1970s, a large number of East African-Asians, most of whom already held British passports because they had been British subjects settled in the overseas colonies, entered the United Kingdom from Kenya and Uganda, particularly as a result of the expulsion of Asians from Uganda by Idi Amin in 1972.


text: There was also an influx of refugees from Hungary, following the crushing of the 1956 Hungarian revolution, numbering 20,990 people.


text: Until the Commonwealth Immigrants Act 1962, all Commonwealth citizens could enter and stay in the UK without any restriction. The Act made Citizens of the United Kingdom and Colonies (CUKCs), whose passports were not directly issued by the UK Government (i.e., passports issued by the Governor of a colony or by the Commander of a British protectorate), subject to immigration control.


text: Enoch Powell gave the famous "Rivers of Blood" speech on 20 April 1968 in which he warned his audience of what he believed would be the consequences of continued unchecked immigration from the Commonwealth to Britain. Conservative Party leader Edward Heath fired Powell from his Shadow Cabinet the day after the speech, and he never held another senior political post. Powell received 110,000 letters only 2,300 disapproving. Three days after the speech, on 23 April, as the Race Relations Bill was being debated in the House of Commons, around 2,000 dockers walked off the job to march on Westminster protesting against Powell's dismissal, and the next day 400 meat porters from Smithfield market handed in a 92-page petition in support of Powell. At that time, 43% of junior doctors working in NHS hospitals, and some 30% of student nurses, were immigrants, without which the health service would needed to have been curtailed.


text: By 1972, only holders of work permits, or people with parents or grandparents born in the UK could gain entry – significantly reducing primary immigration from Commonwealth countries.


text: The British Nationality Act 1981, which was enacted in 1983, distinguishes between British citizens and British Overseas Territories citizens. It also made a distinction between nationality "by descent" and nationality "other than by descent". Citizens by descent cannot automatically pass on British nationality to a child born outside the United Kingdom or its Overseas Territories (though in some situations the child can be registered as a citizen).


text: Immigration officers have to be satisfied with a person's nationality and identity and entry can be refused if they are not satisfied.


text: During the 1980s and 1990s, the civil war in Somalia led to a large number of Somali immigrants, comprising the majority of the current Somali population in the UK. In the late-1980s, most of these early migrants were granted asylum, while those arriving later in the 1990s more often obtained temporary status. There has also been some secondary migration of Somalis to the UK from the Netherlands and Denmark. The main driving forces behind this secondary migration included a desire to reunite with family and friends and for better employment opportunities.


text: Non-European immigration rose significantly during the period from 1997, not least because of the government's abolition of the primary purpose rule in June 1997. This change made it easier for UK residents to bring foreign spouses into the country.


text: The former government adviser Andrew Neather in the "Evening Standard" stated that the deliberate policy of ministers from late-2000 until early-2008 was to open up the UK to mass migration.


text: The Immigration Rules, under the Immigration Act 1971, were updated in 2012 (Appendix FM) to create a strict minimum income threshold for non-EU spouses and children to be given leave to remain in the UK. These rules were challenged in the courts, and in 2017 the Supreme Court found that while "the minimum income threshold is accepted in principle" they decided that the rules and guidance were defective and unlawful until amended to give more weight to the interests of the children involved, and that sources of funding other than the British spouse's income should be considered.


text: The foreign-born population increased from about 5.3 million in 2004 to nearly 9.3 million in 2018. In the decade leading up to 2018, the number of non-EU migrants outnumbered EU migrants while the number of EU migrants increased more rapidly. EU migrants were noted to be less likely to become British citizens than non-EU migrants.


text: In January 2021, analysis by the Economic Statistics Centre of Excellence suggested that there had been an "unprecedented exodus" of almost 1.3 million foreign-born people from the UK between July 2019 and September 2020, in part due to the burden of job losses resulting from the COVID-19 pandemic falling disproportionately on foreign-born workers. Interviews conducted by Al Jazeera suggested that Brexit may have been a more significant push factor than the pandemic. Subsequent analysis of the impact of the pandemic on population statistics generated by the Labour Force Survey (LFS) suggests that "LFS-based estimates are likely to significantly overstate the change in the non-UK national population". Payroll data shows that the number of EU workers fell by 7 percent between October–December 2019 and October–December 2020.


text: Office for National Statistics migration estimates published in November 2021 suggest that the number of EU nationals leaving the UK exceeded the number arriving by around 94,000, compared to net inward migration from the EU to the UK of 32,000 in 2019. Some commentators suggested that these figures underestimate the extent of emigration of EU nationals from the UK.


text: One of the Four Freedoms of the European Union, of which the United Kingdom is a former member, is the right to the free movement of workers as codified in the Directive 2004/38/EC and the EEA Regulations (UK).


text: With the expansion of the EU on 1 May 2004, the UK has accepted immigrants from Central and Eastern Europe, Malta and Cyprus, although the substantial Maltese and Greek-Cypriots and Turkish-Cypriot communities were established earlier through their Commonwealth connection. There are restrictions on the benefits that members of eight of these accession countries ('A8' nationals) can claim, which are covered by the Worker Registration Scheme. Many other European Union member states exercised their right to temporary immigration control (which ended in 2011) over entrants from these accession states, but some subsequently removed these restrictions ahead of the 2011 deadline.


text: The United Kingdom uses statistics to predict migration that are produced primarily from the International Passenger Survey conducted by the Office for National Statistics (ONS). The survey's primary mission is to help government's understand the effects of tourism and travel on their economy. Two parliamentary committees criticized the survey and found it to lack credibility. The actual net migration in 2015-16 from EU states to the United Kingdom, 29,000, was 16% higher than the ONS expected.


text: Research conducted by the Migration Policy Institute for the Equality and Human Rights Commission suggests that, between May 2004 and September 2009, 1.5 million workers migrated from the new EU member states to the UK, but that many have returned home, with the result that the number of nationals of the new member states in the UK increased by some 700,000 over the same period. Migration from Poland in particular has become temporary and circular in nature. In 2009, for the first time since the enlargement, more nationals of the eight Central and Eastern European states that joined the EU in 2004 left the UK than arrived. Research commissioned by the Regeneration and Economic Development Analysis Expert Panel suggested migrant workers leaving the UK due to the recession are likely to return in the future and cited evidence of "strong links between initial temporary migration and intended permanent migration".


text: The Government announced that the same rules would not apply to nationals of Romania and Bulgaria (A2 nationals) when those countries acceded to the EU in 2007. Instead, restrictions were put in place to limit migration to students, the self-employed, highly skilled migrants and food and agricultural workers.


text: In February 2011, the Leader of the Labour Party, Ed Miliband, stated that he thought that the Labour government's decision to permit the unlimited immigration of eastern European migrants had been a mistake, arguing that they had underestimated the potential number of migrants and that the scale of migration had had a negative impact on wages.


text: A report by the Department for Communities and Local Government (DCLG) entitled "International Migration and Rural Economies", suggests that intra-EU migration since enlargement has resulted in migrants settling in rural locations without a prior history of immigration.


text: Research published by University College London in July 2009 found that, on average, A8 migrants were younger and better educated than the native population, and that if they had the same demographic characteristics of natives, would be 13 per cent less likely to claim benefits and 28 per cent less likely to live in social housing.


text: Expulsions of immigrants who had committed crimes varied between 4,000 and 5,000 a year between 2007 and 2010.


text: In May 2018 under the tenure of Sajid Javid, it was the view of a significant minority that the Home Office was misusing section 322(5) of the Immigration Rules. The section was designed to combat terrorism, but the Home Office had been wrongly applying it to hundreds of settled, highly skilled workers. The hardship faced by the workers was compared to the Windrush scandal, which occurred around the same time. By early 2019, approximately 90 people had been deported from the UK due to section 322(5).


text: In May 2021, the Director of Advocacy at the Bahrain Institute for Rights and Democracy, Sayed Ahmed Alwadaei wrote an opinion piece for "The Guardian" highlighting how the Home Office under Priti Patel viewed “activists as a security threat”. The human rights activist was tortured and imprisoned in Bahrain for taking part in the country's Arab Spring uprisings, following which he fled to the United Kingdom. In 2015, Bahrain “arbitrarily revoked” his citizenship. Before the birth of his daughter, Alwadaei submitted his application for indefinite leave to stay in the UK and to prevent his child from being born stateless. However, the Home Office delayed the approval of his application until 2019, and his daughter was born without any citizenship. Alwadaei said the Home Office was keeping a record of his years of activism, labeling his case as “complex”. His daughter was not granted the British citizenship she was entitled to by law, even after her parents forcefully paid £1,012 for her citizenship application. Alwadaei also pointed to the growing ties of Patel with conservation regime, Bahrain, stating that it is "deeply alarming”.


text: In 1914, Parliament enacted "panic legislation", The Alien Restrictions Act, 1914, during the onset of World War I to place limits on the entry into, and stay in, the UK of foreign nationals. The act provided for the introduction of Orders in Council to detail the restrictions to be imposed on aliens. In 1919, after the conclusion of the war, that legislation was re-enacted, while the provisions that limited it to a time of war were removed. By the early 1950s, roughly 20 Orders in Council had been passed to flesh out the details for immigration control.


text: In 1952, Parliament moved to place its imprimatur on those orders by approving a consolidating order, The Aliens Order, 1953, that also removed some of the more objectionable provisions. However, other provisions of concern remained, including those potentially incompatible with other laws and international obligations of the UK.


text: The Immigration Act 1971, section 1, provided for "rules laid down by the Secretary of State as to the practice to be followed in the administration of this Act".


text: In 1972, the Heath administration introduced the first proposed Immigration Rules under the 1971 act. The rules proposal drew criticism from Conservative Party backbenchers, because it formally implemented a limit of six months of leave to enter as a visitor for white "Old Commonwealth" citizens who were "non-patrial" (did not have Right of Abode under the 1971 act, generally because they did not have a parent or grandparent from the UK). At the same time the proposal opened the door to free movement of certain European workers from European Economic Community member states. Seven backbenchers voted against the proposed Rules and 53 abstained, leading to defeat. Minutes from a Cabinet meeting the next day conclude that "anti-European sentiment" among backbenchers, who instead preferred "Old Commonwealth" migration to the UK, was at the core of the result. The proposal was revised, and the first Rules were passed in January 1973.


text: By August 2018, the Immigration Rules stood at almost 375,000 words, often so precise and detailed that the service of a lawyer are typically required to navigate them. That length represented nearly a doubling in just a decade. During the period of the introduction of the "hostile environment" policy under Prime Minister Theresa May, more than 1,300 changes were made to the Rules in 2012 alone. Former Lord Justice of Appeal Stephen Irwin referred to the complexity of the system as "something of a disgrace", and an effort to gradually overhaul the Rules into a more understandable system began to take place. The England and Wales Law Commission began to make recommendations for clearer rules to be adopted.


text: "Managed migration" is the term for all legal labour and student migration from outside of the European Union and this accounts for a substantial percentage of overall immigration figures for the UK. Many of the immigrants who arrive under these schemes bring skills which are in short supply in the UK. This area of immigration is managed by UK Visas and Immigration, a department within the Home Office. Applications are made at UK embassies or consulates or directly to UK Visas and Immigration, depending upon the type of visa or permit required.


text: In April 2006, changes to the managed migration system were proposed that would create one points-based immigration system for the UK in place of all other schemes. Tier 1 in the new system – which replaced the Highly Skilled Migrant Programme – gives points for age, education, earning, previous UK experience but not for work experience. The points-based system was phased in over the course of 2008, replacing previous managed migration schemes such as the work permit system and the Highly Skilled Migrant Programme.


text: A points-based system is composed of five tiers was first described by the UK Border Agency as follows:


text: In June 2010, The newly elected Coalition government brought in a temporary cap on immigration of those entering the UK from outside the EU, with the limit set as 24,100, in order to stop an expected rush of applications before a permanent cap was imposed in April 2011. The cap caused tension within the coalition, and then-Business Secretary Vince Cable argued that it was harming British businesses. Others have argued that the cap would have a negative impact on Britain's status as a centre for scientific research.


text: For family relatives of European Economic Area nationals living in the UK, there is the EEA family permit which enables those family members to join their relatives already living and working in the UK.


text: Though immigration is a matter that is reserved to the UK Government under the legislation that established devolution for Scotland in 1999, the Scottish Government was able to get an agreement from the Home Office for their Fresh Talent Initiative which was designed to encourage foreign graduates of Scottish universities to stay in Scotland to look for employment. The Fresh Talent Initiative ended in 2008, following the introduction of points-based system.


text: The UK is a signatory to the UN 1951 Refugee Convention as well as the 1967 Protocol and has therefore a responsibility to offer protection to people who seek asylum it and fall into the legal definition of a "refugee", and moreover not to return (or refoule) any displaced person to places where they would otherwise face persecution. Cuts to legal aid prevent asylum seekers getting good advice or arguing their case effectively. This can mean refugees being returned to a country where they face certain death.


text: The issue of immigration has been a controversial political issue since the late 1990s. Both the Labour Party and the Conservatives have suggested policies perceived as being "tough on asylum" (although the Conservatives have dropped a previous pledge to limit the number of people who could claim asylum in the UK, which would likely have breached the UN Refugee Convention) and the tabloid media frequently print headlines about an "immigration crisis".


text: This is denounced, by those seeking to ensure that the UK upholds its international obligations, as disproportionate. Concern is also raised about the treatment of those held in detention and the practice of dawn raiding families, and holding young children in immigration detention centres for long periods of time. The policy of detaining asylum-seeking children was to be abandoned as part of the coalition agreement between the Conservatives and the Liberal Democrats, who formed a government in May 2010. However, in July 2010 the government was accused of back-tracking on this promise after the Immigration Minister Damian Green announced that the plan was to minimise, rather than end, child detention.


text: However, critics of the UK's asylum policy often point out the "safe third country rule" – the convention that asylum seekers must apply in the first free nation they reach, not go "asylum shopping" for the nation they prefer. EU courts have upheld this policy. Research conducted by the Refugee Council suggests that most asylum seekers in the UK had their destination chosen for them by external parties or agents, rather than choosing the UK themselves.


text: In February 2003, Prime Minister Tony Blair promised on television to reduce the number of asylum seekers by half within 7 months, apparently catching unawares the members of his own government with responsibility for immigration policy. David Blunkett, then the Home Secretary, called the promise an "objective" rather than a "target".


text: It was met according to official figures. There is also a Public Performance Target to remove more asylum seekers who have been judged not to be refugees under the international definition than new anticipated unfounded applications. This target was met early in 2006. Official figures for numbers of people claiming asylum in the UK were at a 13-year low by March 2006.


text: Human rights organisations such as Amnesty International have argued that the government's new policies, particularly those concerning detention centres, have detrimental effects on asylum applicants and their children, and those facilities have seen a number of hunger strikes and suicides. Others have argued that recent government policies aimed at reducing 'bogus' asylum claims have had detrimental impacts on those genuinely in need of protection.


text: The UK hosts one of the largest populations of Iraqi refugees outside the Gulf region. About 65-70% of people originating from Iraq are Kurdish, and 70% of those from Turkey and 15% of those from Iran are Kurds.


text: Asylum seekers have been kept in detention after the courts ordered their release because the Home Office maintains detention is not dissimilar to emergency accommodation. Immigrants with the right to stay in the UK are denied housing and cannot be released. In other cases vulnerable asylum seekers are released onto the streets with nowhere to live. In January 2018 the government repealed a law that previously allowed homeless detainees to apply for housing while in detention if they had nowhere to live when released. Charities maintain around 2,000 detainees who before this applied for support each year can no longer do so.


text: On 9 August 2020, the reports suggested that the number of people who reached the United Kingdom shores in small boats, during that year, surpassed 4,000. The undocumented migrant crossings of the English Channel mounted tensions between the UK and France.


text: On 17 August 2021, the United Kingdom Government launched a new resettlement programme which aims to settle 20,000 Afghan refugees fleeing the 2021 Taliban offensive over a five–year period in the UK. The UK also operates the UK Resettlement Scheme, Community Sponsorship Scheme and Mandate Resettlement Scheme. Previous UK resettlement schemes included the Gateway Protection Programme and the Syrian Vulnerable Person Resettlement Programme.


text: Although it is difficult to know how many people reside in the UK illegally, a Home Office study released in March 2005 estimated a population of between 310,000 and 570,000.


text: A recent study into irregular immigration states that "most irregular migrants have committed administrative offences rather than a serious crime".


text: Jack Dromey, Deputy General of the Transport and General Workers Union and Labour Party treasurer, suggested in May 2006 that there could be around 500,000 illegal workers. He called for a public debate on whether an amnesty should be considered. David Blunkett has suggested that this might be done once the identity card scheme is rolled out.


text: London Citizens, a coalition of community organisations, is running a regularisation campaign called "Strangers into Citizens", backed by figures including the former leader of the Catholic Church in England and Wales, the Cardinal Cormac Murphy-O'Connor. Analysis by the Institute for Public Policy Research suggested that an amnesty could net the government up to £1.038 billion per year in fiscal revenue, however the long term implications of such a measure are uncertain.


text: It has since been suggested that to deport all of the illegal immigrants from the UK might take 20 years and cost up to £12 billion. Former Mayor of London Boris Johnson commissioned a study into a possible amnesty for illegal immigrants, citing larger tax gains within the London area which is considered to be home to the majority of the country's population of such immigrants.


text: In February 2008, the government introduced new £10,000 fines for employers found to be employing illegal immigrants where there is negligence on the part of the employer, with unlimited fines or jail sentences for employers acting knowingly.


text: Women who are illegal immigrants and also domestic violence victims risk deportation and are deported if they complain about violence. Women get brought illegally into the UK by men intending to abuse them. Women are sometimes deterred from complaining about violence to them due to the risk of deportation, therefore perpetrators including rapists remain at large. Martha Spurrier of Liberty said, "It will leave people afraid to report crime, robbing them of protection under the law and creating impunity for criminals who target vulnerable people with unsettled immigration status. This is criminalising victims and letting criminals off the hook."


text: According to Eurostat, 47.3 million people lived in the European Union in 2010 who were born outside their resident country. This corresponds to 9.4% of the total EU population. Of these, 31.4 million (63%) were born outside the EU and 16.0 million (32%) were born in another EU member state. The largest absolute numbers of people born outside the EU were in Germany (6.4 million), France (5.1 million), the United Kingdom (4.7 million), Spain (4.1 million), Italy (3.2 million), and the Netherlands (1.4 million).


text: Individuals wanting to apply for British citizenship have to demonstrate their commitment by learning English language, Welsh language or Gaelic language and by having an understanding of British history, culture and traditions. Any individual seeking to apply for naturalisation or indefinite leave to remain must pass the official Life in the UK test.


title: Ginnungagap

text: In Norse mythology, Ginnungagap (old Norse: ; "gaping abyss", "yawning void") is the primordial void mentioned in the Gylfaginning, the Eddaic text recording Norse cosmogony.


title: Ginnungagap

text: "Ginnunga-" is usually interpreted as deriving from a verb meaning "gape" or "yawn", but no such word occurs in Old Norse except in verse 3 of the Eddic poem "Vǫluspá", "gap var ginnunga", which may be a play on the term. In her edition of the poem, Ursula Dronke suggested it was borrowed from Old High German "ginunga", as the term Múspell is believed to have been borrowed from Old High German. An alternative etymology links the "ginn-" prefix with that found in terms with a sacral meaning, such as "ginn-heilagr", "ginn-regin" (both referring to the gods) and "ginn-runa" (referring to the runes), thus interpreting "Ginnungagap" as signifying a "magical (and creative) power-filled space".


title: Ginnungagap

text: In the northern part of Ginnungagap lay the intense cold of Niflheim, and in the southern part lay the equally intense heat of Muspelheim. The cosmogonic process began when the effulgence of the two met in the middle of Ginnungagap.


title: Ginnungagap

text: Scandinavian cartographers from the early 15th century attempted to localize or identify Ginnungagap as a real geographic location from which the creation myth derived. A fragment from a 15th-century (pre-Columbus) Old Norse encyclopedic text entitled "Gripla" (Little Compendium) places Ginnungagap between Greenland and Vinland:


title: Ginnungagap

text: A scholion in a 15th-century manuscript of Adam of Bremen's "Gesta Hammaburgensis Ecclesiae Pontificum" similarly refers to "Ghimmendegop" as the Norse word for the abyss in the far north.


title: Ginnungagap

text: Later, the 17th-century Icelandic bishop Guðbrandur Thorlaksson also used the name "Ginnungegap" to refer to a narrow body of water, possibly the Davis Strait, separating the southern tip of Greenland from "Estotelandia, pars America extrema", probably Baffin Island.


title: City of Dreams (TV series)

text: The idea for the show came from Kukunoor's team member, Rohit Banawlikar. Banawlikar and Kukunoor co-wrote an anthology, intended to be turned into a feature film. But as digital platforms grew in India, Kukunoor felt that there was a scope for a series.


title: City of Dreams (TV series)

text: Multiple lives intersect after an assassination attempt on Mumbai's most polarising political figure. A single stone thrown in a seemingly placid lake sets off a series of ripples that affect everyone and hurt many. "City of Dreams" is the story of the feud within the Gaikwad family, which erupts after an assassination attempt on a polarizing political figure. Blurring the lines between moral and immoral, in a struggle for power forms the core of this transfixing narrative.


title: City of Dreams (TV series)

text: On 21 April 2019, Hotstar Specials released the teaser for City of Dreams on YouTube and other social media platforms announcing the release of the series on 3 May 2019. The show will consist of 10 episodes.


title: City of Dreams (TV series)

text: Upon release, Gautaman Bhaskaran of "News18" rated the show a 2 out of 5 and said "Kukunoor gives away too many clues, and viewers can easily guess how the series will pan out".


title: City of Dreams (TV series)

text: Udita Jhunjhunwala of "Firstpost" rated it two stars and was of the opinion that the show was longer than necessary and the show missed a tight script and several scenes were dispensable.


title: City of Dreams (TV series)

text: Soumya Rao from "Scroll.in" reviewed that "the protagonists were iterations of characters that have been seen often on the screen".


title: City of Dreams (TV series)

text: Ektaa Malik from "The Indian Express" critically reviewed the show and stated "With Nagesh Kukunoor as director, the expectations were high from City of Dreams. Even the repeated, but not-needed, ‘strong language, violence, nudity and sex’ — used as labels for the show — do nothing to salvage it."


title: Middle income trap

text: The middle income trap is an economic development situation in which a country that attains a certain income (due to given advantages) gets stuck at that level. The term was introduced by the World Bank in 2006 and is defined by them as the 'middle-income range' countries with gross national product per capita that has remained between $1,000 to $12,000 at constant (2011) prices.


title: Middle income trap

text: Economists Indermit Gill and Homi Kharas coined the term at World Bank in 2006 when they were working in the ground strategies for Eastern Asian economics. MIT is a new phenomenon and was first mentioned in 2007 in Gill and Kharas's World Bank report "An East Asian Renaissance: Ideas for Economic Growth".


title: Middle income trap

text: According to the concept, a country in the middle-income trap has lost its competitive edge in the export of manufactured goods due to rising wages, but is unable to keep up with more developed economies in the high-value-added market. As a result, newly industrialized economies such as South Africa and Brazil have not, for decades, left what the World Bank defines as the 'middle-income range' since their per capita gross national product has remained between $1,000 to $12,000 at constant (2011) prices. They suffer from low investment, slow growth in the secondary sector of the economy, limited industrial diversification and poor labor market conditions and increasingly, aging populations.


title: Middle income trap

text: From 1960 to 2010, only 15 out of 101 middle-income economies escaped the middle income trap, including Hong Kong, Japan, Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan.


title: Middle income trap

text: Avoiding the middle income trap requires identifying strategies to introduce new processes and find new markets to maintain export growth. It is also important to increase domestic demand, because an expanding middle class can use its increasing purchasing power to buy high-quality, innovative products and help drive growth.


title: Middle income trap

text: The biggest challenge is to move from resource-driven growth based on cheap labor and cheap capital to growth based on high productivity and innovation. This requires investments in infrastructure and education—building a high-quality education system that encourages creativity and supports breakthroughs in science and technology that can be applied back into the economy. Diversifying exports is also considered important to escape the middle income trap.


title: Pop Rocks

text: Pop Rocks, also called popping candy, is a candy, owned by Zeta Espacial S.A. Pop Rocks ingredients include sugar, lactose (milk sugar), and flavoring. It differs from typical hard candy in that pressurized carbon dioxide gas bubbles are embedded inside of the candy, creating a small popping reaction when it dissolves.


title: Pop Rocks

text: The concept was patented by General Foods research chemists Leon T. Kremzner and William A. Mitchell on December 12, 1961 (U.S. patent #3,012,893), but the candy was not offered to the public until 1976, before General Foods withdrew it in 1983, citing its lack of success in the marketplace and its relatively short shelf life.


title: Pop Rocks

text: Distribution was initially controlled to ensure freshness; but with its increasing popularity, unauthorized redistribution from market to market resulted in out-of-date product reaching consumers. After that, Kraft Foods licensed the Pop Rocks brand to Zeta Espacial S.A. which continued manufacturing the product under Kraft's license. Eventually Zeta Espacial S.A. became the brand's owner and sole manufacturer. Pop Rocks is distributed in the U.S. by Pop Rocks Inc. (Atlanta, Georgia) and by Zeta Espacial S.A. (Barcelona, Spain) in the rest of the world. Zeta Espacial S.A. also sells popping candy internationally under other brands including Peta Zetas, Wiz Fizz, and Magic Gum.


title: Pop Rocks

text: In 2008, Marvin J. Rudolph, who led the group assigned to bring Pop Rocks out of the laboratory and into the manufacturing plant, wrote a history of Pop Rocks development. The book, titled "Pop Rocks: The Inside Story of America's Revolutionary Candy", was based on interviews with food technologists, engineers, marketing managers, and members of Billy Mitchell's family, along with the author's experience. In the book, Rudolph points out that the Turkish company HLEKS Popping Candy flooded the market with popping candy in the year 2000.


title: Pop Rocks

text: A similar product, "Cosmic Candy", previously called "Space Dust", was in powdered form and was also manufactured by General Foods.


title: Pop Rocks

text: In 2012, Cadbury Schweppes Pty. Ltd. (in Australia) began producing a chocolate product named "Marvellous Creations Jelly Popping Candy Beanies" which contains popping candy, jelly beans and beanies (candy covered chocolate). By 2013 Whittakers (New Zealand) had also released a local product (white chocolate with a local carbonated drink "Lemon and Paeroa' or "L&P" for short). Prominent British chef Heston Blumenthal has also made several desserts incorporating popping candy, both for the peculiar sensory experience of the popping and for the nostalgia value of using an ingredient popular in the 1970s.


title: Pop Rocks

text: As described by a 1980 patent, the candy is made by dissolving sugars in water and is evaporated at until the water content is 3% by mass. The water and sugar mixture is then cooled to , and while being intensely stirred it is pressurized with carbon dioxide at . The mixture is then kept under pressure and allowed to cool and solidify, embedding the carbon dioxide bubbles in the candy. The majority of the resultant carbon dioxide bubbles are between in diameter. When the pressure on the cooled and solidified candy is released, it shatters into pieces that vary in size.


title: Pop Rocks

text: Rumors persisted that eating Pop Rocks and drinking soda would cause a person's stomach to boil and explode. This was, in part, caused by the false assumption that Pop Rocks contain an acid/base mixture (such as baking soda and vinegar) which produces large volumes of gas when mixed through chewing and saliva. One of these myths involved child actor John Gilchrist ("Little Mikey" in 1970s Life cereal television commercials), who was falsely rumored to have died after consuming excess amounts of Pop Rocks and Coca-Cola.